Republic of the Philippines

President Ramon Magsaysay State University

(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

Introduction

The purpose of this curriculum is to learn the knowledge about construction materials
related to the architectural design, the structural design, and construction projects,
correctly recognize and reasonably choose the proper construction materials, and
master the information concerning the inspection, transportation and storage of the
products in order to lay a foundation for the future work.

The course mission is to enable students to obtain the basic knowledge and the necessary
theories related to the characteristics and application of construction materials and
access to the essential training skills relevant to the materials experiments.

For the purpose of this module, building materials, construction materials and engineering
materials can be used interchangeably.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

1. Understand the definitions and classification of construction materials

2. Enumerate characteristics of construction materials and their status in architecture
3. Know the development of construction materials
4. Be familiarized with the construction materials’ technical standards
5. Know the definition of construction materials testing and its importance
6. Understand the tasks and learning methods of construction materials curriculum

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Introduction to Construction Materials and Testing:
[Link]
2) Construction Material and Testing
[Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. THE DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

In the general environment for humans’ survival, all the materials or products used in
structures or buildings are called construction materials which are the material foundation
for all the construction engineering. The building
materials discussed in this course are all the materials used in building foundations, bases,
floors, walls, beams, plates, roofs and architectural decoration.

There is a wide variety of construction materials. They are usually classified from different
angles for the sake of study, application and description. The most common classifications
are based on their chemical components and functions.

1) According to the chemical components of construction materials, they can be

classified into inorganic materials, organic materials and composite materials, as
follows:

2) According to the functions of materials, they can be divided into structural materials
and functional materials:
 Structural Materials: mainly used as load-bearing members, such as the materials
used for beams, plates and columns.
 Functional Materials: mainly possessing some special functions in construction,
such as waterproof, ornamental and heat-insulating functions, etc..

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND THEIR STATUS IN

ARCHITECTURE

Construction materials are the material foundation for all the construction engineering.
Construction materials industry, which is one of the important basic industries of national
economy, promotes the development of the construction industry.

Various buildings and structures are constructed by all kinds of construction materials on
the basis of reasonable design. The varieties, specifications and qualities of construction
materials are directly related to the applicability, artistry and durability of buildings and also
to the cost of projects. A large number of high-quality industrial and civil buildings need to
be built for the development of society. Meanwhile, a great deal of water conservancy
projects, traffic engineering and port projects need to be built to adapt to the rapid
development of the national economy. It requires lots of high-quality construction materials
which accords with the application environment of projects. Therefore, construction
materials industry is usually considered as the basic industry for the construction engineering

Construction materials not only have a large consumption, but also are expensive. In
the total cost of the construction, the cost of construction materials often accounts for
about 50 percent. Thus, it is significant to properly choose and reasonably utilize
construction materials in the construction for the reduction of costs and the improvement
of investment benefits.

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 A large number of new construction materials continue to emerge, often promoting the
innovation and development of construction techniques. For example, the emergence of
clay bricks contributes to the brick-timber structure; the reinforced concrete structure
comes from concrete and steel bar; light high-strength materials promote the development
of modem buildings and high-rise buildings; the application of various functional materials
in the construction industry continues to create diversified comfortable living and
production environment and to conserve energy.

In short, the application of construction materials in the projects must possess the
following characteristics: the function required by projects, the durability proper for the
environmental conditions, the rich resources to meet the needs of construction, and low
price.

In the building environment, the ideal construction materials should be light, high-
strength, aesthetic, heat-insulating, sound-absorbing, waterproof, shockproof, fireproof,
non-toxic, and efficient, etc..

3. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Various construction materials form the living environment of human beings, which reflects
the cultural and scientific features of each era, becoming an important symbol of humans’
material civilization.

Construction materials develop with the improvement of the productivity and living
standards. In the early age, human beings inhabited “cave dwelling”. After the Iron Age,
they began digging, chipping and logging with simple tools to build shabby houses by
natural materials; and with the use of fire, people learned how to burn bricks, tiles and limes,
in which way construction materials entered the artificial production stage. In 18th and 19th
century, steel, cement, concrete and reinforced concrete continuously emerged with the
rise of capitalism, the rapid development and the improve of traffic, which pushed
construction materials into a new stage of development.

Since the 20th century, the formation and development of material science and
engineering had contributed to not only the improvement of construction materials in
function and quality, but also the varieties. Some new construction materials with special
functions came into being, such as heat-insulating materials, sound-absorbing materials,
ornamental materials, heat-resistant and waterproof materials, impermeable materials and
wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, and explosion-proof, and anti-radiation materials, etc. In
the second half of the 20th century, construction materials evolved towards light, high-
strength and functional direction.

In the new century, as humans’ awareness of environmental protection has been

strengthened, non-toxic and pollution-free “Green Construction materials” are
recommended increasingly and human beings can build their own “Green Home” with
new construction materials.

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4. INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS’ TECHNICAL STANDARDS

The implementing standards should be established for the various techniques of material
products because of the scientific management of the modem material production.

Product Standards are the standards established for products to meet some or all the
requirements in order to guarantee the applicability of products. They generally includes
product specifications, classifications, technical functions, testing methods, rules of
inspection and acceptance, packaging, storage, transport and others. For example,
cement, ceramic and steel have their own product standards.

Building Material Standards are the technical foundations for the inspection of product
quality and the bases for the acceptance of product quality referred to by both sides of
supply and demand. The structure designs and construction techniques can be
standardized accordingly by the reasonable selection of materials in the construction
engineering, which will accelerate the construction and maximize the benefit of the
engineering practice.

The mandatory standards indicate that any technique (or product) should not fall
below the requirements; the recommendatory standards indicate that other standards are
allowed to be followed, but the recommendatory standards will become the mandatory
standards once they are adopted by mandatory standards; the technical requirements
regulated in regional standards or enterprise standards should be above national
standards.

International standards can be broadly classified into the following categories:

1) The “ISO’ international standards adopted in the whole world.
2) The standards of the worldwide influential communities and companies, such as the
ASTM (named American Society for Testing and Materials) Standards.
3) Regional Standards. They refer to the standards of industrialized countries, such as
the DIN Standards of Germany, the BS Standards of the United Kingdom and the JIS
Standards of Japan.

5. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS TESTING (CMT) AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Construction Materials Testing (CMT) is the testing of materials used to build new projects,
add to existing projects, or amend existing construction projects. The services involved in a
comprehensive CMT process greatly depends on the project, the land, and the scope of
services.

Testing services can generally be divided into two areas: Field Testing and Laboratory
Testing.

Field Testing:
Field testing CMT services take place at the site. Roadways, airports, utility projects, building
developments: All typically involve CMT processes carried out by certified professionals.

In the field, construction materials testing can involve:

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 4

  Soils
 Concrete/Asphalt
 Steel
 Masonry
 Timber

What does Field Testing look for? Compaction, moisture, air content, and more, most of
which is evaluated through visual inspection and/or non-destructive techniques. Steel
structures, retaining walls, and soil foundations are prime examples of construction that are
evaluated during Field Testing.

In instances where Field Testing is inconclusive or exploratory in nature, samples of

various materials may be sent off for further lab testing.

Laboratory Testing:
When Field Testing indicates further study is needed, Lab Testing is then recommended as
the next phase of a comprehensive CMT regimen. Laboratory testing is usually performed
on an as-needed basis. Common lab-tested construction materials include:
 Soil – Modified/Standard Proctor, Bearing Ratios, Classification Tests, Swell Testing,
Compressive Strength Testing, pH Testing, Chloride/Sulfide Testing, Hydraulic
Conductivity, Consolidation, Permeability Testing, Shear Testing, and more.
 Asphalt – Mix Evaluation, Stability, Flow, Bulk Specific Gravity, Gradation, Density
(Marshall), and more.
 Masonry/Concrete – Flexural Strength Testing, Compression Strength Testing, Unit
Weight, Tensile Testing, Absorption, Efflorescence Testing, Mix Design, Structural
Masonry Testing, and more.

IMPORTANCE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

Mechanical testing of engineering materials may be carried out for a number of

reasons: The tests may simulate the service conditions of a material, so that the test results
may be used to predict its service performance. Mechanical testing may also be
conducted in order to provide engineering design data, as well as acceptability, the main
purpose of which is to check whether the material meets the specification.

It is critical for the viability and safety of a construction project. CMT can reveal any
number of issues related to construction quality. It can highlight future risks, help classify a
building site, and assist with engineering decisions. Without CMT, engineers and builders
may not know if the quality of the construction meets the requirements. Construction
Materials Testing is also a regulatory requirement for most large-scale projects.

6. TASKS AND LEARNING METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS CURRICULUM

The course mission is to enable students to obtain the basic knowledge and the necessary
theories related to the characteristics and application of construction materials and access
to the essential training skills relevant to the materials experiments.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5

 Building materials course is very practical and applicable. Of the learning methods, the
first one is to focus on the major content, that is, the construction function and reasonable
application of the materials. The other contents are all concerned with this focus. It is
incorrect to change the construction function into an invariable concept. The more
important thing is to know the inherent factors and their mutual relationships. For the various
materials of the same category, not only should their similarities be learned but also their
respective
characteristics. For example, the six common kinds of cement have many similarities and
many specialties. They are used in the according conditions just based on their own
features.

Experimental course is the important part of the teaching. Its task is to verify the basic
theories, learn the experimental methods, and foster a scientific research capacity and the
strict scientific attitude. In the experiments, it is necessary to be careful and serious, even
the simple ones. It is necessary to know the influence of testing results on the testing
conditions and make the correct analysis and judgment on the results.

References

1. Zhang, Haimei. 2011. Building materials in civil engineering. Woodhead Publishing Limited
and Science Press.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 6

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 2. Familiarization with Apparatus and Equipment Used in Testing of Materials

Introduction

In nearly any industry, the quality of the materials used can often mean the difference
between success and failure. This can be particularly true for construction, where failure
can have serious consequences. The research and development process typically
includes a variety of materials testing applications to ensure the final product meets
quality and safety standards.

Materials testing measures the characteristics and behavior of substances like metals,
masonry, concrete or asphalt under a variety of conditions. The most obvious reason to
test is to make certain that the final product will function as intended and can endure
the stresses of that function (i.e., will concrete footings support the weight of a two-story
building).

Reasons for testing include safety, economics and, of course, simply to ensure that a
material is suitable for its intended purpose.

Materials testing involves a variety of applications that examine composition, physical

structure and chemical properties. While the specific tests vary by industry, common
tests include specific gravity (also called relative density), unit weight tests, density
determination, compression strength, flexural strength, tensile strength, elasticity,
permeability, thermal expansion, drying shrinkage and heat capacity.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

Enumerate different apparatus and equipment used in testing of materials and their uses

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Basic Equipment in Material Testing: [Link]
2) Universal Testing Machine: [Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. SIEVE SET

A sieve, or sifter, is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted material or for
characterizing the particle size distribution of a sample of (aggregates, sand, and other soil
particles).

The apparatus used are –

a) A set of IS Sieves of sizes – 80mm, 63mm, 50mm,
40mm,31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm,
6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm,
300µm, 150µm and 75µm.
b) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1
percent of the weight of the test sample. The weight
of sample available should not be less than the
weight given below

Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the coarse and fine
aggregates. This is done by sieving the aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part I) – 1963. In this we
use different sieves as standardized by the IS code and then pass aggregates through
them and thus collect different sized particles left over different sieves. The sample for
sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either by quartering or by means of a
sample divider.

Procedure to determine particle size distribution of Aggregates.

i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5°C and
weighed.
ii) The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.
iii) On completion of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the
total sample weight.
v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of aggregates
retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.

Reporting of Results
The results should be calculated and reported as:
i) The cumulative percentage by weight of the total sample.
ii) The percentage by weight of the total sample passing through one sieve and retained
on the next smaller sieve, to the nearest 0.1 percent. The results of the sieve analysis
may be recorded graphically on a semi-log graph with particle size as abscissa (log
scale) and the percentage smaller than the specified diameter as ordinate.

2. BALANCE

Balance can be used to determine the specific gravity of cured samples, such as concrete or
asphalt. Specific gravity is the ratio of a substance’s density to the density of a liquid such as
water (if the sample substance is a liquid or solid) or air (for a gas).

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Another common construction test concerns the unit weight
(density) of a material such as freshly mixed concrete, which
measures the weight of the material required to fill one unit of
volume. Unit weight is expressed as the weight of a material (in
pounds) per volume (cubic foot or cubic yard): pounds per
cubic foot (lb/ft3) or pounds per cubic yard (lb/yd3).

There are different kinds of scales such as bench scales, platform

scales and wheeled scales that are rugged enough for
construction site use.

3. GRADUATED BEAKER

Beakers are used for various purposes—from preparing solutions

and decanting supernatant fluids to holding waste fluids prior
to disposal to performing simple reactions.
 Standard or "low-form" (A) beakers typically have a
height about 1.4 times the diameter. Low form beakers
are likely to be used in some way when performing a
chemical experiment.
 "Tall-form" (B) beakers have a height about twice their
diameter. These are sometimes called Berzelius beakers
and are mostly used for titration.
 Flat beakers (C) are often called "crystallizers" because
most are used to perform crystallization, but they are also
often used as a vessel for use in hot-bath heating. These
beakers usually do not have a flat scale.

4. CALCULATOR

5. SLUMP CONE

A metal mold in the form of a truncated cone with a top diameter

of 4"(102mm), a bottom diameter of 8"(203mm), and a height of
12"(305mm), used to fabricate the specimen for a slump test. A 2 ft
(610 mm) long bullet nosed metal rod, 5’’’ (16 mm) in diameter.

Concrete Slump Test

The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures
the workability of fresh concrete More specifically, it
measures the consistency of the concrete in that specific
batch. This test is performed to check the consistency of
freshly made concrete. Consistency is a term very closely
related to workability. It is a term which describes the state
of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease with which the
concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e.

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wetter mixes will be more workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency
may vary in workability.

Procedure
The test is carried out using a
mould known as a slump cone or
Abrams cone. The cone is
placed on a hard non-
absorbent surface. This cone is
filled with fresh concrete in three
stages, each time it is tamped
using a rod of standard
dimensions. At the end of the
third stage, concrete is struck off
flush to the top of the mould. The
mould is carefully lifted vertically
upwards, so as not to disturb the
concrete cone. Concrete
subsides. This subsidence is
termed as slump, and is measured in to the nearest 5 mm if the slump is <100 mm and
measured to the nearest 10 mm if the slump is >100 mm.

6. VARIOUS MOULDS

a) CUBE MOULDS - Plastic or Steel Concrete Cube Molds are used to form specimens
for concrete compressive strength testing. They can also be used as sample
containers in the determination of mortar set times
 Plastic Concrete Cube Mold, 150x150mm is a one-piece mold made of rugged
plastic with reinforced construction. Allows for easy specimen removal.
 Steel Concrete Cube Mold, 6x6in molds specimens for strength testing or used as
a container to hold test samples. Easy assembly and de-molding.

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b) CYLINDER MOULDS - are used to create cylinder test specimens. The cylinder
molds are constructed of plastic or steel. The plastic concrete cylinder molds are
disposable, while the steel molds are reusable. The molds come in a variety of sizes
including: 2″ x 4″, 3″ x 6″, 4″ x 8″, and 6″ x 12″.

Concrete Cylinder Test

The compressive strength of the concrete cylinder is one of the most common
performance measures performed by the engineers in the structural design. Here,
the compressive strength of concrete cylinders is determined by applying
continuous load over the cylinder until failure occurs. The test is conducted on a
compression-testing machine.

Test Procedure
1. The concrete cylinder is cast for standard size and allowed to cure for 28
days. Three specimens of the same dimension are cast for testing.
2. Takeout the specimen from the curing tank.
3. Wipe out the excess water from the surface of the specimen.
4. Place the specimen vertically on the platform of compression testing
machine. Uniform load application and distribution is facilitated by having
pad caps at the ends of the cylinders.
5. Before starting to apply the load, make it sure that the loading platforms
touch the top of the cylinder.
6. Apply the load continuously and uniformly without shock at the rate of 315
kN/min. And continue the loading until the specimen fails.
7. Record the maximum load taken.
8. The test is repeated for the remaining two specimens.

c) BEAM MOULDS - are used to test concrete flexural strength. They are made from
either plastic or steel depending on preference and standards.

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7. HYDROMETER

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the

specific gravity(or relative density) of liquids; that is, the
ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water A
hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a
cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with mercury or
lead shot to make it float upright.

The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall container,

often a graduated cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently
lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point at
which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the
hydrometer is noted. Hydrometers usually contain a scale
inside the stem, so that the specific gravity can be read
directly. A variety of scales exist, and are used depending
on the context.

8. UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

An instrument so designed that it is capable of exerting a tensile, compressive, or transverse

stress on a specimen under test. Further, it can be adapted for the determination of Brinell
hardness, ductility, cold bend, and other properties. The machine consists essentially of three
systems: loading, weighing, and indicating, the loading being applied either mechanically or
hydraulically.

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The Universal Testing Machine consists of two main parts, viz. the loading unit and the control
panel.

A. THE LOADING UNIT

The loading unit consists of a robust base at the centre of which is fitted the main
cylinder and piston. A rigid frame consisting of the lower table, the upper cross head
and the two straight columns is connected to this piston through a ball and socket joint.
A pair of screwed columns mounted on the base pass through the main nuts to support
the lower cross-head. This cross head is moved up or down when the screwed columns
are rotated by a geared motor fitted to the base. Each cross-head has a tapering slot
at the centre into which are inserted a pair of racked jaws. These jaws are moved up
or down by the operating handle on the cross-head face and is intended to carry the
plate (grip) jaws for the tensile test specimen. An elongation scale, which measures the
relative movement between the lower table and the lower cross-head, is also provided
with the loading unit.

B. THE CONTROL PANEL

The control panel contains the hydraulic power unit, the load measuring unit and the
control devices.

1. The Hydraulic Power Unit.

The Hydraulic Power Unit consists of an oil pump driven by an electric motor and a
sump for the hydraulic oil. The pump is of the reciprocating type, having a set of
plungers which assures a continuous non-pulsating oil flow into the main cylinder for
a smooth application of the test load on the specimen. Hydraulic lines of the unit
are of a special design to enable them to perform various functions.

2. The Load Measuring Unit.

The load measuring unit, in essence is a pendulum dynamometer unit. It has a small
cylinder in which a piston moves in phase with the main piston under the same oil
pressure. A simple pendulum connected with this small piston by a pivot lever thus
deflects in accordance with the load on the specimen and the pivot ratio. This
deflection is transmitted to the load pointer which indicates the test load on the
dial. The pivot lever has four fulcrum -knife-edges, giving fo4ir ranges of test load,
(viz. 0-100 kN ; 0-250 kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN). The required range can be
selected by just turning a knob provided for the purpose. The overall accuracy of
the machine depends mainly on the accuracy of the measuring unit.

3. Control Devices.
These include the electric control devices, the hydraulic control devices and the
load indicating devices.

 The Electric Control Devices are in the form of four switches set on the left side
of the panel face. The upper and lower push switches are for moving the lower
cross-head up and down respectively. The remaining two are the ON and OFF
switches for the hydraulic pump.

 The Hydraulic Control Devices are a pair of control valves set on the table or the
control panel. The right control valve is the inlet valve. It is a pressure
compensated flow control valve and has a built-in overload relief valve. If this

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 7

 valve is in the closed position, while the hydraulic system is on, oil flows back into
the sump. Opening of the valve now, cause the oil to flow into the main cylinder
in a continuous non- pulsating manner. The left control valve is the return valve.
If this valve is in the closed position, the oil pumped into the main cylinder causes
the main piston to move up. The specimen resists this, movement, as soon as it
gets loaded up. Oil pressure inside the main cylinder (and elsewhere in the line)
then starts growing up until either the specimen breaks or the load reaches the
maximum value of the range selected. A slow opening of this valve now causes
the oil to drain back into the sump and the main piston to descent.

 The Load indicating Devices consist of a range inflating dial placed behind a
load indicating dial. The former move and sets itself to the range selected when
the range adjusting knob is turned. The load .on the specimen at any stage is
indicated by the load pointer which moves over the load indicating dial and
harries forward with it a dummy.

9. CONCRETE MIXER

Concrete Mixer A concrete mixer (also commonly called a

cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously combines
cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form
concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix
the components. For smaller volume works portable concrete
mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the
construction site Laboratory Concrete Mixer.

Two Different Types of Concrete Mixers

1) Mobile Concrete Mixers
This first type of concrete mixer is ideal for you if you need to use concrete in more than
one place in the same area. You can move this concrete mixer around from place to
place without any difficulty. These mixers are usually used to make sidewalks and in
projects where concrete needs to be used in multiple locations. You can manipulate
the dose of concrete required in each area and there is no need to add more water
to the mixture if you decide to put more rocks and mix them up with the concrete.

2) Stationary Concrete Mixers

Unlike the previous type, stationary concrete mixers
cannot be moved because they are fixed in only one
place. This type of concrete mixer is mostly used for
construction purposes. Builders use the concrete and
pour it into molds when they are constructing a building.
Usually, if you are using a stationary concrete mixer, you
may require using some cement to act as a pre-caster for
your construction project. A stationary concrete mixer is
ideal for you if you are staying in one place and you do
not have to move from place to place.

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10. PRESSURE GAUGE

Many techniques have been developed for the

measurement of pressure. Instruments used to measure
pressure are called pressure gauges

Types of pressure Gauge

1) Standard pressure gauges
This type of pressure gauge is probably the one most often
used. The pressure gauge is simply screwed into the
available thread (e.g. onto the pressure regulator). It is
generally sealed using a compression seal.

2) Integrated pressure gauge

The special feature of the integrated pressure gauge is that it has no outward-facing
interfering contours. A side-effect of this is the design. It wouldn't damage the
machine/system if, apart from the function, it was made to look more attractive.

3) Flange pressure gauge

This is used if the customer wishes to integrate the pressure gauge, for example into a
control cabinet.

4) Red-green pressure gauge

Using the adjustable red-green areas, a permissible and impermissible range can easily
be indicated.

5) Plug-in pressure gauge

Instead of a thread, this pressure gauge has a smooth sleeve with a groove and a seal.
This makes it easy to mount it onto existing fixtures. Dismantling and assembly is very
quick with this type of pressure gauge.

