ENGLISH ENGLISH

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12(B) of UGC ACT 1956
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE –Accredited by NBA & NAAC-“A” Grade-ISO 9001:2015 Certified)

ENGLISH
B. Tech – I Year – I Semester

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES

Na e: ……………………………………………………………….

Roll No: ……………………………………………………………..

Bra ch: ……………………………. Sectio ………………………

Year ……………………………… Se ester………………………

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MALLAREDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

B. TECH I YEAR I SEM L T/P/D /C

2/ - / - / - / 2

(R18A0001) ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION:
English is a global language which is a means to correspond globally. Keeping in
account of its vital role in the global market emphasis is given to train the students to achieve
the communication skills. The syllabus is designed to develop and achieve the competency in
communicative skills.
The lectures focus on the communication skills and the chapters picked act as a media
for the teachers to develop the respective skills in the students. The lessons stimulate
discussions and help in comprehending the lesson effectively. The focus is on skill
development, nurturing ideas and practicing the skills.

OBJECTIVES:
 To provide amateur engineers with the critical faculties necessary in an academic
environment, using the theoretical and practical components of English syllabus.
 To upgrade the capability of analyzing of texts from different periods and genres.
 To improve the language proficiency of the students in English with emphasis on
LSRW skills to face complex engineering activities at work place.
 To understand the basics of grammar to speak correct English and communicate
effectively both formally and informally.
SYLLABUS:

Listening Skills:
Objectives
1. To enable students to develop their listening skill so that they may appreciate its role in
the LSRW skills approach to language and improve their pronunciation
2. To equip students with necessary training in listening so that they can comprehend the
speech of people of different backgrounds and regions. Students should be given
practice in listening to the sounds of the language to be able to recognize them, to
distinguish between them to mark stress and recognize and use the right intonation in
sentences.
• Listening for general content
• Listening to fill up information
• Intensive listening
• Listening for specific information
Speaking Skills:
Objectives
1. To make students aware of the role of speaking in English and its contribution to their
success.
2. To enable students to express themselves fluently and appropriately in social and
professional contexts.
• Oral practice

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• Just A Minute (JAM) Sessions.

• Role play – Individual/Group activities (Using exercises from all the nine units of
the prescribed text: Learning English: A Communicative Approach)

Reading Skills:
Objectives
1. To develop an awareness in the students about the significance of silent reading and
comprehension.
2. To develop the ability of students to guess the meanings of words from context and
grasp the overall message of the text, draw inferences etc.
Skimming the text
• Understanding the gist of an argument
• Identifying the topic sentence
• Inferring lexical and contextual meaning
• Understanding discourse features
 Scanning the text
• Recognizing coherence/sequencing of sentences

NOTE:
The students will be trained in reading skills using the prescribed text for detailed study.
They will be examined in reading and answering questions using ‘unseen’ passages which
may be taken from authentic texts, such as magazines/newspaper articles.

Writing Skills:
Objectives
1. To develop an awareness in the students about writing as an exact and formal skill
2. To equip them with the components of different forms of writing, beginning with the
lower order ones.
• Writing sentences
• Use of appropriate vocabulary
• Coherence and cohesiveness
• Formal and informal letter writing

Unit –I
Chapter entitled “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost
Grammar –Tenses and Punctuation
Vocabulary – Prefixes and Suffixes
Writing – Letter Writing (complaints, requisitions, apologies).
Reading – Techniques for effective reading-Reading Exercise –Type 1
Unit – II
Chapter entitled “Abraham Lincoln’s Letter to His Son’s Teacher”
Grammar – Voices, Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Vocabulary – Synonyms, Antonyms
Writing – E-mail Writing
Reading – Skimming, scanning- Reading Exercise –Type 2

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Unit – III
Chapter entitled “War” by L. Pirandello
Grammar –Degrees of Comparison, Preposition
Vocabulary – Phrasal Verbs
Writing – Essay Writing
Reading – Comprehensions- Reading Exercise - Type 3

Unit – IV
Chapter entitled “J K ROWLING’S HARVARD SPEECH”
Grammar – Articles, Misplaced Modifiers
Vocabulary – One-Word Substitutes, Standard Abbreviation
Writing – Précis Writing
Reading – Intensive and Extensive reading- Reading Exercise – Type 4

Unit –V
Sentence Structures (phrases and clauses)
Grammar – Subject-Verb Agreement, Noun-Pronoun Agreement
Vocabulary – Commonly Confused Words
Writing – Memo Writing
Reading – Identifying Errors Reading Exercise – Type 5

* Exercises apart from the text book shall also be used for classroom tasks.

REFERENCES:

1. Contemporary English Grammar Structures and Composition by David Green,

MacMillan Publishers, New Delhi. 2010.
2. Innovate with English: A Course in English for Engineering Students, edited by T
Samson, Foundation Books.
3. English Grammar Practice, Raj N Bakshi, Orient Longman.
4. Effective English, edited by E Suresh Kumar, A RamaKrishna Rao, P Sreehari, Published
by Pearson.
5. Handbook of English Grammar& Usage, Mark Lester and Larry Beason, Tata Mc Graw –
Hill.
6. Objective English Edgar Thorpe & Showick Thorpe, Pearson Education

OUTCOMES:
 Students will be able to critically appreciate any text effortlessly.
 They will be able to imbibe the English proficiency to receive instructions, make
notes and draft letters vividly.
 They can identify the basic grammatical structures and its application accurately to
communicate with society at large.

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INDEX
TOPICS [Link]

UNIT I
The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost 6
Grammar
Tenses 11
Punctuation 22
Vocabulary; Prefix and Siffix 23
Letter Writing 31
Reading Comprehension Type 1 33

UNIT 2
Abraham Lincoln’s Letter to His Son’s Teacher 36
Transitive and Intransitive verbs 41
Active Voice and Passive voice 43
Synonyms and Antonyms 46
Email writing 46
Reading Compression Type 2 52

UNIT 3
War by Luigi Pirandello 54
Prepositions 61
Degrees of comparison 66
Phrasal Verbs 70
Essay writing 72
Reading Comprehension Type 3 75

UNIT 4
J.K. Rowling’s Harvard Speech 78
Articles 86
Modifiers 89
One-word substitutions 91
Precis Writing 92
Reading Comprehension Type 4 97

UNIT 5
Sentence structures – Phrases and clauses 98
Concord 103
Finite and Non-finite verbs 111
Commonly confused words 113
Memo writing 121
Reading Comprehension Type 5 123

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UNIT-I

THE ROAD NOT TAKEN

---by Robert Frost

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry I could not travel both

And be one traveler, long I stood

And looked down one as far as I could

To where it bent in the undergrowth;

Then took the other, as just as fair,

And having perhaps the better claim,

Because it was grassy and wanted wear;

Though as for that the passing there

Had worn them really about the same,

And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black.

Oh, I kept the first for another day!

Yet knowing how way leads on to way,

I doubted if I should ever come back.

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—

I took the one less traveled by,

And that has made all the difference.

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SUMMARY:

Robert Frost’s poem “The Road Not Taken” is taken from “Mountain Intervals” - a famous
volume of poems published in 1916, the year which was also significant for introduction of
cars and motor vehicles. This poem is characterized by Frosts usual simple style that is
marked by ordinary, straightforward language, great emotional restraint and understatement.

Many interpretations have been made of this poem, but Frost himself claimed the inspiration
came from his dear friend Edward Thomas, a welsh poet whom he had met in England. It was
said that Thomas was never content with the choices he made, and whenever walking with
Frost in England, would always regret for the path they had chosen. The poem is a gentle
teasing of not only his friend’s constant regret and curiosity, but also that of human behavior

The poem consists of four stanzas. The first stanza presents the poets dilemma to choose the
right path. In the second stanza, he resolves his dilemma by choosing the less frequented
road, which is grassy and less trodden and hence difficult. The pot justifies his choice in the
last stanza.

The poet while travelling on foot in the woods reaches a junction where two roads diverge
and he has to choose one of them (On the road of life) and the speaker arrives at a point
where he must decide which of two equally appealing (or equally intimidating) choices is the
better one. He examines one choice as best he can, but the future prevents him from seeing
where it leads.

The speaker selects the road that appears at first glance to be less worn and therefore less
traveled. This selection suggests that he has an independent spirit and does not wish to follow
the crowd. After a moment, he concludes that both roads are about equally worn.

Leaves cover both roads equally. No one on this morning has yet taken either road, for the
leaves lie undisturbed. The speaker remains committed to his decision to take the road he had
previously selected, saying that he will save the other road for another day. He observes,
however, that he probably will never pass this way again and thus will never have an
opportunity to take the other road.

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In years to come, the speaker says, he will be telling others about the choice he made. While
doing so, he will sigh either with relief that he made the right choice or with regret that he
made the wrong choice. Whether right or wrong, the choice will have had a significant
impact on his life because he had chosen the path for himself and so he is the responsible for
whatever falls on his way.

ANALYSIS OF THE POEM

This reading of the poem is tremendously popular since every reader can empathize with the
author’s decision: having to choose between two paths without having any knowledge of
where each road will lead. Moreover, the author’s decision to choose the “less traveled” path
expresses his courage. Rather than taking the safe path that others have traveled, the author
prefers to make his own way in the world.

However, when we look closer at the text of the poem, it becomes clear that such an idealistic
analysis is largely imprecise. The author only distinguishes the paths from one another after
he has already selected one and traveled many years through life. When he first comes upon
the fork in the road, the paths are described as being vitally identical. In terms of beauty, both
paths are equally ‘fair,’ and the overall “…passing there / had worn them really about the
same.”

It is only as an old man that the author looks back on his life and decides to place such
importance on this particular decision in his life. In the first three stanzas, the author shows
no sense of remorse for his decision nor might any acknowledgement that such a decision be
important to his life. Yet, as an old man, the author attempts to give a sense of order to his
past and perhaps explain the reason for happening of certain things to him. Of course, the
excuse that he took the road “less traveled by” is false, but the author still clings to this
decision as a defining moment of his life, not only because of the path that he chose but
because he had to make a choice in the first place.

CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF POEM

Robert Frost’s poem “The Road Not Taken” is taken from “Mountain Intervals” a famous
volume of poems published in 1916, the year which was also significant for introduction of

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cars and motor vehicles. This poem is characterized by Frosts usual simple style that is
marked by ordinary, straightforward language, great emotional restraint and understatement.

Many interpretations have been made of this poem, but Frost himself claimed the inspiration
came from his dear friend Edward Thomas, a welsh poet whom he had met in England. It was
said that Thomas was never content with the choices he made, and whenever walking with
Frost in England, would always regret for the path they had chosen. The poem is a gentle
teasing of not only his friend’s constant regret and curiosity, but also that of human behavior

The poem consists of four stanzas. The first stanza presents the poets dilemma to choose the
right path. In the second stanza, he resolves his dilemma by choosing the less frequented
road, which is grassy and less trodden and hence difficult. The pot justifies his choice in the
last stanza.

In the first stanza, the speaker describes his predicament. He has been out walking in the
yellow woods and reached a point where the road diverged .He wanted to try out both, but
doubts he could do that, therefore he continues to look down the road for a long time trying to
make a decision as to which path to take.

In the second stanza the poet decides to take the less travelled path. He looks down the first
one” to where it bent in the undergrowth” and he reports that he decided to have the second
path because it seemed to have less trodden than the first. But then he goes on to say that they
actually were very similarly worn. Not exactly that same but only “about the same”.

In the third stanza Frost continues to contemplate about the possible difference between the
two roads. He had noticed that the leaves were fresh early in the morning and “equally lay”.
Then he claims that may be he would come back and take the first road someday later. He
doubted that if he could ever come back because he knew that “how way leads on to way”and
the desire to come back is almost uncertain.

The last stanza in Frost’s “The Road Not Taken” is perhaps the most important regarding the
theme and symbolism found within the poem. When studying the lines below, one can see
how many different interpretations have been made regarding the entire poem from this last
stanza.

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“I shall be telling this with a sigh………

And that has made all the difference.”

The first line of the last stanza, Frost’s choice of the word “sigh” leads some to believe that
his choice of the road, is a grim one. However “sighs” can be happy, sad, or merely reflective
– and we don't know what kind of sigh this is. So, we know that this choice is probably going
to be important for the poet’s future, but we don't know if he's going to be happy about it or
not.

At first glance it seems that this line is triumphant – the poet took the path that no one else
did, and that is what has made the difference in his life that made him successful. But he
doesn't say that it made him successful – an optimistic reader wants the line to read
positively, but it could be read either way. A "difference" could mean success, or utter failure.

The roads symbolism is seen throughout the theme of the entire poem, and sheds light upon
the nature of human thought and indecision. The poem is an example of the “difficult but
necessary process of making choices in life”.

QUESTION AND ANSWER

1. Describe the two roads that the author comes across.

A) The author comes across a fork in his travel. He stands and looks at the both roads which
are equally lay with grass. One was much traveled and the other was less traveled.

2. Which road does the speaker choose? Why?

A) The speaker has chosen the road less traveled. Because there may be two reasons. One is
that he has left the other road for another day anticipating that he may come back in future
and the other is that he wants to prove his adventurous nature and to show the world that his
brave decision has led to the success attained by him.

3. Which road would you choose? Why?

A) I would choose the road less travelled because, the entire world is running on a theme
'me'. If I follow somebody's footsteps, I cannot be identified as an individual. The life is too
short, whether you choose or do not choose you must die. I don't want to die as

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unrecognized fearing the short ditches on my way. Face the problem, become tough, reach
destination is my philosophy.

4. Does the poet seem happy about his decision?

Ans. No, He is not happy about his decision. Because the title is "The Road not
taken" not "The Road Less Traveled". Though the last word of the poem 'difference' suggests
a positive note/ expression, the word is said with deep grief, according to the word 'sigh' used
in the first line of the stanza.
GRAMMAR

TENSES

Simple Tenses Continuous Perfect Tenses Perfect

Tenses Continuous
Tenses

Present Simple Present Present Present Perfect Present Perfect

Tense Continuous Tense Continuous
Tense Tense

Past Simple Past Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect

Tense Tense Tense Continuous
Tense

Future Simple Future Future Future Perfect Future Perfect

Tense Continuous Tense Continuous
Tense Tense

SIMPLE TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

It is used to express daily actions, hobbies and universal truths.

Structure: - Sub + V1 + Obj + Time
If the subject is third person singular in simple present tense we must add ‘ S ‘ or ‘es’ to the
main verb.
Ex: - I go to temple every day.
He reads news paper every day.
She watches T.V regularly.

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Ram always makes noise.

The adverbs of time Every day, Regularly, Always, Often, Usually, Every month, Every
year and Every week are used in simple present tense to show the time of the action.
DO and DOES are used as helping verbs to write negative and question forms in simple
present tense.
o Positive form: - He reads news paper every day.
o Negative form: - He does not read news paper every day.
o Question form: - Does he read news paper every day?

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

It is used to express an action which happened yesterday or in the past.
Structure: - Sub + V2 + Obj + Time
Ex: - He played Kabaddi yesterday.
She gave him a chocolate 2 days ago.
I went to Tirupathi last year.
Sita prepared chapathi for breakfast yesterday.
They distributed note books to the poor students 3 months ago.
The adverbs of time Yesterday, Ago, Last week, Last year and Last month are used to show
the time of the action in simple past tense.
DID is used as helping verb to write negative and question forms in simple past tense. When
we use DID as helping verb we should use V1 form. DID + V1
Positive form: - She played tennis yesterday.
Negative form: - She did not play tennis yesterday.
Question form: - Did she play tennis yesterday?

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

It is used to express an action which will happen tomorrow.
Structure: - Sub + Shall / Will + V1 + Obj + Time
I He
We------- Shall She
You---------- Will
It
Ram
Ex: - I shall go to Guntur tomorrow.
She will write a letter to her friend tomorrow.

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You will participate in the dance competition tomorrow.

We shall go to temple tomorrow.
Ram will buy the book tomorrow.
The time of adverb Tomorrow is used to show the time of the action in simple future tense.
Positive form: - We shall go to temple tomorrow.
Negative form: - We shall not go to temple tomorrow.
Question form: - Shall we go to temple tomorrow?
Exercise:

Workout the given task on Simple tenses: (Present, Past and future)

1. We ___________ too much time with him. (spend)

2. Miss Brown ________ a new list tonight. (make)

3. My wife ______ on you tomorrow. (call)

4. It _______ yesterday. (rain)

5. The woman _____ the way then. (ask)

6. We _______ to my new records yesterday. (listen)

7. Miss Gibb and her daughter _____ very well. (dress)

8. Stan _____ to the BBC regularly. (stick)

9. Linda ______ German fluently. (speak)

10. He ______ medicine. (study)

11. His friends ______ my uncle's fence last week. (paint)

12. I _______ $10 from him the other day. (borrow)

13. We _______ a policeman which road to take after reaching there. (ask)

14. I _____ my lunch at twelve o'clock. (have)

15. He ____ here on Wednesday. (be)

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CONTINUOUS TENSES

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

To express an action which is going on at present.
Structure: - Sub + Am / Is / Are + V1 + Ing + Obj + Time
I - Am
He,She, It, Ram - is They
He
She is We ----- Are
It You
Ram
Ex: - He is reading news paper now.
I am watching T.V at present.
She is drinking milk at present.
Now we are going to Hyderabad.
Look! He is limping.
Listen! Someone is making noise there.
They are playing cricket now.
The time of adverbs Now, At present, and the expressions Look, Listen and See are used in
present continuous tense to show the time of the action.
Positive form: - They are playing cricket now.
Negative form: - They are not playing cricket now.
Question form: - Are the playing cricket now?

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

To express an action which was going on yesterday at this time or in the past.
Structure: - Sub + Was / Were + V1 + Ing + Obj + Time
I They
He You --- Were
She ------Was We
It
Ram
Ex:- I was watching cinema yesterday at this time.
She was playing tennis yesterday in this time.

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She heard a noise while she was cooking food.

When the teacher entered the class room, the students were making noise.
They were playing cricket yesterday at this time.
I went to him while he was reading news paper.
The time of adverbs Yesterday at this time, When and While are used to show the time of
the action in past continuous tense.
Positive form: - He was reading news paper yesterday at this time.
Negative form: - He was not reading news paper yesterday at this time.
Question form: - Was he reading news paper yesterday at this time?

FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

To express an action which will be going on tomorrow at this time.
Structure: - Sub + Shall Be / Will Be + V1 + Ing + Obj + Time
I ----- Shall Be
He
We
She

It ------- Will Be
You
They
Ex:- I shall be writing a novel tomorrow at this time.
She will be preparing food tomorrow in this time.
We shall be swimming in the river tomorrow in this time.
Ram will be writing the exam tomorrow at this time.
They will be conducting a meeting tomorrow in this time.
The adverbs of time tomorrow, in, this, time is used to show the time of the action in future
continuous tense.
Positive form: - They will be playing tennis tomorrow in this time.
Negative form: - They will not be playing tennis tomorrow in this time.
Question form: - Will they be playing tennis tomorrow in this time.

