BITS Pilani

K K Birla Goa Campus

Internal Incompressible Viscous

Flow

By
 Outline
• Laminar vs turbulent flow and entrance effects

• PART A – Fully developed laminar flow

• Between infinite parallel plates (stationary / moving)
• In a pipe

• PART B – Flow in pipes and ducts

• Shear stress distribution
• Turbulent velocity profiles
• Energy considerations in pipe flow
• Head loss – calculations
• Solution of pipe flow problems

• PART C – Flow measurement

• Direct methods
• Restriction flow meters
• Linear flow meters
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 Laminar vs turbulent flow

• Function of Reynolds no
• Re = Inertial forces / viscous forces
= (density * average velocity * diameter) / (viscosity)
(For internal flows)

• Experimental demonstration
• Using a dye and observing its flow pattern
• [Link]
• [Link]

• Critical Reynolds no (transition to turbulent flows)

• Approximately 2300 for flow through pipes

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 Entrance region

• Flow in the entrance region of a pipe

• Velocity at the wall must be zero (no-slip condition)
• Boundary layer develops along the walls
• Fully developed flow (inviscid core disappears)
• Entrance length
• Laminar flow L / D = 0.06 * Re (Maximum L = 138 D)

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 PART A

FULLY DEVELOPED
LAMINAR FLOW

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 Flow between infinite
parallel plates (Both plates
stationary)
• System – Two infinite (in z-direction) plates
separated by a distance ‘a’

• Assumption
• Fully developed laminar flow u = u (y)
• No variations of fluid properties in ‘z’ direction
• Steady and incompressible flow
• No component of velocity in y and z directions
• Boundary conditions for x-component of velocity
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 Flow between infinite
parallel plates (Both plates
stationary)
• Objective
• To obtain velocity field, shear stress distribution and other
flow properties of interest
• Solution
• Analysis using differential control volume (dV = dx dy dz)
• Basic momentum equation

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 Flow between infinite
parallel plates (Both plates
stationary)
• Velocity profile

• Shear stress distribution

• Volume flow rate

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 Flow between infinite
parallel plates (Both plates
stationary)
• Flow rate as a function of pressure drop

• Average velocity

• Maximum velocity (Location)

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 Flow between infinite
parallel plates (Both plates
stationary)
• Transformation of coordinates

• Velocity profile for laminar flow between stationary

parallel plates is parabolic

• All results are valid only for laminar flow

• Critical Re for flow between stationary plates is 1400

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 Flow between infinite
parallel plates (Upper plate
moving)
• Change in boundary conditions
• At y = 0 u=0
• At y = a u=U

• Velocity profile

• Obtain shear stress distribution, volume flow

rate, average velocity, maximum velocity (its
location)
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 Flow between infinite
parallel plates (Upper plate
moving)
• Dimensionless velocity profile
• Effect of pressure gradient
• Couette flow (when pressure gradient is zero)

• All results are valid only for Laminar flow

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 Example – Torque and
power in a journal bearing
• Crankshaft journal bearing in an automobile
engine lubricated by SAE 30 oil (99C)
L=31.8 mm
a=0.0635 / 2
w = 3600rpm
No load on bearing
clearance is symmetric
• Determine torque required and power
dissipated
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 Example

An incompressible fluid flows between two

infinite stationary parallel plates. The velocity
profile is given by u = , where
A, B, and C are constants and y is measured
upward from the lower plate. The total gap width
is h units. Use appropriate boundary conditions
to express the magnitude and units of the
constants in terms of h. Develop an expression
for volume flow rate per unit depth and evaluate
the ratio V/umax.

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 Example

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 Example – Laminar film on
a vertical wall
A viscous, incompressible, Newtonian liquid flows in steady, laminar
flow down a vertical wall. The thickness, δ, of the liquid film is constant.
Since the liquid free surface is exposed to atmospheric pressure, there
is no pressure gradient. For this gravity-driven flow, apply the
momentum equation to differential control volume dx dy dz to derive the
velocity distribution in the liquid film.