11. TAMPING ROD

Tamping rods are dimensionally accurate rods used to tamp

fresh concrete into cylinder molds and slump cones to
eliminate voids and excess air. Measures: 5/8" diameter x 24"
length For use with slump cones, 6" x 12" concrete cylinder molds and pressure meters Also
available; 3/8" diameter x 12" length, 5/8" diameter x 12" length, and graduated 5/8" diameter
x 24" length.

12. THERMOMETER

An instrument for measuring and indicating

temperature, typically one consisting of a narrow,
hermetically sealed glass tube marked with
graduations and having at one end a bulb
containing mercury or alcohol which extends
along the tube as it expands.

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13. VIBRATOR

A vibrator is a mechanical device to generate vibrations. The

vibration is often generated by an electric motor with an
unbalanced mass on its driveshaft.

TYPES OF CONCRETE VIBRATORS FOR COMPACTION

Since concrete contains particles of varying sizes, the most satisfactory compaction
would perhaps be obtained by using vibrators with different speeds of vibration. Poly
frequency vibrators used for compacting concrete of stiff consistency are being developed.
The vibrators for compacting concrete are manufactured with frequencies of vibration from
2800 to 15000 rpm.

The various types of vibrators used are described below:

i. Immersion or Needle Vibrators:
This is perhaps the most commonly used vibrator. It essentially consists of a steel tube
(with one end closed and rounded) having an eccentric vibrating element inside it. This
steel tube called poker is connected to an electric motor or a diesel engine through a
flexible tube. They are available in size varying from 40 to 100 mm diameter. The
diameter of the poker is decided from the consideration of the spacing between the
reinforcing bars in the form-work. The frequency of vibration varies up to 15000 rpm.
However a range between 3000 to 6000 rpm is suggested as a desirable minimum with
an acceleration of 4g to 10g. The normal radius of action of an immersion vibrator is
0.50 to 1.0m. However, it would be preferable to immerse the vibrator into concrete at
intervals of not more than 600mm or 8 to 10 times the diameter of the poker. The period
of vibration required may be of the order of 30 seconds to 2 minute. The concrete
should be placed in layers not more than 600mm high.

ii. External or Shutter Vibrators

These vibrators are clamped rigidly to the form work at the
pre-determined points so that the form and concrete are
vibrated. They consume more power for a given
compaction effect than internal vibrators. These vibrators
can compact up to 450mm from the face but have to be
moved from one place to another as concrete progresses.
These vibrators operate at a frequency of 3000 to 9000 rpm
at an acceleration of 4g. The external vibrators are more
often used for pre-casting of thin in-situ sections of such
shape and thickness as can not be compacted by internal vibrators.

iii. Surface Vibrators

Very dry mixes can be most effectively compacted with surface vibrators. The surface
vibrators commonly used are pan vibrators and vibrating screeds. The main application
of this type of vibrator is in the compaction of small slabs, not exceeding 150 mm in
thickness, and patching and repair work of pavement slabs. The operating frequency
is about 4000 rpm at an acceleration of 4g to 9g. These are placed directly on the

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 10

 concrete mass. These best suited for compaction of shallow elements and should not
be used when the depth of concrete to be vibrated is more than 250 mm.

iv. Vibrating Table

The vibrating table consists of a rigidly built steel platform
mounted on flexible springs and is driven by an electric motor.
The normal frequency of vibration is 4000 rpm at an
acceleration of 4g to 7g. The vibrating tables are very efficient
in compacting stiff and harsh concrete mixes required for
manufacture of precast elements in the factories and test
specimens in laboratories.

14. VICAT APPARATUS

Vicat's apparatus consists of an arrangement to hold the

plunger of 10 mm diameter and two other needles
which are made to freely fall into a mould filled with the
cement paste and the amount of penetration of the
needles of plunder can can be noted using the vertical
graduations from 0 mm to 50 mm. is used to find out the
consistency, initial setting time and final setting time of
the cement. In the normal consistency test we have to
find out the amount of water to be added to the
cement to form a cement paste of normal consistency.

Consistency Test:

To find out the consistency test you have to take a sample of

dried cement of about 400 g weight which must pass through
the 90 micron IS Sieve. Then mix in it about 25% of water by
weight a form a uniform paste within 2 minutes of time. Fill the
Vicat's mould with this paste and make the 10 mm plunger fixed
to the arrangement to just touch the top surface of the cement
paste. Make it freely fall and note the amount of penetration.
When the penetration is of about 42 to 45 mm or when the
reading on the vertical graduation is about 5 mm to 7 mm that
means cement is of normal consistency. Generally the water
required to form a paste of normal consistency is 30%.

Initial Setting Time:

Initial time of Cement is the time required by the cement for its early setting. Cement must be
applied to the place of its use before its initial setting so it is necessary to find out the initial
setting time that is available with us. Vicat's apparatus is the standard apparatus used to find
out this initial setting time. Look in the figure above, there is a needle of diameter 1 mm. This
needle is fixed to the movable rod weight. The cement paste of normal consistency is formed
and is filled in the mould. Now the needle is made just touch the top surface of the cement
paste and made freely fall in it. Initial setting time is the time from the mixing of the cement

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 11

and the water to the time when the penetration of the needle is just above 5 mm from the
bottom of the base plate or mold.

Generally the initial setting time of the ordinary Portland cement is 30 minutes. For Slow setting
cement this time may be increased by adding the admixtures or Gypsum up to 60 minutes.
Similarly, for the final setting time we have to use the third needle which has a enlarged 5 mm
hollow cylindrical base. The final setting time is the time from the mixing of the water to the
time when this needle just makes the impression on the surface of the cement but do not
penetrate into it. Generally the final setting time of cement (OPC) is 10 hrs to 12 hrs 15.

15. ELECTRIC OVEN

Ovens for high-forced volume thermal convection

applications. These ovens generally provide uniform
temperatures throughout. Process applications for laboratory
ovens can be for annealing, die-bond curing, drying, Polyimide
baking, sterilizing, and other industrial laboratory functions.
Typical sizes are from one cubic foot to 0.9 cubic meters (32 cu
ft) with temperatures that can be over 340 degrees Celsius.

16. STOP WATCH

Whether monitoring strain rates, determining flow speeds, or establishing

drying intervals, timing is an important part of laboratory testing. There is a
need to ensure that measurements taken with timing devices are
meaningful and accurate.

17. FUNNELS

Funnels are usually made of stainless steel, aluminium, glass, or plastic. The material used in its
construction should be sturdy enough to withstand the weight of the substance being
transferred, and it should not react with the substance.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 12

18. WIRE BASKET

This is used for specific gravity test of aggregates,

which is done to measure the strength or quality of
the material while water absorption test determines
the water holding capacity of the coarse and fine
aggregates.

A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a

perforated container of convenient size with thin
wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.

19. HYDRAULIC JACK

Hydraulic jacks provide a means of lifting loads that

otherwise could not be lifted by conventional mechanical
(screw and scissors) jacks.

20. BRUSHES
21. STEEL PAN
22. SHOVEL
23. TROWEL
24. WHEEL BARROWS

References

1. Zhang, Haimei. 2011. Building materials in civil engineering. Woodhead Publishing Limited
and Science Press.
2. Use of Balances in Material Testing for Construction.
https:/[Link]/aeblog/balances-in-materials-testing-for-construction
3. Compressive Strength of Concrete Cylinders.
[Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 13

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 3. General Properties of Materials

Introduction

This module discusses the components, the structures of materials and the
influence of their compositions on the properties; it emphasizes on the physical properties
and the mechanical properties of materials; and also, it introduces the decorativeness
and the durability of materials.

In the civil engineering, building materials plays different roles, so they should
possess corresponding properties. For example, structural materials should have good
mechanical characteristics; waterproof materials should be impermeable and water-
resistant; wall materials should be heat-insulating and sound-absorbing. In addition,
building materials should be durable because they are often affected by various external
factors, such as wind, rain, sun and frost.

The basic properties of building materials include physical property, mechanical

property, durability and decorativeness. The commonness of the properties is discussed
in this module.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

 Know the composition and structures of materials
 Understand the different properties of construction materials

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Construction Materials (Properties of Materials)
[Link]
2) Mechanical Properties of Material: [Link]
3) Material Properties 101: [Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURES OF MATERIALS AND THE INFLUENCE OF THEIR

CONSTRUCTIONS ON THE PROPERTIES

1.1. THE COMPOSITION OF MATERIALS

The compositions of materials include chemical compositions and mineral compositions
which are the key factors for the properties of materials.

1.1.1. CHEMICAL COMPOSTIION

The chemical composition refers to the chemical constituents. Various chemical
compositions result in different properties. For example, with the increase of carbon
content, the strength, hardness and toughness of carbon steel will change; carbon
steel is easy to rust, so stainless steel comes into being by adding chromium, nickel and
other chemical components into steel.

1.1.2. MINERAL COMPOSITION

Many inorganic non-metallic materials consist of a variety of mineral compositions.
Minerals are monomers and compounds with a certain chemical components and
structures. The mineral compositions are the key factors for the properties of some
building materials (such as natural stone, inorganic gel and other materials). Cement
reveals different characteristics because of different clinkers. For example, in Portland
cement clinkers, the condensation hardening is fast and the strength is high when the
content of tricalcium silicate-the clinker mineral-is high.

1.2. STRUCTURES AND CONSTRUCTIONS OF MATERIALS

The structures of materials can be divided into macro-structure, mesostructured and micro-
structure, which are the key factors related to the properties of materials.

1.2.1. MACRO-STRUCTURE
The thick structure above millimeter that can be identified with magnifying glass or
naked eyes is called as macro-structure. It can be classified into the following types:
1) Dense Structure
Basically, the inner side of the material is non-porous, such as steel, nonferrous
metals, glass, plastic and dense natural stone.
2) Porous Structure
The inside of this material has macro-pores, such as aerated concrete, foam,
concrete, foam plastics and artificial light materials. .
3) Micro-porous Structure
The inner side of this material is micro-porous which is formed by mixing plenty of
water into the micro-pores, such as common fired brick, and architectural
gypsum products.
4) Fibrous Structure
This material has the internal organization with direction, such as wood, bamboo,
glass reinforced plastic, and asbestos products
5) Laminated or Layered Structure
This material has composite structure which is layered structure formed
agglutinated by different sheets or anisotropic sheets

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 6) Granular Structure
This is a kind of loose granular material, such as sand, gravel, and expanded
pearlite.

1.2.2. MESO-STRUCTURE
The micro-level structure that can be observed by optical microscope is called meso-
structure or sub-microstructure. What is mainly studied in this structure are the size, shape
and interface of grains and particles, and the size, shape and distribution of pores and
micro-cracks. For example, the size and the metallographic structure of metal grains
can be analyzed; the thickness of concrete, cement and the porous organization can
be distinguished; and the wood fiber of timber, catheter, line, resin and other structures
can be observed.

The micro-structure has a great influence on the mechanical properties and durability
of materials. The grain refinement can improve the strength. For example, steel is mixed
with titanium, vanadium, niobium and other alloying elements which can refine grains
and significantly increase intensity.

1.2.3. MICROSTRUCTURE
The atomic and molecular structures of materials that can be studied by electron
microscopy, X-ray diffractometer and other means are called microstructure. This
structure can be divided into crystal and non-crystal.

1) Crystal
The solid whose particles (atoms, molecules or ions) are packed in a regularly
ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions is known as
crystal. It is characterized by a fixed geometric shape and anisotropy. The various
mechanical properties of crystal materials are related to the arrangement
pattern of particles and their bonding force (chemical bond).

Crystal can be divided into the following types by chemical bonds:

a) Atomic Crystal
- is formed by neutral atoms which are connected with each other by
covalent bonds. The bonding force is strong. The strength, hardness,
melting point and density of atomic crystal are high, such as diamond,
quartz and silicon carbide.
b) Ionic Crystal
- is formed by cations and anions. The ions are related with each other
by electrostatic attraction (Coulomb attraction) which is generally
stable. The strength, hardness and melting point are high but volatile;
some are soluble and density is medium. There is calcium chloride,
gypsum, limestone and so on.
c) Molecular Crystal
- is formed by molecules which are tied to each other by molecular
force (Van der Waals attraction). The bonding force is weak. The
strength, hardness and melting point are low; most of them are soluble
and the density is low. There is wax and some organic compounds.

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 d) Metal Crystal
- is formed by metal cations which are connected with each other by
metal bonds (Coulomb attraction). The strength and hardness are
volatile and the density is high. Because metal ions have free ions, the
metal materials such as iron, steel, aluminum, copper and their alloys
have good thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity.

Of crystal materials such as asbestos, quartz and talc, only a few ones
have one combination bond, and others are complex crystal materials
with more than two types of combination bonds.

2) Non-Crystal
The fuse mass with a certain chemical constituents is cooled so rapidly that the
particles cannot be packed in a regular ordered pattern, and thus it is solidified
into a solid, known as non-crystal or vitreous body or amorphous body. Non-
crystal is characterized by no fixed geometry shape and isotropy. A large
number of chemicals cannot be released because of the rapid cooling, so non-
crystal materials have chemical instability, easily reacting with other substances.
For example, granulated blast furnace slag, volcanic ash and fly ash can react
with lime under water for hardening, which are used as building materials. Non-
crystal plays the role of adhesive in products of burned clay and some natural
rocks.

2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

The characteristics of the building materials that can be observed and measured without
changing its chemical identity.

2.1. DENSITY, APPARENT DENSITY AND BULK DENSITY

2.1.1. DENSITY
Density is the dry mass per unit volume of a substance under absolute compact conditions.
It is defined by:

The volume under absolute compact conditions refers to the solid volume without the
volume of inner pores. Except steel, glass, asphalt and a few other materials, most materials
contain some pores in natural state. In the measurement of the density of a porous
material, the material is ground into powder at first; the powder is dried to fixed mass; and
then the solid volume is measured by Lee's density bottle; finally the density is calculated
by the above formula. The finer the powder is ground, the more real the size will be. Thus
the density value is more correct.

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2.1.2. APPARENT DENSITY
Apparent density is the dry mass per unit volume of a substance under natural conditions.
It is defined by:

The volume of a substance under natural conditions refers to the solid volume and the
volume of inner pores. If it is a regular shape, the volume can be directly measured; if it is
in an irregular shape, the volume can be measured by the liquid drainage method after
sealing pores with wax; the liquid drainage method can be directly used to measure the
volume of sandstone aggregate utilized in concrete but the volume here is the solid
volume plus the volume of closed pores-without the volume of the pores open to the
outside. Because the sandstone is compact with only a few pores, the volume of the pores
open to the outside is little. Thus the volume measured by the liquid drainage method can
be called apparent density which is called virtual density in the past.

The quality and volume change with the water content. Generally, apparent density refers
to the density of a substance under dry conditions. Other moisture conditions should be
specified.

2.1.3. BULK DENSITY

Bulk density refers to the per unit volume of a substance under the conditions that powdery
or granular materials are packed. It is defined by:

Bulk density is measure by volumetric container. The size of volumetric container depends
on the size of particles. For example, 1L volumetric container is used to measure sand and
IOL, 20L, 30L volumetric containers are used in the measurement of stone.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5

2.2. THE SOLIDITY AND POROSITY

2.2.1. SOLIDITY
Solidity refers to the degree how the volume of a material is packed with solid substances,
which is the ratio of the solid volume to the total volume. It is defined by:

2.2.2. POROSITY
Porosity (P) is the percentage of the pores volume to the total volume with the volume of
a substance. It is defined by:

The relationship between solidity and porosity can be expressed as:

D+P =1
Both solidity and porosity reflect the compactness of materials. Porosity and characteristics
of pores (including size, connectivity, distribution, etc.) affect the properties of materials
greatly. Generally, for the same material, the lower the porosity is, the less the connected
pores are. Thus the strength will be higher, the water absorption will be smaller, and the
permeability and frost resistance will be better, but the thermal conductivity will be greater.

2.3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is the ratio of mass of given substance to the mass of water at 4°C for the
equal volumes.

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2.4. DURABILITY
The property of a material to withstand against the combined action of atmospheric and
other factors. If the material is more durable, it will be useful for longer life.

2.5. HYDRO-PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

2.5.1. HYDROPHILICITY AND HYDROPHOBICITY

When the material is exposed to water in the air, it will be hydrophilic or hydrophobic
according to whether it can be wetted by water or not. If it can be wetted by water, it is
the hydrophilic material; if not, it is the hydrophobic material.

When materials are exposed to water droplets in the air, there will be two cases, shown as
Figure 2.1. In the intersection of the material, water and air, a tangent is drown along the
surface of the water droplet, and the angle between the surface and the tangent is angle
θ, known as wetting angle.

When angle θ is smaller than or equals to 90" (O⩽90°), the material is hydrophilic, such as
wood, brick, concrete and stone. The attractive force between materials molecules and
water molecules is stronger than the cohesive force between water molecules, so the
materials can be wetted by water.

When angle θ is bigger than 90° (θ>9O°), the material is hydrophobic, such as asphalt, wax,
and plastic. The attractive force between material molecules and water molecules is
weaker than the cohesive force between water molecules, so the material cannot be
wetted by water. The hydrophobic materials are moisture-proof and waterproof, usually
used for water-resistant materials or the surface treatment for the hydrophilic materials in
order to reduce water absorption and improve impermeability.

2.5.2. THE WATER ABSORPTION AND HYGROSCOPICITY

A. Water absorption refers to the property of absorbing water when materials are exposed
to water. It is expressed by the water-absorption ratio. And there are two types of
expression:

1) Specific Absorption of Quality

Specific absorption of quality refers to the percentage of the absorbed water to
the dry mass when the material absorbs water to saturation. It is defined by:

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 2) Specific Absorption of Volume
The specific absorption of volume refers to the percentage of the absorbed
water's volume to the material's natural volume when the material absorbs water
to saturation. It is defined by:

The water absorption depends on not only hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of the
material but also the porosity and characteristics of the pores. For normal materials,
the higher the porosity is, the stronger the water absorption is. The more the open
and connected tiny pores are, the stronger the water absorption is; it is not easy for
water to be absorbed if the pores are closed; if they are large and open, water is
easy to be absorbed but is hard to be hold, and thus the water absorption is weak.
The water-absorption ratios of various materials vary greatly. For example, the
specific absorption of quality of granite rock is 0.2%-0.7%, that of ordinary concrete
is 2%-3%, that of, ordinary clay brick is 8%-20%' and that of wood or other light
materials is often above 100%.

The water absorption will have a negative impact on materials’ nature. If a material
absorbs water, its quality will increase, its volume will expand, its thermal
conductivity will increase and its strength and durability will decrease.

B. Hygroscopicity is the property of materials to absorb water in the air. It can expressed
by moisture content

Moisture Content is the percentage of the water quality contained in a material to its
dry mass, Wh. It is defined by:

The hygroscopic effect is reversible. Dry materials can absorb moisture in the air and
wet materials can release moisture to the air. The moisture content is called equilibrium
moisture content if the content of a material equals to air humidity.

The hygroscopicity of materials is related to air temperature and air humidity. The
higher humility is and the lower the temperature is, the higher hygroscopicity will be;
contrarily, the hygroscopicity will be low. Both the factors affecting hygroscopicity and
the influence on materials’ properties after absorbing water are the same to the water
absorption of materials.

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2.5.3. WATER RESISTANCE
Water resistance is the ability to maintain its original properties when the material is
affected by water in a long-term. The water-resistant ability of different materials varies in
expressing ways. For example, the water resistance of structural materials mainly refers to
the changes in intensity, and with softening coefficient it is defined by:

The bigger KR is, the stronger the water resistance is, which indicates that the decreasing
degree of the strength in saturation state is low; contrarily, the water resistance is weak.
Generally, the material whose KR is bigger than or equals to 0.85 is known as water-resistant
material. KR is an important basis for selecting building materials.

2.5.4. IMPERMEABILITY
Impermeability is the ability of a material to resist the pressure water or the infiltration of
other liquids. It is expressed by permeability coefficient which is defined by:

Permeability coefficient K reflects the rate of water flowing in a material. The bigger K is,
the faster the flow rate of water is and the weaker the impermeability is.

The impermeability of a material is related not only to its own hydrophilicity and
hydrophobicity but also to its porosity and the characters of pores. The smaller the porosity
is and the more the closed pores are, the stronger the impermeability is. Impermeable
materials should be used in water conservancy projects and the underground projects
usually affected by pressure water. Waterproof materials should be impermeable.

2.5.5. FROST RESISTANCE

Frost resistance is the property that a material can withstand several freeze-thaw cycles
without being destroyed and its strength does not decrease seriously when the material
absorbs water to saturation. It is expressed by frost-resistant level.

Frost-resistant level is indicated by the biggest freeze-thaw-cycle times of a specimen that

both its quality loss and strength reduction are within provisions when it is affected by
freeze-thaw cycles in water saturation state, such as F25, F50, F100 and F150.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 9

The reason for the freeze damage is a volume expansion (about 9%) caused by freeze of
the water within the material’s pores. If a material’s pores are full of water, its volume will
expand and there will be a great tensile stress to pore walls when water is frozen into ice. If
this stress exceeds the tensile strength, the pore walls will crack, the porosity will increase
and the strength will decrease. The more the freeze-thaw cycles are, the greater damages
there will be. And it will even cause the complete destruction of a material.

2.6. THERMAL PROPERTIES

2.6.1. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

The property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat is known as thermal
conductivity. It is expressed by the coefficient of thermal conductivity λ , which is defined
by:

The smaller the value of λ is, the better insulation the material has.

2.6.2. THERMAL CAPACITY

Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat when it is heated and to
release heat when it is cooled. It is defined by:

The specific heat, also called specific heat capacity, is the measure of the heat energy
that a substance in a unit quality absorbs or releases when the temperature increases or
decreases 1K. The bigger the specific heat is, the better the stability of the indoor
temperature will be.
Thermal conductivity coefficient and specific heat should be known when thermal
calculations are conducted to buildings.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 10

2.6.3. THERMAL DEFORMATION
Thermal deformation is the property of a substance to expand with heat and contract with
cold, customarily called temperature deformation. It is expressed by linear expansion
coefficient α, which is defined by:

The bigger the linear expansion coefficient α is, the greater the thermal deformation will
be. The thermal deformation is detrimental to the civil engineering. For example, in a large-
area or large-volume concrete project, temperature cracks can be caused if the
expansion tensile stress is beyond the tensile strength of concrete; in a large-volume
construction work, expansion joints are set to prevent the cracks caused by thermal
deformation; and Petroleum asphalt will have brittle factures when temperature drops to
a certain extent.