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Exercise:
Fill in the blocks with correct tense (present, past and future continuous)
1. Hurry up! We ________________ for you. (Waiting, are waiting, wait)

2. A: What are you ________________? (doing, writing/ done)

B: I ________________ letters. (writing/doing, write)

3. He ________________ in Italy at the moment.(works/working/is working)

4. She doesn’t like to be disturbed when she ___________ ( works/ working/ is working)

5. I ________________ for the shops to open.(wait//am waiting/waiting)

6. The universe _________ and has been so since its beginning.(expands/is

expanding/expanding)

7. George ________________ off the ladder while he ________________ the ceiling.

(Fallen, painted/Falling, painting/Fell, was painting)

8. Last night I ________________ in bed when I suddenly ________________ a scream

(Reading, heard/Read, hearing/Was reading, heard)

9.________________TV when I ________________ you? ( Were you watching,

phoned/Were watching, phoning/Was you watching, phoned)

10. Ann ________________ for me when I ________________ . (Was waiting, arrived/Were

waiting, arriving/Waited, arrived)

11. Maisie ________________ up the kitchen when John ________________ her to marry
him. (Cleaned, asked/Cleaning, asking/Was cleaning, asked)

12. I ________ during rush hour.( will be driving/ will have drive/will be drive)

13. They ________ the cottage next weekend.(using/ 'll be using/ 're be using)

14. Nigel _____ be coming to the picnic. ( won't/won't not/not)

15. Where ________ sleeping? ( you be/ will you/ will you be)

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PERFECT TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
To express an action which has completed just now.
Structure: - Sub + Has / Have + V3 + Obj + Time
I He
We She ---------- Has
They------ Have It
You Ram
Ex: - She has prepared food.
I have written a letter to my friend just now.
He has completed his home work.
They have left from here just now.
Ram has just drunk milk.
The adverbs of time Just and Just now, so far and yet are used in present perfect tense to
show the time of the action.
Positive form: - He has just completed his home work.
Negative form: - He has not just completed his home work.
Question form: - Has he just completed his home work?

PAST PERFECT TENSE

To express an action which was completed in past perfect followed by simple past.

Structure: - Sub + Had + V3 + Obj + When / Before/ After + Sub + V2 + Obj

Ex: - I had completed my home work before my friend came to me.

He had reached the station before the train left.

She had eaten the mango when Ram went to her.

They had prepared food after I left from there.

Positive form: - He had reached the station before the train left.

Negative form: - He had not reached the station before the train left.

Question form: - Had he reached the station before the train left?

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FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

To express an action which will be completed in the future at a particular time.
Structure: - Sub + Shall Have / Will Have + V3 + Obj + Time
I --------- Shall Have They
We You
He ----------- Will Have
She
It
Ex: - He will have gone to Tirupathi on this month 28th.
She will have participated in tennis competition on November 18th.
We shall have conducted exams to the students on August 10th.
Positive form: - He will have gone to Tirupathi on this month 28th.
Negative form: - He will not have gone to Thirupathi on this month 28th.
Question form: - Will he have gone to Tirupathi on this month 28th ?

Exercise:
Workout the given task on Perfect tenses: (Present, Past and future)

1. He _________ it since we left him. (do)

2. If you ring me up after nine o'clock. I ___________ to the doctor. ( intimate)

3. The airman __________ more than a thousand miles, before the end of this month.

(flow)

4. They ____________ here for the last seven years. (live)

5. He said that he already twice _______ our town. (visit)

6. We couldn’t open the door because he _________ our keys. (lose)

7. They _____________ dinner when we arrived. (finish)

8. The doctor _________. He is waiting for you in the next room. (come)

9. He ________ the soldiers to battle. (lead)

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10. I _________ to him about it over and over again. (speak)

11. After we __________ writing we played in the garden. (finish )

12. Who came into the room after the telephone ________? (ring)

13. I am sure that tomorrow you __________ all these rules. (forget)

14. Be quick! The child _____________ before you rescue it. (drown)

15. She ___________ old before she learns the use of prepositions. (grow)

PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
To express an action which was started in the past and still it is going on.
Structure: - Sub + Have Been / Has Been + V1 + Ing + Obj + Time
I He
We She----------- Has Been
You -------- Have Been It
They Ram

“FOR” is used to show period of time.

“SINCE” is used to show point of time.
Ex: - I have been studying in this college for two years.
He has been building the house since 2011.
She has been preparing for the exams for 5 months.
The students have been playing cricket since this morning.
Ram has been reading news paper since 9 am.
He has been working in this company since 2008.
They have been staying in Hyderabad for 10 years.
Positive form: - She has been playing tennis for two days.
Negative form: - She has not been playing tennis for two days.
Question form: - Has she been playing tennis for two days?

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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

To express an action that was lasted for some particular time in the past.
Stucture: - Sub + Had Been + V1 + Ing + Obj + Time
Ex:- I had been working in Narasaraopet Engineering College for two years by 2012.
He had been building the house for a year by 2010.
They had been working in this company for five years by 2009.
She had been learning the computer course for 3 months by 30th may, 2013
Positive form: - He had been building the house for a year by 2010.
Negative form: - He had not been building the house for a year by 2010.
Question form: - Had he been building the house for a year by 2010?

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

To express an action which will be lasted for some time in the future.
Structure: - Sub + Shall Have Been / Will Have Been + V1 + Ing + Obj + Time
Ex: - I shall have been doing this job for five years by 2015.
He will have been working in this company for three years by 2014.
She will have been studying [Link] for four years by 2016.
Positive form: - She will have been doing this job for five years by 2015.
Negative form: - She will not have been doing this job for five years by 2015.
Question form: - Will she have been doing this work for five years by 2015.
Exercises:
Workout the given task on Perfect continuous tenses: (Present, Past and future)
1. He _________ it since we left him. (do)

2. If you ring me up after nine o'clock. I ___________ to the doctor. (intimate)

3. The airman __________ more than a thousand miles, before the end of this month. (flow)

4. They ____________ here for the last seven years. (live)

5. He said that he already twice _______ our town. (visit)

6. We couldn’t open the door because he _________ our keys. (lose)

7. They _____________ dinner when we arrived. (finish)

8. The doctor _________. He is waiting for you in the next room. (come)

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9. He ________ the soldiers to battle. (lead)

10. I _________ to him about it over and over again. (speak)

11. After we __________ writing we played in the garden. (finish )

12. Who came into the room after the telephone ________? (ring)

13. I am sure that tomorrow you __________ all these rules. (forget)

14. Be quick! The child _____________ before you rescue it. (drown)

15. She ___________ old before she learns the use of prepositions. (grow)

Fill in the blanks using an appropriate form of the verb. Choose your answer from the
options given in the brackets.

1. Sahil …………………………… another window yesterday. (breaks / broke)

2. I …………………………. an apple in the morning. (eat / ate)

3. She …………………………. that she was studying. (say / said)

4. Last Sunday, we ………………………. on a picnic. (go / went)

5. I ……………………….. John yesterday. (saw / see)

6. My father ……………………… in a factory. (work / works)

7. They ………………………… this house in 1976. (build / built)

8. I ……………………….. the money yesterday. (send / sent)

9. He ………………………… lovely poems. (write / writes)

10. Suma ……………………….. at a bank. (work / works)

11. Somebody ……………………….. on the door. (knock / knocked)

12. The sun …………………………. us heat and light. (give / gives)

13. The stars ……………………… in the sky. (shine / shines)

14. We usually ………………………….. bread for breakfast. (have / had)

15. Androcles did not ………………………… his wicked master. (like / liked)

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PUNCTUATION
Punctuation marks are essential when you are writing. They show the reader where sentences
start and finish, and if they are used properly they make your writing easy to understand. This
section gives practical guidance on how to use commas, semi-colons, and other types of
punctuation correctly, so that your writing will always be clear and effective. There are also
sections which offer advice on using punctuation when writing direct speech, lists, or
abbreviations.

Punctuation Symbol Use Example

mark
Full stop /period .  At the end of declaratives and This is a pen.
imperatives
 In contracted forms (as we call) of nouns Capt. (captain)
 Note: conventionally stops were used in
abbreviations. Contemporary usage
avoids the use of full stops after M.A.
abbreviations.
Comma , To separate mail clauses linked by The bus was late, but I
conjunction: ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘for’, and reached school on time.
‘nor’
 To separate words I came, I saw, I
conquered.
 To resemble brackets Tell her, please, that I
shall contact her.
 To list words I need a pair of scissors,
thread, pin, and cloth, to

 stitch something.

To introduce the direct speech She said, “I don’t

understand”.
Semicolon ; To separate two clauses that could have He lost his textbook; he
been one complete sentence. was afraid he would be
punished.

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Colon :  To introduce material that explains, Another Monday

amplifies or interprets what precedes it. morning: it was a rush
 for the bus.

 To introduce the quotation after Gopal: Why don’t you
identification of the speaker in dialogues do that work
Sharath: yeah! I do it

 tomorrow.

Before enumeration The eight parts of

speech are: noun, verb,
etc.,
Hyphen -  In certain compound words Up-to-date
Ice-cream
Apostrophe ’  In possessives – singular and plural A judge’s first case.
nouns The judges’ opinions.
 In contraction of auxiliary I will not = I won’t
Question Mark ?  In interrogative sentences Why are you coming?
 In half questions What? Why not? Yes?
Exclamation mark !  After emphatic utterances Go away!
 After interjections Oh! Wow!
Quotation mark “”  To denote direct speech She said, “I am not
coming”.
 To denote titles I watched “Titan” three
times.
Brackets ( )  To surround or close dates & references
The annual exams
(March).
Rajeev Gandhi (1944-
1991)
 To put words in parenthesis in place of dashes &
commas
 He needed help (he had

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an accident) so I gave

him some money.
As a final bracket only for listed items The main reasons for
this failure:
1) …….
2) ……..
Capital letters A  To begin proper nouns Sharath, Kiran
B  To begin a sentence She is going to school.
C  To refer God The Almighty, God,
D Lord, He, Him etc…

 For the pronoun “I” You tell me first then I

go.

Exercises

Punctuate the following sentences.

1. He is not really nice looking and yet he has enormous charm
2. When I was a child I could watch TV whenever I wanted to
3. It is a fine idea let us hope that it is going to work
4. Mrs Solomon who was sitting behind the desk gave me a big smile
5. We were believe it or not in love with each other
6. I don’t like this one bit said Julia
7. Have you met our handsome new financial director
8. If you are ever in London come and see you
9. Michael in the Ferrari was cornering superbly
10. Looking straight at her he said I cant help you

Punctuate the following paragraph

Winston is one of the most laid-back people i know he is tall and slim with black hair and he
always wears a t-shirt and black jeans his jeans have holes in them and his baseball boots are
scruffy too he usually sits at the back of the class and he often seems to be asleep however
when the exam results are given out he always gets an "A" i don't think hes as lazy as he
appears to be

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VOCABULARY
WORD FORAMATION: PREFIX AND SUFFIX
Prefixes and suffixes are sets of letters that are added to the beginning or end of another
word. They are not words in their own right and cannot stand on their own in a sentence: if
they are printed on their own they have a hyphen before or after them.

Prefixes

Prefixes are added to the beginning of an existing root word in order to create a new word
with a different meaning. For example:

Root Prefix Word formation

happy un- unhappy

cultural multi- multicultural

work over- overwork

space cyber- cyberspace

market super- supermarket

Suffixes
Suffixes are added to the end of an existing word. For example:

Root suffix Word formation

child -ish childish

work -er worker

taste -less tasteless

idol -ize/-ise idolize/idolise

like -able likeable

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The addition of a suffix often changes a word from one form to another. In the table above,
the verb ‘like’ becomes the adjective ‘likeable’
the noun ‘idol’ becomes the verb ‘idolize’
the noun ‘child’ becomes the adjective ‘childish’

You can read more about prefixes and suffixes. Here you will find guidelines, examples, and
tips for using prefixes and suffixes correctly.

1. Suffixes like---ant,---ator,---er,-----ist,----or are added to form personal nouns.

Immigrate- immigrant

Terminate—terminator

Conduct----conductor

2 . Suffixes ---ance,---ence,-----ation,---ion,---tion,---ism,---ment,-----ty----sion,---age,---
ency can be us to form functional nouns.

Refer---reference

Maintain----maintenance

Invest---investment

Tour---tourism

Examine---examination

Secure---security

Bond----bondage

3. Adjectives are formed by adding suffices like ----able, ---al, ---- iative, --- ical, --- ing, ---
ory,---tic .

Reason----- reasonable

Develop ----developing

Paralyze---- paralytic

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Environment---- environmental

Collect---- collective

Technology technological

Preserve preservative

4. Adverbs are generally formed by the addition of-ally,---ly,or---lly to most of the

adjectives.

Verb Adjective Adverb

Comprehend comprehensible comprehensibly

Communicate communicative communicatively

Develop developing developmentally

Word creation with prefixes and suffixes

Some prefixes and suffixes are part of our living language, in that people regularly use them
to create new words for modern products, concepts, or situations. For example:

Word Prefix or suffix New word

security bio- biosecurity

clutter de- declutter

media multi- multimedia

email -er emailer

Email is an example of a word that was itself formed from a new prefix, e-, which stands
for electronic. This modern prefix has formed an ever-growing number of other Internet-
related words, including e-book, e-cash, e-commerce, and e-tailer.

Exercises:
Form nouns from adjectives

1. Able 2. Ecological
3. Brief 4. Pure

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5. Friendly [Link]

7. Wide [Link]

9. Active [Link]

prefix meaning / use example

anti + adjective/noun Opposite anti- clockwise/ anti-climax

anti + noun / adjective Against anti-theft device / anti-European

co + noun / verb Together cohabit

dis + verb negative/opposite dislike / disembark

il + adjective Opposite illegal

im + adjective Opposite impossible

in+adjective Opposite indirect

inter + adjective Between intercontinental

ir + adjective Opposite irregular

mis + verb wrongly/ badly mistook / mishandle

over + verb too much overwork

out + verb More outnumber

post + noun / verb After postgraduate

pre + noun / verb Before pre- arrangement

pro + noun / adjective in favour of pro-Unions / pro-European

sub + adjective Below substandard

super + noun/ adjective greater than superhuman

trans + noun / verb / Across transplant /transcontinental

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un + verb / adjective negative / opposite unlock / unhappy

under + verb not enough/too little undercook / undercharge

Few Rules

1. We use ‘il-’ instead of ‘in’ with words that begin with L : ex. Il + Legal
2. We use -im instead of in with words that begin with m p: ex. Im + polite
3. We often use -ir instead of in with words that begin with r: ex ir+ responsible

Some common mistakes are

Ritu you must unconnect the cables first.

Ritu you must disconnect the cables first.
They expelled him for disbehaving
They expelled him for misbehaving
Note: Many words with a prefix have a base part that never exists on its own. Here are
examples:
Note: There are many words with a prefix have a base part that never exists on its own. Here
are few examples such as immediate, incontrovertible, and uncalled.

Exercise
Fill in the blanks with the correct form. You will have to use prefixes and/or suffixes.

1. He was sitting __________________ in his seat on the train. (comfort)

2. There was a __________________ light coming from the window. (green)

3. He was acting in a very __________________ way. (child)

4. This word is very difficult to spell, and even worse, it's __________________.
(pronounce)

5. He's lost his book again. I don't know where he has __________________ it this time.
(place)

6. You shouldn't have done that! It was very __________________ of you. (think)

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7. He didn't pass his exam. He was __________________ for the second time. (succeed)

8. Some of the shanty towns are dreadfully __________________ . (crowd)

9. The team that he supported were able to win the__________________ . (champion)

10. There is a very high __________________ that they will be late. (likely)

11. I couldn't find any __________________ in his theory. (weak)

12. He wants to be a __________________ when he grows up. (mathematics)

13. You need to be a highly trained _______________to understand this report. (economy)

14. There were only a __________________ of people at the match. (hand)

15. She arrived late at work because she had__________________ . (sleep)

16. The road was too narrow, so they had to __________________ it. (wide)

17. He was accused of __________________ documents. (false)

18. They had to __________________ the lion before they could catch it. (tranquil)

19. He needed to __________________ the temperature. (regular)

20. I think that you should ________________. It may not be the best thing to do. (consider)

WRITING SKILLS: LETTER WRITING

Letter writing has the greatest practical importance. Every person has to write letters in the
course of his life. Hence much care should be taken in learning the proper way of writing a
letter.

KINDS OF LETTERS:
Letters may be divided into two classes- Informal letters, and Business letters.

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Informal letters:
These are letters written to our parents, friends or relatives. They include invitations to
parties. They should be written in an easy and conversational style.

Business letters:
These are impersonal letters addressed to institutions or officers. Applications, petitions,
representations and letters to newspapers come in this category.

PARTS OF A LETTER

1) Heading: The writer’s address and the date of writing. It should be written at the top right
hand side of the page or in blocked format left side.
Mammillagudem
Khammam
15th December ’95 or
December 15, 1995

2) The name and address of the person:

This should be written on the-left hand side of the page either at the top or bottom.
Eg.,:
To
The Editor,
The Indian Express,
HYDERABAD.

To
Sri K. Sankara Rao
2-1-102
Nallakunta,
Hyderabad 44.

NOTE:
1) The address need not end with a full stop.
2) If the letter has to go by any special way, i.e. by some large town, write via, with the
name of the town.
3) Abbreviations are used in address.

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3) The Salutation:
This is written on the left side of the page, a line below the address. (A comma is put after the
salutation) Note the ways of salutation:
a) To the members of the family.
Dear Sister, My dear Sister, Dear Brother, My dear Brother, Dear Father, My dear
Father,
Dear Mother, My dear Mother.

b) To friends:
My dear Rao (a very close friend)
Dear Rao (a close friend)
Dear Mr. Rao (not a close friend)

4. Body of the letter:

It should begin a little below the salutation. If the letter is long, break it into paragraphs. See
that the language used is simple and direct. A familiar and colloquial style may be used in
letters to friends and relatives. There should be brevity and courtesy. It should be free from
spelling and grammatical mistakes. Avoid writing a postscript. Put correct punctuation marks.

5) The Subscription or Leave Taking:

It should be written below the body of the letter at the right side bottom of the page.
NOTE:
1) The first letter must be a capital letter.
2) Yours has no apostrophe.
3) A comma is placed between the subscription and signature.

