Rhetoric The art of effective communication, involving appeals to the audience and

persuasive devices. ( Speeches)

Terms used by ancient Greeks to describe the different ways a speech appeals to an
audience:

 Ethos: Refers to the trustworthiness of the speaker or writer. Establish credit with
the audience and feel confident of your right to deliver the speech to the
audience.
 Pathos: Appeal to emotions; whenever a speaker makes you feel patriotic, guilty,
afraid or joyful he/she is appealing to your sense of emotion. Emotional language
to evoke an emotional response.
 Logos: Appeals to your sense of logic (all good speeches do this). Usually in a
form of an argument with several premises and a conclusion. Reasoning in a
speech carries a degree of validity and certainty.

Nine Rhetorical Devices

1. Parallelism

A stylistic device used in speeches & writing. Writing structures that are grammatically
parallel helps your reader or listener understand your points better because they flow
more smoothly.

Example: the use of 3 clauses (makes the sentence long but they are easy to follow
because they have the same structure)

If there is anyone out there (1) who still doubts…(2) who still wonders…(3) who still
questions

1. Hypophora
A common technique is to start a speech with hypophora, in which the speaker first
asks a question and then answers it.

2. Repetition
Repetition when used properly can be effective in creating a sense of structure and
power. In speech writing repeating small phrases can ingrain an idea in the minds of the
audience.

3. Antithesis
In order to tell people what you believe in. it is useful to tell them what you do not believe
in.
 4. Figurative speech
People like to think in metaphors. Figurative speech tends to work best when set off by
concrete images.

5. Tricolon and polysyndeton

A tricolon is a list of 3, or a sentence in which there are 3 parts or clauses.
Polysyndeton uses the word and in between each and every item listed whereas
usually in a list it is only necessary to use and before the last item. This is used to
stress importance of every item. Example $5 and $10 and $20

6. Juxtaposition
When 2 things of opposite nature are mentioned together.
Example; People who braved the bitter cold and scorching heat… the juxtaposition of
“bitter cold” and “scorching heat” stresses the extreme conditions convincing the
audience of their dedication.

7. Allusion
When your speech echoes another speech or famous phrase. You associate yourself
with the ideas of the original text and bond with the audience by evoking shared
knowledge.
Example: The words government of the people, by the people, and for the people are
from the Gettysburg Address delivered by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863- most
Americans in the audience would know them.

8. Varied sentence length

Varying the length of your sentences strengthens your writing.

Note: Parallelism and hypophora are good in both essays and speeches.
Repetition and polysyndeton are not recommended for essay writing!

• Commandment or promise

• “I could never express . . .” : an assertion that something would be impossible to

express or describe adequately.

• An exclamation of deep indignation.

• A warning, often exaggerated, of dire consequences should someone take a certain

action.
• Breaking off in the middle of a speech or statement, to indicate that the speaker or
writer is overcome with emotion and at a loss for words.

• A threatening or warning prophecy.

• Repetition of words that carry particular emotional weight.

• A list or sequence of synonyms. “You blocks, you stones, you worse than senseless
things!” (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar).

• An appeal to God or the gods, or to someone else who is regarded as particularly

important. “For the sake of your dear mother, please . . .”.

• Describing the horrible consequences of a certain course of action.

• Expressions of special force or vigor or emphasis.

• Changing a first thought or idea to make it stronger or more vehement.

• Repetition of the same plea in the same or similar words.

• Using rhetorical questions to express grief or anger or some other strong emotion.

• An ironic suggestion that the audience do something which the speaker actually thinks
would be a very bad idea. “Go ahead, invade Afghanistan! And good luck!”

• Anything designed to excite or ‘wake up’ the audience.

• Stirring up the audience’s emotions by expressing your own emotions emphatically

and dramatically.

• Addressing the audience directly, pointing out their own errors or mistakes or
hypocrisy.

• Complaining and asking for help.

• Expressing joy that good things have happened, or bad things have been avoided.

• Referring to any condition or circumstance that will arouse pity in the audience.

• Any kind of threat.

ADVERTISING TECHNIQUES

AVANTE GARDE
The suggestion that using this product puts the user ahead of the times e.g. a toy
manufacturer encourages kids to be the first on their block to have a new toy.