2.6.4. FLAME RESISTANCE

Flame resistance is the property of a substance not to flame in case of contacting with fire
in the air. Materials can be divided into non-flammable materials, fire-retardant materials
and flammable materials according to their reaction to fire.

1) Non-flammable Materials
Non-flammable materials are the ones that cannot be fired, carbonized or slightly
burned when contacting with fire or high temperature in the air, such as brick,
natural stone, concrete, mortar and metal.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 11

 2) Fire-retardant Materials
Fire-retardant materials are the ones that are hard to be burned or carbonized when
contacting with fire or high temperature in the air and stop burning or slightly flaming
immediately when leaving fire, such as gypsum board, cement asbestos board, and
lath and plaster.

3) Flammable Materials
Flammable materials are the ones that are ignited or flame immediately when
contacting with fire or high temperature in the air and continue to burn or slightly
flame when leaving fire, such as plywood, fiberboard, wood and foil.

2.7. OTHER

3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The properties of building material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of the
material in presence of external force or load. Resistance to applied loads (stress) initially
and over time.

3.1. STRENGTH AND STRENGTH GRADE OF MATERIALS

3.1.1. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Strength is the greatest stress that a substance can bear under external forces (loads)
without destruction. According to different forms of external forces, the strength includes
tensile strength, compressive strength, bend strength, shear strength and others. These
kinds of strength are all determined by static test, known as the static strength.

The tensile strength, compressive strength and shear strength can be defined by:

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 12

The bend strength is related to the force that a material bears and the cross-section shape.
For the stripped specimen with rectangular cross-section, when it is supported at both ends
and a load converges in the middle, its bend strength can be calculated by:

The strength of a material is related to its composition and structure. The strength will be
different if the compositions of materials are the same but the structures are different. The
bigger the porosity is, the smaller the strength will be. The strength is also concerned with
testing conditions, such as the sample’s size, shape, surface and water content, loading
speed, temperature of the test environment, the accuracy of test equipment, and the skill
level of the operators.

3.1.2. STRENGTH GRADE

The strength can be divided into a number of different grades in accordance with the
ultimate strength of most building materials, known as strength grade. The grades of brittle
materials are mainly divided based on their compressive strength, such ordinary clay brick,
stone, cement and concrete; and those of plastic materials and ductile materials depend
on their tensile strength, such as steel. It is significant to classify the strength grades for
mastering functions and choosing proper materials.

3.1.3. SPECIFIC STRENGTH

The specific strength is a material strength divided by its apparent density. It is an important
index for measuring the high-strength and lightweight materials. The specific strength of
ordinary concrete, low-carbon steel, and pine (along the grain) is respectively 0.012, 0.053
and 0.069. The higher specific strength is, the higher strength and lighter weight the material
is. It is important to select materials with high specific strength or improve the specific
strength in order to lift buildings’ height, reduce structural weight and lower project costs.

3.2. ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY

3.2.1. ELASTICITY
The elasticity is the property of a substance to deform with external forces and return to its
original shape when the stress is removed. The deformation fully capable of restoration is
called elastic deformation. Within the range of the elastic deformation, the ratio of the
stress (σ) to the strain (ɛ) i s a constant (E) which is known as elastic modulus, namely, E=
σ/ɛ . The elastic modulus is a measure of the ability to resist deformation. The bigger E is,
the more difficultly the material deforms. The elastic modulus of low-carbon steel is
E=2.1x105 MPa; and the elastic modulus of concrete is a variable value, with its strength
grades increasing from C15 to C60 and its elastic modulus E increasing from 1.55 x 104 MPa
to 3.65 x 1O4 MPa.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 13

3.2.2. PLASTICITY
The plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes
of shape in response to external forces. This non-reversible deformation is called plastic
deformation.

Among building materials, there are no pure elastic materials. Some materials only have
elastic deformation if the stress is not large, but plastic deformation will happen to them
when the stress is beyond a limit, such as low-carbon steel. Under external forces, some
materials will have elastic deformation and plastic deformation at the same time, but
elastic deformation will disappear and plastic deformation still maintains when the stress is
removed, such as concrete.

3.3. BRITTLENESS AND TOUGHNESS

3.3.1. BRITTLENESS
Brittleness describes the property of a material that fractures when subjected to stress but
has a little tendency to deform before rupture. Brittle materials are characterized by little
deformation, poor capacity to resist impact and vibration of load, high compressive
strength, and low tensile strength. Most of inorganic non-metallic materials are brittle
materials.

3.3.2. TOUGHNESS
Impacted or vibrated by stress, a material is able to absorb much energy and deform
greatly without rupture, which is known as toughness, also called impact toughness. Tough
materials are characterized by great deformation, high tensile strength, and high
compressive strength, such as construction steel, wood and rubber. Tough materials should
be used in the structures bearing impact and vibration, such as roads, bridges, cranes and
beams.

3.4. HARDNESS AND ABRASIVE RESISTANCE

3.4.1. HARDNESS
Hardness refers to the property of a material to resist pressing-in or scratch of a sharp object.
The materials of different kinds of hardness need various testing methods. The hardness of
steel, wood and concrete is tested by pressing-in method. For example, Brine11 Hardness
(HB) test is expressed by the pressure loaded on the press mark per unit area. The hardness
of natural minerals is often tested by scratch hardness. Mineral hardness is divided into 10
grades, and the increasing order is: talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite, apatite, orthoclase,
quartz, topaz, corundum and diamond.

3.4.2. ABRASIVE RESISTANCE

Abrasive resistance refers to the capacity of a material to resist abrasion. It is expressed
by the abrasion ratio, calculated as:

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 14

4. DECORATIVENESS OF MATERIALS
Decorative materials are mainly used as facing for the inside and outside walls of buildings,
columns, floors, and ceilings. They play decorative, protective, and other specific roles (such
as insulation, moisture-resistance, fireproofing, sound-absorption, and sound-insulation). And
decorative effects primarily depend on colors, textures and linetypes of the decorative
materials.

4.1. COLOR
Color is an important factor for the appearance of buildings, even impacting on the
environment. All the buildings are ornamented by colors. Generally, white or light-colored
elevation hue often gives people a clean and fresh feeling; dark-colored elevation
appears dignified and stable; people usually feel enthusiastic, excited and warm when
see red, orange, yellow and other warm colors indoors; and green, blue, violet and other
cold colors can enable people to be peaceful, elegant and cool.

As living conditions, climates, traditions, and customs are different, people have various
feelings and evaluations on colors.

4.2. TEXTURE
Texture is a comprehensive impression given by the appearance of a material, such as
roughness, unevenness, grain, patterns, and color differences. For example, the rugged
surface of concrete or brick appears relatively massy and rough; and the surface of glass
or aluminum alloy is smooth and delicate which seems light and vivid. Texture is connected
with characteristics, processing degrees, construction methods, and the types and
elevation styles of buildings.

4.3. LINETYPE
Linetype mainly refers to the decorative effect of the dividing joints and the convex lines
ornamented on elevations. For example, plastering, granitic plaster, pebble dash, natural
stone, and aerated concrete should be all latticed or divided, which will create various
elevation effects and also prevent cracking. The size of dividing joints should be suitable
for materials. Generally, the width should be 10-30mm, and the blocks of different sizes will
create different decorative effects.

5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The properties of materials against the chemical actions or chemical combinations are termed
as chemical properties.

5.1. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE:

The ability of a construction materials to resist the effects by chemicals like acids, salts
and alkalis is known as chemical resistance. Underground installations, constructions
near sea etc. should be built with great chemical resistance.

5.2. RESISTANCE TO CORROSION

Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected to atmosphere is
called as corrosion. So, the metals should be corrosive resistant. To increase the
corrosion resistance proper measures should be considered. Otherwise it will damage
the whole structure.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 15

6. OTHERS

6.1. ACOUSTICAL
Noise is generally controlled within a space using sound absorbing materials. Sound
absorption relates to the percentage that effectively disappears when the sound wave
hits a body or surface. Sound absorption is evaluated by measuring the reverberation time
of a room. The reverberation time is defined as the time taken for the noise (sound pressure
level) to fall to 60dB below its original level when a sound source ceases to operate. If the
reverberation time is long then the room will be live and the conditions will be acoustically
uncomfortable for most activities. If the reverberation time is too short then sounds such as
music may appear flat and lack character

Assuming that the material has greater sound absorption than the room surface on which
it is installed, the reverberation times which are again measured will now be shorter than in
the empty condition. A hard concrete surface has a very low sound absorption coefficient
(less than 0.05 at most frequencies), whereas a thick carpet and underlay can approach
1.

6.2. OPTICAL
Optical property deals with the response of a material against exposure to
electromagnetic radiations, especially to visible light. When light falls on a material, several
processes such as reflection, refraction, absorption, scattering etc.

6.2.1. REFRACTION
When light photons are transmitted through a material, they causes polarization of the
electrons in the material and by interacting with the polarized materials, photons lose some
of their energy. As a result of this, the speed of light is reduced and the beam of light
changes direction.

6.2.2. REFLECTION
When a beam of photons strikes a material, some of the light is scattered at the interface
between that we media even if both are transparent. Reflectivity, R, is a measure of
fraction of incident light, which is reflected at the interface.

6.2.3. ABSORPTION
When a light beam strikes on a material surface, portion of the incident beam that is not
reflected by the material is either absorbed or transmitted through the material. The
fraction of beam that is absorbed is related to the thickness of the materials and the
manner in which the photons interact with the material’s structure.

6.2.4. RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

Here photon interacts with the electron orbiting around an atom and is deflected without
any change in photon energy. This is more vital for high atomic number atoms and low
photon energies.

Ex. Blue colour in the sunlight gets scattered more than other colors in the visible spectrum
and thus making sky look blue.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 16

  Tyndall Effect - Here scattering occur form
particles much larger than the wavelength of light
Ex. cloud look white

6.2.5. TRANSMISSION
The fraction of beam that is not reflected or absorbed is transmitted through the material.
Thus the fraction of light that is transmitted through a transparent material depends on the
losses incurred by absorption and reflection.

Other optical properties include thermal emission, electro-optic effect, photoelectric

effect, photo emissivity, brightness, luminescence (photo-luminescence, fluorescence,
phosphorescence, electroluminescence), etc.

6.3. ELECTRICAL
All construction works will include electrical installations, both in the permanent works, and
in the plant, and temporary works required to construct them. It is important to understand
the effects of electric current on the materials through that it flows.

All materials are made up of a mixture of positively, and negatively charged particles. An
object is electrically charged, if the negative charge in it is not equal to the positive
charge. This situation occurs when charged particles are either removed from it, or added
to it. In normal conductors, such as metals, the charged particles that move are particles
called electrons. If 6.25 × 1018 electrons flow into an object (and do not flow out again), it
has a negative charge of 1 Coulomb (C).

It is possible for charge to move easily in some materials; these are called conductors.
Materials in which charge cannot move are called insulators. An example of a conductor
is a copper wire.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 17

 Exercises

1. There is a material whose dry mass is 105g, volume in natural state is 40 cm2, and volume
in absolute compact state is 33 cm3. Calculate its density, apparent density, solidity and
porosity.

2. A material has a volume of 1 m3 and a mass of 2400kg in natural state. The volume of its
pores accounts for 25%. Calculate its density.

3. A 10L volumetric container weighing 6.2 kg has been packed with gravel by the required
method, and then the total weight is 2 1.3 kg. Calculate the bulk density of gravel. If water
is filled into the container, the total weight becomes 25.9kg after 24 hours. Calculate the
apparent density and porosity of the gravel.

4. A concrete mixture needs 660 kg dry sand and 1240 kg dry stone. It is known that the water
content of the existing sand is 4% and that of the stone is 1%. Calculate the amount of wet
sand and wet stone respectively.

5. A steel bar with a diameter of 10 mm is used to test the tensile strength. And the tension
measured at the destruction is 3 1.5 kN. Calculate the tensile strength of steel.

References

1. Zhang, Haimei. 2011. Building materials in civil engineering. Woodhead Publishing Limited
and Science Press.
2. Properties of Engineering Materials.
[Link]
engineering-materials-optical-and-thermal/34408

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 18

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 4. AGGREGATES

Introduction

This module discusses aggregates as an introduction before we take on Concrete.

The strength of aggregate refers to that of coarse aggregates. The Coarse aggregate
functions as the skeleton in concrete. e. Thus, it must have enough strength. The strength
of crushed stone can be expressed by compressive strength and crushing index.

Aggregate can affect the workability of mixtures, mainly including: gradation, particle
shape, surface characteristics, and particle diameter. Generally, the aggregate with
good gradation has big mobility and good cohesion and water retention; the aggregate
(river sand, gravel, etc) whose surface is smooth has big mobility; the increase of the
diameter and decrease of the total surface area will influence the mobility.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

 Know the different types of aggregates and its sizes
 Know the classes of aggregates
 Have ah overview of the tests used for aggregates

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Building Material – Aggregate:
[Link]
2) What is construction material aggregate?
[Link]
3) What is aggregate? The Bare Essentials of Concrete
[Link]
4) Aggregates in Concrete Mix Design:
[Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. AGGREGATES
Aggregates used in concrete are obtained from either natural gravel deposits or are
manufactured by crushing quarried rock.

Natural deposits of sand and gravel may contain large amounts of deleterious aggregates
such as shale and iron oxides. Therefore, some of these deposits do not meet concrete
aggregate specifications. Beneficiating equipment can sometimes remove these
undesirable materials during production. During processing, oversized material is either
eliminated or reduced to usable size by crushing.

Crushed rock is generally obtained from quarried granite, quartzite, limestone, or trap rock.
Trap rock is a general classification given to fine-grained, dark colored igneous rock.
Crushed rock of the type classified as Class A, per Specification 3137.2B1, is not generally
washed but is merely crushed and screened. Limestone can vary considerably in quality
even in the same formation and careful selection by ledges is often necessary.

Fine aggregate (sand) produced by crushing quarried rock is not permitted.

2. AGGREGATE SIZE
Aggregates are divided into two general group sizes, fine and coarse. In many instances
more than two actual sizes of material are used, due to a further subdivision by size of
material within one or both of the groups.

2.1. FINE AGGREGATE

Fine aggregate is normally considered
material that will pass through a sieve
having 4.75 mm (No.4) mesh.
Specifications require washed, natural
sand, unless otherwise provided by the
Special Provisions. In some instances, fine
aggregate of two or three different sizes
or from more than one deposit are used.

2.2. COARSE AGGREGATE

Coarse aggregate is considered the
material that is retained on a 4.75 mm
(No.4) sieve. Two sizes of coarse
aggregate are required whenever the
maximum size of the aggregate is 25 mm
(1 in.) or larger.

2.2.1. CLASSES OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Coarse aggregate as used in concrete is classified into five groups per Specification:
 Class A is quarried granite, trap rock, or quartzite. The Engineer may also designate
aggregate consisting of 100% crushed oversized gravel or boulders as Class A
aggregate.
 Class B is all other quarried rock such as limestone and dolostone.

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  Class C is natural or partially crushed gravel obtained from natural deposits.
 Class D is an approved mixture of two or more of the other classes.
 Class R is aggregate obtained from crushing and recycling concrete.

The Contractor must wash all coarse aggregate with the exception of Class A aggregate.
The intermixing of aggregates of different classes is allowed only with approved blending
belts or by batching operations.

3. AGGREGATE PROPERTIES
Determine aggregate properties prior to their use in concrete. The actual test procedures
for fine and coarse aggregate may vary slightly but the purpose is the same.

NOTE: The accepted National Standard assumes calculations are based on a water
temperature of 4ºC (39ºF) where 1 m3 of water has a mass of 1 kg (1 ft3 of water weighs
62.4 pounds). Mn/DOT calculates mix designs based on unit weight of water of 62.3 lb/ft3
that is more representative of the water at actual concrete temperatures.

3.1. Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a solid or liquid to the mass of an equal volume
of distilled water at 4ºC (39ºF). In the specific gravity determinations for aggregates,
the average water temperature is 21ºC (70ºF). Water at 21ºC (70ºF) weighs 998 kg/m3
(62.3 lb/ft3 ). However, for ease of calculation, the mass (weight) of water used for
metric concrete mix designs is 1000 kg/m3 .

3.2. Absorption
All aggregate particles contain small pores that vary in size and number from particle
to particle. Oven-dry aggregate particles exposed to water absorb water into the
pores. The rate and extent of absorption into the particles depends on the size of the
pores and the amount of water available for absorption.

3.3. Gradation and Fineness Modulus

The range in size and quantity of an aggregate is referred to as the gradation. To
produce a uniform quality concrete, limitations are placed on the proportions of
aggregate of the different sizes. The production of aggregate may require the removal
of some material of one size or blending in material of another size so that the
combined materials result in a gradation meeting requirements. The gradation is
determined by sieving representative samples of the material through a series of
different size sieves (largest size on top and in descending order) and recording the
amount passing each sieve.

Specification 3126.2G requires the F.M. determination on the fine aggregate. They
permit a maximum variation of 0.2 from the established value for that source. The
Mn/DOT Concrete Engineer will change the established value only when there are
changes in plant operation or changes in the gradation of material in the deposit.

3.4. Absolute Volume

The absolute volume of a quantity of mixed particles is the summation of the solid
volumes represented by each of the individual particles. All materials vary in their
characteristics and have different specific gravities. It is necessary to know the

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 3

 average value of the specific gravity of the type of material in question to determine
the absolute volume. The mass of 1 m3 of the solid material (absolute volume) is equal
to the specific gravity of the material multiplied by 1000 (1000 kilogram equals the mass
of 1 m3 of water). (The weight of 1 ft3 of the solid material (absolute volume) is equal
to specific gravity of the material multiplied by 62.3 (62.3 pounds equals the weight of
1 ft3 of water at 70ºF)). The absolute volume (A.V.), expressed in m3 (ft3 ), of a given
mass (weight) of material is equal to the dry mass (weight) of the material divided by
the product of 1000 (62.3) and the specific gravity.

3.5. Void Content

The void content of aggregate is that part of the bulk volume of the dry material that
is occupied by air or void space.

In the void content test, 0.02832 m3 (1 ft3 ) of the dry aggregate is weighed and the
absolute volume of solid material is determined. The void factor is equal to one minus
the absolute volume of the aggregate in the unit volume. The void content will vary
with the degree of consolidation.

To calculate the void content:

4. AGGREGATE HANDLING
Handle aggregates, from the time they are produced until they go into the mixer, in a
manner to avoid:
 Alteration of the gradation due to segregation
 Contamination by deleterious foreign materials
 Non-uniformity in moisture content

The Inspector must keep these points in mind during observations of routine operations,
and correct without delay any operation that is conducive to the development of these
conditions. Non-uniform materials cannot produce uniform quality concrete during
batching operations regardless of the number of quality control tests. The best form of
control is a uniform procedure in handling the aggregates to reduce the risk of the three
conditions mentioned previously.

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5. AGGREGATE INSPECTION

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 Extensive inspection may occur at the producing plant during production. Such inspection,
however, does not assure that the material is acceptable at the time of use. Make the final
inspection and approval of the material when it is used. Aggregates are generally hauled
by either truck or rail from the producing plant to the job site. The cars commonly used are
either hopper bottom cars that are normally unloaded with the use of belt conveyors under
the tracks, or gondola cars that are unloaded with the use of a clam.

6. AGGREGATE SAMPLING
When gradations or quality tests are running close to the tolerance limits, additional tests
are required (process and acceptance verification (audit) tests) to assure that only
materials meeting the Specifications are used.

The size of the coarse aggregate samples required is 135 kg (300 pounds) for each fraction.
The proportions of each fraction is determined by the Producer/Contractor and approved
by the Engineer. Seventy kilograms (150 pounds) of sand is usually sufficient for a complete
analysis.

6.1. Sampling Coarse Aggregate

A. Sampling Coarse Aggregate at a Production Plant

1) Sampling form a Discharge Belt, Vibrating Screen, or Chute
 Make a rapid pass back and forth across the entire discharge area with a
pail or other sampling device. The pail should have a perforated bottom to
allow water to drain out.
 TAKE EXTREME CARE TO INTERCEPT THE FULL CROSS SECTION OF THE FLOW.
The mass (weight) of the individual particles determine the distance beyond
the chute or belt that each particle travels; therefore, catch the sample as
near to the discharge point as possible. This will assure that the sampled
material is representative of the material produced for it includes fines
nearest the conveyor that are easily missed.
 If the material is not running uniformly, combine several samples obtained at
equal time intervals and then reduce to the desired mass (weight) by
quartering. An alternate procedure is running two or more tests and
averaging the percentages.

2) Sampling from a Loading Hopper

 When it is impractical to sample the material before it enters the loading
hopper, it is possible to get a representative sample from the discharge gate
of the hopper. The best method is to obtain the sample while the bin is
empty. The steps usually followed are to:
a) Empty the bin into a truck.
b) Pound the bin sides to make sure no material is left in the corners of
the bin.
c) Close the discharge gate just enough to direct but not restrict the flow
of material.
 The bin then serves as a chute, therefore, sample according to the chute
method.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 7

  Any method of sampling from a bin other than that suggested above must
have specific approval of the Engineer due to the difficulty in getting
representative samples.

B. Sampling Coarse Aggregate at a Batching Plant

Whether the aggregate is previously inspected or not, it is necessary to test the
material for final approval just prior to mixing. Obtain these samples by any of the
following methods listed in order of preference. Take separate samples for
gradation and moisture tests.

1) Sampling from a Conveyor Belt

When the aggregates are carried to the storage hoppers by a conveyer belt,
obtain a sample by stopping the belt and completely removing all the material in
a short section. See Figures A and B 5-694.132.

2) Sampling from a Goose-neck Conveyer

During filling of the storage bins from a conveyer belt, secure the samples from the
end of the gooseneck conveyer.

3) Sampling from the Discharge Gates of the Storage or Batching Hooper

This method of sampling shows the gradation of material at time of use, however,
segregation may occur within the bin.