Some Leave Taking Phrases:

1) To the members of the family:
Yours affectionately
Yours lovingly
Your loving son
Your loving daughter
2) To Friends:
Yours sincerely
Yours lovingly
3) To officers:
Yours faithfully

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Yours truly
Yours sincerely
4) To superiors:
Yours obediently

READING COMPREHENSION: TYPE 1

 Look at the statements below the given paragraph about branding.

 Which section (A,B,C,D) does each statement (1-7) refer to ?
 For each statement (1-7) mark one letter (A,B,C or D)
 You will need to use some of these letters more than once.

BRANDING: A MARKETING STRATEGY

A
Having a good brand identity is critical. It can not only position a company above its
competitors, but it also communicates to your customers the reason why they should choose
you instead of your competitors. But developing a strong brand image takes time, money and
effort, and it involves much more than redesigning a logo or developing a new tagline. Your
new brand identity should evolve from your previous identity. Be careful not to start from
scratch and come up with something completely new, as you may end up losing loyal
customers who have forged emotion ties with your product.

B
It’s important to understand that changing the visual aspects of your company, your logo,
your packaging and so forth, you are not actually changing your brand identity. Your brand
identity is the promise a company makes to its customers – its features, quality, values and
service support. Just modernizing visual image does not entail a change in brand
values. Many companies, sadly, are led to believe by branding agencies that visual changes
will alter customer’s perception of their products. But such changes only inform consumers
that a company is concerned about how it looks. At best, they will assume the company is
modern; at worst they will accuse the company of unnecessary extravagance.

C
Successful branding may not be actually connected with the product at all, but may represent
a greater sense of purpose or a more satisfying experience. They may affirm that drinking a

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cup of coffee can really make a difference, or that exercising may bring about a sense of
challenge and personal achievement. Many successful brands study emerging societal ideals
and trends, so that they can take advantage of how customers wish they could be. Then they
push forward the message that by using their product, their dreams can be fulfilled, and the
customer can gain the lifestyle he or she is looking for, be it a sense of glamour, freedom,
popularity or self-satisfaction.

D
Lack of consistency is probably the most common pitfall when it comes to designing an
image for your brand. You need to provide a consistent message in your proposals and
presentations so that your company develops credibility and gets noticed and remembered.
To ensure that your branding ins consistent, gather all the information that leaves your
company, be it faxes, emails, advertisements, invoices or packages. Examine them for
discrepancies in your company’s image. Doing so will also give you the chance to evaluate
the image you are trying portray. 2. the difference between brand identity and logo design

Which section, A, B, C or D, does each statement 1-7.

1. a list of some items which should display your brand identity –

2. the difference between brand identity and logo design
3. brands which do not reflect the product itself
4. how companies are fooled by companies offering branding services
5. what is involved in creating an image for your brand
6. why companies study current social trends to develop a brand
7. a warning about redesigning your brand

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UNIT II

ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S LETTER TO HIS SON’S TEACHER

My son starts school today. It is all going to be strange and new to him for a while and I wish
you would treat him gently. It is an adventure that might take him across continents. All
adventures that probably include wars, tragedy and sorrow. To live this life will require faith,
love and courage.

So dear Teacher, will you please take him by his hand and teach him things he will have to
know, teaching him – but gently, if you can, Teach him that for every enemy, there is a
friend. He will have to know that all men are not just, that all men are not true. But teach him
also that for every scoundrel there is a hero that for every crooked politician, there is a
dedicated leader.

Teach him if you can that 10 cents earned is of far more value than a dollar found. In school,
teacher, it is far more honorable to fail than to cheat. Teach him to learn how to gracefully
lose, and enjoy winning when he does win.

Teach him to be gentle with people, tough with tough people. Steer him away from envy if
you can and teach him the secret of quiet laughter. Teach him if you can – how to laugh when
he is sad, teach him there is no shame in tears. Teach him there can be glory in failure and
despair in success. Teach him to scoff at cynics.

Teach him if you can the wonders of books, but also give time to ponder the extreme mystery
of birds in the sky, bees in the sun and flowers on a green hill. Teach him to have faith in his
own ideas, even if everyone tells him they are wrong.

Try to give my son the strength not to follow the crowd when everyone else is doing it. Teach
him to listen to everyone, but teach him also to filter all that he hears on a screen of truth and
take only the good that comes through.

Teach him to sell his talents and brains to the highest bidder but never to put a price tag on
his heart and soul. Let him have the courage to be impatient, let him have the patient to be

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brave. Teach him to have sublime faith in himself, because then he will always have sublime
faith in mankind, in God.

This is the order, teacher but see what best you can do. He is such a nice little boy and he is
my son.

Glossary:
Scoundrel : a dishonest or unscrupulous person; a rogue.
Crooked : dishonest; illegal.
Gracefully : in a respectful and dignified way.
Scoff : speak to someone or about something in a scornfully derisive or
mocking way.
Cynics : a person who believes that people are motivated purely by self-interest
rather than acting for honourable or unselfish reasons.
Ponder : think about (something) carefully.
Bidder : a person or organization making a formal offer for something,
especially at an auction.
Sublime : of very great excellence or beauty.

Questions:
1. What is the ultimate teaching Lincoln recommends and to what end?
2. Why is it essential for someone to have “sublime faith in mankind”?
3. What does the line, “This is a big order” mean?
4. What are the major skills that Lincoln wanted his son to possess?

SUMMARY
From time to time we get people who glorify the human civilization through their knowledge,
intellect, dedication and leadership. Abraham Lincoln was such a great person. He was the
16th president of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April
1865. Abraham Lincoln successfully led his country through a great constitutional, military
and moral crisis – the American Civil war – preserving the Union, while ending slavery, and
promoting economic and financial modernization. Reared in a poor family on the western
frontier, Lincoln was mostly self-educated.

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Letters were means of communication in olden days. Some letters written by great people are
capable of standing as guideposts to guide us forward in current generation also and to say
more intensely than before. Abraham Lincoln has also written many such letters being the
president of USA but a letter which he wrote to his son’s teacher on his first day of schooling
in order to just send a gentle reminder of what he wants the teacher to teach his son so that he
can be a good person in the future. This letter is full of his optimism and values he believed
in; this letter reflects his greatness and ideals he always held close to his heart. In this letter
he urges his son’s headmaster to instill in him these values to make him a great human being.

Lincoln asks him to teach his son faith in humanity. He should teach him not to be
discouraged by scoundrels, selfish politicians, and enemies as there are heroes, dedicated
leaders, and friends too. He asks him to teach him the value of labour and hard-work; the
necessity of going through failures in order to appreciate success or victory. He asks him to
teach him to stay away from envy and to enjoy quiet laughter. He requests him to teach him
that bullies accept defeat quickly. He also urges the headmaster to teach his son the wonders
of reading books and deep quiet reflection on the beautiful mysteries of nature.

Lincoln continues by saying that the headmaster should teach him the value of honesty and
integrity, his unique individuality, and self-belief and conviction in a trying situation. He
appeals to the headmaster to teach his son the art of being gentle and polite with good people;
and tough with the tough ones. He also requests the headmaster to teach his son to be strong
enough and have the courage to be different, truthful, and always focus on the good. He
insists on him to teach him the secrets of keeping away sadness with laughter; lightening his
heart’s burden with sincere tears; not to mind too much the cynics’ ideas; and beware of
people who are excessively sweet.

Lincoln also appeals to the headmaster to always endorse and support to the best people in
physical strength and intelligence; he must never ever compromise on issues related to heart
and spirituality. He wants the headmaster to teach him how to become deaf to the howling of
irrational mob and always believe in himself and fight for what he thinks is right.

At the end of the letter he advises the headmaster neither to be too gentle with him nor treat
him harshly. He requests him to teach him to develop courage to be patient, and have

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patience to be brave. He winds up the letter by asking him have sublime faith in himself
because only then he can have faith in himself.

Questions and Answers

1. What is the ultimate teaching that Lincoln recommends and to what end?

A). Lincoln believes, instilling moral values in his son’s mind is the ultimate teaching his son
can get. So that when he grows up he will be son of whom he can be proud of and be a good
citizen. The father wants his son to think and act and not do something that everyone is doing
without using his own thinking. He wants his son to be independent and take his own
decisions because acting on the basis of our thinking leads to having confidence on our
actions. This further leads to developing faith in oneself and less dependence on others.
Lincoln wants his son to earn his living by hard work using his brawn or his brain.

He does not want his son to sell his moral values for money and do something wrong. It is
important for the child to know that just as there are bad people on the earth, good people too
exist and good balances the bad. The child should not be disheartened that only bad exist in
this world and get swayed away. He should remember that one cannot win every time in life.
Sometimes we have to accept defeat and lose gracefully. Learning to lose is as important as
learning to win. We have to learn from our losses and correct our mistakes so that we can win
the next time. Cheating and passing an exam is easy but it does not teach anything in life. It is
far more honorable in life to fail and learn once again and pass. By this we don’t lose our self
respect and we become independent and self reliant.

2. Why is it essential for someone to have “sublime faith in mankind”?

A) All are not cheaters but there are people who are good and helpful. One can be the good
person to lead the mankind rather than following the mob. We live in a society where we
interact and depend on each other. For us to depend on others we need to have trust and faith
in them. Its only when we have faith in ourselves we can have faith in others. But that does
not mean that one should submit before the bullies or become envious about others success.
He says the child should learn to be tough when situation demands and hence stand for his
respect. He also cautions to ‘beware of people who are excessively sweet’ because they talk
sweetly only to please but do not mean what they say. Such sweet talk cannot be believed and
one should be careful while dealing with such people. He also requests the headmaster to

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teach his son to be strong enough and have the courage to be different, truthful, and always
focus on the good. And hence his conviction, courage and truthfulness are the weapons to
face the negativities and have “sublime faith in mankind”

3. What does the line, “This is a big order” mean?

A) This refers to the task of instilling confidence in the mind of the boy to have sublime
confidence in himself and in mankind. And big order here means it’s a difficult task. It means
that the task of teaching such values is too difficult for any teacher or school. Lincoln
continues by saying that the headmaster should teach him the value of honesty and integrity,
his unique individuality, and self-belief and conviction in a trying situation. He appeals to the
teacher to teach his son the art of being gentle and polite with good people; and tough with
the tough ones. He also requests the teacher to teach his son to be strong enough and have the
courage to be different, truthful, and always focus on the good. He insists on him to teach him
the secrets of keeping away sadness with laughter; lightening his heart’s burden with sincere
tears; not to mind too much the cynics’ ideas; and beware of people who are excessively
sweet.

4. What are the major skills that Lincoln wanted his son to possess?

A) In this letter he urges his son’s headmaster to instill in him these values to make him a
great human being. Lincoln asks him to teach his son faith in humanity. The world is full of
good and bad people and he should learn to recognize the best in good people. Hard work and
failure is the key to success. He asks him to teach him to stay away from envy and to enjoy
quiet laughter. He requests him to teach him that bullies accept defeat quickly. He also urges
the headmaster to teach his son the wonders of reading books and deep quiet reflection on the
beautiful mysteries of nature. He tells him that
hard earned money will allow him to focus on how he earns the money & not
on how much he earns. So he should focus on earning money by hard work. And every time
he fails he should never cheat instead he should enjoy and learn from it. Then only he will be
able to win with dignity. And he should be careful that his success should never overpower
him with pride instead he should just enjoy his success. Honesty, integrity, self-belief and
conviction help the individual to be unique. These inner values keep him strong in tough
situations and mold him to be a gentle person to the gentle ones and know where to be tough.

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Thus he becomes strong enough and has the courage to be different, truthful, and always
focus on the good. He also insists to smile during critical times and listen to others to take the
best decision. He cautions him of the excessively sweet people. He wants the headmaster to
teach him how to become deaf to the howling of irrational mob and always believe in himself
and fight for what he thinks is right. He requests him to teach him to develop courage to be
patient, and have patience to be brave. He ends by saying that he should have sublime faith in
himself.

GRAMMAR: TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Transitive:

A transitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a do-able
activity like kick, want, paint, write, eat, clean, etc. Second, it must have a direct object,
something or someone who receives the action of the verb.
Here are some examples of transitive verbs:
 Raman kicked Victor .
Kicked = transitive verb; Victor = direct object.
 Charan painted the canvas in a new fashion.
Painted = transitive verb; canvas = direct object.
 Aman wrote a love poem on a restaurant napkin.
Wrote = transitive verb; poem = direct object.

Intransitive:
An intransitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb like arrive, go, lie,
sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving
the action.

Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:

 We arrived at the classroom late.
Arrived = intransitive verb.
 To escape the midday sun, the dogs lie in the shade under our cars.
Lie = intransitive verb.

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 Around fresh ground pepper, my son sneezes horribly

Sneezes = intransitive verb.
 In the evenings, Geeta sits on the front porch to admire her perfect lawn.
Sits = intransitive verb.
ERGATIVE VERBS
Verbs which can be both transitive and intransitive are called Ergative verbs.
Compare these examples:

 My father runs a business

runs = intransitive verb.
 My father runs very fast.
runs = transitive verb

Exercises:

State whether the verbs in the following sentences are used transitively or intransitively.

1. Heat expands metals.

2. Metals expand on heating.
3. The driver stopped the car.
4. The car stopped abruptly.
5. You must speak the truth.
6. You must speak loudly.
7. The boy is flying the kite.
8. The birds are flying in the sky.
9. The rider fell off the horse and broke his arm.
10. The woodcutter felled a huge tree.

ACTIVE VOICE & PASSIVE VOICE

An action of a subject, in relation to an object, is expressed in two ways. These two ways of
expressing action of a subject are known as Voices. Voices is that form of the verb which
shows whether what is denoted by the subject has done something or has something done to
it. They are of two types: Active Voice and Passive Voice.

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The following are the basic rules of voices.

1) As mentioned earlier the structure of the sentence will be reversed in passive voice. The
place of the Subject and the Object will interchange. The Subject will take the place of Object
and the object will take the place of subject in passive voice.
Example: Active Voice - He buys a Camera
Passive Voice - A Camera is bought by him.

2) The word ‘by’ will be used before subject in the passive voice
Example: Active Voice - She drinks water.
Passive Voice - Water is drunk by her.

3) Other words such as ‘with’ or ‘to’ may also be used instead of word ‘by’ depending upon
the Subject of the sentence. These words are used in a very few cases.
Example: Active Voice- I know him.
Passive Voice- He is known to me.
Active Voice- Water is filled in the tub.
Passive Voice- The tub is filled with water.

4) The Auxiliary verb will be changed in Passive Voice depending upon the tense of
sentence in its Active Voice. Only past participle form or the 3rd form of the verb will be used
as main verb in passive voices for all tenses. No other form of verb should be used as main
verb. A sample of the verb take is given in the following table for better understanding.

Tense Active Passive = Be

+ Past Participle

Simple Present Take Am taken

takes is taken
are taken
Present Continuous Am taking Am being taken
is taking is being taken
are taking are being taken

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Present Perfect Has taken Has been taken

have taken have been taken

Simple Past took Was taken

Were taken

Past Continuous Was taking Was being taken

Were taking Were being taken

Past Perfect had taken had been taken

Future Will take Will be taken
Shall take Shall be taken
Future perfect will have taken will have been taken
Modal verbs can/ may/ must/ might Can be/ may be/ must be /
/should take might be /should be taken

5) Subject may not be always mentioned in Passive voice. A passive voice sentence can be
written without having subject, if it gives clear idea about the subject. When the object is
absent in the passive voice then when converting to active voice words like somebody or
nobody or everybody, some are used as per the context.
Example: Passive Voice - Women are not treated as equals (by some).
Active Voice - Some do not treat women as equals.

If the statements are commands then the conversion to passive is as follows.

Example: Active Voice- Post the letter.

Passive Voice- Let the letter be posted.

6) When the verb takes both a direct and indirect object in the active voice and when it is
changed to the passive voice, either of the objects may become the subject of the passive
voice.
Example: Active Voice- The manager will give you a ticket.
Passive Voice- You will be given a ticket by the manager.
Passive Voice- A ticket will be given to you by the manager.

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Exercises:

I. Convert the following sentences into Passive voice.

1. All his friends laughed at him.

2. They made him king.
3. One should keep one’s promises.
4. Open the door.
5. He handed her a book.
6. The spectators thronged the streets.
7. When will you return the book?
8. He will finish the work in the fortnight.
9. The mason is building the wall.
10. The young man made a difference in the meeting.

II. Convert the following sentences into Active voice.

1. He was praised by his father.
2. By whom was Sanskrit taught to you?
3. Admittance was refused to him by the guide.
4. The wounded man was being helped by some boys.
5. The light has been put out.
6. Let the window be opened.
7. Bicycle has been sold by me.
8. It will be forgotten soon by people.
9. Good news is expected by them.
10. A letter will be written by my father.

VOCABULARY: SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

Synonyms: a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase
in the same language, for example shut is a synonym of close.
Antonyms: a word opposite in meaning to another (e.g. bad and good).

Word Synonyms Antonyms

1. Ambitious Aspiring Unmotivated

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2. Accelerate Quicken Decelerate

3. Brave Valiant Timid
4. Credible Trustworthy Untrustworthy
5. Enhance Boost Discourage
6. Hampered Obstruct Permit
7. Approachable Amicable Unapproachable
8. Articulate Communicative Unclear
9. Charismatic Captivating Boring
10. Diligent Hard-working Inactive
11. Pliable Adaptable Inflexible
12. Eloquent Vivid Dispassionate
13. Meticulous Accurate Imprecise
14. Brief Concise Lengthy
15. Responsible Accountable Irresponsible

A. Fill in the blanks with antonyms of the underlined words.

1. No one wants to listen to an ignorant man but everybody listens to ________ man.
2. My application was accepted but his was ________________
3. The teacher tried to make the student confident but he still looked very __________
4. He often visits me but I ________________ go to his house.
5. Tigers are very common in Kerala but lions are ________________

B. Write the synonym of the underlined words.

1. The committee decided to expel the new member.
2. The teacher berated his students.
3. When the leadership changed, his position in the organization became precarious.
4. Her silence was taken as tacit agreement.
5. The swindler tried to evade the law.

WRITING SKILLS: E-MAIL WRITING

E- Mail writing is:

 used for both personal and official purposes.

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 inexpensive yet highly effective business communication tool

 an efficient way to communicate information
 well-presented, easy to read and professionally appropriate manner
 used as soft copies because it is easy to archive and retrieve emails.