FACTS AND FIGURES information is used to prove the superiority of the product
e.g. a car manufacturer quotes the amount of time it takes their car to get from 0
to 100 k.p.h.

Meet iPhone X — Apple

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mW6hFttt_KE

WIT AND HUMOR

Customers are attracted to products that divert the audience by giving viewers a
reason to laugh or to be entertained by clever use of visuals or language

WEASEL WORDS
“Weasel words" are used to suggest a positive meaning without actually really
making any guarantee e.g. a scientist says that a diet product might help you to
lose weight the way it helped him to lose weight.

Absolut Cut The Crap Valentine Ad

MAGIC INGREDIENTS

The suggestion that some almost miraculous discovery makes the product
exceptionally effective e.g. a pharmaceutical manufacturer describes a special
coating that makes their pain reliever less irritating to the stomach than a
competitor`s.

BRIBERY
Bribery seems to give a desirable extra something.  We humans tend to be
greedy. e.g. Buy a burger; get free fries.

Ice Cream Magic Commercial https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mLSJZZilGwk

Celebrities
A famous personality is used to endorse the product. People want to identify with
the individual they see in ads. E.g. If David Beckham uses this phone, and you
want to be like David Beckham, then you had better but this phone.
ASSOCIATION
A technique of linking products with certain values.
E.g. It can be assumed that people value a way a phone feels in their hand
moreover, people value the attributes of snakeskin, as it is associated with chic
clothing and handbags, and the dangers of the wild.

One Direction Pepsi Commercial with Drew Brees [HD]

PATRIOTISM
The suggestion that purchasing this product shows your love of your country
e.g. a company brags about its product being made in America and employing
American workers.

Chevy Silverado Our Country History John Mellencamp 2006

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHK0vytywUg

TRANSFER
Words and ideas with positive connotations are used to suggest that the positive
qualities should be associated with the product and the user e.g. a textile
manufacturer wanting people to wear their product to stay cool during the
summer shows people wearing fashions made from their cloth at a sunny
seaside setting where there is a cool breeze.

Use of Children: Role Models | Hillary Clinton https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=mrX3Ql31URA

PLAIN FOLKS / Testimonials

The suggestion that the product is a practical product of good value for
ordinary people e.g. a cereal manufacturer shows an ordinary family sitting
down to breakfast and enjoying their product.
NUTELLA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tl22YOOCreE

SIMPLE SOLUTIONS
Avoid complexities, and attack many problems to one solution. e.g. Buy this
makeup and you will be attractive, popular, and happy.

SNOB APPEAL
The suggestion that the use of the product makes the customer part of an elite
group with a luxurious and glamorous life style e.g. a coffee manufacturer shows
people dressed in formal gowns and tuxedos drinking their brand at an art
gallery.

Belvedere Vodka Commercial. Live Young.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZNJL0SRkls

CARD STACKING
The propaganda technique of Card-Stacking is so widespread that we may not
always be aware of its presence in a commercial. Basically, Card-Stacking means
stacking the cards in favor of the product; advertisers stress positive qualities
and ignore negative. For example, if a brand of snack food is loaded with sugar
(and calories), the commercial may boast that the product is low in fat, which
implies that it is also low in calories. Card-Stacking is such a prevalent rational
propaganda technique that gives us only part of the picture.

Land Rover Range Rover Velar 2018 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AIltcDAapu8

GLITTERING GENERALITIES
The glittering generalities technique uses appealing words and images to sell the
product. The message this commercial gives, indirectly, is that if you buy the
item, you will be using a wonderful product, and it will change your life. This
cosmetic will make you look younger, this car will give you status, this magazine
will make you a leader-all these commercials are using Glittering Generalities to
enhance product appeal.

BANDWAGON
Bandwagon is a form of propaganda that exploits the desire of most people to
join the crowd or be on the winning side, and avoid winding up on the losing side

The popularity of a product is important to many people. Even if most of us say

we make our own choice when buying something we often choose well-
advertised items- the popular ones. Advertising copywriters must be careful with
the bandwagon propaganda technique because most of us see ourselves as
individuals who think for themselves. If Bandwagon commercial is to obvious,
viewers may reject the product outright.