Take samples by either leaning into the weigh bin with the container in hand or by
suspending the container from a pipe or bar that rests on both sides of the weigh
bin. Pass the container back and forth through the entire stream during charging
of the weigh hopper. When using the latter sampling method, take care not to let
the supporting devices deflect any of the material. See Figure C 5-694.132.

4) Sampling from Stockpile

Coarse material has a marked tendency to segregate when allowed to fall freely
from any height resulting in a pile of material much coarser at the outside of the
pile. For this reason, it is very difficult to obtain a truly representative sample from
large stockpiles of coarse aggregate. Stockpile sampling is the least reliable of
methods and therefore is the least preferable method. If power equipment is
available for use, secure several samples from a stockpile by taking portions from
several areas of the pile. Combine the samples and quarter to provide a
representative sample. See Figure C 5-694.134.

When power equipment is not available, take samples by hand shoveling. Take
samples near the top of the pile, at or near the base of the pile, and at an
intermediate point. To provide a representative sample, mix the individual samples,
reduce to a single sample size by quartering and test the sample. When information
on variations within the stockpile are desired in addition to the average condition,
test the individual samples.

5) Sampling from Sumps

The sampling method used is the same as listed above for sampling a stockpile,
except that sampling is from the sump.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 8

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 9
6.2. Sampling Fine Aggregate (Sand)
Unlike coarse aggregate, damp sand does not segregate easily. However, the
gradation varies considerably as it comes from the dehydrator during production. For
this reason, do not sample sand during production from the dehydrator, the belt
carrying material from the dehydrator, nor a bin that is supplied by either one. Take
samples after re-handling of the sand to get a more representative sample. Sample
sand with either a sampling tube or hand shoveling. Figures A and B 5-694.133 show a
sampling tube and the procedure for sampling from trucks. Figure C 5-694.133 show
sampling methods from coned and bulldozed sand stockpiles.

When using a sampling tube, brush the dry sand aside and sample only the moist sand
beneath. (Dry sand segregates easily.) Ram the tube into the pile perpendicular to the
surface of the pile. Discard this sample. The tube is then lined with fine sand and the
actual sample is not robbed of this fine sand. Ram the tube into the pile again to obtain
the actual sample. Take samples from a number of locations and combine to get the
proper sample size.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 10

When using a hand shovel to secure samples, dig a 1 m (3 to 4 ft.) vertical face in the
side of the pile and then scrape the shovel up the vertical face. A board shoved into
the pile above the point of sampling will prevent the dry sand from running down and
contaminating the sample. Take the samples from the sand stockpile near the top, near
the base and at intermediate points. Either combine or run separately, depending on
the information desired. Because samples near the base are normally “dirtier”, it is good
practice to run a “Percent Passing the 75 µm (No.200) Sieve” test on a sample
representing this area. Whether the aggregate has been previously inspected or not, it
is necessary to test the material for final approval just prior to mixing. Take these samples
at any of the sampling points listed in 5-694.133.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 11

7. SAMPLE SIZE
Blend the individual samples and reduce to the approximate sample size by use of a riffle
splitter or by quartering. Keep in mind that the sample size is doubled for samples
requiring companions.
Aggregate Size Mass
CA-1, 2, 3 10 to 15 kg (25 lb.)
CA-5, 50 5 to 7 kg (10 to 15 lb.)
CA-60, 70, 80 and Sand 5 kg (10 lb.)

7.1. Riffle Splinter Method

See Figure A and B 5-694.134
1) Place the sample splitter on a
flat surface.
2) Place two sample pans under
the discharge chutes so that
no material is lost.
3) Pour the sample into the
splitter, moving back and
forth over all the chutes to
distribute the flow of material
evenly. Continuously clear
away material flowing into
the pans to prevent clogging
of discharge chutes. Repeat
procedure at least four times
to ensure the sample is
thoroughly blended.
4) After the material has been
blended it is then split in
consecutive operations to the
desired sample size. The last
two pans should contain well-
blended companions of the
approximate sample size.

7.2. Quartering Method

See Figure C 5-694.134

1) Place the aggregate on a clean flat smooth surface and mix well.
2) Form a low flat pile.
3) Cut the pile into four pie-shaped parts with a trowel.
4) Remove and discard two opposite quarters.
5) Remix the remainder of the aggregate. Take care to include the fines and dust
6) Continue to reduce the sample to a size that is satisfactory for testing by
repeating the process. For samples requiring a companion, save both portions
remaining in the last reduction process.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 12

 References

1. Concrete Manual. Retrieved from:

[Link]
2. Zhang, Haimei. 2011. Building materials in civil engineering. Woodhead Publishing Limited
and Science Press.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 13

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 5. CONCRETE

Introduction

This module mainly introduces the composing materials, the major technical functions and
the factors influencing the performance of ordinary concrete, specifically discusses the
methods to design the mix proportion of ordinary concrete, reveals the quality control and
strength evaluation of concrete, and simply exhibits other kinds of concrete.

Aggregate was discussed in the previous module so we will be giving more emphasis on
cemetitious materials in this module.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

 Know the different classifications of concrete and its characteristics
 Know the different kinds of cementitious materials
 Know the preparation and curing of concrete test specimens

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) What is concrete? [Link]
2) How it works – Concrete: [Link]
3) Concrete Sample Preparation: [Link]
4) ASTM Standard Practice for Making and Curing Test Specimens:
[Link]

Content

1. CONCRETE
Concrete is a kind of man-made stone which is made by mixing gel materials, granular
coarse-fine aggregate and water (if necessary, a certain amount of additive and mineral
materials are added) in a proper ratio evenly, and then getting solidified and hardened. It
is one of the main building materials in projects. The one mostly used in construction
projects is the cement concrete made by mixing gel materials, aggregate (sand and
stone), and water, which should get through hardening process.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

1.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE
1) By cementing materials, there are:
 cement concrete,
 gypsum concrete,
 asphalt concrete and
 polymer concrete.
2) By apparent density, there are:
 heavy concrete ( po > 2500kg/m3 ), ordinary concrete ( po from 1900 kg /
m3 to 2500 kg / m3 ),
 light concrete ( p,, from 600 kg / m3 to 1900 kg / m3 ), and
 super-light concrete ( po c 600kg / m3 ).
The apparent density of concrete depends on the aggregate varieties and its
own density. Many properties of concrete are connected with apparent density.
3) By performance and application, there are:
 structural concrete,
 hydraulic concrete,
 ornamental concrete, and
 special concrete (heat-resistant, acid-resistant, alkali-resistant, and anti-
radiation concrete and so on).
4) By construction methods, there are:
 pump concrete,
 sprayed concrete,
 vibrating-compacting concrete, c
 centrifugal concrete and so on.
5) By mixtures, there are:
 fly ash concrete,
 silica fume concrete,
 fine blast furnace slag concrete,
 fiber concrete, and others.

1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE

1) Convenient for use: the new mixtures have good plasticity that can be cast into
components and structures in various shapes and sizes.
2) Cheap: raw materials are abundant and available. More than 80% of them are
sand and stone whose resources are rich, energy consumption is low, according
with the economic principle.
3) High-strength and durable: the strength of ordinary concrete is 20 - 55MPa with
good durability.
4) Easy to be adjusted: the concrete with different functions can be made just by
changing the varieties and quantities of composing materials to meet various
demands of projects; steel bar can be added to concrete to improve its strength,
and this kind of concrete is a composite material (reinforced concrete) which can
improve its low tensile and bending strength in order to meet the needs of various
structural engineering.
5) Environment-friendly: concrete can make full use of industrial wastes, such as slag,
fly ash and others to reduce environmental pollution.
Its major shortcomings are high dead weight, low tensile strength, brittle and easy
to crack.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 2

2. COMPONENTS OF ORDINARY CONCRETE

The basic components of ordinary concrete

are cement, water, sand, and stones.
Generally, the amount of sand and stone
accounts for above 80% of the total volume,
functioning as frame, so they are respectively
called as fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate. Mixed with water, cement
becomes cement paste, and cement mortar
not only wraps the surface of particles and fills
their gaps, but also wraps stones and fills their
gaps, then concrete coming into being.
Cement paste can function as greasing
before hardening, which renders concrete
mixture with good mobility; after hardening,
aggregates stick together and form a hard
entity, known as man-made stone-concrete.

2.1. CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL OR CEMENT

Cement is the most important component for concrete and relatively expensive. In
the preparation of concrete, the choice of cement varieties and strength grades are
directly related with the durability and economy, of concrete.

The Choice of Cement Varieties

When concrete is prepared, the rational choice should be made in light of the
properties of cement varieties, according to the properties of the project, parts,
construction conditions, environment and so on.

The Choice of Cement Strength Grades

The cement strength grades are corresponding to the design strength grades of
concrete. The standard strength grade of ordinary cement should be 1.5-2.0 times as
big as that of concrete. If the cement strength is too high or too low, the cement
content in concrete will be too small or too large that will have a negative impact on
the technical performance and the economic effect of concrete.

2.2. AGGREGATE
The aggregates used for ordinary concrete can be divided into two types by their sizes:
the fine, and coarse aggregates. For more discussion, please refer to Module 3.

3. TYPES OF CEMENT
3.1. PORTLAND CEMENT
Portland cement is made from four basic compounds, tricalcium silicate (C3S),
dicalcium silicate (C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A), and tetracalcium aluminoferrite
(C4AF). The cements used in Minnesota are made either from limestone and clay,
limestone and shale, or limestone and slag. The manufacturing process known as the
dry process is the most widely used at present. This consists of grinding the individual
raw materials and feeding at controlled amounts into a rotary kiln and burning until

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 3

 they fuse into small lumps or balls called clinkers. In the wet process, a slurry of the blend
is fed into the rotary kiln. The clinkers are cooled and then ground in two operations.
Between the first and the final grind, a quantity of gypsum (usually 2 to 3% by mass
(weight) of cement) is added to regulate the setting properties of the cement.

3.2. BLENDED CEMENT

These blended cements are composed of one of five classes of hydraulic cement for
general and special applications, using slag, fly ash or other pozzolan with portland
cement, or portland cement clinker with slag.

3.3. GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE SLAG (GGBFS)

In the blast furnace, magnetic iron ore (Fe3O4) and haematic iron ore (Fe2O3) are fed
along with limestone into a high temperature chamber containing coke. Coke is
partially oxidized to carbon monoxide, which reduces the ores to iron. The other
product that floats over the molten iron due to its relative lightness is called slag. Slag
is composed of calcium oxide (CaO), silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al203). Slag is
pulverized into a fine powder called ground granulated blast furnace slag and is used
in this form as a cementitious component of concrete.

3.4. FLY ASH

Fly ash is the most widely used pozzolan in concrete. It is a fine residue resembling
cement that is a by-product of burning coal in an electric power generating plant.
Depending on the chemical consistency of the coal source, the material is identified
as Class C (self-cementing) or Class F (non-cementing) fly ash.

4. REINFORCED CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete is a composite material. This means that it is made up of different
constituent materials with very different properties that complement each other. In the
case of reinforced concrete, the component materials are almost always concrete and
steel. The steel is the reinforcement. Other reinforcement, such as glass fibre or
polypropylene, is used for specialised applications. Concrete is strong in compression. Steel
is strong in tension and compression, but in compression a steel bar that is thin enough to
be economic will buckle. A simple reinforced concrete structure therefore
uses steel in tension, and concrete in compression.

5. CONCRETE ADMIXTURE
Concrete admixture refers to the substance mixed in concrete according to different
requirements to improve the performance of concrete. The mixing amount is generally no
more than 5% of the cement mass (except special cases). Based on the main functions,
admixtures, mainly contain water-reducing agent, air-entraining agent, hardening
accelerator, set retarder, flash setting agent, expanding agent, antifreeze agent, rust-
resistant agent and others.

5.1. Water-reducing Agent

Water-reducing agent refers to the admixture used for reducing water consumption
and strengthening functions when the slump degrees of mixtures are basically the
same. Based on performances and functions, water-reducing admixtures can be
divided into: ordinary water-reducer, effective water-reducer, hardening water-
reducer, retarder water-reducer, and air entraining water-reducer.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 4

5.2. Air entraining Mixture
Air entraining admixture refers to the admixture that entrains a large number of uniform,
stable and closed tiny bubbles in the process of mixing concrete to reduce the
segregation of concrete mixture, improve the workability, and also enhance anti-
freeze ability and durability of concrete. It is a kind of surfactant, too. It has influences
on concrete as follows:
1) It can improve the workability of concrete mixtures. The closed bubbles are like
balls that can reduce the friction among cement particles to improve the
mobility. Meanwhile, the bubble film can play a role of water conservation.
2) It can enhance impermeability and frost resistance. The closed stomata
entrained by air entraining admixture can effectively cut off the capillary
porosity ducts and reduce pores caused by segregation to enhance
impermeability. Meanwhile, the closed pores entrained can be an effective
buffer for the expansion caused by water freeze to improve frost resistance.
3) It can reduce strength. If the air content in concrete increases by 1%, its
compressive strength will decrease by 4%-6%. Thus, the adding amount of air
entraining admixture should be appropriate.

5.3. Hardening Accelerator

Hardening accelerator refers to the admixture that can accelerate the development
of early strength of concrete. Generally, hardening accelerator can be divided into
inorganic (chloride, sulfate, etc.), organic (triethanolamine, tri-isopropanolamine, and
sodium acetate, etc.) and inorganic-organic compound, the three categories.

It can accelerate the hydration and the hardening of cement, improve early strength,
and shorten conservation cycle so as to enhance the turnover rate of templates and
sites and speed up the construction process. It is especially used in winter construction
(whose minimum temperature is not less than -5C) and emergency repair works.

5.4. Set Retarder

Set retarder refers to the admixture that can delay the setting time of concrete mixing
materials, and have no bad impact on the development of concrete’s latter strength.
The most common ones are calcium lignosulfonate and molasses. And the retardant
effect of molasses is better.

Set retarder is appropriately used in the projects that need to delay time, such as high
temperature or long transport distance, to prevent the lose caused by the early slump
of concrete mixtures; and also for the layer pouring concrete, set retarder is often
added to prevent cold joint. In addition, set retarder can be added into mass concrete
to extend the heat-releasing time.

5.5. Flash Setting Admixture

Flash setting admixture refers to the admixture that can promote the rapid hardening
of concrete. The concrete added by flash setting admixture can let the gypsum mixed
in cement lose its retardant function to make concrete harden quickly.

5.6. Expansion Agent

Expansion agent is the admixture that can make concrete produce shrinkage
compensating or micro-expansion. The mixture of expansion agent has little influence

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5

 on the mechanical properties of concrete and can raise the frost resistance of
concrete above P30, enhancing the crack resistance significantly.

5.7. Anti-freeze
Anti-freeze refers to the admixture that can reduce the liquid freezing point of water
and the concrete mixtures to protect concrete against freeze under the
corresponding negative temperature and achieve the expected effect under the
regulated conditions. Anti-freeze admixtures usually include the following several ones:
1) Sodium nitrite and calcium nitrite, which can reduce freezing point, accelerate
hardening, and resist corrosion, with the general mixing amount of 1%-8%.
2) Sodium chloride and calcium chloride, which can reduce freezing point but will
corrode steel bars, with the general mixing amount of 0.5%-1 .O%.
3) Potassium carbonate, urea and others. In practical projects, the anti-freezers
are usually complex, and meanwhile they can resist freeze, accelerate
hardening, and reduce water. Sometimes the anti-freezing effect can be
enhanced greatly by adding air entraining agents.

5.8. Rust-resistant Agent

Rust-resistant agent is the admixture that can retard the corrosion to steel bars in
concrete or other embedded metal, also called corrosion inhibitor. The common
agent is sodium nitrite. Some admixtures contain chloride salt which will corrode steel
bars (thus, it is necessary to control the content of chloride ions), so the adding of rust-
resistant agent can retard corrosion to steel bars for the sake of protection.

6. CONCRETE SAMPLE PREPARATION

6.1. Placing
Concrete is placed in the molds using a trowel in three layers of approximately equal
depth and is remixed in the mixing pan with a shovel to prevent segregation during
the molding of specimens. The trowel is moved around the top edge of the mold as
the concrete is discharged in order to ensure a symmetrical distribution of the concrete
and to minimize segregation of coarse aggregate within the mold.

6.2. Consolidation
Compaction is the removal of air from fresh concrete. Proper compaction results in
concrete with an increased density which is stronger and more durable. If the slump is
greater than 25 mm (1 in.), consolidation may be by rodding or vibration. Agency
specifications may dictate when rodding or vibration will be used.

6.2.1. Vibration
When the slump is 25 mm (1 in.) or less, consolidate the sample by internal vibration.

Procedure – Making Cylinders – Internal Vibration

1) Fill the mold in two layers.
2) Insert the vibrator at the required number of different points for each layer
(two points for 150 mm (6 in.) diameter cylinders; one point for 100 mm (4 in.)
diameter cylinders). When vibrating the bottom layer, do not let the vibrator
touch the bottom or sides of the mold. When vibrating the top layer, the
vibrator shall penetrate into the underlying layer approximately 25 mm (1 in.)

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 6

 3) Remove the vibrator slowly, so that no large air pockets are left in the
material.
Note: Continue vibration only long enough to achieve proper consolidation of the
concrete. Over vibration may cause segregation and loss of appreciable
quantities of intentionally entrained air.
4) After vibrating each layer, tap the sides of each mold 10 to 15 times with the
mallet (reusable steel molds) or lightly with the open hand (single-use light-
gauge molds).
5) Strike off the surface of the molds with tamping rod or straightedge and begin
initial curing.

Procedure – Making Flexural Beams – Vibration

1) Fill the mold to overflowing in one layer.
2) Consolidate the concrete by inserting the vibrator vertically along the
centerline at intervals not exceeding 150 mm (6 in.). Take care to not over-
vibrate, and withdraw the vibrator slowly to avoid large voids. Do not contact
the bottom or sides of the mold with the vibrator.
3) After vibrating, strike the mold 10 to 15 times with the mallet.
4) Strike off to a flat surface using a float or trowel and begin initial curing.

6.2.2. Roding (Compaction)

Concrete is placed in the mold, in three layers of approximately equal volume. Each
layer is compacted with 25 strokes with the rounded end of the rod (as specified by
ASTM standards). The strokes are distributed uniformly over the cross section of the mold
and for each upper layer; the rod is allowed to penetrate through the layer being
rodded and into the layer below approximately 1 in. (25 mm).

Procedure – Making Cylinders – Rodding

1) For the standard 150 mm (6 in.) by 300 mm (12 in.) specimen, fill each mold
in three approximately equal layers, moving the scoop or trowel around the
perimeter of the mold to evenly distribute the concrete. For the 100 mm (4
in.) by 200 mm (8 in.) specimen, fill the mold in two layers. When filling the final
layer, slightly overfill the mold.
2) Consolidate each layer with 25 strokes of the appropriate tamping rod, using
the rounded end. Distribute strokes evenly over the cross section of the
concrete. Rod the first layer throughout its depth without forcibly hitting the
bottom. For subsequent layers, rod the layer throughout its depth penetrating
approximately 25 mm (1 in.) into the underlying layer.
3) After rodding each layer, tap the sides of each mold 10 to 15 times with the
mallet (reusable steel molds) or lightly with the open hand (single-use light-
gauge molds).
4) Strike off the surface of the molds with tamping rod or straightedge and begin
initial curing.
Note: Floating or troweling is permitted instead of striking off with rod or straightedge.

Procedure – Making Flexural Beams – Rodding

1) Fill the mold in two approximately equal layers with the second layer slightly
overfilling the mold.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 7

 2) Consolidate each layer with the tamping rod once for every 1300 mm2 (2in2)
using the rounded end. Rod each layer throughout its depth, taking care to
not forcibly strike the bottom of the mold when compacting the first layer.
Rod the second layer throughout its depth, penetrating approximately 25
mm (1”) into the lower layer.
3) After rodding each layer, strike the mold 10 to 15 times with the mallet and
spade along the sides and end using a trowel.
4) Strike off to a flat surface using a float or trowel and begin initial curing.

6.3. Curing
Curing means to cover the concrete with a layer of water, so it stays moist. By keeping
concrete moist, the bond between the paste and the aggregates gets stronger.
Concrete doesn't harden properly if it is left to dry out. Curing is done just after finishing
the concrete surface, as soon as it will not be damaged. The longer concrete is cured,
the closer it will be to its best possible strength and durability. Concrete that is cured
sufficiently is less likely to crack.

The specimens are removed from the molds 24 hours after casting. Specimens are
placed immediately in water after removal from the molds to prevent loss of moisture
from specimens.

6.3.1. Procedure – Initial Curing

 When moving cylinder specimens made with single use molds support the
bottom of the mold with trowel, hand, or other device.
 For initial curing of cylinders, there are two methods, use of which depends
on the agency. In both methods, the curing place must be firm, within ¼ in.
of a level surface, and free from vibrations or other disturbances.
 Maintain initial curing temperature of 16 to 27 C (60 to 80°F) or 20 to 26C (68
to 78F) for concrete with strength of 40 Mpa (6000 psi) or more.
 Prevent loss of moisture.

Method 1 – Initial cure in a temperature controlled chest-type curing box

1) Finish the cylinder using the tamping rod, straightedge, float, or trowel. The
finished surface shall be flat with no projections or depressions greater than
3.2 mm (1/8 in.).
2) Place the mold in the curing box. When lifting light-gauge molds be careful
to avoid distortion (support the bottom, avoid squeezing the sides).
3) Place the lid on the mold to prevent moisture loss.
4) Mark the necessary identification data on the cylinder mold and lid.

Method 2 – Initial cure by burying in earth or by using a curing box over the
cylinder

Note: This procedure may not be the preferred method of initial curing due to
problems in maintaining the required range of temperature.

1) Move the cylinder with excess concrete to the initial curing location.
2) Mark the necessary identification data on the cylinder mold and lid.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 8

 3) Place the cylinder on level sand or earth, or on a board, and pile sand or
earth around the cylinder to within 50 mm (2 in.) of the top.
4) Finish the cylinder using the tamping rod, straightedge, float, or trowel. Use a
sawing motion across the top of the mold. The finished surface shall be flat
with no projections or depressions greater than 3.2 mm (1/8 in.).
5) If required by the agency, place a cover plate on top of the cylinder and
leave it in place for the duration of the curing period, or place the lid on the
mold to prevent moisture loss.