Format
Background: The default white background should be used for all emails.
Font: Preferred fonts are Times New Roman or Arial, font size-12
Font color: Font should be navy blue or black only.
Contact details: Official contact information like name, designation, email id,
contact number, company logo, and address of correspondence should be
mentioned in the signature area. Personal statements are best avoided.
First name and surname: They should be mentioned in the same font as used in the
body of the email, only two font sizes larger. Cursive fonts are not recommended.
First name Signature: The following information should be supplied in the same font
and size as the body of the email.
 Designation
 Department
 Company Name & Address
 Landmark and ZIP Code.
 Contact Number
 Email address
 Company telephone number
 Company fax number
 Company URL

Formal or informal?

We write a formal email when we want to be polite or when we do not know the reader very
well. A lot of work emails are formal. We write informal emails when we want to be friendly
or when we know the reader well. A lot of social emails are informal. Here are some
examples of formal and informal messages:

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FORMAL INFORMAL

An email to a customer
A birthday greeting to a colleague
A job application
An email to a colleague who is also a good friend
An email to your manager
A social invitation to a friend at your workplace
A complaint to a shop
An email with a link to a funny YouTube clip
An email from one company to another
A message to a friend on a social networking site
company

Before you start writing an email, decide if you want to write a formal email or an informal
one.

FORMAL INFORMAL

Dear Mr Piper, Hi Tim,

I am writing to thank you for all your help. Many thanks for your help.
I look forward to seeing you next week. See you next week.
With best wishes, Cheers,
John Smith John

Email dos and don'ts

1. Always check you've got the right name in the 'To' box. And make sure your email only
goes to the people who need to read it. Remember that if you reply to all, then everyone
will get your email. Does the whole sales team really need to read your email to one
person about something unimportant?

2. Always attach the file you want to send before you start writing. That way, you can't
forget to attach it.

3. If you write 'CAN YOU LET ME KNOW THIS WEEK?' you are basically shouting at
your reader. They will think you are very rude. So just don't do it.

4. Short emails sometimes sound rude. People won't read very long emails. Keep emails
short, but remember to be polite and friendly too.

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5. This is important, especially if it's a work email. If you make mistakes in your email,
people will think you make mistakes in your work also. So always check everything
carefully. Ask a colleague to read and check it before you hit 'Send'.

Organizing your writing

Writer’s purpose
When you write an email, you need to make clear why you are writing. You can do this by
using the phrase 'I am writing to (+ verb)' at the start of your email.
Here are some examples:

ask for further details about ...

inform you that my new address is …
I am writing to complain about your customer service.
say thank you very much for all your hard work.
apply for the job as Teacher of Maths at your school.

Paragraphs
 Emails are easier to read if the writer uses paragraphs.
 A paragraph in an email is often two or three sentences long.
 Each paragraph starts on a new line.
 When you start writing about a new topic, you can start a new paragraph.

Look at this example email to a friend.

Paragraph 1 Hello Demitri,
Greeting How is life? I haven't seen you for a long time. How are your children?

Paragraph 2 I'm writing with some good news – my wife is having a baby next month.
Reason for We think it's going to be a girl, and we're very excited. But I also wanted
writing to ask you something!

You told me you have lots of baby clothes. Do you think I could borrow
Paragraph 3
some for my baby? I've looked in the shops, and new baby clothes are so
Request
expensive … Could you let me know if this is OK?

Paragraph 4 By the way, I've also started a new job. It's going really well!

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Other news

Anyway, I look forward to hearing from you soon. Give my best wishes to
Paragraph 5
your wife and family.
'look forward to'
Regards,
and ending
George

Here are some sample EMAILS

QUESTION 1: Arranging a business meeting

To: smithamalhotra@[Link]

Subject: Reply on Interior Decor | Finalizing date and time for meeting

Dear Sir

I received your email with instructions to contact an Interior Decor firm.

Accordingly, I contacted Hasta La' Vista, one of the most reputed organizations in
delivering Behavioral Training, Mode Assessment, Psychometric Analysis, among
others.

They have replied to my email and are pleased at the prospect of us working
together. They have requested me to schedule a meeting for their representatives so
that they could visit us and explain the rest of the details in person. I have sent you
their Terms & Conditions as a PDF attachment named Terms to this email. Kindly
go through it and reply.

Looking forward to hearing from you soon. Thank you. Have a nice day.

Best Regards,
Charisma

QUESTION 2
Write an email to your neighbour thanking him for their hospitality and kindness.

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To: rajshekar@[Link]
Subject: Thank you for ……………….

Dear Sir,

I would like to thank you for all the help you so kindly showed me and my family
last week when we moved into the apartment next door. We really appreciate the
kind hospitality and were very pleased to know we have such lovely neighbours!

I hope that you received the flowers we delivered to your door and have put them in
display. Thank you again for being so kind as you have helped ease the process of
our move.

We look forward to getting to know you and your family! Please do not hesitate to
contact us or visit us if you need anything.

Sincerely,
xxxxxxxxxx

EXERCISE 1
As a member of your residential society, write an email to inspector of local Police
station, [Link], informing him about miscreants who ride their bikes rashly
every evening outside your society. Sign the email as William.
Keywords: residential area - ride - rashly - children - play - elderly - walk - grocery
shop - across the road - dangerous - accidents - nuisance - action - immediately.

EXERCISE 2
As a former student, write an email to your professor, [Link], thanking her for
teaching and guidance that contributed to your overall development. Sign the email
as Peter.
Keywords: Successful - Placed - grateful - help - advice - grooming - values -
shaping my future - sincere - professional

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EXERCISE 3
As an intern at ABC consulting [Link], write an email to your internship Project
Manager, [Link], informing about the progress that you are making and some
difficulties that your are encountering. Sign the email as Ben.

Keywords: Thank - challenging - progress - tight schedule - support - report -

analytics - guidance - access - doubt - requirements - design.

READING COMPREHENSION: Type 2

In this section, you read a text with some sentences missing.

You are going to read an article about customer service in banks. Six sentences have been
removed from the article. Choose from the sentences A-G the one which fits each gap. There
is one extra sentence which you do not need to use.

A Although people do not expect much from the internet these days, this will change in the
future.
B The managers recognise that customers find them impersonal and unnatural.
C First National is also preparing to adopt this personal approach to its internet banking.
D They have the attitude that some skills, such as keyboard skills and so on, can be taught,
but a member of staff can’t be taught to be a nice person.
E Telephones are very personal because staff are speaking to people on their own territory.
F And if customers try to contact the bank by telephone, they are put through to a call centre
in another country where they have to speak slowly in order to be understood.
G Not everyone wants a chatty, friendly service.

Customer Service in Banks

The banking profession doesn’t have a very good reputation for customer service at the
moment, and it’s not just due to loss of savings. High street branches are shutting down and
where banks are available, their opening hours are inconvenient. Staff at the desks are surly,
increasingly under-qualified and often unable to answer questions.(1) ---------. Astonishingly,
however, 86% of the customers at one bank are either ‘extremely satisfied’ or ‘very satisfied’

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with the service they receive. And what is even more surprising is that the bank in question
has no High Street outlets at all.

First National bank is run entirely through the telephone and the internet. And its success
shows that customer service is just about face-to-face contact with clients. The primary
concern of the bank is recruiting the right people.(2) ---------. So they only recruit people
who already exhibit good communication skills.

And unlike other services that operate primarily over the telephone, the staff at First National
do not use scripts.(3) --------. What this bank asks for is that staff be themselves and establish
a rapport with their customers. Part of this is recognizing people’s needs.(4) ------. Some want
the process to be swift and efficient. The member of staff has to pick up on the caller’s mood
and react accordingly.

(5)--------. The idea that customer service can be improved on a medium where there is no
actual contact with a member of staff may seem strange at first. However, the website
designers at First National spend a great deal of time understanding their customers and
offering services which meet their needs. (6)---------. First National is already taking steps to
fill this demand. They already offer a service in which customers receive a text when funds
are received or when their account falls below a certain level. In the future, online systems
may pre-empt customers’ needs in even more sophisticated ways.

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UNIT III
WAR
-LUIGI PIRANDELLO

The passengers who had left Rome by the night express had had to stop until dawn at the
small station of Fabriano in order to continue their journey by the small old-fashioned local
joining the main line with Sulmona.

At dawn, in a stuffy and smoky second-class carriage in which five people had already spent
the night, a bulky woman in deep mourning was hosted in—almost like a shapeless bundle.
Behind her—puffing and moaning, followed her husband—a tiny man; thin and weakly, his
face death-white, his eyes small and bright and looking shy and uneasy.

Having at last taken a seat he politely thanked the passengers who had helped his wife and
who had made room for her; then he turned round to the woman trying to pull down the collar
of her coat and politely inquired:

"Are you all right, dear?"

The wife, instead of answering, pulled up her collar again to her eyes, so as to hide her face.

"Nasty world," muttered the husband with a sad smile.

And he felt it his duty to explain to his traveling companions that the poor woman was to be
pitied for the war was taking away from her her only son, a boy of twenty to whom both had
devoted their entire life, even breaking up their home at Sulmona to follow him to Rome,
where he had to go as a student, then allowing him to volunteer for war with an assurance,
however, that at least six months he would not be sent to the front and now, all of a sudden,
receiving a wire saying that he was due to leave in three days' time and asking them to go and
see him off.

The woman under the big coat was twisting and wriggling, at times growling like a wild
animal, feeling certain that all those explanations would not have aroused even a shadow of

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sympathy from those people who—most likely—were in the same plight as herself. One of
them, who had been listening with particular attention, said:
"You should thank God that your son is only leaving now for the front. Mine has been sent
there the first day of the war. He has already come back twice wounded and been sent back
again to the front."

"What about me? I have two sons and three nephews at the front," said another passenger.

"Maybe, but in our case it is our only son," ventured the husband.

"What difference can it make? You may spoil your only son by excessive attentions, but you
cannot love him more than you would all your other children if you had any. Parental love is
not like bread that can be broken to pieces and split amongst the children in equal shares. A
father gives all his love to each one of his children without discrimination, whether it be one
or ten, and if I am suffering now for my two sons, I am not suffering half for each of them but
double..."

"True...true..." sighed the embarrassed husband, "but suppose (of course we all hope it will
never be your case) a father has two sons at the front and he loses one of them, there is still
one left to console him...while..."
"Yes," answered the other, getting cross, "a son left to console him but also a son left for
whom he must survive, while in the case of the father of an only son if the son dies the father
can die too and put an end to his distress. Which of the two positions is worse? Don't you see
how my case would be worse than yours?"

"Nonsense," interrupted another traveler, a fat, red-faced man with bloodshot eyes of the
palest gray.

He was panting. From his bulging eyes seemed to spurt inner violence of an uncontrolled
vitality which his weakened body could hardly contain.

"Nonsense, "he repeated, trying to cover his mouth with his hand so as to hide the two
missing front teeth."[Link] we give life to our own children for our own benefit?"

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The other travelers stared at him in distress. The one who had had his son at the front since
the first day of the war sighed: "You are right. Our children do not belong to us, they belong
to the country..."

"Bosh," retorted the fat traveler. "Do we think of the country when we give life to our
children? Our sons are born because...well, because they must be born and when they come
to life they take our own life with them. This is the truth. We belong to them but they never
belong to us. And when they reach twenty they are exactly what we were at their age. We too
had a father and mother, but there were so many other things as well...girls, cigarettes,
illusions, new ties...and the Country, of course, whose call we would have answered—when
we were twenty—even if father and mother had said no. Now, at our age, the love of our
Country is still great, of course, but stronger than it is the love of our children. Is there any
one of us here who wouldn't gladly take his son's place at the front if he could?"

There was a silence all round, everybody nodding as to approve.

"Why then," continued the fat man, "should we consider the feelings of our children when
they are twenty? Isn't it natural that at their age they should consider the love for their
Country (I am speaking of decent boys, of course) even greater than the love for us? Isn't it
natural that it should be so, as after all they must look upon us as upon old boys who cannot
move anymore and must sit at home? If Country is a natural necessity like bread of which
each of us must eat in order not to die of hunger, somebody must go to defend it. And our
sons go, when they are twenty, and they don't want tears, because if they die, they die
inflamed and happy (I am speaking, of course, of decent boys). Now, if one dies young and
happy, without having the ugly sides of life, the boredom of it, the pettiness, the bitterness of
disillusion...what more can we ask for him? Everyone should stop crying; everyone should
laugh, as I do...or at least thank God—as I do—because my son, before dying, sent me a
message saying that he was dying satisfied at having ended his life in the best way he could
have wished. That is why, as you see, I do not even wear mourning..."

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He shook his light fawn coat as to show it; his livid lip over his missing teeth was trembling,
his eyes were watery and motionless, and soon after he ended with a shrill laugh which might
well have been a sob.

"Quite so...quite so..." agreed the others.

The woman who, bundled in a corner under her coat, had been sitting and listening had—for
the last three months—tried to find in the words of her husband and her friends something to
console her in her deep sorrow, something that might show her how a mother should resign
herself to send her son not even to death but to a probable danger of life. Yet not a word had
she found amongst the many that had been said...and her grief had been greater in seeing that
nobody—as she thought—could share her feelings.

But now the words of the traveler amazed and almost stunned her. She suddenly realized that
it wasn't the others who were wrong and could not understand her but herself who could not
rise up to the same height of those fathers and mothers willing to resign themselves, without
crying, not only to the departure of their sons but even to their death.

She lifted her head, she bent over from her corner trying to listen with great attention to the
details which the fat man was giving to his companions about the way his son had fallen as a
hero, for his King and his Country, happy and without regrets. It seemed to her that she had
stumbled into a world she had never dreamt of, a world so far unknown to her, and she was
so pleased to hear everyone joining in congratulating that brave father who could so stoically
speak of his child's death.

Then suddenly, just as if she had heard nothing of what had been said and almost as if waking
up from a dream, she turned to the old man, asking him:

"Then...is your son really dead?"

Everyone stared at her. The old man, too, turned to look at her, fixing his great, bulging,
horribly watery light gray eyes, deep in her face. For some time he tried to answer, but words
failed him. He looked and looked at her, almost as if only then—at that silly, incongruous

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question—he had suddenly realized at last that his son was really dead—gone for ever—for
ever. His face contracted, became horribly distorted, then he snatched in haste a handkerchief
from his pocket and, to the amazement of everyone, broke into harrowing, heart-breaking,
uncontrollable sobs.

Glossary:
Dawn : sunrise; daybreak
Puffing : a short forceful exhalation of breath.
Mutter : a complaint uttered in a low tone
Bulging : swelling
Mourn : feeling sadness
Bosh : rubbish
Stoically : showing no feelings about pain

Summary

"War" by Luigi Pirandello is a short story about a couple whose son has been sent to war.
They board a train to leave Rome, the departure spot for their sons and young men going off
to war. The wife felt she was the only mother who grieved about her son leaving. All the
passengers on this train have one or more loved ones on the front in the war. A passenger
says he has two sons and three nephews at the front, prompting the husband to stress that
they’re risking their only son. This sets off a passionate discussion about who is sacrificing
the most.

While the passengers have differing opinions over whose grief is greater, they all have strong
patriotic feelings. No one even suggests that their sons shouldn’t have to fight in the war. It’s
alright to feel sorrow, but it would be unthinkable to remove the cause.

Another passenger, an old man, breaks in with a speech. He asserts that their children don’t
belong to them. They have interests of their own, including a love for their country, and they
gladly fight for it. They don’t want tears because if they die, they die happy. And dying
young and happy is all anyone could want as it spares them of the boredom and
disillusionment of life. Why, he doesn’t even mourn the death of his own son.

The old man explains their sorrow by saying that a parent’s love for their children is simply
greater than their love for country, as evidenced by any parent’s willingness to take their
son’s place at the front. On the other hand, a young person loves their country more than they
love their parents.

He asserts that young people naturally put love of country above all else, and are happy to die
in battle. He twice points out that he’s speaking of decent boys. Likely, they’ve all heard of

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young men who tried to shirk their duty, and are disgusted by the thought – too indecent to
tender as an alternative.

The other passengers agree with him. The wife, inconsolable until now, finds strength in his
words. She listens closely as the old man gives the details of how his son died heroically for
King and Country, without regrets. All the other passengers congratulate the man for his
stoicism and bravery

The wife, as if waking from a dream, says to the man, “Then… is your son really dead?”

The old man looks at her, tries to answer, but can’t. He seems to realize for the first time that
his son is gone forever. He weeps uncontrollably.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How does the fat man react to woman’s question about the death of his son?
Once the fat man’s talk was over, the woman who has been mourning all the while suddenly
rose up and asked whether his son was really dead. The accidental question seemed to be
harmless but completely changed the emotions of the fat man. It seemed that he tried to cover
his deepest wounds but the woman’s question tore him apart. He tried to pretend that he did
not feel bad about his son’s death, so much that he pretended that his son was still alive and
would come home with him after war. The old man turned to look at her, fixing his great,
bulging, horribly watery light gray eyes, deep in her face. For some little time he tried to
answer, but words failed him. He gazed at her for a while and suddenly realized at last that
his son was really dead – gone forever – forever. His face contracted, became horribly
distorted, then he snatched in haste a handkerchief from his pocket and, to the amazement of
everyone, broke into harrowing, heart-rending, uncontrollable sobs.

2. Did fat man’s conversation have any impact on others?

The train is full of mourning, sorrow and tears of darkness. Everyone is upset at the thought
of losing their sons at war. They are angry and in denial. Each person has their own cold
point of view and biased opinion about how worse their situation is when compared with one
another. However, that is not so. The atmosphere of the train lightens up when the fat man
vents about losing his son at war and feels honored that his son stood up for their country. He
looks at the entire situation from a more positive and happy perspective and tries to
encourage the other travelers that they, as parents, should be proud of their young men for
their honorable actions. Therefore, there is no need to mourn anymore, instead they should be

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rejoicing. Having heard all of it the woman asked a question with an utter surprise whether
his son had really died. It shows how deeply his speech impacted others.

3. Bring out the patriotism of the parents from the lesson “war”?

While the passengers have differing opinions over whose grief is greater, they all have strong
patriotic feelings. No one even suggests that their sons shouldn’t have to fight in the war. It’s
alright to feel sorrow, but it would be unthinkable to remove the cause. The old man explains
their sorrow by saying that a parent’s love for their children is simply greater than their love
for country because parents are willing to take their sons’ place at the front. On the other
hand, a young person loves his country more than he loves his parents. He asserts that young
people naturally place their love for the country above all else, and are happy to die in battle.
He points out twice that he’s speaking of decent boys. The old man also speaks of his son as a
hero who died for the country. Everyone listens raptly and congratulates him.