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 Fully developed laminar
flow in a pipe
• Steady flow
• Cylindrical coordinates
• Using differential control volume and basic
momentum equation

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 Fully developed laminar
flow in a pipe
• In a constant diameter pipe pressure drops
uniformly along the pipe length (except in
entrance region)
• Velocity profile

• Shear stress distribution

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 Fully developed laminar
flow in a pipe
• Volume flow rate

• Flow rate as a function of pressure drop

Hagen-Poiseuille’s equation
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 Fully developed laminar
flow in a pipe
• Average velocity

• Maximum velocity

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 Example

Consider fully developed laminar flow in the

annulus between two concentric pipes. The
outer pipe is stationary, and the inner pipe
moves in the x direction with speed V. Assume
the axial pressure gradient is zero (δp/δx= 0).
Obtain a general expression for the shear
stress, τ, as a function of the radius, r, in terms
of a constant, C1. Obtain a general expression
for the velocity profile, u(r), in terms of two
constants, C1 and C2. Obtain expressions for C1
and C2.

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 Example

A liquid drug, with the viscosity and density

of water, is to be administered through a
hypodermic needle. The inside diameter of
the needle is 0.25 mm and its length is 50
mm. Determine (a) the maximum volume
flowrate for which the flow will be laminar,
(b) the pressure drop required to deliver the
maximum flow rate, and (c) the
corresponding wall shear stress.
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 PART B

FLOW IN PIPES AND DUCTS

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 Pressure in the pipe flow

• Three factors that tend to reduce pressure in

a pipe flow
• A decrease in pipe area
• An upward slope
• Friction
• Horizontal pipe (focus of study)
• Frictional losses
• Major loss (constant area sections of the pipe)
• Minor loss (due to fittings/restrictions)

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 Energy considerations in
pipe flow
• EGL
• Constant in case of frictionless flow (inviscid fluid flow)
• Will continuously decrease in the direction of fluid flow
because of friction (which reduces mechanical energy)
• Energy equation (pipe flow – reducing elbow)

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 Energy considerations in
pipe flow
• Assumptions
• Shaft work = 0
• Other work = 0
• Shear work = 0
• Steady
• Incompressible flow
• Internal energy and pressure uniform across inlet and
outlet

• Energy equation (non-uniform velocity)

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 Energy considerations in a
pipe flow
• Kinetic energy coefficient
• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow

• Energy equation (using kinetic energy coefficient)

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 Energy considerations in a
pipe flow
• Head loss
• Dividing energy equation by mass flow rate and
rearranging

• Most important and useful equations in fluid mechanics

• To determine mechanical energy loss due to friction
• To determine pressure difference if head loss can be
calculated
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 Calculation of head loss

• Total head loss

• Major losses – friction effects in fully developed flow in
constant area tubes
• Minor losses – results from fittings, area changes,
entrances, etc.

• Major losses (constant area horizontal tube)

• Δ p/ ρ = major losses (energy)
• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow

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 Calculation of head loss –
Major losses
• Laminar flow friction factor

Where,

• Turbulent flow friction factor

f = Φ (Re, e/D) (Where e Roughness
factor)
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 Calculation of head loss –
Major losses
• Moody’s chart

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 Moody’s chart - Analysis

• Friction factor
• Decreases with increase in Re for laminar flow
• Increases sharply at transition
• Decreases gradually with increase in Re for turbulent flow
regime
• Remains constant for large Re

• Actual energy loss (hl)

• Proportional to average velocity for laminar flow
• Suddenly increases in transition region
• Increases at a rate somewhere between V and V2 for
turbulent flow regime
• Proportional to V2 for fully rough zone

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 Calculation of head loss –
Major losses
• Turbulent flow friction factor (empirical
expressions)
• Colebrook (Re > 2300)

• Halland’s expression
• Re > 3000
• No need of iterations
• For smooth pipes – Blasius equation (Re <105)
• Wall shear stress expression can be obtained.
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 Calculation of head loss –
Minor losses
• Additional head losses primarily because of
flow separation/secondary flow

• Energy losses because of fittings, bends,

changes in area
• Examples – Inlets/Exits, sudden expansion, sudden
contraction, valves, elbow , T-fittings

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 Calculation of head loss –
Minor losses
• Minor losses can be computed in either of
two ways
OR

where ‘K’ is loss coefficient, Le is equivalent length of

straight pipe

• Equivalent length
• That length of a pipe which will have the same
head loss for the same discharge (outlet velocity)35
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 Minor losses – Inlets/exits