Procedure – Transporting Specimens

 After 24 to 48 hours of initial curing, the specimens will be transported to the
laboratory for a final cure. Specimen identity will be noted along with the
date and time the specimen was made and the maximum and minimum
temperatures registered during the initial cure.
 While in transport, specimens shall be protected from jarring, extreme
changes in temperature, freezing, or moisture loss.
 Cylinders shall be secured so that the axis is vertical.
 Transportation time shall not exceed 4 hours.

Final Curing
 Upon receiving cylinders at the laboratory, remove the cylinder from the
mold and apply the appropriate identification.
 For all specimens (cylinders or beams), final curing must be started within 30
minutes of mold removal. Temperature shall be maintained at 23 2C (73
±3°F). Free moisture must be present on the surfaces of the specimens during
the entire curing period. Curing may be accomplished in a moist room or
water tank conforming to AASHTO M 201.
 For cylinders, during the final 3 hours prior to testing the temperature
requirement may be waived, but free moisture must be maintained on
specimen surfaces at all times until tested.
 Final curing of beams must include immersion in lime-saturated water for at
least 20 hours prior to testing.

6.4. Cylinders Capping

Capping a concrete cylinder means placing a smooth uniform cap/layer at the end
of a concrete cylinder to provide for a uniform load distribution when testing. Since the
concrete sample will contain voids and aggregate particles at the upper surface that
is left open, it is necessary to prepare a smooth uniform surface for the testing machine
to press against.

Plaster of Paris (Gypsum) is used as capping material nowadays. Capping of all the
concrete cylinders is carried out carefully with the help of capping machine for
concrete cylinders, as shown in the figure.

References
1. Concrete Manual. Retrieved from:
[Link]
2. Zhang, Haimei. 2011. Building materials in civil engineering. Woodhead Publishing Limited and
Science Press.
3. Concrete sample preparation. [Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 9

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 6. HYDRAULIC CEMENT

Introduction

The word “cement” is used to cover a wide variety of materials that, when mixed, may
be formed into shapes, and then set to become solid. This includes adhesives and many
other materials. In civil engineering terms, cement generally means “hydraulic cement,”
a cement that sets due to a reaction with water, called hydration. It is important to
appreciate that cement hydration is a chemical reaction, and not just a drying out
process. Cement will hydrate and set under water. When cement reacts with water, the
main products of the reaction are Calcium-Silicate Hydrate gel (CSH gel), and lime. When
cement is mixed with water, the mixture is known as cement paste (or unsanded grout).

When cement is mixed with sand and water, the mixture is known as mortar (or sanded
grout). Mortar is used to lay bricks. When cement is mixed with larger stones, sand, and
water, the mixture is known as concrete. The term concrete is also sometimes used to
describe a mixture of other binders and aggregate, for example, asphaltic concrete.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

 Know the different classifications of cement and its characteristics
 Know the hydration and setting and hardening of Portland cement

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Hydraulic and Non-Hydraulic Cement: [Link]
2) Hydraulic Cement: [Link]
3) Difference between Ordinary Portland Cement an Portland Pozzolana Cement:
[Link]
4) 33 Grade vs 43 Grade vs 53 Grade of Cement:
[Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. HYDRAULIC CEMENT
Hydraulic cement is cement that sets and hardens by chemical reaction with water
(hydration) and is capable of doing so under water (ACI 225R). The hydration reactions
result in the formation of a hard solid mass.

The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so
are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows setting in wet
conditions or under water and further protects the hardened material from chemical
attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was found by ancient Romans who
used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).

The most widely used hydraulic cement is portland cement. Other kinds of hydraulic
cement include blended cements and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (ACI 233R).
Pozzolans, both natural (ACI 232.1R) and artificial (fly ash, ACI 232.2R, and silica fume, ACI
234R) are often used as a cementitious ingredient of concrete.

2. PORTLAND CEMENT
Portland cement is the hydraulic binding material consisting of Portland cement clinker, 0-
5% limestone or granulated blast furnace slag, and a limited amount of gypsum. There are
two types of Portland cement: type I Portland cement without any hybrid materials whose
code name is P I and type II Portland cement, code-named P II, which is mixed with less
than 5% limestone or granulated blast furnace slag when the Portland cement clinker is
ground.

3. HYDRATION AND SETTING AND HARDENING OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Mixed with a certain amount of water, cement can turn into the original plastic paste and
the plasticity will be lost with the increase of time (but no strength), which is called the initial
setting. And the final setting is the moment when the cement begins to have strength. The
process from the initial setting to the final setting is known as condensation (or setting).
Since then, the strength of cement becomes clear and finally the hard matrix-cement
paste--comes into being, known as “hardening” of cement. The setting and hardening of
cement are divided by humans themselves, but in fact they are a continuous and
complicated physical and chemical changing process. All these changes decide some
properties of hardened cement paste, which have an important impact on the
application of cement.

3.1. The Hydration of Cement

When water is added, the cement particles are surrounded by water, the surface of
the mineral granules in clinker reacted with water immediately, a series of new
compounds are generated, and a certain heat is released.

In order to regulate the setting time of cement, a limited amount (about 3%) of gypsum
should be added when the clinker is ground. The gypsum reacts with some of the
calcium aluminate hydrate to generate insoluble needle-like crystals of calcium sulfate
hydrate with significant cubical dilatation.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 2

 To sum up, the Portland cement reacts with water and generates hydrate mainly
containing calcium silicate hydrate, calcium ferrite hydrate gel, calcium aluminate
hydrate, and the crystals of calcium sulfate hydrate. In the complete-hydrated
cement paste, the calcium silicate hydrate accounts for about SO%, and the calcium
hydroxide accounts for about 25%.

3.2. The Setting and Hardening of Cement

Mixed with water, the surfaces of cement particles react with water immediately and
the generated colloidal hydrated products gather on the surfaces to slow down the
chemical reactions and render the cement paste with plasticity. Hydrated products
can dissolve in water immediately and new surfaces of cement particles appear. Then
hydration continues. The generated colloidal hydrated products increase continuously
and form a loose mesh structure by contacting with some points which make the paste
lose mobility and plasticity, known as setting of cement.

Then, the calcium silicate hydrate gel, calcium hydroxide, crystals of calcium sulfate
hydrate, and other kinds of hydrated products continue to increase and they contact
with and adhere to each other, and then a closer mesh crystal structure is established.
Hydrated products keep packing the mesh structure and begin to render cement with
strength. With the extension of hardening time (age), the unhydrated inner parts of
cement granules continue hydrating, the crystals gradually increase, and the gel
gradually become more dense, which make the bonding capacity and strength of
cement paste higher and higher. The increase of the strength leads to the cement
paste with high strength, known as “hardening” of cement.

After the hardening process, the cement paste becomes a heterogeneous structure
consisting of crystals, gel, unhydrated clinker particles, free water, and pores in various
sizes, shown in Figure below

The Setting and Hardening Process of Cement

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 3

 At different ages of hardening process, the ratio of crystals, gel and unhydrated
granules in cement paste will directly affects its strength and other properties.
Moreover, the increasing of strength is connected with temperature and moisture. The
higher the moisture is, the faster the hydration speed is and the quicker the setting and
hardening is; otherwise, it will be slow. If the cement paste is in total dry state, the
hydration cannot happen, the hardening process stops, and the strength cannot grow.
Thus, watering maintenance should be strengthened after concrete structures have
been casted. When the temperature is below 0˚C, the hydration will nearly stop.
Therefore, insulating measures should be adopted in winter construction to ensure the
normal operation of the hardening process of cement.

3.3. The Main Factors Affecting the Setting and Hardening of Portland Cement

(1) The Impact of Cement's Composition

The mineral composition of cement and their ratios are the main factors affecting
the setting and hardening of cement. As mentioned above, various mineral
components will reveal different characteristics when reacting with water. For
example, the increase of C3A can speed up the setting and hardening rate of
cement, and the heat of hydration is high at the same time. Generally speaking, if
mixed materials are added into the cement clinker, the anti-erosion will increase,
and the heat of hydration and the early strength will decrease. (

(2) The Mixing Amount of Gypsum

Gypsum is called the retarding agent of cement which is mainly used for regulating
the setting time of cement and is an indispensable component. Without gypsum,
cement clinker can condense immediately by mixing with water and release heat.
The major reason is that C3A in the clinker can dissolve in water quickly to generate
a kind of calcium aluminate hydrate, a coagulant agent, which will destroy the
normal use of cement. The retardation mechanism of gypsum is: when cement is
hydrated, gypsum reacts with C3A quickly to generate calcium sulfoaluminate
hydrate (ettringite) which deposits and forms a protection film on the cement
particles to hinder the hydration of C3A and delay the setting time of cement.

If the content of gypsum is too little, the retardation affect will be unobvious. Too
much gypsum will accelerate the setting of cement because gypsum can
generate a coagulating agent itself. The appropriate amount of gypsum depends
on the content of C3A in the cement and that of SO3 in gypsum, and it also related
to the fineness of cement and the content of SO3 in clinker. The amount of gypsum
should account for 3%-5% of the cement’s mass. If the content of gypsum exceeds
the limit, it will lower the strength of cement and it can even lead to poor
dimensional stability, which will cause the expanded destruction of cement paste.
Thus, the national standard requires that the content of SO3 should not be more
than 3.5%.

(3) The Impact of Cement’s Fineness

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 The size of cement particles directly affects the hydration, setting and hardening,
strength and heat of hydration. The finer the cement particles are, the larger the
total surface area is and the bigger the area contacting with water is. Thus, the
hydration will be quick, the setting and hardening will be accelerated
correspondingly, and the early strength will be high. However, if the cement
particles are too small, it is easy for them to react with the water and the calcium
dioxide in the air to destroy the storage of cement. If the cement is too fine, its
shrinkage is large in the hardening process. Thus, the finer the cement is ground, the
more energy will lose and the higher the cost will be. Usually, the grain size of the
cement particles is within 7-200pm (0.007-0.2mm).

(4) The Impact of Curing Conditions

The curing environment has sufficient temperature and moisture which is
conducive to the hydration and setting and hardening process of cement and
benefits the development of the early strength. If the moisture of the environment
is very dry, the water in the cement will evaporate, leading to insufficient hydration
and ceasing of the hardening. Serious cracks will happen sometimes. Usually, the
temperature rises at the time of curing, and the hydration of cement and the
development of early strength become fast. If the hardening process occurs at a
low temperature, the final strength won’t be affected though the development of
the strength is slow. But if the temperature is under 0˚C, the hydration of cement will
stop and the strength will not only stop growing but also destroy the structure of
cement paste due to the condensation of water. In actual projects, the setting and
hardening process of cement products is accelerated by stem curing and
autoclave curing.

(5) The Impact of Curing Age

The hydration and hardening of cement is an ongoing process in a long period.
With the increase of the hydrating degree of various clinker minerals in cement
particles, gels will grow and capillary porosities will decrease, which enables the
strength to rise with the increase of age. It is proved that cement develops rapidly
within 28d and slowly after 28d. Building materials in civil engineering

(6) The Impact of the Mixing Water Content

If the cement consumption is unchanged, the increase of the mixing water content
will enhance the amount of capillary porosities, lower the strength of cement paste,
and extend the setting time. Therefore, in practical projects, the amount of water
and cement will be changed without mortifying the water-cement ratio (the
minimum amount of cement is regulated to ensure the durability of concrete) when
the liquidity of cement concrete is adjusted.

(7) The Impact of Admixture

Hydration, setting, and hardening of Portland cement are constrained by C3S, C3A.
And all the admixtures that affect the hydration of C3S, C3A can change the
performance of the hydration, the setting and hardening of Portland cement. For
example, the accelerator agents (such as CaCl2, Na2S04) can accelerate the
hydration and the hardening of cement and improve its strength. On the contrary,
the retarding agents (such as calcium lignosulphonate) can delay hydration and
hardening of cement and affect the development of the early strength.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5

 (8) The Impact of Storage Conditions
The inappropriate storage will expose cement to moisture. The particle surfaces
agglomerate because of hydration which seriously reduces the intensity. Slow
hydration and carbonization will happen due to the impact of the water and C02
in the air, even though the storage is good. The strength decreases by 10%-20%
after 3 months, by 15%-30% after 6 months, by 25%-40% after 1 year, so the effective
storage period of cement is 3 months and the cement should not be stored for a
long time.

4. TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

According to the national standard (GB 1767 1 - 1999), the technical properties of Portland
cement are required as follows:

4.1. Fineness
Fineness refers to the size of cement particles which directly affect the performance
and the use of cement. All the products whose fineness cannot meet the requirements
are sub-quality products.

The cement fineness is measured by sieve analysis method or specific surface area.
Sieve analysis method requires that the screenings left on the square-hole sieve of
0.080mm should not exceed 10%. Specific surface area is calculated by the total
surface area of lkg cement (m2/kg). The specific surface area of Portland cement
should exceed 300 m2/kg.

4.2. The Setting Time

The setting time of cement includes the initial setting time and the final setting time.
The initial time refers to the time that cement turns into paste by mixing with water and
begins to lose its plasticity. And the time that cement completely loses its plasticity by
mixing with water and begins to have a certain structural strength is known as the final
setting time. The national standards prescribe that the initial setting time of Portland
cement should not be earlier than 45min and the final setting time should not be later
than 6.5h. All the products off-grade at the initial setting time are spoiled products and
those unqualified at the final setting time are sub-quality products.

The setting time of cement is measured by time determinator. The sample is the
standard cement paste of which the temperature is 20°Ck°±°C and humidity is more
than 90%. Various mineral components of the cement clinker are different in the water
consumption of their normal consistency. The finer the cement is ground, the more
water the normal consistency will need. The normal consistency of Portland cement is
within 24%-30%.

The setting time of cement is very important in the construction projects. The initial
setting time should not be too fast in order to ensure that there is enough time to
complete every process, such as casting, before the initial setting time; and the final
setting time should not be too late in order to enable the cement to complete its
setting and hardening as soon as possible after pouring and tamping to make the next
process occur earlier.

4.3. Soundness

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 The soundness of cement refers to the stability of the volume change in the process of
setting and hardening. If the volume change is unstable after setting and hardening,
the concrete structures will crack, which can affect the quality of buildings or even
cause serious accidents, known as poor dimensional stability. The cement product
whose dimensional stability is poor will be disposed as spoiled product, not used in
projects.

In the ageing process, there is volume expansion which causes the cracking of
cement. The excessive amount of gypsum will react with the solid calcium aluminate
hydrate to generate crystals of calcium sulfoaluminate hydrate. Thus, the volume will
expand 1.5 times, which leads to the cracking of cement paste matrix.

The standards require: boiling method can be used to inspect the poor dimensional
stability of the cement caused by the free CaO. The so-called boiling method includes
Pat test and Le Chatelier test. Pat test is to make the cement paste of normal
consistency into cement cake, boil it for 3h, and then observe it by naked eyes. If there
is no crack and no bending by ruler inspection, it is called qualified soundness. Le
Chatelier test is to measure the expansion value after the cement paste is boiled and
get hardened on Le Chatelier needles. If the expansion value is within the required
value, its stability is qualified. If there is contradictory between the results mcasured by
Pat test and Le Chatelier test, Le Chaterlier test should prevail.

The hydration of free magnesium oxide is slower than that of free calcium oxide.
Therefore, its harm can be inspected only by autoclave test. The harm of gypsum will
be found by immersing in room-temperature water for a long time. Then the poor
dimensional stability caused by magnesium dioxide and gypsum is inconvenient to be
tested rapidly. Thus, they should be controlled strictly in the production of cement. The
standards require: the content of free magnesium oxide in cement should not be more
than 5.0%, and the content of sulfur trioxide in slag cement should not be more than
4.0% and that in other kinds of cement should not exceed 3.5%.

4.4. Strength and Strength Grade

Strength is an important technical index to indicate the quality of cement and also is
the basis for the division of strength grade.

Testing Methods of Cement Gel Sand Strength (ISO) (GB/Tl767 1-1999), a national
standard, claim to test cement strength by soft gel sand method. This method is to
produce a set of plastic gel sand specimens of 40mmx40mmxl60mm by mixing a
portion of cement (by weight) and three portions of China's IS0 standard sand with
water in the ratio of 0.5, maintain the specimens with moulds in moisture for 24h, then
put them in the water of normal temperature (20aC*1 "C) for curing after removing
moulds, and test the compressive strength and bending strength of 3d and 28d
respectively. According to the test results, the strength grade of Portland cement can
be determined in the light of the requirements in Table 4.2.

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 Portland Cement and Ordinary Portland Cement (GB 175-1999) requires that every
strength grade value should not be lower than the provisions in the Table 4.2.

4.5. Alkali Content

The alkali content refers to the content of Na20 and K20 in cement. The condition for
concrete to conduct the alkali-aggregate reaction is that the cement must contain
alkali. When the active aggregate material is used, the cement with low alkali content
should be used.

The national standard requires: the alkali content in cement (calculated by

Na20+0.658K20) should not exceed 0.60% or can be determined by the two sides of
supply and demand. The national standard still prescribes that the product is waste as
long as one of the four items, magnesium, sulfur trioxide, stability, and the initial time,
does not meet the requirements. Any product whose fineness, final setting time, and
strength are under the required indexes is unqualified. Off-grade cement is prohibited
in engineering. If only the strength of cement is below the stipulated index, the use of
cement can be demoted.

5. STORAGE OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The attention should be paid to water-resistance and moisture-resistance in transport and
storage of cement. There should be a specific place for cement storage at the
construction site and the storeroom should be dry. Cement should be stored separately
according to different varieties, strength grades and date of production, and the cement
in bulk should be stored in different rooms; and the cement in bags should be stored on
the backing plate 30cm higher above the floor and 30cm away from the surrounding walls
with a stacking height below 10 bags.

In the storage of cement, the one which is stored first should be used first, and cement
should not be stored for a long time. The storage period generally should be less than 3
months and the cement stored for over 6 months can be used only through test.

Agglomeration often appears in wet cement. And minor caking can be crumbed by
fingers or ground in proper way. Then the activity of wet cement can be restored partly. It
can be used in minor projects after re-determining its strength grade.

6. BLENDED PORTLAND CEMENT

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All the hydraulic binding materials ground by mixing a certain amount of blended materials
and a limited amount of gypsum in the clinker of Portland cement belong to blended
Portland cement. The mixture of blended materials can change the performance of
cement, adjust the strength, diversify the varieties, increase yields, decrease costs, expand
the application, and utilize industrial wastes and local materials comprehensively.
According to different amounts and varieties of blended cement, they are:
 ordinary Portland cement,
 blast furnace cement,
 Portland pozzolana cement,
 Portland fly-ash cement, and
 composite Portland cement.

6.1. BLENDED MATERIALS

The blended materials used in cement can be divided into active blended materials
and inactive blended materials.

6.1.1. Active Blended Materials

The Portland cement mixed with active blended material can react with calcium
hydroxide, the hydrated product of cement, and generate hydraulic binding
material which can possess certain strength and change some properties of
Portland cement after setting and hardening.

(1) Granular Blast Furnace Slag

Granular blast furnace slag is the soft granule produced by rapidly
quenching the fused blast furnace slag.

The active components in granular blast furnace slag are mainly active
aluminum oxide and active silicon oxide which can react with calcium
hydroxide and produce strength at the room temperature. The fused blast
furnace slag is quenched into granules by water, which prevents the fused
mass transferring into crystalline structure. The fused mass changes into
vitreous body with high potential chemical energy and high activity. The
alkaline slag with a lot of calcium oxide has weak hydraulicity due to the
content of dicalcium silicate.

(2) Pozzolana Blended Material

It is the natural or artificial mineral material with pozzolana which can be
divided into the blended materials with hydrous silicic acid, alumina-silica
glasses, and calcined clay and others based on its chemical components
and mineral structures.

The blended materials with hydrous silicic acid are: diatomite, diatoms stone,
opal and siliceous slag (such as artificial silica ash) of which the active
ingredients are silicon oxide.

The Al-Si vitreous materials are: volcanic ash, tuff, pumice and some industrial
wastes whose active ingredients are silicon oxide and aluminum oxide.

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 The blended materials with (artificial) calcined clay are: calcined clay,
cinder and some burnt coal gangue of which the active ingredients are
aluminum oxide.

(3) Fly Ash

It is the granular slag exhausted from the smoke that is generated from the
power plant boiler where coal dust is used as the fuel. It contains a lot of SiO2
and AI2O3 and a little CaO, of pozzolana.

6.1.2. Inactive Blended Materials

This kind of material includes: ground quartz sand, limestone, clay, slow cooling
slag, and various kinds of waste slag. Inactive blended materials themselves are
not (or slightly) of hydraulicity or pozzolana and cannot produce chemical
reaction with mineral components in cement (that is, no chemical activity) or can
produce small chemical effect. The addition of such materials in cement clinker
can only improve the cement quality, decrease the strength grades, and reduce
the heat of hydration.

In other words, calcium hydroxide and gypsum can agitate hydration and
accelerate the hardening of cement, known as activator. The common activators
include alkali activator and sulfate activator. The catalysis of sulfate activator can
be brought into full play only under the condition of alkali activator.

6.2. ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

Ordinary Portland cement (simply called ordinary cement) refers to the hydraulic
binding material ground by mixing Portland cement clinker, 6%-15% blended materials,
and appropriate amount of gypsum, code-named P* 0.

The maximum amount of active blended materials mixed in cement should not
exceed 15% of the total mass. They are allowed to be replaced by kiln ash and inactive
blended materials which should be no more than 5% and 10% of the cement mass
respectively.

The maximum amount of inactive blended materials mixed in cement should not
exceed 10% of the total mass.

The initial setting time of ordinary cement should not be earlier than 45min, and final
setting time should not be later than 10h. The screenings left on the square-hole sieve
of 0.08mm should not exceed 10%. And boiling stability must be qualified. The ignition
loss of cement should be less than 5.0%.