4. According to you, What is important - love for family or love for country?

According to me both are important because somebody who doesn’t love the family can’t
love the big family called ‘country’. We have what we have due to what our country and its
people have been contributing to us everyday ranging from material needs to psychological
needs. Above all, the major help is from our soldiers who work as an unseen force day in and
day out. Imagine we retrieve all the armed forces namely navy, army, and air force for a day -
that would be the last day for the country. We are leading secure lives and happy families due
to the armed forces who made themselves ready to lead insecure lives and unhappy families.
Hence, leading our lives without love of our country proves how ungrateful we are. Love for
the country has various forms; joining army would be, undoubtedly, the highest form of love
for the country. On the other hand, citizens of the country have various ways to exhibit their
love for country such as; caring for fellow-citizens, protecting the natural resources and doing
everything to be done for the growth and development of the nation.

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GRAMMAR: PREPOSITIONS

A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or
phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition. Most
prepositions have several definitions, so the meaning changes quite a bit in different contexts.

Here are a few types of prepositions with examples.

Prepositions of Time
1. At:
At is used to indicate when something happens. We use at with clock times, e.g. periods of
the year, and periods of the clay, festivals, etc. But we don't use at with 'morning', 'evening',
'afternoon', etc.
a. The train left at 8 o'clock.
b. She used to go to temple at Dussehra and Diwali.
c. She married at the age of twenty.

2. In:
In is used to indicate the period of time in which something happens. We use 'in' with
centuries, years, seasons, months, periods of the day 'morning‘, 'evening', 'afternoon'.
a. She was born In 1990.
b. They visited this place in summer.
c. The theft took place in the day-time.

3. On:
It is used with days, dates, birthdays, anniversaries, etc.
a. We went to see a movie on Tuesday.
b. He was born on October 3.1980.
c. We congratulated him on his birthday.
4. During:
During may be used instead of 'in' with periods of the day, months, seasons, years, decades
and centuries to express the idea that something continues throughout the whole of a
specified period.

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a. During the war many people were killed.

b. We work during the day and sleep during the night.
c. We try to contact people during October.

5. By:
By is used to indicate the latest time at which an action will be finished
a. He will finish this work by 5 o'clock.
b. You must come to me by 8 am.
c. Applications must be received by 10th May.

6. For:
For is used with periods of time to indicate how long an action lasts. It is generally used
with the Perfect Tense but is also used with other tenses.
a. They have lived here for five years.
b. It rained continuously for twelve hours.
c. They have been working for two hours.

7. Since:
Since is used with a point of time in the past from which some action began and it continues
till the time of speaking. It is generally used with the Perfect Tense.
a. He has lived here since 1980.
b. Everything has changed since the last summer.
c. It has not rained since the end of June.

8. From:
From indicates the starting point of an action in the past or future. It is always used with ’to’
or 'till‘.
a. They lived here from 1980 till/until 1990.
b. He lives in his office from 9 am. to 5 pm.
c. She is interested in the period from 1950 to 1960

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Prepositions of Place
1. At: At is used to show the exact point, e.g. houses, stations, small villages and towns.
a. They lived at Gohana, a small town in Haryana.
b. He was born at his village, Shilmar.

2. In: In is used when the reference is not to any specific place or to the names of large cities,
countries etc.
a. Many people in India live in villages.
b. They lived in Europe for ten years.

3. On: On is used to indicate a particular area of land or place where something is

a. There is a school on the outskirts of the city.
b. The hotel stands on the banks of a river.

Prepositions of Direction
1. Towards: Towards is used to indicate the direction of something
a. They went towards the airport.
b. He was speeding towards the town.

[Link]: For is used to show direction only when the verb indicates the beginning of a
movement
a. She left for Japan early in the morning.
b. They left for home late at night.

[Link]: Against means to have contact or pressure

a. The child threw the ball against the wall.
b. He put the ladder against the wall.

Commonly confused prepositions

AS/ LIKE
 As means ‘similar to’. (real).
As a manager, she has to make many important decisions. (real)
 Like means ‘in the same way as’. (unreal)

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What a beautiful house! It’s like a palace. (unreal)

IN TIME/ ON TIME:
 In time means ‘early enough’
Passengers should be in time for their train.
 on time means ‘punctually’
The 8.15 train started on time. (It started at 8.15)

SINCE/ FROM
 Since is used for ‘time’, never for place and means.
I have been working since 9.00 in the morning.
 From is used when time is referred to. From can be used of ‘place’ and ‘time’ with (to or
till/until):
Where do you come from? (place)
Most people work from nine to ten. (time)

BETWEEN/ AMONG:
 Between is used to ‘show the relation of two people or things’ and it can be used ‘of more
than two when there is a definite number in mind’.
You can sit between Ali and Ahmed.
Luxembourg lies between Belgium, Germany and France.
 In addition, ‘for periods identified by their beginning and ending points’, between is used:
Between 1918 and 1939 many people in the West lost their faith in democracy.
 Among, however, ‘relates a person/ thing to more than two others’
He was happy to be among friends again.

BESIDE/ BESIDES

 Beside means ‘at the side of’

We camped beside a lake.
 Besides means ‘in addition to’ or ‘as well as’
I do all the cooking and besides that I help Tom.

ABOVE/ OVER

 The prepositions (above and over) have the same meaning ‘higher than’
Can you see the helicopter above/over the palace.
 On the other hand, they are different in some senses. Above indicates the following :
(i) ‘measurement on a vertical scale’, (ii) ‘the height of land’( ibid) :
The temperature is three degree above zero. (measurement)
The summit of Everest is over 8000 meters above sea – level. (height of land)

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Exercises:

I. Pick the correct preposition.

1. The Minister of parliament lives in/on/at Maiden Street.

2. He’ll be ready to leave in/on/at about thirty minutes.
3. The child responded to his mother's demands with/by/from throwing a tantrum.
4. I will wait from/at/until 6:30, but then I'm going home.
5. The police caught the thief in/from/at the corner of Cascade and Plum Streets.
6. My fingers were injured so my sister had to write the note for/with/to me
7. I am not interested to/for/in buying a new car now.
8. What are the main ingredients about/to/of this casserole?
9. My best friend, John, is named after/to/about his great-grandfather.
10. Grandpa stayed up since/for/until two in the morning.

II. Correct the following prepositional errors.

a. Let us discuss about the effects of bad friendship on our career.
b. He went to home hastily.
c. My house is located besides the bank.
d. The two brothers divided the property among themselves.
e. Sweety has been waiting for her mother since two hours.
f. I am waiting for you at downstairs.
g. My friend is leaving to London for higher studies.
h. The teacher emphasized on the importance of discipline in life.
i. I have ordered for a cup of tea.
j. I have informed to the police about the accident.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Adjectives change in form when they show comparison.

Positive Degree : It is used to mention just quality existence without any comparison.
1. Hyderabad’s biryani is famous.

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2. My sister is young.

Comparative Degree: It is used to compare two nouns/pronouns. Mentioning of ‘than’ after

the adjective is must.
1. Hyderabad’s biryani is more famous than Ramoji film city.
2. My sister is younger than my friend.

Superlative Degree: It is used to compare more than two nouns/pronouns. We use article 'the'
before the superlative degrees.
1. Hyderabad’s biryani is the most famous biryani in the world.
2. My sister is the youngest of all my friends.

Here are some spelling rules in forming comparative and superlative adjectives.

Regular forms
Positive Comparative Superlative
Adjectives
1. Monosyllabic adjectives Small smaller (than) (the) smallest
take -(e)r /-(e)st to form
hot hotter (than) (the) hottest
their comparative &
superlative forms. safe safer (than) (the) safest

2. Some disyllabic adjectives Friendly friendlier (than) (the )friendliest

ending in -ly, -y, -w, take
busy busier (than) (the) busiest
-er/-est to form their
comparative & superlative shallow shallower (than) (the) shallowest
forms.
3 Disyllabic adjectives, serious more serious (than) (the) most serious
take more/most.
amazing more amazing (than) (the) most amazing

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Irregular forms
Positive Comparative Superlative

Good Better best

well better best

bad worse worst

little less, lesser least

many more most

much more most

old older oldest

old elder eldest

late later latest

late latter last

Transformation of Degrees of Comparison

Model – I

a. Kohli is Virat the strongest batsman in the world. (Superlative)

b. Virat Kohli is stronger than any other man in the world. (Comparative)
c. No other batsman in the world is as strong as Virat Kohli. (Positive)

a. Bahubali is the best movie of all Tollywood movies. (Superlative)

b. Bahubali is better than any other movie in Tollywood. (Comparative)
c. No other movie in Tollywood is as good as Bahubali. (Positive)

a. Jaleel khan is the most famous MLA in Andhra Pradesh. (Superlative)

b. Jaleel khan is more famous than any other MLA in Andhra Pradesh. (Comparative)
c. No other MLA is as famous as Jaleel Khan. (Positive)

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Model – II

a. Flipkart is one of the best online shopping websites in India. (Superlative)

b. Flipkart is better than most other online shopping websites in India. (Comparative)
c. Very few online shopping websites in India are as good as Flipkart. (Positive)

a. Internet is one of the greatest inventions of mankind. (Superlative)

b. Internet is greater than many other inventions of mankind. (Comparative)
c. Very few inventions of mankind are as great as Internet. (Positive)

a. Indian army is one of the biggest forces in the world. (Superlative)

b. Indian army is bigger than most other forces in the world. (Comparative)
c. Very few forces in the world are as big as Indian army. (Positive)

Model – III

III - A

1. Memory card is as small as sim card. (Positive)

Sim card is not smaller than Memory card. (Comparative)
2. My friend is as intelligent as Einstein. (Positive)
Einstein is not more intelligent than my friend. (Comparative)
III - B

1. Memory card is not as small as sim card. (Positive)

Sim card is smaller than Memory card. (Comparative)
2. My friend is not as intelligent as Einstein. (Positive)
Einstein is more intelligent than my friend. (Comparative)
EXERCISES:

I. Fill in the blanks.

a. Platinum is ________________ (costly) than diamond.

b. Sodium is _________________ (much) reactive than gold.
c. You are the ________________ (good) student I have ever seen.
d. Google is _________________ (good) than all search engines.
e. Hyderabad is the ___________ (busy) city in India.

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II. Write down the remaining forms of the following after finding the model type.

a. Vennela Kishore is better than any other comedian in the industry.

b. No other hero in Tollywood is as handsome as Sampurnesh Babu.
c. Very few apps in India are as useful as Paytm.
d. Our class is one of the best classes in H&S department.
e. My life is as good as your life.
f. Yahoo mail is not as famous as Gmail.

VOCABULARY: PHRASAL VERBS

Phrasal verb is a short phrase made up of a verb and one or two prepositions or adverbs. In
other words phrasal verb is nothing but a verb with particle. Each phrasal verb has its unique
meaning(s), which is different from the meaning of the verb itself. Here are a few of
important phrasal verbs.

Phrasal verbs with particle ‘out’

[Link] out = to dismiss an idea from consideration
They ruled out his suggestion.
2. wipe out= to destroy or remove something completely
You must wipe out all your data before you sell your mobile.
3. figure out= to find out
They are trying to figure out the reasons behind his suicide.
4. fade out= to become less noticeable until it disappears completely
Star’s name faded out when burning star came to industry.
5. hang out=to spend time aimlessly
I would like to hang out with my friends daily.

Phrasal verbs with particle ‘up’

1. give up = to leave something completely
Don’t give up good friends and habits.
2. show up= to make an appearance
Don’t show up late to the meeting.
3. make up= compensate for something lost, missed or deficient.
How do you compensate the damage you caused?

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4. Hold up= to get stuck up which causes delay

I was held up in traffic
[Link] up= to destroy something through an explosion
They are blowing up the apartment to construct a huge shopping mall.

Phrasal verbs with particle ‘down’

1. Talk down = to talk to someone as if they are less intelligent than you or not important
Never try to talk down on me.
2. Break down =to stop working
Suddenly my mobile broke down
3. Die down = something becomes less painful or noisy
Wait until the noise dies down.
4. Simmer down = to become calm or less agitated
I will talk about the college trip after my father simmers down.
5. Jot down = to write something down
jot down the points quickly for me.

Phrasal verbs with ‘put’

1. Put off = postponement
You had better put off your work until we receive official orders.
[Link] up with = tolerate
I am unable to put up with your procrastinating behavior
[Link] across = bringing to discussion
They put across their innovating plans to upscale the profits.
[Link] out = reducing something
I tried to put out their argument but failed terribly.
[Link] forward = making a point to discuss
I hesitated to put forward my plan

Phrasal verbs with ‘fall

1. Fall behind= to not meet the obligations
Construction work fell behind the schedule.
2. Fall for=believe a lie or be deceived

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Don’t fall for his friendly behavior.

3. Fall apart = breaking, come to an end
Their marriage fell apart for petty issues.
4. Fall back on = having strong alternative option
If I lose my job, I'll have nothing to fall back on.
5. Fall off = a reduction in something such as profits, sales
Sales have been falling off recently.

Phrasal verbs with ‘look’

1. Look after = take care of someone or something
It’s a criminal case not to look after one’s own parents.
2. Look down on = see something or someone as inferior
She thinks they look down on her because she doesn't have a job.
3. Look into = investigating
Don’t jump to conclusions before you look into the matter.
4. Look up to = respect, admire someone
He is not a role model that people should be looking up to.
5. Look forward = excited about something in the future
I am looking forward to work with my dream company

Exercises:

1. Write a short story using minimum 10 phrasal verbs mentioned above. (300 words)

2. Fill in the gaps.

a. I would like to _____________ the matter before I reach a decision.

b. Unless you ___________bad habits, you can’t lead a meaningful life.

c. There is nobody to ________________my grandmother at home.

d. Never __________________politicians’ promises.

e. Never __________________implementing good decisions.

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WRITING SKILLS: ESSAY WRITING

An essay is a short piece of non-fiction about a particular topic. Essays can take many
different forms. Narrative essays tell a story, Persuasive essays make an argument and
exploratory essays pursue an idea. No matter what kind of essay you’re writing, the principles
below will help you connect with your readers.

Tips for effective essay writing

1. Know your purpose:
It’s important to understand your goals. Whether you want to share information or an
experience or get readers to change their minds, your purpose will determine the choices you
make in your essay.

2. Understand your audience:

The more you know about who will be reading your essay, the better. Readers who are
experts on your topic will already have some background knowledge. Readers who are your
age will be familiar with the same films and songs you’re likely to mention. The less you
know about your audience, the more you’ll need to define your terms and provide context for
your examples.

3. Brainstorm:
Jot down everything you can think of related to the subject you’re going to write about. Some
people make lists, while others draw diagrams or maps. The point is to quickly note lots of
ideas in order to get started.

4. Decide on a thesis:
Your thesis is the claim you’re going to make about your topic. Consult the notes you made
when you brainstormed to figure out what you want to say. Turn that idea into a complete
sentence that makes a claim and includes your explanation or reason for that claim which is
claimed as thesis statement . Be prepared to change your thesis a bit as you work out your
reasons and ideas.

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5. Develop your essay:

Now that you have a thesis, you need evidence to support your claim. Start by listing your
reasons for believing what you do. Research what you need to; statistics and quotations will
help you make your point. Whether you like or disagree with, Try every idea, opinion and
argument, as everything to be questioned, tested and challenged.
.
6. Create an essay structure:
Organize your essay according to your purpose. If you’re writing a narrative, you’ll probably
arrange your material in chronological order. Consider using flashbacks to create tension. For
an argument, you might list your reasons in order of importance. Every essay has a
beginning, middle, and end, but not every essay requires a formal introduction or conclusion.

7. Connect your ideas:

Readers need a road map through your essay. Employ transitions to help them move from one
idea to the next. Transitions are often individual words such as ‘then’, ‘but’, or ‘therefore’.

8. Choose memorable language:

Use concrete, specific words. Although complex ideas need specialist language , avoid using
complicated language.

9. Invent a strong title:

Write a title that makes readers want to read it. You can get readers’ attention with an
intriguing question or clever phrase, but make sure your title clearly conveys your essay
topic. A simple subtitle will help you do this. Your title should also be searchable, since so
many publications now appear online.

10. Edit and proofread your essay:

Carefully check your work for errors. First, read your essay aloud. If anything sounds
awkward, revise until you like the way it sounds. Second, make sure
your grammar, punctuation, and spelling are all correct. When you think your essay is
perfect, have a friend check it again.

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SAMPLE ESSAY

Using a computer every day can have more negative than positive effects on children. Do
you agree or disagree?

In today's modern world, computers became essential part of daily life. Around the globe,
children often use computers from a very young age. Although it is important for children to
participate in various well-balanced activities, in my opinion, children who use the computer
daily are actually developing a critical skill for future success. The bases for my views are
personal, academic, and professional.

From a personal point of view, computers are an invaluable resource to help young people
explore the world around them. For example, children who use Internet to satisfy their
curiosity about diverse topics are already becoming independent learners. By starting early in
their lives, children feel totally at ease with computers; they are also able to take advantage of
the wide range of services computers provide.

From an academic viewpoint, children have no choice but to master this technological
invention. For instance, when I was in university, students brought their laptops to class to
take notes, do research and exchange information. They wrote assignments, created
presentations and developed databases. Children who build early confidence and experience
in these abilities are at a distinct advantage over those who have not.

From a professional perspective, the computer has found a permanent place in the workplace.
Today, employers still pay to provide computer training to their employees. Tomorrow,
corporations will expect prospective job applicants to already possess these critical job skills.
Consequently, parents who encourage their child to use the computer for a reasonable period
of time daily are in fact investing in the child's future career.

In conclusion, there is no doubt that the computer as a technological tool is here to stay. The
sooner children become computer-literate, the better for many aspects of their future lives.
Exercises
1. Facebook is not a safe book. ( write an opinion-based essay in not less than 300 words )
2. Brain drain. ( write an analytical essay in not less than 300 words )
3. Collect 30 connecting words that are to be used in effective essay writing

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READING COMPREHENSION: TYPE 3

Read the text and then answer questions 1-6.

The idea that a sales team can learn something from Girl Scouts will come as a surprise to
many. What has this out-dated organisation got to do with the fast-moving, corporate world
of today? But in the girl scouts’ annual cookie drive, two hundred million units are sold per
year, and their revenues exceed $700 million. And these figures are achieved only in a three-
month period in the spring.

True, the organization has changed greatly in latter years, ever since the appointment of CEO
Kathy Cloninger in 2003. Her mission was to revitalize a 95-year tradition-bound icon,
famous only for camping, crafts and cookies. She has worked on instilling leadership
qualities in the girls, developing new funding opportunities, creating an efficient
organisational structure and developing a reinvigorated brand which is relevant to the modern
world.

And nowhere are these changes more noticeable than in the annual cookie sale. No longer
relying on neighbourhood door-to-door sales to obtain a meagre revenue, the organisation
now utilises a wide range of savvy, modern methods which businesses worldwide can learn
from.