• Basic inlet geometries

• Exits
• Diffuser at the downstream can reduce head losses

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 Minor losses –
Enlargements/Contractions
• Losses caused by change in area
• Sudden contraction / sudden expansion
• Loss coefficients are based on larger average
velocity term and area ratio (AR)

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 Minor losses –
Enlargements/Contractions
• Losses in sudden contraction/expansion can
be reduced by using nozzles/diffusers

• Nozzles (Loss coefficients)

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 Minor losses –
Enlargements/Contractions
• Diffusers
• Data related to diffuser is commonly presented
in terms of pressure recovery coefficient (CP)
• CP is the ratio of static pressure rise to inlet
dynamic pressure
• CP for ideal fluid can be related to area ratio
• Relation between CP and head loss for conical
diffuser (turbulent flow) can be obtained

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 Minor losses – Pipe bends

• Head losses are generally are measured

using equivalent lengths
• Additional head loss is because of the
secondary flow

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 Minor losses – Valves and
fittings
• Head losses are generally measured in
terms of equivalent lengths

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 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers
in fluid systems
• Driving force required to maintain the flow
against friction is provided by pumps (for
liquids), fans and blowers (for gases)
• Apply first law of thermodynamics (energy
equation) across pump
• Pumps add energy in terms of gain in
pressure
• Head produced by the pump is needed to
overcome the head loss for pipe system
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 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers
in fluid systems
• Useful relations (Pump work, head gain by
the pump)

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 Noncircular ducts

• Equations developed for a pipe (circular cross

section) can be used for noncircular ducts by
replacing diameter with hydraulic diameter

• Hydraulic diameter

• Hydraulic diameter for rectangular duct

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 Pipe flow problems -
Solutions
• Energy equation

• Calculation of major losses

• Calculation of minor losses

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 Pipe flow problems -
Solutions – Single path
systems
• Find Δp for a given L, D, and Q
• Use energy equation directly

• Find L for a given Δp, D, and Q

• Use energy equation directly

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 Pipe flow problems -
Solutions – Single path
systems
• Find Q for a given Δp, L, and D
• Manually iterate energy equation and friction factor
formula to find V (or Q), or
• Directly solve, simultaneously, energy equation and
friction factor formula using (for example) Excel

• Find D for a given Δp, L, and Q

• Manually iterate energy equation and friction factor
formula to find D, or
• Directly solve, simultaneously, energy equation and
friction factor formula using (for example) Excel
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 Example: Flow in a pipeline
(Unknown length)
• Crude oil flows through a pipeline
• Q = 2.944 m3/s, D = 1.22 m
• Roughness is equivalent to galvanized iron
• Max allowable pressure = 8.27 MPa
• Min pressure required to keep gases in soln = 344.5 kPa
• SGCrude = 0.93, Viscosity (@600 C) = 0.0168 Ns/m2
• Determine maximum spacing between pumping stations
• If pump efficiency = 85%, find power supplied @ each station

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 Example: Flow in an
irrigation system (Unknown
diameter)
A 100-m length of smooth
horizontal pipe is attached to a
large reservoir. A pump is
attached to the end of the pipe
to pump water into the reservoir
at a volume flow rate of 0.01
m3/s. What pressure (gage)
must the pump produce at the
pipe to generate this flow rate?
The inside diameter of the
smooth pipe is 75 mm.
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 PART C

FLOW MEASUREMENT

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 Flow measurement –
Methods and devices
• Direct methods

• Restriction flow meters for internal flows

• Principle
• Orifice plate
• Flow nozzle
• Venturi
• Laminar flow element

• Linear flow meters

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 Flow measurement – Direct
method
• Liquids
• Measure the amount of liquid accumulated in a
container for a fixed period of time

• Gases
• ‘Bell’ or ‘balloon’

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 Restriction flow meters

• Principle
• Based on acceleration of a fluid stream through some form
of nozzle (change in velocity leads to change in pressure)

• Vena contracta
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 Restriction flow meters -
Determination of flow rate
• Basic equations
• Continuity equation

• Bernoulli’s equation
• Assumptions – steady, incompressible, frictionless flow
along a streamline, uniform velocity at inlet and outlet,
pressure is uniform, z1=z2