6.3. PORTLAND BLAST FURNACE CEMENT

Portland blast furnace cement (simply called slag cement) refers to the hydraulic
binding material ground by mixing Portland cement clinker, granular blast furnace
slag, and appropriate amount of gypsum, code-named P S. The mixed amount of
granular blast furnace slag in cement is 20%-70% by weight. One of the blended
materials, limestone, kiln dust, fly ash and volcanic ash, is allowed to replace the slag.
And the replaced amount should not exceed 8% of the total mass of cement, and the
granular blast furnace slag in cement should not be less than 20% after replacement.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 10

The requirements for fineness, setting time and soundness of slag cement are the same
to those of ordinary cement. The regulated density of slag cement is usually 2.8-
3.1g/cm3 and the bulk density is about 1000-1200kg/m3.

Slag cement has the following characteristics:

6.3.1. Slow Setting and Hardening

The hydration process of slag cement is more complicated than Portland cement.
At first, the minerals in cement clinker react with water and generate calcium
silicate hydrate, calcium aluminate hydrate, calcium ferrite hydrate and calcium
hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide and gypsum mixed in cement are the alkali
activator and the sulfate activator for slag respectively which react with active
silicon oxide and aluminum oxide again to generate calcium carbonate hydrate,
calcium aluminate hydrate, and calcium sulphoaluminate. The setting and
hardening is slow because the content of clinker minerals in slag cement is small
and the hydration happens at two steps.

6.3.2. Low Early Strength, and Rapid Growth of Later Strength

Because the setting and hardening of slag cement is very slow, the early strength
(3d and 7d) is low. The calcium silicate gel increases after the second hydration,
so the later strength (28d) grows rapidly, which may keep pace with or even
exceed Portland cement see Figure 4.5).

6.3.3. Low Heat of Hydration

The decrease of slag cement in clinker can cause the reduction of C3S content
and C3A content which will release much heat at the hydration of cement.
Therefore, it has priority in the mass concrete projects due to the low heat of
hydration.

6.3.4. Poor Carbonization Resistance

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 Among the hydrates of slag cement, the content of calcium hydroxide is small and
alkalinity is low, so the carbonization resistance is poor. But the resistance to the
dissolution corrosion and sulfate corrosion is strong.

6.3.5. Poor Water Retention and Good Water Segregation

The hydrophilicity of slag vitreous particles is low, so the water retention of slag
cement is poor and its water segregation. is good. It is easy to form capillary
channels and water packets inside concrete. There are pores after water
evaporates, which decreases the intensity and evenness of concrete. Thus, the dry
shrinkage performance of slag cement is high, but its water resistance, frost
resistance and the resistance to the alternation between wetness and dryness are
poor. Slag cement should not be used in the concrete projects of which the
impermeability is very important.

6.3.6. Good Heat Durability

Slag cement has good heat durability that can be used to prepare heat-resistant
concrete because it contains a little calcium hydroxide after hardening and it is
also the fire-resistant additive.

6.3.7. High Sensitiveness to Moist Heat at Hardening

The setting and hardening of slag cement is very slow at the low temperature, so
insulation measures should be strengthened in the winter construction. But its
strength develops very fast under the condition of heat, thus conserved with vapor.

6.4. PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT

All the hydraulic hardening binding materials generated by grinding Portland cement
clinker, pozzolana blended materials and appropriate amount of gypsum are called
Portland pozzolana cement (simply called pozzolana cement), code-named POP. The
mixing amount of pozzolana blended materials accounts for 20%-50% of the total mass.
The technical requirements for pozzolana cement are the same to those of blast-
furnace slag cement.

Pozzolana cement and blast-furnace slag cement have many common grounds in
performance (see Table 4.6), such slow hydration, setting and hardening process, low
early strength, high growth of the later strength, low heat of hydration, high corrosion,
poor frost-resistance, and easy carbonization.

The water demand of pozzolana cement is large. The dry shrinkage is more obvious
than blast-furnace slag cement in the process of hardening. And under dry and heat
conditions, dry shrinkage happens and the cement cracks. Thus, the conservation
should be strengthened in use and it should be kept in the moist state for a long time.

The particles of pozzolana cement are very tiny, and the water segregation is low. Thus,
its impermeability is good, favorable for the concrete projects.

6.5. PORTLAND FLY-ASH CEMENT

All the hydraulic hardening binding materials generated by grinding Portland cement
clinker, blast furnace slag and appropriate amount of gypsum is known as Portland fly-
ash cement (simply called fly-ash cement), code-named P.F. The mixing amount of fly-
ash cement accounts for 20%-40% of the total mass.

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 The fineness, setting time, soundness and other technical requirements of fly-ash
cement are the same to those of ordinary cement.

The hydration and hardening process of fly-ash cement is basically the same to that of
pozzolana cement. And their performances have many similarities.

The main character of fly-ash cement is its little shrinkage, even less than Portland
cement and ordinary cement. Therefore, its frost resistance is good. The water demand
of fly-ash cement is little and the concrete mixed by it is workable because its particles
are mostly spherical and the water absorption is low

6.6. COMPOSITE PORTLAND CEMENT

All the hydraulic hardening binding materials that are generated by grinding Portland
cement clinker, two or more blended materials regulated above, and appropriate
amount of gypsum is known as composite Portland cement (simply called composite
cement), code-named P'C. The total mixing amount of blended materials in cement
should be more than 15% but no more than 50%. Kiln dust under 8% is allowed to
replace part of the blended materials; the mixing amount of blended materials should
not overlap the Portland blast furnace slag cement when blended by slag.

In the light of Composite Portland Cement (GB12958-1999), the national standard, the
content of magnesium oxide in cement clinker should be no more than 5.0%. If the
cement is qualified through autoclave method for soundness, the content of
magnesium oxide in clinker is allowed to reach 6.0%. The content of sulfur trioxide in
cement should not exceed 3.5%.

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PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 14
PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 15
 References
1. Concrete Manual. Retrieved from:
[Link]
2. Zhang, Haimei. 2011. Building materials in civil engineering. Woodhead Publishing Limited and
Science Press.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 16

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 7. UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Introduction

There are variety of terms in the industry that are used to refer to a Universal testing
Machine or UTM. Most common are “tensile tester”, “compression tester” and “bend
tester”. There are also UTM’s that have been stripped of capabilities or marketed to a
specific sector which have led to the development of specialized names such as “texture
analyzer” for food, “top load compression tester” for packaging and pipe, and “peel
tester” for adhesives, tapes, and labels.

Today, a UTM can perform all of these tests and more. A UTM is a great multi-purpose
instrument for an Reseach and Development (R&D) lab or Quality Control department.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

 Familiarize with UTM;
 Know its parts and functions; and
 Know the uses of a UTM.

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) UTM; Parts & Uses: [Link]
2) Universal Testing Machine (Animation): [Link]
3) Universal Testing Machine: [Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

A Universal testing machine (UTM) is used to test
the mechanical properties (tension, compression
etc.) of a given test specimen by exerting tensile,
compressive or transverse stresses. The machine
has been named so because of the wide range of
tests it can perform over different kind of materials.
Different tests like peel test, flexural test, tension
test, bend test, friction test, spring test etc. can be
performed with the help of UTM.

2. COMPONENTS OF UNIVERSAL TESTING

MACHINE AND ITS FUNCTIONS

1 LOADING UNIT
The arrangement of the test specimen and the exertion of the load is held in the loading
unit. It consists of the following components :

a) Load Frame
The load frame of a universal testing machine can be made either by single support
or by double support. The load Frame consists of a table (where the specimen is
placed for the compression test), upper crosshead, and lower crosshead.

b) Upper Crosshead and Lower Crosshead

The upper crosshead is used to clamp one end of the test specimen. The lower
crosshead in the load frame is the movable crosshead whose screws can be
loosened for height adjustment and tightened. Both the crossheads have a tapered
slot at the center. This slot has a pair of racked jaws that is intended to grip and hold
the tensile test specimen.

c) Elongation Scale
The relative movement of the lower and upper table is measured by an elongation
scale which is provided along with the loading unit.

2 CONTROL UNIT
The main components of the control unit in a universal testing machine are :

a) Hydraulic Power Unit

This unit consists of an oil pump that provides non-pulsating oil flow into the main
cylinder of the load unit. This flow helps in the smooth application of load on the
specimen. The oil pump in a hydraulic power unit is run by an electric motor and
sump.

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 b) Load Measuring Unit
This unit has a pendulum
dynamometer unit that has a small
cylinder with a piston which moves
with the non-pulsating oil flow. The
pendulum is connected to the piston
by pivot lever. The pivot lever deflects
based on the load applied to the
specimen. This deflection is
converted to the load pointer and
displays as the load on the dial.
The range of load application can be
adjusted by means of a knob in the
load measuring unit (0-100 kN; 0-250
kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN). The
accuracy of measuring unit controls the overall accuracy of the machine.

c) Control Devices
The control devices can be electric or hydraulic. Electric control devices make use
of switches to move the crossheads and switch on/off the unit. A hydraulic control
device consists of two valves, Right Control Valve and Left Control Valve or Release
Valve. A right control valve is used to apply load on the specimen. The left control
valve is used to release the load application.

3. FUNCTIONS OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

The main functions of UTM are to test the mechanical properties of materials.

UTM can be used to test a wide variety of materials like concrete, steel, cables, springs,
steel wires and chains, slings, links, rope, winches, steel ropes, etc.

The standard tests performed by UTM are:

3.1. TENSILE TEST

Tension test is performed on mild steel, tor steel and high tensile steel to determine the
properties like Young's modulus, ultimate strength, and the percentage elongation. In
the tension test, a steel rod is subjected to tension load by the means of a Universal
testing machine (UTM).

Procedure for Tension Test on Steel Rod

1) Preparation of Specimen:
Initially, the steel rod specimen is cleaned and gauge length is marked on it. The
gauge length is calculated by the formula 5.65√A. The gauge length can be
marked on the specimen by punching tool.
2) Range Calculation:
A tensile stress value is assumed for which the maximum expected load capacity of
the rod is calculated. From this, the range is calculated and this range is set in the

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 [Link] working stress = 140N/mm² Factor of safety = 3.i.e Ultimate stress =
140x3 = 420N/mm². Ultimate load = 420 x area of c\s. From the ultimate load, range
to be used can be fixed.

3) Placing the Specimen:

The handle is operated such that the specimen firmly fits to the top base. The left
valve is kept in a fully closed position and the right valve in a normal open position.
Open the right valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted. Adjust the load
pointer to zero with the zero adjusting knobs. By operating the handle, lift the lower
crosshead chuck up and grip firmly the lower part of the specimen. Once the
specimen is placed, the jaws are locked.

4) Placing Extensometer:
Fix the extensometer on the specimen and set the reading to zero.

5) Load Application:
Turn the right control valve slowly to open position to get the desired loading rate.
When the specimen is under load, slowly unclamp the locking handle. Note the
extension at a convenient load increment. Extensometer must be removed before
reaching the yield point. The right valve is used to apply the load and the left valve
is used to release the load on the specimen.

6) Important Load Points:

With the increase in load at some point, the load pointer remains stationary. Load
corresponding to this indicates the yield point. With further increase in load, the
pointer goes backward and specimen breaks. The load before this breaking is
the ultimate load. The load at the breaking of the specimen is called as
the breaking load.

As shown in figure below, once the load crosses the ultimate stress (ultimate load)
necking starts to form in the steel rod. Necking is a large reduction caused in the
cross-sectional area of the steel rod.

[Link] of Steel Rod Under Tension Load

Close the right control valve and take out the broken piece. Open the left control
valve to pump the oil back. Maximum capacity of the specimen can be seen
against the red pointer. Measure the diameter of the specimen at the neck.
Change in length is obtained from reading recorded from extensometer. Therefore,
Strain = Change in length/Original Length Stress at different values of strains is also
determined as, Stress = Load /Area; With different values of stress and
corresponding strains, the stress-strain graph is plotted.

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3.2. COMPRESSION TEST
The exact opposite of a tensile test. This is where you compress an object between
two level plates until a certain load or distance has been reached or the product
breaks. The typical measurements are the maximum force sustained before breakage
(compressive force), or load at displacement (i.e. 55 pounds at 1” compression), or
displacement at load (i.e. 0.28” of compression at 20 pounds of force).

3.3. ADHESION TESTS

The bond strength (adhesion) test is performed with the UTM Machine to check the
adhesive force between the two layers of any material.

Final result for the Bond test is measured in the form of ‘average force’; here
graph is checked at the end of the test, if the graph gives out uniform force, then it is
concluded that adhesive is properly applied to the test material/structure and if any
peaks/troughs are observed in graph then it is concluded that the adhesive has not
been applied uniformly to the test material.

3.4. PULL-OUT TESTS

The fundamental principle behind pull out testing is that the test equipment designed
to a specific geometry will produce results (pull-out forces) that closely correlate to the
compressive strength of concrete. This correlation is achieved by measuring the force
required to pull a steel disc or ring, embedded in fresh concrete, against a circular
counter pressure placed on the concrete surface concentric with the disc/ring.

Types of Pull Out Tests:

Depending upon the placement of disc/ring in he fresh concrete, pull out test can
be divided into 2 types:

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 1) OK Test:
The LOK-TEST system is used to obtain a
reliable estimate of the in-place strength of
concrete in newly cast structures in
accordance with the pullout test method
described in ASTM C900, BS 1881:207, or EN
12504-3.

A steel disc, 25 mm in diameter at a depth

of 25 mm, is pulled centrally against a 55
mm diameter counter pressure ring bearing
on the surface. The force F required to
pullout the insert is measured. The concrete
in the strut between the disc and the
counter pressure ring is subjected to a
compressive load. Therefore the pullout
force F is related directly to the compressive strength.

LOK Test Process. H indicated the

highest pullout force.

2) CAPO test (Cut and Pull out Test)

The CAPO-TEST permits performing pullout
tests on existing structures without the need
of preinstalled inserts. CAPO-TEST provides a
pullout test system similar to the LOK-TEST
system for accurate on-site estimates
of compressive strength. Procedures for
performing post-installed pullout tests, such
as CAPO-TEST, are included in ASTM C900
and EN 12504-3.

When selecting the location for a CAPO-

TEST, ensure that reinforcing bars are not
within the failure region. The surface at the
test location is ground using a planing tool
and a 18.4 mm hole is made perpendicular

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 to the surface using a diamond-studded core bit. A recess (slot) is routed in the hole
to a diameter of 25 mm and at a depth of 25 mm. A split ring is expanded in the
recess and pulled out using a pull machine reacting against a 55 mm diameter
counter pressure ring. As in the LOKTEST, the concrete in the strut between the
expanded ring and the counter pressure ring is in compression. Hence, the ultimate
pullout force F is related directly to compressive strength.

CAPO Test on Concrete Slab

3.5. BENDING TEST

3-Point bend or Bend test is done in compression mode in Universal Testing Machine
where a length of material is kept on support at 2 ends (the unsupported length is
defined as per standard) and a plunger will apply the pressure at the centre of the
material till the certain extension or till it breaks. Final results calculated are ‘Flexural
Modulus’.

3.6. OTHERS: Creep Test, Hysteresis Test, Cycle Tests

4. APPLICATIONS OF UTM
Universal Testing Machine can be used and applied to perform tests on the following
samples:
1. Rope 8. Slings
2. Steel Rope 9. Cable
3. Winches 10. Nylon Rope
4. Steel Wire 11. Links
5. Electrical Wire 12. Chain
6. Webbing 13. Steel Chain
7. Spring

References
1. Universal Testing Machine - Components and Functions
[Link]
2. What is a Universal Testing Machine?
3. [Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 7

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 8. TESTING OF WOOD

Introduction

In the ancient history of Chinese architectural history, the wood used to be combined with
materials of construction and those of decoration. The architectures built of them amazes
the whole world for the outstandingly perfect usage of wood. Take the world famous
Beijing Qi’nian Palace for example, which was made up of completely wood. Nowadays
wood is mainly used for interior decoration and ornament.

Wood conserved properly, can be very durable. It is also easy to process, and it can be
made into products in various shapes; the wood is beautiful-grained, mild-toned, elegant-
styled and well-effected in decoration; the combination of its elasticity, heat isolation and
warm tone makes us comfortable; moreover it has high insulating ability without poison.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

 Know what is wood and its classifications,
 Understand the mechanical and physical properties of wood; and
 Know the procedures in testing wood for bending, compression, shear, tension and
water content

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Properties of Wood
[Link]
2) Compression failure of a timber block parallel to the grain: Materials Lab on-line
[Link]
3) Compression failure of a timber block perpendicular to the grain: Materials Lab on-line
[Link]
KS7tp7NoQLh9i62OWH&index=6
4) Bending Failure of a Beam with Defect at the Bottom
[Link]
KS7tp7NoQLh9i62OWH&index=3

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. WOOD
Wood is used as architectural and decoration material for its several advantages as
follows: its specific strength is intense, and it is light-weight and high-strength; it has great
elasticity and tenacity that it can bear certain grade of bow and shock wave; its thermal
conductivity is low but thermal isolation is good.

Wood also has following disadvantages: it is not even in structure, and it is of anisotropy. Its
quality and usage are affected by the numerous natural disadvantages: it expands with
wetness and shrinks with dryness, so it is liable to crack or warp when being used incorrectly;
if not properly conserved, it may be corrupted or mildew and rot or even eaten by worms;
in addition its fireproof is poor and is liable to burn.

2. CLASSIFICATIONS AND STRUCTURES OF WOOD

2.1. Classifications
In architecture the wood are made of trees, which are many in species. But trees are mainly
classified into two species:

2.2. Macro-Structure of Wood

The wood structures that can be seen by eyes or through magnifying glass are called the
macro structure of wood. In order to observe closely, the trunks are cut into three different
sections.
 Transverse section: the section that is vertical against the trunk axis;
 Radial section: the section that passes the trunk axis;
 Tangential section: the section that parallels with the trunk axis and tangent with the
annual ring.

As it is shown in Figure 9.1, the wood is made up of bark, xylem and pith.
 Bark is mainly used for burning except certain species of trees (cork oak, and yellow
pineapple tree) whose bark can be used to make heat-proof materials.
 Pith is in the central part of the trunk, whose texture is loose and fragile, and is liable
to be corrupted or eaten by insect worms.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 2

  So the best part for use is the
xylem of trunk. In the xylem, the
darker part near the pith is called
duramen, while the light part
outside is called albumum. The
duramen contains little water so
that it is not liable to reshape, and
it has high corrosion resistance.
While the alburnum contains
more water that it is easy to
deform and has worse corrosion
resistance than duramen.

On the transverse section many centric circles can be seen, which are called annual rings.
Of them the part in dark color and lie close are grown in summer, called summerwood.
And the converse part is grown in spring, called springwood. The more summerwood wood
has, the better the wood is. The more intense and evener annual rings the wood has, the
better quality the wood has.

2.3. Microstructure of Wood

The wood structures that can be seen through
microscope are called microstructure of wood.
There are differences between the structures of
conifer and broadleaf, just as shown in Figure 9.2.
Every cell can be classified into two parts: The cell
wall is composed of fibrils. The longitudinal
combination is firmer than the transverse
combination. So the cell wall is of high strength in
lengthways, but of low strength in transverse. There
are very little spaces among the fibrils composed of
cell wall, which enables the material to absorb or
leak water.

The structure of the cell determines the physical characteristics of wood. For example: the
wood with thick cell wall and small lumen is intense and hard, and its bulk specific gravity
is high and it is of high strength.

3. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

3.1. Moisture
The moisture of wood is measured in the percentage of water content, which is the
percentage of the mass of water to the mass of dry wood.

3.1.1. The Water in Wood

The water in the wood can be classified into the free water that lies in intercellular space
and the absorbed water that lies inside the cell wall. The newly-cut wood is green wood.
There is a plenty of free water and absorbed water in it. And the percentage of water
content ranges from 70 % to 140%. When wood becomes dry, the free water is the first

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 3

 to evaporate, but at this time the size and mechanical property of wood are not
influenced. When the free water finishes evaporating, the absorbed water begins to
evaporate. The process of absorbed water evaporating is slow, and during it the bulk
and the strength change regularly.
3.1.2. Fiber Saturation Point
The status when there is no free water in wood, but the cell walls are saturated with
absorbed water, is called the fiber saturation point. In general the fiber saturation point
of wood is from 25% to 35%.
3.1.3. Equilibrium Water Content
The status that the percentage of water content of wood keeps balance with the
surrounding moisture is called equilibrium water content. In order to avoid deformation
and splits of wooden products caused by the change of moisture of wood, the wood
must be dried until the percentage of water content reaches the equilibrium water
content. The kiln-dried wood’s percentage of water content is 4%-12%.

3.2. Wet Swelling and Dry Shrinking (Deformation)

When absorbed water content in cell walls changes,
the deformation of wood may arises, which is wet
swelling and dry shrinking.

During the process that wood are dried from damp

status to the cellar saturation point, the size of wood
remains still but the mass decreases. Only when the
wood remains being dried until the absorbed water in
cell wall begins to evaporate, do the wood begin to
shrink. And when the absorbed water in wood begins
to increase, the wood will start to expand, as shown.

Because the structure of wood is not even, so the shrinkage value also varies from direction
to direction. The shrinkage value is the smallest in the direction of long grain, and bigger in
the radial direction, and the most in the chordwise direction. So when the green wood
becomes dry, the size and the shape of section may change a lot, as shown in Figure 9.4.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 4

The shrinkage effect makes a great difference to the usage of wood. It may cause the
wood split or warp, even make the structure of wood loosen or heave.

3.3. The Strength of Wood

3.3.1. All Kinds of Strength

According to the ways that wood bears force, the strength of wood can be classified
into tensile strength, compression strength, bending strength and sharing strength. And
the tensile strength, compression strength and sharing strength also vary with the
parallel grain (the direction of force parallels with the fiber direction) and transverse
grain (the direction of force is vertical against the fiber direction). The parallel grain
strength is quite different from the transverse grain strength. According to the Table 9.2,
you can see how to make good use of all species of wood on the basis of their strengths
separately.

The wood’ strength grade are measured through tangential static bending strength of
flawless standard specimens (see Table 9.3). The values of the strength grades of wood
are the design strength values when wood structures are designed. They are several
times lower than the actual strength, because the actual wood strength is determined
by many factors.

3.3.2. Factors Affecting the Wood Strength

Besides its ,own structure, the strength of wood is also determined by such factors as
the percentage of wood moisture, the defects (knots, irregular grain, splits, decay rot
and worm rot), the duration of outside force and temperature.
(1) Water Content of Wood
When the wood contains less water than the saturation point, the percentage
of moisture reduces, and the absorbed water becomes less and less, so that the
strength of wood rises. To the contrary, the absorbed water increases and the
cell walls expand, then the structure loosens and the strength of wood lowers.
When the percentage of moisture exceeds the fiber saturation point, only free
water is changing, and the strength of wood remains still. The influence of water
content on the strength of wood see Figure 9.5.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5

 In order to judge the wood strength and compare the results of experiment
correctly, the wood strength should be calculated into the strength value in the
state of standard water content (which is 12%) through following formula:

In the formula, σ12 is the wood strength when the water content is 12%
σW is the wood strength when moisture content is W% (MPa);
W stands for the moisture content in experiment (%);
α stands for the coefficient of moisture content, when the
water content is 9%-15%, the numeral values are
determined according to Table 9.4.

(2) Environment Temperature

Temperature has direct influence on the wood strength. The experiment shows
that when the temperature rises from 25 "C to 50 "C , the wood compression
strength will be reduced by 20%-40% and the wood sharing strength will be
reduced by 12%-20% because the collide among wood fibers is softened. In
addition, if the wood is in hot and dry surrounding, it may become fragile. During
the processing of wood, boiling method is often employed to reduce its strength
contemporarily to meet the needs of processing (such as the production of
plywood).

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 6

 (3) Duration of Outer Force
The limit strength of wood stands for the capability of standing the outer force in
a short time. The limit that the wood can stand in a long run is the rupture strength
of wood. Because plastic-flow deformation will occur to wood, the strength of
wood will be reduced with the lasting of loading time, and the rupture strength
of wood may be only 50%-60% of the limit strength of wood.

(4) Defects
The wood strength is judged by the samples without defects. In fact, during the
growing, cutting and processing process of wood, there may be such defects
as knots, splits and worm rot. These defects make the wood uneven, and destroy
wood structures; all these influences may reduce the strength of wood,
especially the tensile strength and the bending strength.

Besides the factors above, the species of trees, growing surroundings, the age of trees,
and different parts of trees all influence the wood strength.

4. TESTS FOR WOOD

4.1. BEND TESTING

Bend testing, sometimes called flexure testing or transverse beam testing, measures the
behavior of materials subjected to simple beam loading. It is commonly performed on
relatively flexible materials such as polymers, wood, and composites.

The objective of bending test on a wooden beam is to study the bending or flexural behavior
of the wooden beam and to determine the Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rupture of
the wood.

At its most basic level a bend test is performed on a Universal Testing Machine by placing
a specimen on two support anvils and bending it through applied force on 1 or 2 loading
anvils in order to measure its properties.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 7

Bend or flex tests can be classified as:
1) 3-point bend test
Apply force with either a single upper anvil at the midpoint. In a 3-point test, the
area of uniform stress is quite small and concentrated under the center loading
point.

2) 4-point bend test

Force is applied in two upper anvils equidistant from the center.

A four-point bending test was conducted to determine the modulus of elasticity of

round timber elements. The modulus of elasticity would be obtained by measuring
the local deflection between the load. A comparison between the global and local
deflection was carried out to verify the value of the modulus of elasticity. The
average diameter and the minimum diameter close to the collapsing position were
used for calculating local Modulus of Elasticity (Em local ) and bending stress (fm)
respectively.

The procedure of conducting the test and test arrangement were demonstrated in
the EN 408: 1995 Standard.
 In principle, the test piece shall be symmetrically loaded in bending at two
points over a span of 18 times the diameter (Figure 15).
 Two symmetrical loads are placed at a distance of six times the diameter
between them.
 In case these conditions were not precisely satisfied, the distance between
the load points and the supports may be adjusted by an amount not greater
than 1.5 times the piece depth, and the span and test piece length may be
changed by an amount not greater than three times the element diameter,
while maintaining the symmetry of the test.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 8

  The supports for the test piece shall be simple. In order to minimize the
indentation, small steel plates of length not greater than one-half of the
depth of the test piece may be inserted between the piece and the loading
heads or supports. Buckling would be avoided using any necessary lateral
restraint that allows the test piece to deflect without significant frictional
resistance.
 The load applied to the piece shall be maintained at a constant rate
movement not greater than 0,003 h mm/s. The maximum load applied shall
not exceed the proportional limit load or cause damage to the piece.
 An accuracy of 1% of the load applied to the test piece or, for loads less than
10 % of the applied maximum load, an accuracy of 0.1 % of the maximum
applied load must be satisfied by the loading equipment.
 Deformations shall be measured at the center of a central gauge length of
five times the depth of the section. An accuracy of 1 % or, for deformations
less than 2 mm, an accuracy of 0,02 mm is required in the measurement of
the deformation.

The Modulus of Elasticity in bending was determined in two different ways of

measurement. In the EN 408 t, the force- deflection graph was influenced by only
local specimen characteristics and modulus of elasticity. The EN 408 bending test
resulted in the local Modulus of Elasticity (Em local ) and bending stress (fm) which could
be expressed as:

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 9

4.2. COMPRESSION TEST
Compression testing of wood materials is the opposite of tensile testing in that instead of
pulling the ends away from each the ends are pushed together. There are two different
forms of compression testing:

1) With Grain or Parallel Compression Testing

Requires the load to be applied along the grains of the test sample. When the load
is applied parallel to grains, the wooden sample will take more load to fail, the ability
of wood to take more load parallel to grains before failure is because each fiber
act as column to the applied load and even after the failure of the single fiber the
rest of the fibers will keep on taking the load.

In this type of loading shear failure cracks start developing near the edges at about
45 degrees. But due to Platen effect and eccentricity, failure is not purely shear
failure, so that’s why we see a crack in between the grains. See the sketch below
of wooden cube after fracture.

Procedure
Before Testing
1) Select two 4″ x 4″ x 4″ specimens for test.
2) Record any significant defects in the specimens.
3) Measure cross sectional area and size of each side of cube minutely.

On the Compression Testing Machine:

Verify load application speed of 0.15 N/mm2/sec.
1) Place the specimen in the machine and apply a small holding load (under
100lb).
2) Continue loading until a peak load is reached or, if no peak is reached, until
the load approaches a constant value.
3) Repeat to test for other specimen.

2) Perpendicular to Grain Compression Testing

Requires the load to be applied perpendicularly to the grain of the wood sample.
When the load is applied perpendicular to the grains, the wooden sample takes
comparatively less load. This is because the failure of the single fiber will lead to the
failure of the whole sample. The strength of the wooden sample when the load is

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 10

 applied parallel to the grains is about ten times more as compared to when the
load is applied perpendicular to grains.

Procedure
Before Testing
1) Select two 4″ x 4″ x 4″ specimens
2) Record any significant defects in the specimens.
3) Place the bearing plate on top of the specimen at the center of the
specimen. Make sure the plate is perpendicular to the specimen, and
preferably against a radial surface, if possible
4) Measure all sides of both specimens accurately, including area to be loaded.

On the Compression Testing Machine:

1) Verify load application rate of 0.15 to 0.35 N/mm2 /sec.
2) Place the specimen in the machine and apply a small holding load (under
100lb).
3) Continue loading until failure, or just beyond 0.1 inch deformation, which we
consider to be “failure by excessive deformation.”

4.3. FLEXURE AND SHEAR TEST

The most commonly referenced strength property of wood is its modulus of rupture. This is
defined as the bending stress in a flexural member at the failure load and is computed
assuming an elastic stress distribution. For clear or defect-free wood, this is lower than the
tensile strength parallel to grain. The converse is true for structural timber, which normally
contains large numbers strength reducing characteristics or ‘defects’. Research has shown
that size effects are important in flexural members as the larger the member the greater
the probability of having a large defect which will reduce strength.

Knowledge of shear failure is important while designing any

structures or components. Whenever forces act upon a body
in such a way that one portion tends to slide upon another
adjacent to it the action is called a shear. In wood this
shearing action may be along the grain, or across the grain.
A tenon breaking out its mortise is a familiar example of shear
along the grain, while the shoving off of the tenon itself would
be shear across the grain.

Knowledge of shear parallel to the grain is important, since

wood frequently fails in that way. The value of shearing
stress parallel to the grain is found by dividing the maximum
load by the area of the cross section.

The ratio of stress to strain in shear is known as the modulus of rigidity, or shear modulus.
Shear failure may coincide with one of these planes; hence, six distinct modes of shear
failure are possible: LR, RL TL, LT, RT, and TR.M

Collectively, RT and TR shear are sometimes called rolling shear; Rolling shear is defined as
shear stress leading to shear strains in a plane perpendicular to the grain direction. Due to
the very low rolling shear stiffness of timber significant shear deformations may occur.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 11

LR and LT shear are the two kinds of
longitudinal shear. Wood is generally more
resistant to longitudinal shear than rolling
shear; however, longitudinal shear is a
common failure mode in an overloaded
beam. This longitudinal shear is maximum at
the neutral plane and decreases toward
the upper and lower surfaces.

Finally, RL and TL shear are the two kinds of

transverse shear. Except for certain brittle
softwoods, like western red cedar, wood
very rarely fails in transverse shear, it will
undergo tensile failure first.

Test Specimen
The specimens are usually in the form of small, clear,
straight-grained blocks with a projecting tenon or lip to be
sheared off. Two common forms and sizes are shown in
figure. Part of the blocks is cut so that the shearing surface
is parallel to the growth rings, or tangential; others at right
angles to the growth rings, or radial. It is important that the
upper surface of the tenon or lip be sawed exactly
parallel to the base of the block. When the form with a
tenon is used the undercut is extended a short distance
horizontally into the block to prevent any compression
from below. The standard test specimen shall be 5 X 5 cm
in cross-section and 6 cm in length or 2 X 2 cm in cross-
section and 3 cm in length. The specimens shall be notched on one end to produce
shear failure on 5 X 5 cm or 2 X 2 cm surface in the radial or tangential plane.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 12

 References
1. Zhang, Haimei. 2011. Building materials in civil engineering. Woodhead Publishing Limited and
Science Press.
2. Wood Products. [Link]
3. Compression Test on Wooden Sample. [Link]
wooden-sample/

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 13

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 9. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

Introduction

Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB), are one of the most extensiv ely used w alling materials in
the Philippines. Some of the reasons for this is their relativ e low cost w hen compared to
other materials and speed of installation by semi-skilled labourers. CHB w alls are very weak
against lateral loads (pushing or pulling forces from typhoon or earthquake). Adding steel
reinforcing bars v ertically and horizontally inside the CHBs can increase their resistance to
lateral loads.

CHBs are best know n for its v arious designs, hollow blocks are know n for its lightweight
status and easy-to-use features. These are usually made from richer mixes w ith holes that
take up about 25-50% of its composition. These holes, also called hollow s, are a great help
in terms of thermal and sound insulation. Best of all, hollow blocks can accommodate
reinforcing materials like steel rods. Ev en w hen stacked, these pieces are easier to carry
than its chunkier counterpart. I t also requires less mortar or plaster to fill in.

To use blocks in construction, the ov erall length and height of the w all must be fixed
accordingly so that it is possible to use a single block or half-length block. The blocks are
av ailable in standard face size of 440 x 215 mm and a thickness of 140 mm and 215 in a
standard finish (suitable for rendering).

Intended Learning Outcom es

This module enable students to:

 Know w hat are concrete hollow blocks, its adv antages, and standards
 Know the proportions for the manufacture of CHBs
 Learn about the how tests are conducted to CHBs

Learning Activitie s

Watch the follow ing videos for additional information:

1) Material Strength and Construction Concrete Hollow Block Test
[Link] w w .[Link]/w atch?v =FXi7yg6Ttks
2) Philippine Hollow Blocks Analyzed
[Link] w w .[Link]/w atch?v =I 1ftCkQjH34
3) Blocks Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry
[Link] w w .[Link]/w atch?v =niBlhABz7Dg

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. INTRODUCTION
Masonry is one of the oldest forms of construction and has been w idely utilized in both
dev eloped and dev eloping countries due to ease of construction, av ailability of materials,
relativ ely low cost of materials, and unskilled w orkers. There are many masonry materials,
such as:
 unfired clay bricks,
 fired clay bricks,
 concrete bricks, and
 hollow concrete blocks.

Among these masonry materials, clay bricks are gradually abandoned, and hollow
concrete blocks are used more and more w idely due to technological adv ancements,
env ironmental protection, and sustainable dev elopment.

Hollow concrete blocks could offer the potential for energy sav ings, decreasing raw
material usage, and reducing env ironmental impact. Therefore, hollow concrete blocks
play an important role in the modern building industry.

2. ADVANTAGES
 Readily av ailable product
 Good thermal and sound resistance
 High fire resistance
 Can be reinforced to increase lateral resistance against earthquakes and typhoons
 20+ years lifespan

3. STANDARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Standard product size Length – 40cm, Height – 20cm, Depth 10cm (4”) and 15 cm (6”)
in the Philippines
Product and material Crushed coarse sand or grav el is optimal for the manufacture of
quality CHBs. Av oid sand sourced from riv ers and coastal areas (sea sand).
The quality of CHBs v aries significantly from one supplier to the next.
Sand and gravel: Widely av ailable in the Visayas region from
Suppliers
local suppliers.
Cement: As abov e
CHBs: I t is recommended to procure products from suppliers w ith
products certified by the Department of Trade and I ndustry (DTI )
and Department of Public Works and Highw ays (DPWH). Check for
PS and I CC markings on the cement to ensure product meets
required specifications. (Refer to reference section for further
information).

Environmental Consider more env ironmentally friendly alternatives where

considerations av ailable, eg: I nterlocking compressed earth blocks (ICEB),

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 2

4. EXISTING STANDARDS FOR CHBs IN THE PHILIPPINES
National Building Code of the Philippines and National Structural Code of the Philippines , NSCP.

Load bearing walls 6” CHBs

CHBs used must be Type I Class A or B unit, confirming w ith
ASTM C-90- 70
Minimum compressive 5.41 Mpa (800psi) - For indiv idual CHBs
strength 6.89Mpa (1000psi) - Based on the av erage gross area of 5 units
Non-load bearing walls 4” CHBs
Applications include: w alls, partitions, fences, dividers
To be laid in mortar 1 part of Portland cement and 3 parts of
Steel bars sand (1:3) Vertical and horizontal spacing as specified by a
structural engineer.
Type 1,2,3 or Type 4 Portland Cement confirming to ASTM C-
Mortar and grout
150. Standard mix to the building code specifications

5. PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHBS

This is done in two By w eight or v olume. The most common method is by v olume
different ways (e.g. using a bucket)
For CHBs: Mix Proportion 1:7, as per structural engineer’s
Mixture
specification
Clean w ater should be used. Shall not exceed 28 litres per 40
Water kilograms per bag of cement, slump test (as per ASTM C-143)
shall not exceed 10cm, unless specified by a structural engineer.

Common CHB mix:

½ bucket water 1 bucket cement 7 buckets sand

Common mortar mix:

1 bucket water 1 bucket cement 3 buckets sand

I f batch mixer is used, use accurate timing and measuring
Mixing time dev ices to operate as per manufacturer’s instructions.
Rev olutions should be betw een 14 and 20 per minute.
After being remov ed from the mould, the CHBs should be
cov ered w ith a plastic sheet or tarpaulin and kept damp and
shaded for at least 7 days in order to effectiv ely cure. This can
Curing be achiev ed by continually spraying them w ith w ater or keeping
them under w ater in tanks. A good curing process leads to less
cracking and a stronger, harder, denser and more durable
concrete.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 3

6. CHB Tips
 Selection of raw materials for the manufacture of CHBs:
I t is recommended to use good quality, clean ingredients. Av oid using beach sand
as it contains salt w hich significantly compromises the quality of concrete.

 Proportions of materials in mixture:

Mix concrete w ell, using the proportions specified by a structural engineer. Ensure
that an adequate amount of cement is added and av oid adding excessiv e w ater
as it w eakens the mixture. Concrete should stand up w hen mixed, not flow aw ay
due to excessiv e w ater.

 Mixing:
Use a mixing board otherw ise w ater used for mixing w ill percolate into the ground
and impurities such as dirt and grass could become incorporated into the mixture.
I f concrete is mixed in batches, maintain consistent proportions for all batches.

 Pouring and compaction:

Ensure the formw ork is clean before pouring and v ibrate uniformly. The concrete
should be w ell compacted in order to make sure that any air w hich is trapped in the
concrete (w eak points) is remov ed.

 Curing:
Av oid using freshly made, uncured CHBs as they are still in a state of shrinkage.

 Storage:
Store CHBs for at least 14 days after curing before using them. Protect them from
rain and ground w ater, stacking them in a w ay w hich allow s air to circulate around
and betw een them.
 Transportation:
Minimize excessiv e handling and transportation of CHBs to av oid damage

 Selection and quality control of CHBs:

I t is recommended to test the compressiv e strength of CHBs produced/purchased
in order to ensure they meet the required strength. Select only strong CHBs. Blocks
w ith cracks and corners crumbling aw ay w hen handled suggests poor quality. If the
CHB breaks w hen dropped from head height, don’t use it or other blocks in the
same batch.

 Construction:
Dampen CHBs before laying as dry masonry absorbs w ater from the cement,
w eakening the joint. CHBs should alw ays be laid on a full bed of mortar and v ertical
joints should alw ays be filled.

 Earthquake and typhoon resistance:

I n order to increase the building’s resistance against lateral loads (pushing or pulling
forces from typhoon or earthquake), connect CHB w alls to the reinforced concrete
columns and beams w ith v ertical and horizontal steel reinforcing bars, in
accordance w ith structural engineer’s details.

 Maintenance:
Consider plastering/rendering the surface of CH

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 4

7. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF HOLLOW BLOCKS
Compressiv e strength of concrete Blocks or concrete
masonry units are required to know the suitability of these in
construction w orks for v arious purposes. Concrete masonry
blocks are generally made of cement, aggregate and water.
Which are usually rectangular and are used in construction of
masonry structure. They are av ailable in solid and hollow
forms. The nominal dimensions of concrete masonry block
v ary as follow s:
 Length: 400 or 500 or 600mm
 Width: 200 or 100mm
 Width: 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250 or 300mm.

TEST ON CONCRETE MASONRY BLOCK UNITS

Different tests are conducted on concrete masonry unit to satisfy the all requirements. But
now w e are discussing about three tests conducted on concrete masonry block which are
as follow s. Blocks of same mix shall be taken and div ide them as follow s to conduct the
follow ing tests.

1) Dimension measurement (All blocks)

All blocks should be checked in this step. The length, w idth and height are measured
w ith steel scale. I f it is a hollow block, then the w eb thickness and face shell are
measured w ith caliper ruler. And prepare a report of av erage length, w idth and
height of block and av erage minimum face shell and minimum w eb thickness using
recorded dimensions.

2) Density of block (3 blocks)

As said abov e, 3 blocks shall be taken to conduct this test. To determine the density
of block, first heat the block in the ov en to 100 oc and then cooled it to room
temperature. Now take the dimensions of block and from that find out the v olume
and w eigh the block. The density of block is determined from the below relation and
the av erage density of 3 blocks w ill be the final block density. Density of block =
mass/v olume (kg/m3) Density v alues of different grades of blocks should be as
follow s.

Type of unit Grade Density of block (kg/m 2)

Hollow type unit A(3.5) >/= 1500
A(4.5) >/=1500
A(5.5) >/=1500
A(7.0) >/=1500
A(8.5) >/=1500
A(10.0) >/=1500
A(12.5) >/=1500
A(15.0) >/=1500
B(3.5) 1100-1500
B(5.0) 1100-1500
Solid type unit C(5.0) >/=1800
C(4.0) >/=1800

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5

3) Compressive strength of block (8 blocks)
Eight blocks are taken to determine the
av erage compressiv e strength of concrete
masonry block. The blocks should be tested
w ith in 3days after collected in lab. The age
of each block shall be 28 days. The
compressiv e strength testing machine consist
of tw o steel bearing blocks, one is in rigid
position on w hich the masonry unit is placed
and another one is mov able w hich transmit
the load to the masonry unit w hen applied. I f
the bearing area of masonry unit is more than
the bearing area of steel blocks, then
separate steel plates are used. The plates are
arranged on steel blocks in such a w ay that
the centroid of masonry unit coincide with the
center of thrust of blocks.

Bearing area of concrete masonry units are capped w ith the Sulphur and granular
materials coating or gypsum plaster capping. After placing the unit in testing
machine, one-half of the expected maximum load is applied at a constant rate,
and the remaining load is applied in not less than 2 minutes. Note dow n the load at
w hich masonry unit fails and the maximum load div ided by gross sectional area of
unit w ill giv e the compressiv e strength of block. Similarly, test the remaining 7 blocks
and the av erage of 8 blocks strength is the final compressiv e strength of concrete
masonry unit. Below table represents the v alue of minimum av erage compressiv e
strength of indiv idual units.

Min average compressive

Type of unit Grade strength of individual units
(N/mm2)
A(3.5) 2.8
A(4.5) 3.6
A(5.5) 4.4
A(7.0) 5.6
Hollow type concrete A(8.5) 7.0
masonry unit A(10.0) 8.0
A(12.5) 10.0
A(15.0) 12.0
B(3.5) 2.8
B(5.0) 4.0
C(5.0) 4.0
Solid type unit
C(4.0) 3.2

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 6

 References
1. Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB).
[Link]
2. Testing of Concrete Masonry Block for Compressive Strength and Density.
[Link]
masonry-units/13966/
3. Hollow Block. [Link]
4. Concrete Hollow Blocks v s Concrete Solid Blocks
[Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 7

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 10. TENSILE STRENGTH OF STEEL BARS

Introduction

Steel reinforcing bars or rebar is used in concrete construction to enhance tensile

strength, complementing concrete's excellent compressive properties. Rebar also helps
maintain structural integrity as concrete cracks from expansion and contraction cycles.
The tensile strength of rebar steel and the tensile rebar-concrete bond strength are
extremely important properties of rebar.

Tensile tests are the most popular type of test for testing rebar. Other tests include bend
tests and fatigue tests. Tensile testing of rebar is relatively straightforward. No
modifications to the material geometry are required as lengths of the actual rebar are
used to determine the strength and elongation of the rebar.

Testing the concrete-rebar bond strength is a more involved process because reinforced
concrete samples must be poured and cured, ensuring a consistent bond length
between samples. The concrete specimens are then secured and a tensile load applied
by clamping and pulling on the exposed rebar end, using a test machine.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enable students to:

 Know the different types of steel bars
 Understand the tensile strength test for steel bars.