Firstly, the girl scouts organization focuses on providing the girls with life skills. By
investing in the girls, the organization creates a team with strong leadership and
communication skills. ‘Cookie College’ training courses develop the scouts’ business
acumen, providing them with presentation, marketing and money management skills; skills
which will be invaluable in their future lives. Through role-playing, case studies and tasks,
the girls become inspired and passionate about their role as a salesperson.

And the proof of the pudding – or should I say cookie – is in the eating. These well-trained
salesgirls can turn out exceptional results. Scout Markita Andrews sold over $80,000 dollars
worth of cookies in the twelve years she was a girl scout. Her success is for the most part due
to the incentive. By selling the greatest number of cookies, Markita won a trip around the
world. Rewards are not only given to the lucky winners, however. Scouts earn reward points
as they sell more cookies. 1,500 cookies gets the scout a Wii game system.

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But Girl scouts are not only training and motivating their workforce, but they are also
changing their tactics. Gone are the days when girls went door-to-door around the
neighbourhood selling to family and friends. They now go in for the bulk sales
strategy. They sell to large organizations and businesses, where cookies can be offered as
sales incentives or part of corporate gift baskets. This way, girls are able to shift a greater
number of cookies and maximize their sales time.

1. When do the Girl Scouts sell cookies?

a) all year round
b) for three months per year
c) every three years
d) every spring since 2003

2. What was the view of the girls scout organization before Kathy Cloninger became CEO?
a) not well-known
b) old-fashioned
c) efficient
d) surprising

3. Which of the following is not taught at ‘Cookie College’?

a) how to look after finances
b) how to promote your products
c) how to bake cookies
d) how to speak in front of other people

4. A girl scout can get a trip round the world if she...

a) gets a certain number of reward points
b) sells cookies for twelve years in a row
c) sells $80,000 worth of cookies
d) sells more cookies than anyone else

5. A new selling strategy used by girl scouts is...

a) Selling cookies outside local businesses

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b) Giving scouts free cookies as an incentive

c) Selling from door to door
d) Selling large amounts of cookies at once

6. Which of the following sales techniques is not mentioned in the passage?

a) motivating the sales team
b) finding new avenues for sales
c) offering discounts for bulk orders
d) training the sales team

UNIT-IV

JK ROWLING’S HARVARD SPEECH

About the author:

Joanne Kathleen Rowling (pronounced rolling) was born on July 31st, 1965 in
Chipping Sodbury, Gloucestershire, England. Rowling’s writing career started at the
age of six when she wrote a story called Rabbit. Since then Rowling has graduated
from Exeter, worked as a teacher. Rowling wrote Harry Potter and the Philosopher's
Stone at a table in a café during her daughter’s naps. When Harry Potter and the
Philosopher's Stone was bought and published by Bloomsbury in 1997 her life
changed dramatically, the Harry Potter series has since then won numerous awards
and become a tremendous success around the world.
[Link]’s graduation speech at Harvard delivered in 2008, quickly became the
most viewed commencement address on the university’s Web site.

The speech:
President Faust, members of the Harvard Corporation and the Board of Overseers,
members of the faculty, proud parents, and, above all, graduates. The first thing I
would like to say is ‘thank you.’ Not only has Harvard given me an extraordinary
honor, but the weeks of fear and nausea I have endured1 at the thought of giving this
commencement address have made me lose weight.

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Actually, I have wracked2 my mind and heart for what I ought to say to you today. I
have asked myself what I wish I had known at my own graduation, and what
important lessons I have learned in the 21 years that have expired between that day
and this.

I have come up with two answers. On this wonderful day when we are gathered
together to celebrate your academic success, I have decided to talk to you about the
benefits of failure. And as you stand on the threshold3 of what is sometimes called
‘real life’, I want to extol the crucial importance of imagination.

Looking back at the 21-year-old that I was at graduation, I was convinced that the
only thing I wanted to do, ever, was to write novels. However, my parents, both of
whom came from impoverished backgrounds and neither of whom had been to
college, took the view that my overactive imagination was an amusing personal quirk
that would never pay a mortgage4, or secure a pension. So they hoped that I would
take a vocational degree; I wanted to study English Literature.

I cannot remember telling my parents that I was studying Classics; they might well
have found out for the first time on graduation day. I would like to make it clear, in
parenthesis5, that I do not blame my parents for their point of view. There is an
expiry date on blaming your parents for steering you in the wrong direction; the
moment you are old enough to take the wheel, responsibility lies with you. What is
more, I cannot criticize my parents for hoping that I would never experience poverty.
They had been poor themselves, and I have since been poor, and I quite agree with
them that it is not an ennobling6 experience. Poverty entails7 fear, and stress, and
sometimes depression; it means a thousand petty humiliations and hardships.
Climbing out of poverty by your own efforts, that is indeed something on which to
pride yourself, but poverty itself is romanticized only by fools.

What I feared most for myself at your age was not poverty, but failure. However, the
fact that you are graduating from Harvard suggests that you are not very well-
acquainted with failure. You might be driven by a fear of failure quite as much as a

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desire for success. Indeed, your conception of failure might not be too far from the
average person’s idea of success, so high have you already flown.

Ultimately, we all have to decide for ourselves what constitutes failure, but the world
is quite eager to give you a set of criteria if you let it. So I think it is fair to say that
by any conventional measure, a mere seven years after my graduation day, I had
failed on an epic scale. An exceptionally short-lived marriage had imploded8, and I
was jobless, a lone parent, and as poor as it is possible to be in modern Britain,
without being homeless. The fears that my parents had had for me, and that I had had
for myself, had both come to pass, and by every usual standard, I was the biggest
failure I knew.

Now, I am not going to stand here and tell you that failure is fun. That period of my
life was a dark one, and I had no idea that there was going to be what the press has
since represented as a kind of fairy tale resolution. So why do I talk about the
benefits of failure? Simply, because, failure meant a stripping away of the
inessential9. I stopped pretending to myself that I was anything other than what I
was, and began to direct all my energy into finishing the only work that mattered to
me. Had I really succeeded at anything else, I might never have found the
determination to succeed in the one arena I believed I truly belonged. I was set free,
because my greatest fear had been realized, and I was still alive, and I still had a
daughter whom I adored, and I had an old typewriter and a big idea. And so rock
bottom became the solid foundation on which I rebuilt my life.

You might never fail on the scale I did, but some failure in life is inevitable10. Failure
gave me an inner security that I had never attained by passing examinations. Failure
taught me things about myself that I could have learned no other way. I discovered
that I had a strong will, and more discipline than I had suspected; I also found out
that I had friends whose value was truly above the price of rubies.

Now you might think that I chose my second theme, the importance of imagination,
because of the part it played in rebuilding my life, but that is not wholly so. Though I
personally will defend the value of bedtime stories to my last gasp, I have learned to

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value imagination in a much broader sense. Imagination is not only the uniquely
human capacity to envision that which is not, and therefore the fount of all invention
and innovation. In its arguably most transformative and revelatory capacity, it is the
power that enables us to empathise with humans whose experiences we have never
shared.

One of the greatest formative experiences of my life preceded Harry Potter, though it
informed much of what I subsequently wrote in those books. This revelation11 came
in the form of one of my earliest day jobs. Though I was sloping off to write stories
during my lunch hours, I paid the rent in my early 20s by working at the African
research department at Amnesty International’s headquarters in London.

There in my little office I saw photographs of those who had disappeared without
trace, sent to Amnesty by their desperate families and friends. I read the testimony12
of torture victims and saw pictures of their injuries. I opened handwritten, eye-
witness accounts of summary trials and executions, of kidnappings and rapes. Every
day of my working week in my early 20s I was reminded how incredibly fortunate I
was, to live in a country with a democratically elected government, where legal
representation and a public trial were the rights of everyone.

One of the many things I learned at the end of that Classics corridor down which I
ventured at the age of 18, in search of something I could not then define, was this,
written by the Greek author Plutarch: What we achieve inwardly will change outer
reality. That is an astonishing statement and yet proven a thousand times every day
of our lives. It expresses, in part, our inescapable connection with the outside world,
the fact that we touch other people’s lives simply by existing. But how much more
are you, Harvard graduates of 2008, likely to touch other people’s lives? Your
intelligence, your capacity for hard work, and the education you have earned and
received, give you unique status, and unique responsibilities. Even your nationality
sets you apart. The great majority of you belong to the world’s only remaining
superpower. The way you vote, the way you live, the way you protest, the pressure
you bring to bear on your government, has an impact way beyond your borders. That
is, your privilege, and your burden.

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If you choose to use your status and influence to raise your voice on behalf of those
who have no voice; if you choose to identify not only with the powerful, but with the
powerless; if you retain the ability to imagine yourself into the lives of those who do
not have your advantages, then it will not only be your proud families who celebrate
your existence, but thousands and millions of people whose reality you have helped
change. We do not need magic to change the world; we carry all the power we need
inside ourselves already: we have the power to imagine better.

I am nearly finished. I have one last hope for you, which is something that I already
had at 21. The friends with whom I sat on graduation day have been my friends for
life. They are my children’s godparents, the people to whom I’ve been able to turn in
times of trouble, people who have been kind enough not to sue me when I took their
names for Death Eaters.

So today, I wish you nothing better than similar friendships. And tomorrow, I hope
that even if you remember not a single word of mine, you remember those of Seneca,
another of those old Romans I met when I fled down the Classics corridor, in retreat
from career ladders, in search of ancient wisdom:

As is a tale, so is life: not how long it is, but how good it is, is what matters.

I wish you all very good lives. Thank you very much.

GLOSSARY
1. Endured : to suffer something difficult
2. Wracked : cause extreme pain
3. Threshold : doorstep, doorsill, porch, entry or entrance
4. Mortgage : a legal agreement by which a bank, building society,
etc. lends money at interest in exchange for taking title
of the debtor's property
5. Parenthesis : a word or phrase inserted as an explanation or

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afterthought into a passage which is grammatically

complete without it, in writing usually marked off by
brackets, dashes, or commas.
6. Ennoble : give (someone) a noble rank or title.
7. Entail : involve (something) as a necessary or inevitable part
or consequence.
8. Imploded : to collapse violently
9. Inessential : not absolutely necessary.
10. Inevitable : unavoidable
11. Revelation : a surprising and previously unknown fact that has been
disclosed to others.
12. Testimony : evidence or proof of something.

Summary of J.K. Rowling’s Harvard speech.

When invited to give a commencement speech to Harvard graduates, JK Rowling felt

a huge responsibility to prepare a piece which would deliver words of wisdom that
could guide the promising young generation. So, she decided to convey the lessons
she learned the hard way, she wished someone had given her when she was a
graduate. She came up with two core lessons: appreciate the value of failing and
recognize the importance of imagination. J.K. Rowling had studied modern
languages and classics. While she was studying, she was not worried because she
always performed well in her exams, but as soon as she graduated, she started feeling
fear of facing failure. Her choice of education was not offering too many
opportunities, and seven years later, this notion was reinforced by Rowling’s life.
She was a single, unemployed divorcee living almost below the poverty line.
However, the realization of her worse fear – freed her. She had just hit rock bottom,
and there was no place to go other than to take control of her life. So she decided to
pursue the only passion that mattered: writing.

Another thing that she considers important is imagination, and moreover –

recognizing its power. One of her jobs after she finished college was in Amnesty
International, where she was surrounded by stories of victims and torture and
refugees. This made her perceive human evil, and at the same time, human kindness.

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People should empathize with others if they employ their imaginations and
understand what those others are going through. And yet, many choose to stay blind
to the unhappiness. According to Rowling, when one decides to take no action to
overcome a challenging situation, one allows it to bother throughout his or her life.
Hence, every human being is responsible for recognizing and developing his
imagination, to create a better world. Rowling succeeded to transform from a single
mom on the verge of bankruptcy to one of the wealthiest authors on the planet. Her
rags to riches story proves to everyone that life can be turned around. Every human
being is responsible for recognizing and developing his imagination, to create a
better world.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. What message does the speaker give on ‘Failure’ to the Harvard graduates?

Rowling’s speech was very inspirational that demonstrates through her own
examples from her life that anything can happen at any given time. She explains how
failure is a part of life. If one has not experienced failure, then one has not
experienced life because failing helps one learn more about oneself. Rowling
claimed that before she began writing the world known epic-harry potter she had
“failed on an epic-scale”. Rowling had also attempted novels before and had
repeatedly failed. She did not give up, even when on the verge of extreme poverty.
She kept trying, and eventually rebuilt her life with her Harry Potter series. She
explained how her success came with hard work, determination, and struggle. She
stated that failing, in a way, is success. It shows that succeeding is a result of failure
and if one learns from mistakes, one will accomplish goals.

2. According to Rowling, why ‘Imagination’ is crucial in one’s life?

J. K. Rowling also addresses how important one’s “imagination” truly is. However,
she is not speaking about the “imagination” she had for writing “Harry Potter”. She
is talking about the “imagination” one has to see things in another light and “step
into someone else’s shoes”. In the speech, she shared her experience working with

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the Amnesty international where she nursed patients who were broken, bruised,
injured physically and mentally tortured. She was horrified and shaken, she had all
her empathy for them. She realized how fortunate she was as she lived a far better
life than the patients that came to Amnesty international.

3. Why doesn’t the speaker blame her parents?

Poverty entails fear, and stress, and sometimes depression; it means a thousand petty
humiliations and hardships. Her parents, both of whom came from impoverished
backgrounds who had never been to college, took the view that her overactive
imagination was an amusing personal quirk that would never pay a mortgage, or
secure a pension. She does not blame my parents for their point of view. She
explains that the day one is old enough to take the wheel, responsibility lies within
oneself. She emphasizes that if a person was born poor, he or she must climb out of
poverty by his or her own efforts that are indeed something on which to pride
oneself. Her parents never wanted their daughter to experience poverty like they
experienced. Therefore, they wanted her to take up vocational degree but Rowling
took up Literature without their knowledge. On the other hand, seven years from
graduation she failed miserably. She doesn’t blame her parents for it was her own
choice of taking up literature and she considers that she is old enough to take up her
own responsibility.

4. According to [Link], what is the importance of Plutarch’s quote?

[Link] speaks about this idea of “touching other’s lives” in her speech She said
that change always starts from the inside-out. This quote sums up for how change
really happens. It is about leading change by example, or to put it another way, truly
walking the talk. A change in how we behave or how we do things has an effect on
those around us. The beauty of this is that we are all capable of making change
happen. It means creating an environment where people feel comfortable about
bringing their whole selves into to make this place a better one. It is so much more
than just the physical environment that matters here. How can we as individuals and
leaders create a place where people show up as their whole selves, contribute through
all of their talents and are truly valued. One won’t be surprised to learn that the

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change starts with each of us. It really doesn’t need to be dramatic either as small
changes in how one behaves with others does make a big difference. She urges the
Harvard graduates to bring in a phenomenal change in the lives of others.

5. How does [Link] want the Harvard graduates to make the use of their
‘status’ to influence the world?

[Link] advised the Harvard graduates to choose to use their status and
influence to raise their voice on behalf of those who do not have ‘a’ voice; if one
chooses to identify not only with the powerful, but with the powerless; if one retains
the ability to imagine oneself into the lives of those who do not have ‘their’
advantages, then it will not only be their proud families who celebrate their
existence, but thousands and millions of people whose reality they have helped
change. She said that there is no need of any magic to change the world because each
of us has all the power inside ourselves already and she also said that we all have the
power to imagine better.

GRAMMAR: ARTICLES
Basically, articles are either definite or indefinite. They combine to a noun to indicate the
type of reference being made by the noun.

•The definite article is the.

•The indefinite article is a / an.

Definite articles

There are a lot of rules about how we use articles. Here are four rules for using the definite
article 'the':

We use the definite article ‘the’

1. to refer to something or someone both speakers in a conversation know about:

I have two children – a boy and a girl. The boy is 7 and the girl 4.
There was a King. The King had four children.
2. before seas, rivers, and groups of mountains or islands:
The Nile is a long river.

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Tenzing conquered the Himalayas in 1953.

3. before the names of holy books and also before things unique of their kind:
He is well versed in the Ramayana.
People at the equator are dark skinned.
4. with superlatives:
He is the worst person I have ever met.
She is the most intelligent student in the class.

The indefinite article ‘a’/ ‘an’ is used:

[Link] we don't specify the things or people we are talking about:

I met a friend.
I work in a factory in New York.
2. before a consonant sound:
Tintumon is a cheerful dog.
I was at a well known university yesterday.
3. after some prepositions, especially ‘as’, ‘for’, ‘on’ and ‘at’.
It is only for a change.
Cloth is manufactured on a large scale.

NOTE:

Although 'university' starts with the vowel 'u', it is not pronounced as such. It is pronounced
as a consonant sound /ju:.niv3:.[Link]/

The indefinite article ‘an’ is used before a vowel sound.

He wants to become an engineer.

She is an athlete who had won 5 medals in the 2012 Olympics.

Countable and uncountable nouns

Using English articles with countable and uncountable nouns may be confusing.

‘The’ can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be dropped entirely as
mentioned below.

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"The two countries reached the peace after a long disastrous war" (some specific
peace treaty) or "The two countries reached peace after a long disastrous war" (any
peace).

"He drank the water" (some specific water- for example, the water his wife brought
him from the kitchen) or "He drank water." (any water)

It is unusual to use a/an for uncountable nouns. You can't say "I'd like a milk"

‘a/an’ can be used only with countable nouns.

Examples

1. I'd like a piece of cake.

2. I lent him a book.
3. I drank a cup of tea.

Omission of Articles:

1. Do not use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains
except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States".

They live in Northern British Columbia.

They climbed Mount Everest.

2. We do not normally use an article with plurals and uncountable nouns to talk about things
in general.

He writes books.
Do you like jazz music?
She ate bread with butter in the morning.

Exercise:

Fill up the blanks with appropriate articles.

1. Man is________ mortal.

2. I am ________ university student.
3. Kiran is ________ best student in the class.

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4. There is _________ institution for ______ blind in this city.

5. This book has won ___________ Booker prize.
6. Harishchandra was ___________ honest king.
7. I am fond of ________classical music.
8. I met ________ boy in the store.
9. Gold is _______ precious metal.
10. She returned after ______ hour.

MODIFIERS

A modifier adds information to another element in a sentence in the form of adjective, adverb
etc. A modifier changes, clarifies, qualifies, or limits a particular word in a sentence in order
to add emphasis, explanation, or detail. To illustrate the power of modifiers, consider the
following simple sentence:

Sarah was a sure fit for junior prom queen.

Now consider the same sentence with multiple modifiers added:

The blonde girl named Sarah, who was a foreign exchange student from England, quickly
climbed the ladder of popularity during her junior year, smiling her way through
cheerleading and an ASB presidency term she inched near the top and was a sure fit as
junior prom queen.

The additional details in the sentence, by way of modifiers, engage the reader and hold their
attention.

Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word
it modifies / describes. Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound
awkward, ridiculous, or confusing. Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.
1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost
always distort the intended meaning.
On her way home, Jane found gold man’s watch. (incorrect)
On her way home, Jane found a man’s gold watch. (correct)

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They bought a car for my sister they call Pumpkin. (incorrect)

They bought a car they call Pumpkin, for my sister. (correct)

They saw a fence behind the house made of barbed wire. (incorrect)
They saw a fence made of barbed wire behind the house. (correct)

The torn student’s book lay on the desk.

_______________________________.

2. Misplaced adverbs can also change meaning in sentences.

For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of only can change the
sentence's meaning.

I call only Rajan when I need money. (incorrect)

I call Rajan only when I need money. (correct)

She almost failed every exam she took. (incorrect)

She failed almost every exam she took. (correct)

The three bankers talked quietly in the corner smoking pipes. (incorrect)
The three bankers smoking pipes talked quietly in the corner. (correct)

Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a sentence
whose meaning is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous.

We ate the lunch we had brought slowly.

__________________________________

Answers:

2. B. The student’s torn book lay on the desk.

8. B. We slowly ate the lunch we had brought.

Exercise:

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1. The kind mother handed out chicken sandwiches to all kids in paper bags.
2. The little girl saw a goat on the farm heading into town.
3. I saw a dead cat driving on the highway.
4. I handed a fresh piece of bread to the guy beside me that was well buttered.
5. At the park, I noticed my neighbour was walking her dog in heels.
6. The youngster was walking the dog on the mobile.
7. I heard that there was a robbery on the evening news.
8. We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn’t drink or
smoke and owns a car.
9. Charlie spotted a stray puppy driving home from work.
10. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.

VOCABULARY: ONE -WORD SUBSTITUTIONS

Learning new words is a great advantage. In order to keep these words in your mind
complement your study with extensive reading. One of the practical methods is to study ten
to fifteen words each day. If you make it a practice, with each passing day, there will be
steady improvement in your knowledge. After learning each word, try to use it in a sentence
of your own. There are only twenty five examples here. Collect and learn some more to
increase your vocabulary.

Examples

1. One who is not sure about God’s existence - Agnostic

2. A person who deliberately sets fire to a building - Arsonist
3. One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession - Amateur
4. One who can use both hands with ease - Ambidextrous
5. A group of people, typically with vehicles travelling together - Caravan
6. A person who believes in or tries to bring about a state of lawlessness - Anarchist
7. A person who has changed his faith - Apostate
8. One who does not believe in the existence of God - Atheist
9. A critical judge of any art and craft - Connoisseur
10. Persons living at the same time - Contemporaries
11. One who sneers at the beliefs of others - Cynic
12. A person having a sophisticated charm - Debonair

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13. A leader who sways his followers by his oratory - Demagogue

14. One who shows sustained enthusiastic action with unflagging vitality- Indefatigable
15. Someone who attacks cherished ideas or traditional institutions - Iconoclast
16. A lover of mankind - Philanthropist
17. A person who speaks more than one language - Polyglot
18. One who lives in solitude - Recluse
19. Someone who walks in sleep - Somnambulist
20. Someone who doesn’t take alcohol - Teetotaler

Exercises:

Fill up the blanks with appropriate one word substitute.

(Egotist, Chauvinist, Calligrapher, Cosmopolitan, Vegan)
1. A person who has beautiful hand writing ______________________
2. One who often talks of his achievements _______________________
3. A person displaying aggressive or exaggerated patriotism __________________
4. A person who regards the whole world as his country _____________________
5. A person who eats no animal or dairy products, a strict vegetarian ___________

WRITING SKILLS: PRÉCIS WRITING

Précis writing is another name for summarizing. Writing a précis means to shorten a given
passage to about one third of the original. So, a lot of things have to be omitted, but none of
the important points or things can be omitted. It contains the gist or the main theme of the
passage expressed in your own words. Précis writing needs unwavering attention and full
concentration. For this, one should read the passage carefully twice or thrice noting down the
points. One may prepare a rough draft, revise it and then write a fair draft.

Tips:

One can follow the following method in order to become a good précis writer. Read the
passage thoroughly, and give it a title. The title you choose will indicate whether you have
been able to understand the passage or not.

1. If your title does not deal with the main idea of the passage, you have not understood the
passage properly.

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a. Give a second reading, underlining the main ideas of the passage.

b. Make a draft of the précis, using only the underlined sentences.
2. Omit illustrations, examples, details and repetition.
3. Arrange these points logically; generally the order of the original is retained.
4. Write in your own words. A précis which borrows phrases and language from the
original usually crosses the word limit. Borrow only the ideas, and express them in your
own language.
5. If the summary is too long, rewrite it to bring it within the limit of near about one third
of the original.
6. The précis should be in the same tense, in third person and in indirect speech.
7. One word substitution of longer terms is very helpful.
Not suggestible: That which could be read easily.
Suggestible: Illegible
8. Reduce a lengthy and repetitive conversation to a brief report.
Not suggestible:
The King said to his people, “I have nothing to offer you but my strength for
your defense, my honesty for your security and ability and industry for your
livelihood in my authority and position for your dignity that is all it becomes a
King to offer his people. (50 words)

Suggestible:
The King told his people that he would offer them all that a King could do to
his people. (19 words)
9. Change the direct speech to the indirect speech.

SAMPLE PRÉCIS 1:

Not until the nineteenth century did canning become a part of food preservation. Until then,
foods were dried, salted, or smoked. In 1795, during the Napoleonic Wars, the French
government offered a reward to the first person who could preserve food satisfactory for
military use. In 1809, M. Nicholas Appert won the 12,000 francs and earned recognition as
the father of canning. Although he used glass bottles, sealed with cork and processed in a hot-
water bath, he did not know why his process worked. Ultimately, Louis Pasteur determined
why improperly processed foods spoil. Microorganisms found in the air, and on all objects,

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cause spoilage as soon as they come in contact with food. Only proper sterilization, found
Pasteur, could kill these microorganisms.
Prior to 1850, the only sterilization method known to farm women called for canning—first
in tin cans and later in glass jars, both of which had a groove around the top, into which a tin
lid fit. Hot food, placed in hot cans or jars and topped with a hot lid, was sealed with hot
sealing wax—a hard red wax, quite unlike today’s paraffin. When dry, the brittle wax seal
was broken only by pelting the wax with a blunt object, usually a knife handle. In 1858, John
L. Mason invented a glass jar that could receive a screw-on zinc lid sealed by a rubber gasket.
For the first time, home canning became easy, economical, and popular. By 1903, Alexander
H. Kerr perfected the two-piece lid, a snap lid and a ring, still in use nearly 90 years later.
Home canning literally snapped forth a new option for homemakers.

Title: History of canning

Rough draft:
The art of preserving food was found by Appert. Pasteur discovered sterilization. Only proper
sterilization, found Pasteur, could kill these microorganisms. Microorganisms found in the
air, and on all objects, cause spoilage as soon as they come in contact with food. In 1858,
John L. Mason invented a glass jar that could receive a screw-on zinc lid sealed by a rubber
gasket. Home canning became easy and economical among women. By 1903, Alexander H.
Kerr perfected the two-piece lid, a snap lid and a ring, still in use nearly 90 years later. Home
canning literally snapped forth a new option for homemakers.
Fair draft:
M. Nicholas Appert first canned food in 1809 in cork-sealed glass bottles processed in a
hotwaterbath. Pasteur’s discovery that sterilization killed microorganisms and kept food from
spoiling explained Appert’s success. As a result, women learned to can successfully in tin and
glass, using a hard wax to seal the hot food. Then, in 1858, John L. Mason sealed glass jars
with a screw-on lid and rubber gasket. Finally, in 1903, Alexander Kerr developed the two-
piece lid still in use.

SAMPLE PRÉCIS 2:
Trees give shade for the benefit of others, and while they themselves stand in the sun and
endure the scorching heat, they produce the fruit of which others profit. The character of
good men is like that of trees. What is the use of this perishable body if no use is made of it

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for the benefit of mankind? Sandalwood, the more it is rubbed, the more scent does it yield.
Sugarcane, the more it is peeled and cut up into pieces, the more juice does it produce. The
men who are noble at heart do not lose their qualities even in losing their lives. What matters
whether men praise them or not? What difference does it make whether they die at this
moment or whether lives are prolonged? Happen what may, those who tread in the right path
will not set foot in any other. Life itself is unprofitable to a man who does not live for others.
To live for the mere sake of living one’s life is to live the life of dog and crows. Those who
lay down their lives for the sake of others will assuredly dwell forever in a world of bliss.

Title- Good men live for others.

Rough draft: The character of good men is like that of trees. What is the use of this
perishable body if no use is made of it for the benefit of mankind? The men who are noble at
heart do not lose their qualities even in losing their lives. Those who tread in the right path
will not set foot in any other. To live for the mere sake of living one’s life is to live the life of
dogs or crows. Those who lay down their lives for the sake of others will assuredly dwell
forever in a world of bliss.
Fair Draft:
Good men live for others. The character of good men is like that of trees. They live for others
and do not lose their qualities even in losing their lives. They always follow the right path.
Praise is immaterial to them. To live for one’s own sake is to lead the life of beasts. Only
those who lay down their lives for others will live forever in a world of bliss.

Exercise:
Write a précis of the following reducing each of them to one third of the length.
A great part of Arabia is desert. Here there is nothing but sand and rock. The sand is so hot
that you cannot walk over it with your bare feet in the day-time. Here and there in the desert
are springs of water that come from deep down under the ground- so deep that the Sun cannot
dry them up. These springs are few and far apart, but wherever there is one, green grass very
soon covers the ground all around it. Soon fig trees and palm trees grow tall and graceful,
making a cool, green shady place around the spring. Such a place is called an oasis.
The Arabs who are not in the cities live in the desert all the year round. They live in tents that
can be put up and taken down very easily and quickly so that they can move from one oasis

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to another, seeking grass and water for their sheep, goats, camels and horses. These desert
Arabs eat ripe, sweet figs.
These Arabs have the finest horses in the world. An Arab is very proud of his riding horse,
and loves him almost as much as he loves his wife and children. He never puts heavy loads
upon his horse and often lets him stay in the tent with his family.

Rough draft:

Fair Draft:

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READING COMPREHENSION TYPE 4

Fill up the blanks with the correct words.

Read the advice below about stress at work. Choose the best word to fill the spaces.

Stress at Work

A small amount of pressure at work is often seen as a good thing. But excessive pressure can
lead to stress, and this in (1)______________ (consequently, next, afterwards, turn)can result
in bad performance. Stressed staff are more (2) ________________ (likely, usual, normal,
probable) to misuse their work hours or quit their job. Stress (3)________ (results, affects,
leads, concerns) not only morale, but also a company’s bottom line.(4)________ (knowing,
concerning, ensuring, proving) that a company has a calm, productive atmosphere is the role
of the HR department. Even though the management and employees are often responsible for
the stressful environment in (5)_________ (what, that, where, which) they work, the human
resources department can (6)_________ (make, be, do, play) a critical role in managing
behaviour within the workplace. HR can (7)_________ (apply, implement, work, realize)
programmes that encourage positive attitudes, build good working relationships and
(8)________ (assemble, advance, promote, persuade) healthy lifestyles. One common
problem is that managers are (9) _________ (very, so, always, especially) overworked that
they neglect their staff. Staff are (10) ________ (kept, left, forgotten, abandoned) with
nothing to do, and so they become underutilized or inefficient. This is an opportunity for the
HR department to (11) ___________ (intervene, go, step, enter) in and help the department
to work (12)___________ (for, in, as, by) a team. Managers can be taught how to (13)
___________ (commit, schedule, appoint, delegate) work to staff, in order to reduce their
workload. Meanwhile, staff can be advised about how (14) ______________ (should, best,
way, well) to approach their managers, and when it is appropriate to (15)___________
(make, take, do, spend) the initiative.

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UNIT-V

SENTENCE STRUCTURES (PHRASES AND CLAUSES)

An introductory phrase is like a clause, but it doesn't have its own subject and verb; it relies
on the subject and verb in the main clause. It sets the stage for the main part of the sentence.

A clause comes in four types; independent, dependent, relative or noun clause.

Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. ... A dependent clause, also called a
subordinate clause, is a clause that cannot stand on its own because it does not contain all the
information necessary to be a complete sentence

Clauses: A clause is a group of words that can act as a sentence, but is not necessarily a
complete sentence on its own. All clauses contain both a subject and a predicate, which
always contains a verb. A predicate tells something about what the subject is doing. Some
clauses can stand alone as a complete sentence; others cannot. Below are a few examples of
clauses:

She danced. (“She” is the subject. “Danced” is both the verb and the predicate. Even
though the clause is only two words, it functions as an independent clause because it can
stand alone as a sentence.)

While she is dancing, the audience cannot tear its eyes off her.

In Example 2, there are actually two clauses. The first “while she is dancing” contains a
subject (she) and a predicate (is dancing), but it cannot stand alone as a sentence, making it a
dependent clause. The second clause, “the audience cannot tear its eyes off her,” contains a
subject (the audience) and a predicate (tear its eyes off her), and because it can function as a
sentence on its own, it is an independent clause.

Phrases: A phrase is a group of two or more words that does not have the subject and verb
combination and does not form a predicate. It can contain a noun or a verb, but does not have
a subject or predicate. Essentially, a phrase provides some sort of additional information or
provides more context to the sentences you write. A phrase can never stand alone as a
sentence; however, a phrase can nestle itself inside clauses that are either complete sentences

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on their own or ones that are dependent on the rest of the sentence. When a phrase is within a
clause, it functions as a part of speech. Below are a few examples of a phrase:

The dance was held at the reception hall. (“At the reception hall” is a prepositional phrase.
It does not have a subject or predicate, and it cannot stand alone as a sentence.)

Example 2 revisited: While she is dancing, the audience cannot tear its eyes off her.

In Example 2 revisited, “off her” is a prepositional phrase that is nestled within the
independent clause identified earlier. It does not contain a subject/predicate, nor can it stand
alone as a sentence

Types of clauses
The two main types of clauses are independent and dependent. These are covered in a
separate article on [Link] if you feel you need more help in distinguishing between the
two. In addition, the following types of clauses are used in constructing sentences:
 Adverbial clauses
 Defining and non-defining clauses (also called adjective or relative clauses)
 Independent and dependent clauses
 Noun clauses

Types of phrases
Phrases can take many forms and different constructions. They cannot however, ever function
as a sentence on their own. The different types of phrases include the following:
 Gerund phrases
 Infinitive phrases
 Noun phrases
 Participle phrases
 Prepositional phrases
 Verb phrase

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. An independent clause is a

simple sentence. It can stand on its own.

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Examples:
She is hungry.
I am feeling well today.

A dependent clause cannot stand on its own. It needs an independent clause to complete a
sentence. Dependent clauses often begin with such words as although, since, if,
when, and because.

Examples:
Although she is hungry …
Whoever is hungry …
Because I am feeling well …

Dependent Independent

Although she is hungry, she will give him some of her food.

Whatever they decide, I will agree to.

A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb component, used as a single part of

speech.

Examples:
Best friend (this phrase acts as a noun)
Needing help (this phrase acts as an adjective; see Adjectives and Adverbs)
With the blue shirt (this prepositional phrase acts as an adjective; see Prepositions)
For twenty days (this prepositional phrase acts as an adverb

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. An independent clause is a

simple sentence. It can stand on its own.

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Examples:
She is hungry.
I am feeling well today.

Both clauses and phrases are basic components of writing sentences. When combined with
other parts of speech and other parts of sentences, clauses and phrases help build an intricate
system through which your words convey meaning. Understanding the difference between
the two is vital to write grammatically correct and properly constructed sentences.

Understanding the difference

It is vital to understand the main differences between clauses and phrases to ensure your
writing is clear in both construction and context. If you are unsure whether a group of words
is a clause or phrase, break down the words into the parts of speech to help you decide. If
there is a subject and a verb with a predicate, it is a clause. If there is a noun but no verb or a
verb but no noun and does not have a predicate, it is a phrase. Always keep in mind that
sometimes phrases are built into clauses.

Exercises:
I. Fill in the blank with the correct combination:
1. The chief guest ……………………. (about his childhood, spoke)
2. After his matriculation, Gandhi ……………………. (to London, went, for higher studies)
3. Our college …………………….. (in a town, is, five miles away)
4. My father ………………………. (I had failed my test, very sad, became, heard, when he,
that)
5. The boys ………………………… (tired and hungry, after the long walk, were)
6. The litmus paper ……………………… (when, turned, in the liquid, red, I dipped it)
7. Abraham Lincoln ………………………… (the man, who freed, was, the slaves in
America)
8. This …………………….. (what, is, reported, the newspaper)
9. The old woman …………………….. (a lot of stories, her, told, grandchildren)
10. Australia ………………………. (one, is, the largest, of, islands in the world

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II. Find out the principal clause and subordinate clause or clauses in the following
sentences.
1. James spoke as though he were a born orator.
2. They felt that the farmer must be put to death.
3. When at last he returned to the village, the people told him that his mother had died.
4. The newspaper will tell us tomorrow what the world does today.
5. The few books that were produced in the middle Ages were written by hand.
6. When the world was young, artists drew their pictures on stone.

GRAMMAR: CONCORD

In this chapter, we discuss two main areas of concord:

A. Subject- verb agreement
B. Noun - pronoun agreement

A. Subject & Verb Agreement

It’s an agreement between subject & verb or Agreement between words in sentence,
nouns, numbers, person or any other grammatical category which affects the forms
of the words.

She don’t know that I am her sister’s friend. (Wrong)

She doesn’t know that I am her sister’s friend. (Right)

Both the rice and the curd was fresh and tasty. (Wrong)
Both the rice and the curd were fresh and tasty. (Right)

The rice and curd served in the restaurant are fresh and tasty. (Wrong)
The rice and curd served in the restaurant is fresh and tasty. (Right)

To circumvent this type of mistakes and to be a fluent speaker and an effective writer
we have to follow certain rules.

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1. When the subject consists of two singular / plural nouns / pronouns joined by
‘and’, the plural form of the verb is used.
The bread and the butter are my favorite breakfast.
The chairman and the principal were visited.
The president and GM of the company have arrived.

2. If the two nouns joined by ‘and’ are thought of as a single ‘thing’, the singular
form of the verb is used.
Idly and Chutney is my favorite breakfast.
The principal and science teacher has not come to the school today.

3. Use singular form of the verb with distances, periods of time and sums of amount
etc… when considered as a unit.

150 kilometers is not a great distance.

Ten thousand rupees was a fair price for the TV.
Eight years is the maximum time to finish engineering course.

4. When the subjects consist of two singular nouns joined together by ‘either…or
and neither… nor’, or, nor, but also and not only’, the singular form of the verb is
used.
Either Sharath or Vicky is to be promoted.
Either the bears or the lion has escaped from the zoo.
Neither you nor he is to take up this task.
Neither boy is eligible for selection.
Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.

5. When the subject of a sentence is an indefinite pronoun, such as ‘everyone,

someone, no one, anybody, no body, somebody, everybody, something and each,
every, none and no’, the singular form of the verb is used.

No smoking or drinking is allowed.

Every man and woman is required to check in.

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Something is wrong with him these days.

Everybody in the office has tickets.
Everyone is required to clear their dues.
Nobody knows the trouble I have seen.
No one is entitled to have his debts cancelled.

6. Some nouns ending in the letter‘s’ are plural in form and take plural verbs (these
nouns do not have singular nouns).

The tweezers are in the cupboard.

His trousers have become too tight.
Where are your spectacles?

7. Uncountable nous such as ‘baggage, equipment, furniture, issue, advice, land,

machinery, scenery and luggage’ is treated as singular nouns. Hence, they take
singular verbs only.

All the machinery is old.

I have sold all the furniture that was useless.
My luggage is lying at the bus stand.
He gave me some advice.
The scenery here is very good.

8. Collective nouns such as ‘government, public, team, party, family, group,

committee, class, crowd, club, jury, minority, population and mob’ etc. can take
either a singular or a plural verb.

The committee has met and accepted the proposal.

The family was happy at the news.
The crowd was wild with excitement.
Our team is certain to win the match.
The committee is investigating this matter.
A third of population was not in favor / were not in favor of the bill.

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9. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a singular
verb.
Bahubali is a movie starring Prabhas.
Bible is the holy book for Christians.

Exercises:

Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.

1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.

2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.

3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.

4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.

5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.

6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.

7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.

8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.

9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.

10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.

11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.

12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.

13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.

14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?

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15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's favorite
subject.

16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.

17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?

18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.

19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left!

20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.

B. Noun - pronoun Agreement

A pronoun is a word that refers to a noun and can stand in its place. By using a pronoun,
you can refer to the same person, place, thing, or idea repeatedly without using the same
noun every time. For example, the following sentence becomes far less awkward when
pronouns are used:
Radha thinks that Radha should sell Radha car to Radha’s brother.
Radha thinks that she should sell her car to her brother.

Pronoun Types
Pronouns may be divided into several categories, based on how they are used:
 Demonstrative (this, that, these, those)
 Indefinite (anybody, something,)
 Intensive or reflexive (yourself, herself, myself)
 Interrogative (who, which, what)
 Personal (I, you, he, she, we, they)
 Possessive (my, your, her, his, their)
 Relative (who, whom, whose, which, that)
1. Selecting the Right Pronoun
Every pronoun must agree with its antecedent (the noun to which the pronoun refers or
which it replaces). A pronoun agrees with its antecedent when they match in both
number and gender.

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2. Agreement in Number
A pronoun must match its antecedent in number. In other words, if the antecedent is
plural, the pronoun must be plural, and if the antecedent is singular, the pronoun must
be singular.
Valentine wears his Superman outfit at least twice a week.
(Since the word Valentine is singular, the pronoun that refers to it is also singular.)
Valentine’s parents believe that their son is slightly peculiar.
(Because the word parents is plural, the pronoun referring to it must also be plural.)

3. Agreement in Gender
a) A pronoun must match its antecedent in gender. If the antecedent is feminine, use the
pronouns she, her, and hers, and if it is masculine, use the pronouns he, him, and his. Plural
pronouns (they, them, their, and theirs) refer to plural nouns of either gender.
Murphy’s father is embarrassed by his son.
However, Freddy’s mother thinks her son is cute.
Murphy’s aunts always take pictures of their nephew.
Murphy’s uncles enjoy playing with their sister’s superhero son

b) When you use a singular noun, you can only use a singular pronoun.
Reginald wanted to try throwing the ball himself.
The kitten is huge for its age.

c) When you use a plural noun (cars, dandelions, cookies, tweets), you can only use a plural
pronoun (they, us, you, those)
The tightrope walkers were up so high that I was afraid they would fall.
Jack’s friends, who also play is his band, were at the party.

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Common Mistakes
1. Antecedents with Conjunctions
When singular antecedents are joined by and, use a plural pronoun to refer to them.
INCORRECT: Jim and Sally are proud of his and her new son.
CORRECT: Jim and Sally are proud of their new son.
When antecedents are joined by or or nor, the pronoun referring to them should match the
part of the antecedent that is closest to the pronoun.
Neither her sisters nor Jeanie will bring her basketball.
Neither Jeannie nor her sisters will bring their basketball.

2. Pronouns as Antecedents
One of the most common mistakes in pronoun-antecedent agreement occurs when the
antecedent of a pronoun is, itself, a pronoun. In such cases, as with noun-pronoun agreement,
the two pronouns must agree with each other in both number and gender.
INCORRECT: Those boxes have unbroken lids, but these need to have its lids
replaced.
CORRECT: Those boxes have unbroken lids, but these need to have their lids
replaced.
Pronoun-antecedent agreement may be especially confusing when the antecedent is an
indefinite pronoun. Indefinite pronouns refer to or replace nonspecific people, places,
things, or ideas. The following indefinite pronouns are always singular. Consequently,
pronouns that refer to them will always be singular as well:
anybody either neither somebody
anyone everybody nobody someone
each everyone one, no one

INCORRECT: Everybody needs to bring their assignment to class.

CORRECT: Everybody needs to bring his or her assignment to class.

3. Gender
Sometimes, a singular antecedent's gender is unknown, or the antecedent refers to a group
composed of both males and females. To avoid gender bias, use both the masculine and
feminine pronouns.

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INCORRECT: Everyone returned his books to the library.

CORRECT: Everyone returned his or her books to the library.
If using he or she or his or her sounds awkward, rework your sentences whenever possible
so that the antecedents of unknown or mixed gender are plural:

Awkward: Everyone turned in his or her homework and got out his or her textbook.
Better: All of the class members turned in their homework and got out their textbooks.

How to Correct Faulty Agreement:

When you have identified an error in pronoun-antecedent agreement, answering the
following questions will help you to correct the problem:
1. Which word is the pronoun?
2. What is its antecedent?
3. Is the antecedent plural or singular?
4. Does the pronoun match the antecedent in number?
5. What is the gender of the antecedent?
6. Does the pronoun match the antecedent’s gender?

Exercise:
Underline the correct word
1. Everybody in our family (are/ is) planning a trip this year.
2. Each of us (are /is) going to a different part of the country.
3. One of my brothers (are/ is) going fishing in the Far North.
4. My other brother (doesn't/ don't) know yet where he'll go.
5. Each of them (are /is) taking (his/ their) own motorcycle.
6. My sister and I (was/ were) planning to go to Wyoming.
7. But my sister decided she (doesn't/ don't) want to go.
8. No one in our family (has/ have) ever been to California.
9. So my sister and her friends (think/ thinks) they'll go.
10. My mother and father (intend/ intends) to drive to Pennsylvania

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FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERBS

Verbs can be divided into two categories:

Finite verbs are governed by the person and number of the subject.
I am driving down the lane.
Bandana drives to college.
They drive very fast.
In the above sentences, the verb ‘drive’ is governed by the person and number of the subjects,
‘I’, ‘Bandana’ and ‘They’ respectively.

Non-finite verbs do not change their form even when the person and the number of the
subject changes.

I want to eat something delicious.

Bandana has to eat apples every day.
They want to eat eggs for breakfast.
In the above sentences, the verb ‘eat’ does not change even though the person and number of
the subject change.

Non-finite verbs are of three kinds:

1. Gerund: The ‘-ing’ form of the verb which is used as a noun is called a gerund. It is also
called the verbal noun.
Taking exercise is important.
Running is a good way to keep fit.

2. Infinite: The infinitive is the base form of the verb. It is often used with ‘to’ or without
‘to’. Infinitives with ‘to’ before them are called ‘to-infinitives’.
David and I agreed to meet at 4 o’clock.
I’ll arrange to see the dentist straight away.

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3. Participle: There are two kinds of participles:

Present participles are formed by adding ‘-ing’ to the base verb.
I have been reading.
Past participles are formed by adding -d, -ed, -en, -t or -n to the base verb.
I have worked.

The difference between Finite and Non-Finite Verbs:

a. A finite verb can be the main verb of a sentence or clause.

b. It has to be in accordance with the subject in terms of tense and number.
c. A finite verb is directly related to the subject of the sentence or clause.
d. A finite verb is usually in the present and past tense.
e. A non-finite verb does not change in accordance to the subject or tense.
f. It is not directly related to the subject and can come in the form of an infinitive, gerund or
a participle.
g. A non-finite verb can take the form of a noun, adjective or adverb.

Exercises:
1. Fill in the gaps with an ‘-ing’ form or a ‘to-infinitive’ form of the verb in the box.

listen miss travel drive take carry

a) I prefer _________ by train.

b) Would you like _________ a shower now?
c) I’d hate _________any of the fun.
d) The taxi-driver refused _________ my luggage up the stairs.
e) Sam offered _________ us to the station.
f) Mum likes _________ to the radio while she irons the clothes.

2. A daughter has written a letter to her mother describing the journey that she and
her younger brother undertook to see their uncle. Complete the letter using appropriate
non-finites (‘-ing’, ‘-ed’ and ‘to’ verb form).

Dear Mother,

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It would perhaps interest you a) _________ that we mostly b) _________ the time of our
journey in c) _________ out of the windows of the carriage. We saw sheep and cows d)
_________ fields. We both e) _________ count each flock, but f) _________ is our attempt.
When the journey was over we were g) _________ by our uncle at the railway station.
Love
Elizabeth.

VOCABULARY: COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

One of the mistakes many of us make when speaking or writing English is to

wrongly use a word that is similar to another word but means something completely
different. Malapropism is the term used to refer to the incorrect use of words. Words
that confuse us usually have similar spellings or pronunciations. The list below has
some pairs of such words and their meanings. Practice using them in sentences so
that you do not make when you speak or write.

Confusables
Meanings

Accept to agree to receive or do

Except not including

unfavorable, harmful
Adverse
strongly disliking; opposed
Averse
recommendations about what to
Advice do
Advise to recommend something
to change or make a difference
Affect to
Effect a result; to bring about a result

a passage between rows of seats

Aisle
an island
Isle

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all in one place, all at once

All together
completely; on the whole
Altogether
moving or extending
Along horizontally on
A long referring to something of great
length

out loud
Aloud
permitted
Allowed

a sacred table in a church

Altar
to change
Alter
not concerned with right or
wrong
Amoral
not following accepted moral
Immoral
standards

Appraise to assess
Apprise to inform someone
agreement, approval
Assent the action of rising or climbing
Ascent up

relating to the ears or hearing

Aural
relating to the mouth; spoken
Oral

pleasantly warm
Balmy
foolish, crazy
Barmy
naked; to uncover

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Bare to carry; to put up with

Bear
in phrase 'with bated breath', i.e.
Bated
in great suspense
Baited
with bait attached or inserted

a Middle Eastern market

Bazaar
strange
Bizarre
a bunk in a ship, train, etc.
Berth the emergence of a baby from
Birth the womb

having started life

Born
carried
Borne
to criticize strongly
Censure
to ban parts of a book or film; a
Censor
person who does this

Cereal a grass producing an edible

grain; a breakfast food made
from grains,
Serial happening in a series

Chord a group of musical notes

Cord a length of string; a cord-like
body part

forming a climax
Climactic
relating to climate
Climatic
rough
Coarse a direction; a school subject;

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Course part of a meal

smug and self-satisfied

Complacent
willing to please
Complaisant

to add to so as to improve; an
Complement addition that improves
Compliment something
to praise or express approval; an
admiring remark
a group of people who manage
Council
or advise
Counsel
advice; to advise
a signal for action; a wooden
Cue rod
Queue a line of people or vehicles

to keep something in check; a

Curb
control or limit
Kerb
(in British English) the stone
edge of a pavement
a dried grape
Currant
happening now; a flow of
Current
water, air, or electricity

Defuse to make a situation less tense

Diffuse to spread over a wide area

a waterless, empty area; to

Desert
abandon someone
Dessert
the sweet course of a meal
Discreet careful not to attract attention
Discrete separate and distinct

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impartial
Disinterested
not interested
Uninterested
a current of air
Draught a first version of a piece of
Draft writing
an even score at the end of a
Draw game
Drawer a sliding storage compartment

having two parts

Dual
a fight or contest between two
Duel
people

Elicit to draw out a reply or reaction

Illicit not allowed by law or rules

to make certain that something

Ensure will happen
to provide compensation if a
Insure person dies or property is
damaged

Forbear to refrain
Forebear an ancestor

Foreword an introduction to a book

Forward onwards, ahead

to turn to ice
Freeze
a decoration along a wall
Frieze
gruesome, revolting
Grisly a type of bear

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Grizzly

a store
Hoard
a large crowd of people
Horde

to suggest indirectly
Imply
to draw a conclusion
Infer

reluctant, unwilling
Loath
to hate
Loathe
to unfasten; to set free
Loose to be deprived of; to be unable
Lose to find

a measuring device
Meter
a metric unit; rhythm in verse
Metre

to be a powerful factor against

Militate
to make less severe
Mitigate

the roof of the mouth

Palate
a board for mixing colours
Palette

a foot-operated lever
Pedal
to sell goods
Peddle

a long, slender piece of wood

Pole
voting in an election
Poll

Pour to flow or cause to flow

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Pore a tiny opening; to study

something closely

the use of an idea or method;

Practice
the work or business of a
doctor, dentist, etc.
to do something repeatedly to
Practise
gain skill; to do something
regularly
to authorize use of medicine; to
Prescribe
order authoritatively
Proscribe
to officially forbid something

Principal most important; the head of a

Principle school
a fundamental rule or belief

a person inclined to doubt

Skeptic
infected with bacteria
Septic

the ability to see

Sight
a location
Site

not moving
Stationary
writing material
Stationery

Exercise 1

Below you'll find pairs of words that are commonly confused in writing. Choose the correct
response to complete each of the sentences:

1. Take a deep (Breath/Breathe)

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2. Make sure to (Breath)(Breathe) __ deeply.

3. Paris is the _(Capital/ Capitol)___ of France.
4. We can't start this business with limited __(Capital/Capitol) .
5. Jessica always buys (stationery/stationary)
6. The ____(counsel /council) decided in favor of the business proposal.
7. That is the ____________ ingredient. (Principal /Principle)
8. He interviewed an (imminent / eminent) physicist.
9. He talked about the ___(eminent/ imminent)_collapse of the government.
10. All of the ___(loose/lose) __ change fell out of his pocket.
Exercise 2

1. The English ___________ I took last semester was the best I’ve ever taken (corse/course)
2. There is a __________ in your new shirt (whole/hole.)
3. Most drugs have side (affects, effects).
4. Warm bread (compliments, complements) any meal.
5. I practice so I won’t (lose, loose) the game.
6. The Senate was in session at the (capital, capitol) today.
7. My daughter likes purple (stationary, stationery).
8. The government’s decision met with much (descent, dissent).
9. Everybody likes to receive (compliments, complements).
10. Voting can help (affect, effect) change.

WRITING SKILLS: MEMO WRITING

Memos are used within organizations to communicate everything from routine details to
complete proposals and reports. Memos are often only a few short paragraphs, but they can
be much longer, depending on their purpose. Here are some typical uses of memos:

• To inform others about new or changed policy, procedures, organizational details

• To announce meetings, events, changes
• To present decisions, directives, proposals, briefings
• To transmit documents (internal)

Memo Format:

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 Company and/or department name (without address)

 Heading
 To (who gets it)
 From (who sent it)
 Subject (what it’s about)
 Date (when it was sent)
 Body (conveys message)
 Introduction
 Main points
 Close

Memo Structure:
Subject Line: Summarizes the main idea; think of it as being preceded by the words "This
memo is about."
Introductory paragraph: Quickly orients the reader to what the memo is about.
 Give your purpose for writing.
 Supply any relevant background information.
 Identify any task the memo is related to.
Body: Conveys the information and supporting details relevant to the memo's purpose
 Keep paragraphs short and focused; one main idea per paragraph.
 Keep sentences tight and informative
 Use bullets to list information
Close: End courteously (think of a phone call or face-to-face meeting), stating any expected
outcome, action, or other information appropriate to your purpose. For example,
 “Please send me your comments and suggestions by January 16.”
 "Let's meet next week to go over the next stage in the plan."

Sample Memo:

Write a memo about a topic of your choice. Tell recipients the purpose of the memo, your
reason(s) for sending it and what action (if any) you want taken. Provide suggestions in your
memo if appropriate.

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To: All Staff

From: Dr. Jeff Joyner, Principal
Date: March 13, 2018
Subject: Annual College Picnic
The annual college picnic will be held at Memorial Park on May 27, 2016. The event will be
catered by Fresh Air Barbeque, with desserts by Nancy's Sweet Things. Immediate family
members are invited. Please plan to join us.

Dr. Jeff Joyner

READING COMPREHENSION: Type 5

1. Read the text below about meetings.

2. In most of the lines () there is one extra word. It is either grammatically incorrect or
does not fit in with the meaning of the text. Some lines, however, are correct.
3. If a line is correct, write CORRECT on your Answer Sheet
4. If there is an extra word in the line, write the extra word in CAPITAL LETTERS on
your Answer Sheet.
5. The exercise begins with two examples, (0) and (00).

Meetings That Work

0 A vital skill for anyone running a business it is the ability to communicate

00 Effectively. This is particularly important in a meeting where complex arguments
01 need to be put forward and where it is too vital to get the best out of the situation
02 and those present in as little time as possible. Before calling a meeting, ask
03 yourself if you actually need one, since so many are unproductive results and do
04 not really need to take place. Sending an email or by using another means of
05 communication, such as a simple phone call, might achieve the desired results in
06 half the time. Having established the need for a meeting, so in for, those you
07 wish to attend and ask people to be punctual. Concerning the key to a good
08 meeting is an agenda, which needs to be sent out in advance and should state the
09 date, time and location. It should also contain the names of those ones who will
10 be present and set that out, starting with the most important, the points for

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11 discussion. Ask in advance for suggestions for items to be discussed about but
12 set a deadline for submission in order to reduce the amount of time that has to be
spent under ‘Any Other Business’.

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