 Bandwagon - Most people have or are doing this so you should too.
Example in Ads: Manufacturers of alcoholic beverages, such as beer and hard
liquor, will often use the bandwagon technique of associating their product with
the "in" crowd. Marketing research is used to find out what kinds of groups
consumers would like to be part of, and those group stereotypes are used to
advertise certain products.

LOADED WORDS: Use of words that have strong emotion. These words are used
to capture the consumer’s attention and influence their actions. Used in
advertisements/speeches: peace, war, patriotism, freedom, hope
Slogan: The slogan, or tagline, should be short, catchy and strong in mental
appeal. Come to where the flavor is. Come to Marlboro Country

Copy: Ads sometimes offer a small story. Gives some product information and
aims to persuade people to buy. …..you get a lot to like

Signature: Product and the company name

- What does the Marlboro ad say about cultural values?
- Why might this ad work in North America but not in he UK or other
Anglophone countries?
- The Marlboro man was once an icon. Why do you think he became
famous?
-
 Persuasive Language

Propaganda : The conscious effort to shape public opinion to conform to

an ideological position.

Definition: The art of Persuasion - Information, biased or misleading,

used to promote a political cause or point of view.

Purpose: 1. Spreading of ideas, information or rumor for the purpose of

helping or injuring an institution, cause or person.

Propaganda Techniques

1. Assertion

Making bold statements is a common technique. The audience is not

invited to question the validity of such statements as they are delivered as
a fact with enthusiasm and confidence.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mW-hIenPz7E

2. False dilemma
Example: When politicians present false dilemmas, they claim that there
are only two answers to one problem. In essence you are being
presented with two extremes and told to choose between the lesser of
two evils. There is really “no choice” involved, and the dilemma created
is a false one.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GgLrMHm32j4

3. Plain folks

A technique that generalizes about the average person and groups the
public together as plain folks. It relies on an information gap, with the public
being relatively uninformed… or attempt to convince the audience that a
prominent person and his ideas are “of the people.” Examples: a prominent
politician eats at McDonald’s; an actress is photographed shopping for
groceries

4. Name-calling and Pinpointing the enemy

A common tactic used during wartime to stir up anger and manufacture

consent. It gives the audience a very clear sense of right and wrong when
the issues involved might be a lot less clear-cut than that. Links a person,
or idea, to a negative symbol. Examples: commie, fascist, yuppie

6. Glittering generalities

Phrases such as “American Justice”. These are words connected to

worthy abstract concepts, such as freedom, democracy and justice, which
would be difficult to be against. Use of virtue words; the opposite of name
calling, i.e., links a
person, or idea, to a positive symbol. Examples: democracy, patriotism,
family

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kS0B_B-7wB0

7. Card stacking

The act of selectively including arguments that support your cause while
ignoring the counter arguments.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WG-1QQYFI3I

8. Bandwagon

Most people have or are doing this.. so should you! (Also used in
advertising; ex. Manufacturers of alcoholic beverages)
9. Loaded words

Use of words that have strong emotion: peace, war, patriotism, freedom,
hope

10. Testimonials

Using an expert, public figure, or celebrity to sell, support, promote or

endorse a product, a policy, or a political candidate. Examples: an athlete
appears on the Wheaties box; an actor speaks at a political rally

11. Transfer

Use of something we respect to convince us to accept what the

propagandist wants. EX: Waving flag: stirs emotions and wins approval.
The propagandist uses this device to link the authority or prestige of
something well respected and revered, such as church or nation, to
something he would have us accept. Example: a political activist closes her
speech with a prayer

12. Fear

Plays on fears, warns that disaster will result if you do not follow a
particular course of action. Ex: Insurance company pamphlet- of houses
destroyed by floods.

13. Unwarranted Extrapolation

Making predictions about the future based on a few small facts. EX: If the
government approves thousands of jobs will move to another country.

14. Snob appeal

One should act or think in a certain way because of the high status
associated with the action or thought. …… feeling of luxury for those who
can afford the very best!
15. Vague, undefined terms

Promotes or challenges an opinion by using words that are vague or poorly

defined to be almost meaningless…Try our new and improved all natural
product