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Tensile Testing a Stainless Steel Tensile Specimen
[Link]
2) Tensile Strength of Steel
[Link]
3) TENSILE STRENGTH OF STEEL: How to find Ultimate Tensile Strength using Tensile Testing
Machine
[Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. INTRODUCTION
Rebar, also known as reinforcement
steel and reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or mesh
of steel wires used in reinforced concrete and masonry
structures to strengthen and hold
the concrete in tension. To improve the quality of
the bond with the concrete, the surface of rebar is
often patterned.

Rebar is necessary to compensate for the fact that

whilst concrete is strong in compression, it is relatively
weak in tension. By casting rebar into concrete, it is
able to carry tensile loads and so increase Fig 1: Reinforcement Steel Bar
overall strength.

DIFFERENT USES OF REBAR INCLUDE:

 Primary reinforcement: Used to provide resistance to support design loads.
 Secondary reinforcement: Used for durability and aesthetic purposes by providing
localised resistance to limit cracking and temperature-induced stresses.
 Provide resistance to concentrated loads, spreading it through a wider area.
 Assist other steel bars in accommodating their loads by holding them in the correct
position.
 External steel tie bars to constrain and reinforce masonry structures, sometimes as a
means of building conservation.
 Reinforced masonry: Some masonry blocks and bricks include voids
to accommodate rebar to carry tensile loads. The rebar is secured in place using grout.

Table 1: Grades of Rebar in Different Codes

American Euro Standard(DIN British Indian
Standard (ASTM A 615) 488) Standard BS4449: 1997 Standard (IS: 1786)
Grade Fe – 415, Fe
Grade 75 (520) BST 500 S GR 460 A
– 500, Fe – 500D
Grade 80 (550) BST 500 M GR 460 B Grade Fe – 550

2. TYPES OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT BARS

2.1. MILD STEEL BAR
The surface of the mild steel bars are plain
and round in shape. They are available in
various sizes of 6 mm to 50 mm. They are used
in concrete for special purposes, such as
dowels at expansion joints, where bars must
slide in a metal or paper sleeve, for
contraction joints in roads and runways, and
for column spirals. They are easy to cut and
bend without damage. Fig 2 : Mild Steel Bar

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 2

 For structural buildings like bridges and other heavy structures, mild steel bar is not
recommended due to no great bonding between concrete and steel, slippage and
strength.

Grades in mild steel bars

1) Mild Steel Bars
 Mild steel bars grade-I designated as Fe 410-S or Grade 60.
 Mild steel bars grade-II designated as Fe-410-o or Grade 40.
2) Medium Tensile Steel Bars designated as Fe- 540-w-ht or Grade 75.

Table 2: Physical Requirement of Mild Steel Bars

Ultimate Tensile Yield Stress Elongation

Types of Nominal size of bar
Stress in N/mm2 N/mm2 Percentage min

Mild Steel Grade I or Grade 60

For Bars upto 20mm 410 250 23

For Bars above 20mm upto 50mm 410 240 23

Mild Steel Grade II or Grade 40

For Bars upto 20mm 370 225 23

For Bars above 20mm upto 50mm 370 215 23

Medium Tensile Steel Grade -75

For Bars upto 16mm 540 350 20

For Bars above 16mm upto 32mm 540 340 20

For Bars above 32mm upto 50mm 510 330 20

2.2. DEFORMED STEEL BAR

2.2.1. TMT BARS (Thermo Mechanically

Treated Bars)
Thermo Mechanically Treated Bars are hot
treated bars that are high in strength used
in reinforced cement concrete (RCC) work.
It is the latest induction in the MS steel bars
with superior properties such as strength,
ductility, welding ability, bending ability and
highest quality standards at international
level. Fig 3: Deformed TMT Steel Bar

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 3

Characteristics of TMT Rebars
 Better ductility and malleability
 High yield strength and toughness
 More bonding strength
 Earthquake resistance
 Corrosion resistance
 High thermal resistance
 Economical and safe in use
 No loss in strength at welded joints
 Ordinary electrodes used for welding the joints

2.2.2. HIGH STRENGTH DEFORMED BARS

High strength deformed bars are cold twisted steel bars with lugs, ribs, projection
or deformation on the surface. It the extensively and majorly used for
reinforcement purposes in a construction. These bars are produced in sizes or
sections from 4 mm to 50 mm in diameter.

Fig 4:
Deformed
HSD Steel
Bar

Characteristics of HSD Rebar

 Low carbon value
- HSD Bars have lower carbon level, resulting in good ductility, strength and
welding ability.
 Superior bonding strength
- HSD bars are well known for their excellent bonding strength when used with
concrete.
 Welding capability
- Since these bars have lower carbon content, they have 100% welding
capability than conventional bars.
 High tensile strength
- HSD bars feature high tensile strength. They offer great asset in construction
process, where a lot of bending and re bending is required.
 Wide application range
- These bars have wide application range like in building residential, commercial
and industrial structures, bridges, etc.
 Satisfactorily malleability
- Minimum weight and maximum strength and suitable for both compression and
tension reinforcement.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 4

2.3. OTHERS

2.3.1. European Rebar

European rebar is made of manganese, which makes them bend easily. They're
not suitable for use in areas that are prone to extreme weather conditions or
geological effects, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes. The cost of
this rebar is low.

2.3.2. Carbon Steel Rebar

As the name represents, it is made up of carbon
steel and is commonly known as Black Bar due to
carbon colour. The main drawback of this rebar
is that it corrodes, which adversely effect the
concrete and structure. The tensile strength ratio
coupled with the value makes black rebar one
of the best choices. Fig 5: Carbon Steel Rebar

2.3.3. Epoxy-Coated Rebar

Epoxy-coated rebar is black rebar with an epoxy
coat. It has the same tensile strength, but is 70 to
1,700 times more resistant to corrosion. However,
the epoxy coating is incredibly delicate. The
greater the damage to the coating, the less
resistant to corrosion. Fig 6: Epoxy-Coated Rebar

2.3.4. Galvanized Rebar

Galvanized rebar is only forty times more resistant
to corrosion than black rebar, but it is more
difficult to damage the coating of galvanized
rebar. In that respect, it has more value than
epoxy-coated rebar. However, it is about 40%
more expensive than epoxy-coated rebar.
Fig 7: Galvanized Rebar

2.3.5. Glass-Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer (GFRP)

GFRP is made up of carbon fibre. As it is made up
of fibre, bending is not allowed. It is very resistant
to corrosion and is costly when compared to
other rebars.

Fig 8: Glass-Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer Rebar

2.3.6. Stainless Steel Rebar
Stainless steel rebar is the most expensive reinforcing bar available, about eight
times the price of epoxy-coated rebar. It is also the best rebar available for most
projects. However, using stainless steel in all but the most unique of
circumstances is often overkill. But, for those who have a reason to use it, stainless
steel rebar 1,500 times more resistant to corrosion than black bar; it is more
resistant to damage than any of the other corrosive-resistant or corrosive-proof
types or rebar; and it can be bent in the field.
PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5
3. TENSILE TEST
Tension test is performed on mild steel, tor steel and high tensile steel to determine the
properties like Young's modulus, ultimate strength, and the percentage elongation. In the
tension test, a steel rod is subjected to tension load by the means of a Universal testing
machine(UTM). The equipment arrangement and procedure for conducting the tension
test on steel rod are explained in this article in detail.

3.1. Equipment for Tension Test on Steel

The tension test requires:
1) Universal Testing Machine(UTM)
2) Extensometer
3) Scale Vernier Calipers
4) Punching tools

3.2. Theory
The specimen is subjected to constant tension load and the extension caused in the
steel rod is noted against the load within the elastic limit. The load values at yield
point, breaking point, and ultimate point are carefully noted. With the obtained
values, the stress and strain are calculated and plotted in a graph. From the data,
we get:
1) Modulus of Elasticity, E = Stress/Strain[This is calculated within the elastic limit.
The slope of the stress-strain curve provides the modulus of elasticity]
2) Yield Stress = Load at yield Point/Original C/s Area
3) Ultimate Stress = Ultimate Load/Original C/s Area
4) Nominal Breaking Stress = Breaking Load/Nominal Breaking Stress
5) Actual Breaking Stress = Breaking load/Neck Area
6) Percentage elongation = (Change in length/Original Length)/100
7) Percentage reduction in the area = (Change in length/Original Area)/100

3.3. Procedure for Tensile Strength on Steel Rod

Fig 9: Tension
Test on Steel
Rod
Arrangement on
UTM

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 6

 1) Preparation of Specimen:
Initially, the steel rod specimen is cleaned and gauge length is marked on it. The
gauge length is calculated by the formula 5.65√𝐴 . The gauge length can be
marked on the specimen by punching tool.

2) Range Calculation:
A tensile stress value is assumed for which the maximum expected load capacity
of the rod is calculated. From this, the range is calculated and this range is set in
the UTM.
Assuming working stress = 140N/mm² Factor of safety = 3.i.e
Ultimate stress = 140x3 = 420N/mm².
Ultimate load = 420 x area of c\s.
From the ultimate load, range to be used can be fixed.

3) Placing the Specimen:

The handle is operated such that the specimen firmly fits to the top base. The left
valve is kept in a fully closed position and the right valve in a normal open position.
Open the right valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted. Adjust the
load pointer to zero with the zero adjusting knobs. By operating the handle, lift the
lower crosshead chuck up and grip firmly the lower part of the specimen. Once
the specimen is placed, the jaws are locked.

4) Placing Extensometer:
Fix the extensometer on the specimen and set the reading to zero.

5) Load Application:
Turn the right control valve slowly to open position to get the desired loading rate.
When the specimen is under load, slowly unclamp the locking handle. Note the
extension at a convenient load increment. Extensometer must be removed before
reaching the yield point. The right valve is used to apply the load and the left valve
is used to release the load on the specimen.

6) Important Load Points:

With the increase in load at some point, the load pointer remains stationary. Load
corresponding to this indicates the yield point. With further increase in load, the
pointer goes backward and specimen breaks. The load before this breaking is
the ultimate load. The load at the breaking of the specimen is called as
the breaking load.

As shown in figure-4 below, once the load crosses the ultimate stress (ultimate load)
necking starts to form in the steel rod. Necking is a large reduction caused in the cross-
sectional area of the steel rod.

[Link] of Steel Rod Under Tension Load

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 7
 Close the right control valve and take out the broken piece. Open the left control
valve to pump the oil back. Maximum capacity of the specimen can be seen against
the red pointer. Measure the diameter of the specimen at the neck. Change in length
is obtained from reading recorded from extensometer. Therefore, Strain = Change in
length/Original Length Stress at different values of strains is also determined as, Stress
= Load /Area; With different values of stress and corresponding strains, the stress-strain
graph is plotted.

[Link]-Strain Graph for Tension Test on Steel Rod

References
1. Rebar. [Link]
2. What is rebar? [Link]
grades/24730/
3. Tension Test on Steel Rod. [Link]
steel-rod/2482/

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 8

 Republic of the Philippines
President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Tel/Fax No.: (047) 811-1683
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

College of Engineering/Department of Civil Engineering

CMT 223: Construction Materials and Testing
2nd Semester of A.Y. 2020-2021

MODULE 11. FIELD TESTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Introduction

Field testing services take place at the site. Roadways, airports, utility projects, building
developments: All typically involve CMT processes carried out by certified professionals.
In the field, construction materials testing can involve:
 Soils
 Concrete/Asphalt
 Steel
 Masonry
 Timber

What does Field Testing look for? Compaction, moisture, air content, and more, most of
which is evaluated through visual inspection and/or non-destructive techniques. Steel
structures, retaining walls, and soil foundations are prime examples of construction that
are evaluated during Field Testing.

Most of our construction sites do not have field-testing laboratory. In this paper simple test
methods of construction materials are described which could be performed without any
machine or special equipment.

Intended Learning Outcomes

This module enables students to learn about different kinds of test for construction materials
that can be done in the field in the absence of laboratory equipment and apparatus.

Learning Activities

Watch the following videos for additional information:

1) Test on cement at construction site: [Link]
2) Field concrete testing: [Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 1

 Content

1. CEMENT

Sometimes it may be required to perform cement quality tests at a site within a very short
period of time for evaluating the condition of the supplied cement. In most of the cases, it
is not possible to have any laboratory test in the short period of time. Therefore, the quality
check is performed with the help of some basic field tests. Although these tests are not very
accurate, they provide some basic idea to the civil engineer regarding the quality of the
cement.

a) Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with age, the date
of manufacturing of cement bags should be checked.
b) Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should be typical cement color
i.e. gray color with a light greenish shade.
c) Whether Hard Lumps are Formed: Cement should be free from hard lumps. Such lumps
are formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
d) Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it should
be cool inside the cement bag. If hydration reaction takes place inside the bag, it will
become warm.
e) Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it should give
a smooth feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
f) Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown into the water, it should float
some time before finally sinking.
g) The smell of Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky
between the fingers. If the cement contains too much-pounded clay and silt as an
adulterant, the paste will give an earthy smell.
h) Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of a glass plate
and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
i) Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with water is made.
The block is then immersed in water for three days. After removing, it is supported
150mm apart and a weight of 15kg uniformly placed over it. If it shows no sign of failure
the cement is good.

2. CONCRETE

a) Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete Structure by Tapping Method

For testing low-grade concrete in unimportant constructions the strength of concrete

may be determined either from its hardness when scratched with a metal “pencil” or
a chisel, or from the character of the sound when struck with a hammer, or from the
character of the mark left after a hammer blow.

The tapping method is not very exact but it is simple and can be easily applied for an
approximate determination of the strength of concrete and in some cases is still used.
On the concrete to be tested a smooth surface about 100 x 100 mm is chosen and
cleaned with a metal brush. Then a hammer 300-400 gm in mass is struck against the
concrete from elbow height directly or through a metal worker’s chisel placed at right

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 2

 angles to the tested surface. The size of the mark left the hammer or the chisel and the
sound of the hammer stroke are indicative of the strength of concrete. Ten blows of
average force are made at different points on the specimen.

Results, exceedingly low, are disregarded. Approximate values of the strength of

concrete obtained from these tests are given in the following table. The tapping
method is used for an approximate determination of the strength of low-grade
concrete, because the force of the blow and the accompanying sound vary greatly
depending on subjective factors.

TEST RESULTS
Blow of hammer (0.4
Blow of hammer (0.4
Strength of kg) upon chisel
kg) upon concrete Scratching by chisel
concrete N/nm2 placed at right angles
surface
to concrete surface
Sound toneless. Chisel is easily
Concrete cut easily
Below 6 Deep dent with driven into
and crumbles
Crumbling Edges concrete
Sound slightly Chisel can be
toneless. Dent has driven into Visible scratches 1 –
6 – 10
smooth edges. concrete deeper 1.5 mm deep
Concrete crumbles than 5 mm
Sound clear whitish Thin scales split off Visible scratches no
10 – 20
mark remains round the mark deeper than 1 mm
Sound ringing,
Mark is not very Barely visible
Over 20 Metallic, Mark-
deep scratches
visible

3. AGGREGATE

a) Test For Organic Impurities In Fine Aggregate

The aggregate must be checked for organic impurities such as decayed vegetations,
humus, and coal dust, etc. Colour test is a reliable indicator of the presence of harmful
organic matter in aggregates except in areas where there are deposits of lignite.

Procedure:
1) Fill a 350 ml clear glass medicine bottle upto 75 ml mark with a 3% solution of
caustic soda or sodium hydroxide.

A 3% solution of caustic soda is made by dissolving 3 gm of sodium hydroxide

(which can be purchased from any local laboratory chemicals shop) in 100 ml
of clean water (preferably distilled water). The solution should be kept in glass
bottle tightly closed with a rubber stopper. Handling sodium hydroxide with moist
hands may result in serious burns. Care should be taken not to spill the solution
for it is highly injurious to clothing, leather and other materials.

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 3

 2) The representative sands sample is next added gradually until the volume
measured by the sandy layer is 125 ml. The volume is then made up to 200 ml by
the addition of more of the solution. The bottle is then corked and shaken
vigorously and allowed to stand for 24 hours.
3) At the end o f this period, the colour of the liquid will indicate whether the sand
contains a dangerous amount of matter or not. A colorless liquid indicates clean
sand free from organic matter. A straw-colored solution indicates some organic
matter but not enough to be seriously objectionable. Darker colour means that
the sand contains injurious, amounts and should not be used unless it is washed
and a retest then shows that it is satisfactory.

b) Test for Silt Content of Fine Aggregate

It is important to use clean aggregate for concrete. If the aggregates are coated with
dirt, silt or clay, it will result in a poor concrete because the dirt will prevent the cement
from setting and also weaken the bond between the aggregates and the cement
paste.

Further owing to their fineness and therefore large surface area, increases the amount
of water necessary to wet all the particulars in the mix, this also resulted more shrinkage
of concrete. As determine with the given field test, the sand shall not contain more than
8% of silt.

Procedure:
1) Fill a measuring cylinder with a representative sand (fine aggregate) sample up
to 100 ml mark and add clean water up to 150 ml. To perform this test, more
correctly better dissolve a little salt in the water (1 tea spoonful to 250 ml is the
right proportion).
2) Shake the sample vigorously for one minute and the last few shakes being in a
side wise direction to level of the sand.
3) Allow the cylinder to stand for three hours during which time any silt present will
settle in a layer on the top of the sand and its thickness can be read off on the
cylinder itself. The sand shall not contain more than 8% of silt.
Note: In performing this test the sand sample should not dry. Glass measuring
cylinder capacity should be 200 ml.

c) Test For Bulking of Sand

Dry and fully saturated sand does not bulk. As the sand becomes finer the bulking of
the sand increases. The bulking of sand is caused by the film of moisture which tends to
keep the particles of sand apart.

Procedure
1) Method 1. Put sufficient quantity of site sand loosely into a suitable conbtainer
until it is about two-third full. Level off the top of the sand and push a steel rule
vertically down through the sand at the middle to bottom, measure the height.
Suppose this is `x’ cm.

Empty the sand out of the container into another container where none of its is
lost. Half fill the first container with clean water. Put back about half the sand
PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 4
 and rod it with a steel rod, about 6 mm in diameter, so that its volume is reduced
to a minimum. Then add the remainder sand and level the top surface of the
fully saturated sand. Measure its depth at the middle with the steel rule suppose
this is `y’ cm.

Percentage bulking =[x/y -1] x 100

2) Method 2. In a 250 ml measuring cylinder, pour the damp site sand, consolidate
it by staking until it reaches the 200 ml mark.

Then fill the cylinder with the clean water and stir the same well (the water shall
be sufficient to submerge the sand completely), It will be seen that the sand
surface is now below its original level. Suppose the surface is at the mark of y ml,
the percentage of bulking of sand due to moisture shall be calculated from the
formula.
Percentage bulking =[200/y -1] x 100

d) Test for Specific Gravity of Aggregate

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the unit weight of the substance to the
unit weight of water. A representative aggregate sample in SSD condition is obtained
by quartering and the following weights are used in the tests for the various sizes of
aggregates.

Less than 4.75 mm : 500 to 700 gm

4.75 mm to 10 mm : 1000 to 1500 gm

10 mm to 20 mm : 1500 to 2000 gm

20 mm to 40 mm : more than 2000 gm

Procedure:
1) Take a suitable size jar, the top open side of which have flange, so that a glass
plate may be put on it.
2) The jar should be filled with clean water upto the flange and slide on it the glass
plate. If there is any air bubble, which can be seen from top of glass plate, then
the jar top should be filled with more water. There should not be any air bubble.
Take the weight of jar fully filled with water and upon it glass plate (weight A).

3) About half empty the jar fill it with known weight of SSD aggregate sample
weight (B). As mentioned at b, fill the jar upto the top and putt glass plate on it.
There should not be any air bubble. Take its weigh (weight C).
Specific gravity on SSD basis = B/ [B-(C-A)]

e) Test for Moisture Content of Concrete Aggregate

The various stages in which the aggregate may exist are (a) over dry (b) air dry (c)
saturated surface dry (d) damp or moist. On the construction site, the sand (fine

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 5

 aggregate) usually carries some free moisture. Total internal moisture content of an
aggregate in the saturated surface dry condition may be termed as “Absorption
capacity” although it is sometimes referred to simply as the absorption. The amount of
water required to bring an aggregate from the air dry condition to the saturated
surface dry condition is termed as “effective absorption”. The absorption is determined
by finding the weight of a surface dried sample after it has been soaked for 24 hours
and again finding the weight after the sample has been dried, the difference in
weights, expressed as a percentage of dry sample weight, is the absorption capacity.

Procedure:
1) Take about one kg of representative sample of sand (fine aggregate) in a
suitable size tray. Fully immerse this sand sample in clean water for 24 hours.
2) After 24 hours of immersion take about 500 gm of representative wet sand
sample. Dry this sand in saturated surface dry (SSD) condition either in air or
heating in a fry pan. Take the weight (A) of SSD sand sample in fry pan and dry
it fully in gentle heat. After drying take its weight (weight B).
3) Take about 500 gm representative site sand sample. Take its weight (weight C)
and fully dry it in a fry pan. Take the dry weiht (weight D).

Calculations:
1) Water absorption (%) = [A-B]/B x100
2) Total moisture in site sand % = [C-D]/D x100
3) Surface moisture in site sand (%) = Total moisture in site sand % – Absorption of
site sand %
If the result is in negative, it means the sample does not contain any surface moisture
and in it balance absorbed water is to be added to make the site sand in SSD condition.

Note:
1) For obtaining the SSD condition of sand, it should be gently heated in a fry pan,
mean while stirring with a glass rod until the surface moisture disappears. This is
apparent when the sand loses its shining wet appearance and becomes dull, or
when it just attains a free running condition. The end point of aggregate SSD
condition could be found by practice. If the sand is heated beyond the SSD
condition some of the absorbed moisture will also dry and then the SSD weight
of aggregate will not be correct, and the obtained absorption result will not be
correct.
2) The same procedure with appropriate changes in the size of the sample and
dimension of the container may be applied to obtain moisture content of coarse
aggregate.

References
1. Simple Field Testing of Materials. [Link]
[Link]

PREPARED BY: MA. THEREZA R. VICHO 6