• Flow rate is proportional to square root of

pressure drop
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 Restriction flow meters –
Determination of flow rate
• Actual flow rate (C times theoretical flow rate)

• Discharge coefficient (for actual flow rate)

• Empirical constant (need to be determined from
experiment)
• Ratio of actual flow rate to theoretical flow rate
• Depends on
• Type of flow meter, Reynolds number, Diameter ratio
(Dt/D1)
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 Restriction flow meters –
Determination of flow rate
• Velocity-of-approach factor

• Flow coefficient

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 Restriction flow meters –
Types and selection
• Types of restriction flow meters
• Orifice plate
• Venturi
• Flow nozzle
• Laminar flow element

• Selection criteria
• Cost
• Accuracy
• Ease of installation and maintenance
• Need for calibration
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 Restriction flow meters –
Orifice plate

• Low cost, easy to install or replace

• Concentric/eccentric plates
• Limitations - limited capacity and permanent head
loss
• Location of pressure taps and correlations for
discharge coefficient
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Restriction flow meters –
Orifice plate
Pressure taps For corner taps

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Restriction flow meters –
Flow nozzles
Flow Nozzle Flow coefficient

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Restriction flow meters –
Venturi

• Low permanent head loss

• Self-cleaning (smooth internal contours)
• High installation/maintenance cost
• Discharge coefficients 0.98 to 0.995
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 Restriction flow meters -
Comparison

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 Restriction flow meters -
Comparison
Permanent head loss (Fig 8.24)

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 Restriction flow meters –
Laminar flow element
• Contains section in which flow passes through a large number
of small diameter tubes (so that the flow is laminar in the tube)

• For laminar flow through a tube – Hagen-Poiseuille’s equation

can be used
• Flow rate is directly proportional to pressure drop

• Flow rate in each tube is a linear function of pressure drop

• Flow rate through a pipe is sum of each of these tube flow rates
(linear function of pressure drop)

• Fluid temperature must be known to calculate viscosity (and

hence to know accurate flow rate)

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 Linear flow meters

• Produces output/signals that are directly

proportional to flow rate (No need to
measure differential pressure)
• Commonly used linear flow meters
• Float meters (Rotameter)
• Turbine flow meter
• Vortex flow meter
• Electromagnetic flow meter
• Magnetic flow meters
• Ultrasonic flow meters
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 Rotameter

• Typical area meter

• Consists of gradually tapered glass
mounted vertically in a frame with the
large end up.
• Fluid flows upward through the tapered
tube and suspends freely a float
• Float is the indicating element
• The reading of the meter is obtained
from the scale reading at edge of the
float, which is taken at the largest cross
section of the float.
• Need to be calibrated to have relation
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Example
An air flow rate of 1 m3/s at standard conditions is
expected in a 0.25-m diameter duct. An orifice meter is
used to measure the rate of flow. The manometer
available to make the measurement has a maximum
range of 300 mm of water. What diameter orifice plate
should be used with corner taps? Analyze the head loss
if the flow area at the vena contracta is A2=0:65 At.
Compare with data from Fig. 8.24.

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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Example

Spray heads in an agricultural spraying system are to be

supplied with water through 152.4 mm of drawn
aluminum tubing from an engine-driven pump. In its
most efficient operating range, the pump output is
0.0946 m3/s at a discharge pressure not exceeding
448.2 kPa (gage). For satisfactory operation, the
sprinklers must operate at 206.8 kPa (gage) or higher
pressure. Minor losses and elevation changes may be
neglected. Determine the smallest standard pipe size
that can be used.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Quiz-5

Consider fully developed laminar flow between

infinite parallel plates separated by gap width d=
10 mm. The upper plate moves to the right with
speed U2=0.5 m/s; the lower plate moves to the
left with speed U1=0.25 m/s. The pressure
gradient in the direction of flow is zero. Develop
an expression for the velocity distribution in the
gap. Find the volume flow rate per unit depth
passing a given cross section.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Quiz 6

The average flow speed in a constant-diameter section

of the Alaskan pipeline is 2.5 m/s. At the inlet, the
pressure is 8.25 MPa (gage) and the elevation is 45 m; at
the outlet, the pressure is 350 kPa (gage) and the
elevation is 115 m. Calculate the head loss in this section
of pipeline.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus