BALAJI

S.K KASHYAP [Ray Optics] CLASSES

]]} [THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
RAY OPTICS Definitions in
THERMAL
mirror :
connection with spherical
Optics : It is the branch of physics which deals
with the study of nature , production and
propagation of light .
Ray or geometrical optics : It based on
(a) The rectilinear propagation of light .
(b) The laws of reflection and refraction of light
Laws of reflection of light : (a) The angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection ,
 i=  r
(b) The incident ray , the reflected ray and the
normal at the point of incidence all lie in the (a) Pole : It is the middle point P of the
same place . spherical mirror .
(b) Centre of curvature : It is the centre C of
the sphere from which mirror is cut.
(c) Radius of curvature : It is the radius (R =
AC or BC) of the sphere from which mirror is
cut.
(d) Principal axis : The line PC passing
through the pole and the centre of curvature of
the mirror is called its principal axis .
A spherical mirror is a reflecting surface (e) Linear Aperture : It is the diameter AB of
which forms part of a hollow sphere . the circular boundary of the spherical mirror .
(f) Angular aperture : It is the angle ACB
subtended by the boundary of the spherical
mirror at its centre of curvature C .
(g) Princ`ipal focus : A narrow beam of light
parallel to the principal axis either actually
converges to an appears to diverges from a
point F on the principal axis after reflection
from the spherical mirror . This point is
called the principal focus of the mirror .
Spherical mirror are two types : (h) Focal length : It is the distance (f = PF)
(a) Concave mirror : A spherical mirror in between the focus and the pole of the
which the outer bulged surface is silvered mirror .
polished and the reflection of light takes place
from the inner hollow surface is called a
concave mirror .
(b) Convex mirror : A spherical mirror in
which the inner hollow surface is silvered
polished and the reflection of light takes place
from the outer bulged surface is called a convex
mirror .

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S.K KASHYAP [Ray Optics] CLASSES

]]} [THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL THERMAL

Relation between f and R : Let a ray AB
parallel to the principal axis , incident at point B
of a spherical mirror (concave or convex) of
small aperture .
According to the law of reflection ,
Position Of Images formed By Mirrors:  i =  r
AB is parallel to PC ,
 α =  i
In ∆ BFC ,
 r =  α
CF = FB
For a mirror of small aperture ,
FB = FP

CF = FP
CP = CF + FP

= FP + FP
New Cartesian sign convention for spherical = 2 FP
mirrors : R
R=2f f =
2

1
Focal length = x Radius of curvature
2
Derivation of mirror formula for a concave
mirror when it forms a real image :

According to sign convention , the focal

length and radius of curvature are negative for a
concave mirror and positive for a convex mirror

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S.K KASHYAP [Ray Optics] CLASSES

[
]]} Object
THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
distance , BP = – u THERMAL
Image distance , Bʹ P = – v
Focal length FP = – f
Radius of curvature , C P = – R
= – 2f
∆ Aʹ Bʹ C ~ ∆ABC
A' B ' B' C
= ……………………(1)
AB BC
Object distance , BP = – u
∆ Aʹ Bʹ P ~ ∆ A B P Image distance , P Bʹ = v
A' B ' B' P Focal length FP = – f
= ……………….(2) Radius of curvature , CP = – R
AB BP
= – 2f
From Eq (1) and (2)
∆ Aʹ Bʹ C ~ ∆ABC
A' B ' B' C
B' C B' P = ……………………(1)
= AB BC
BC BP

CP − B ' P BC
∆ Aʹ Bʹ P ~ ∆ A B P
= A' B ' B' P
BP − CP BC = ……………….(2)
AB BP
−R+v −v
= From Eq (1) and (2)
−u + R −u
B' C B' P
−R+v v =
= BC BP
−u + R u
–uR+uv = –uv +vR CP + B ' P BP
uR+vR = 2uv =
CP − BP BP
Dividing both sides by u v R ,
−R+v +v
1 1 2 =
+ = − R+u −u
v u R
R=2f
1
u R - u v = – v R+ u v
1 1
+ = uR+vR = 2uv
v u f
Dividing both sides by u v R ,
This is the mirror formula . 1 1 2
+ =
v u R
Derivation of mirror formula for a concave R=2f
mirror when the image formed is virtual 1 1 1
Let a concave mirror of focal length f. + =
v u f

This is the mirror formula

Derivation of mirror formula for a convex

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S.K KASHYAP [Ray Optics] CLASSES

[
mirror :
]]} THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL of the image to that of the object is called linear
THERMAL
or transverse magnification or just
magnification and is denoted by m .

Height of image
m =
Height of object

h2 v
m = = –
h1 u

Object distance , BP = – u Linear magnification in terms of u and f :

The mirror formula is
Image distance , P Bʹ = + v
1 1 1
Focal length FP = + f + =
Radius of curvature , PC = + R u v f
= + 2f Multiplying both sides by u
u u
1+ =
∆ Aʹ Bʹ C ~ ∆ABC v f
A' B ' B' C u u
= ……………………(1) – = 1–
AB BC v f
f −u
∆ Aʹ Bʹ P ~ ∆ A B P =
A' B ' B' P
f
= ……………….(2)
AB BP f
v
m= – =
From Eq (1) and (2)
u f −u

PC − B' P B' P Linear magnification in terms of v and f :

= The mirror formula is
PC + BP BP
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
R−v +v Multiplying both sides by v ,
=
R −u −u
v v
+1 =
–u R + u v = v R– u v u f
uR+vR = 2uv v v
Dividing both sides by u v R , – =1–
u f
1 1 2
+ = f −v
v u R =
f
R=2f
1 1
+ =
1 v f −v
v u f
m=– =
u f
This is the mirror formula
Linear magnification : The ratio of the height Spherical aberration : The inability of a

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[
spherical mirror of large aperture to bring all the
]]} THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
rays of wide beam of light falling on it to focus
THERMAL
at a single point is called spherical aberration . Refractive index in terms of wavelength :
Spherical aberration can be reduced by c
μ =
following methods : v
(a) By using spherical mirrors of small  .v
= vac
apertures . med .v
(b) By using stoppers so as to cut off the 
marginal rays . = vac
 med
(c) By using parabolic mirrors .
Factors on which the refractive index of a
medium depends : These are as follows :
Refraction of light: It is the bending of light as it (a) Nature of the medium .
passes from one transparent medium into (b) Wavelength of the light used .
another. (c) Temperature
(d) Nature of the surrounding medium .
Cause of refraction of light : The bending of
light or refraction occurs due to the change in
the speed of light as it passes from one medium
to another .
(a) A ray of light bends towards the normal as
it goes from a rarer medium into a denser
medium .
(b) A ray of light bends away from the normal
as it goes from a denser medium into a rarer
Laws of refraction of light : medium
(a) First law : The incident ray , the refracted
ray and the normal to the interface at the point Real and apparent depths : A point object O
of the incidence all lie in the same plane . placed at real depth X in medium of refractive
Second law : The ratio of the sine of the angle index µ. It appears at apparent depth y.
of incidence and the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a given pair of media .
sin i 
= 2 = 1 μ2 ,
sin r 1

constant 1μ2 = 2
1
It is called refractive index of second medium
with respect to first medium.
Refractive index in terms of speed of light : .
Refractive index
Speed of light in vacuum If i and r are very small then
= AB
Speed of light in medium Sin i=tan i=
AO
C
μ=
V
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S.K KASHYAP [Ray Optics] CLASSES

Sin [ = tan r=
AB
]]} r THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
AI
sin i
THERMAL
sin r
2
1
=
From Snell’s law , sin i 1
sin i 1 = 1
= sin r 2
sin r µ
When i = C , r = 90o ,
sin C 1
AI 1 s = 1
= sin 90 o
2
AO µ
1
y 1 1
μ2 =
= sin C
x µ
If the rarer medium is air,
then μ1 = 1 and μ2 = μ (Let) , then
x
y =
 μ =
1
Re al depth sin C
Apparent depth =
Re fractive index Application of total internal reflection :
Apparent shift = x – y (1) Sparkling of diamond : The brilliancy of
1 diamond is due to total internal reflection
= x(1 - )

Total internal reflection : The phenomenon
in which a ray of light travelling from denser to
rarer medium is totally reflected back into the
denser medium is called total internal reflection
. .
Necessary conditions for total internal As the refractive index of diamond is is
reflection: (a) Light must travel from an very large , its critical angle is very small ,
optically denser to an optically rarer medium . about 24.4o . The faces of diamond are so
(b) The angle of incidence in the denser cut that the light entering the crystal
medium must be greater than critical angle for suffers total internal reflections repeatedly
the two media. , and hence gets collected inside but it
Critical Angle: The angle of incidence in the comes out through only a few faces .
denser medium for which angle of refraction is Hence the diamond sparkles when seen in
right angle . the direction of emerging light .

(2) Mirage : It is an optical illusion observed

in desert or over hot extended surface like a
coal – tarred road , due to which a traveler sees
a shimmering pond of water some distance
ahead of him and in which the surrounding
objects like trees , etc , appear inverted .
Relation between critical angle and
refractive index : From Snell’s law ,

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]]} [THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL THERMAL

On a hot summer , the surface of the earth

becomes very hot . The layers of air near the
earth are more heated than the higher ones .
Hence the density and refractive index of air Refraction at a convex spherical surface :
layers increase as we move high up . As the The object lies in rarer medium and image
rays of light from a distant object like a tree formed is real :
travel towards the earth through layers of
XPY is a convex refracting surface separating
decreasing refractive index , they bond more two media of refractive indices μ1 and μ2 .
and more away from the normal . A stage is
reached when the angle of incidence becomes
greater than the critical angle , the rays are
totally reflected . These rays then move up
through layers of increasing refractive index ,
and therefore undergo refraction in a direction
opposite to that in the first case . These rays
reach the observer’s eyes and he sees an
inverted image of the object , as if formed in a
pond of water .
Optical fibres : The working of optical fibres AM is perpendicular to the principal axis .
is based on the phenomenon of total internal Let α , β , γ be the angles .
reflection . In ∆ AOC , i is an exterior angle.
An optical fibre is a hair thin long strand of i = α+γ
quality glass or quartz surrounded by a glass In, ∆ AIC , γ is an exterior angle.
coating of slightly lower reflective index . It is γ= r+β
is used as a guided medium . r =γ–β
Propagation of light through an optical fibre From Snell’s law
when light is incident on one end of the fibre at sin i 
= 2
a small angle , it goes inside and suffers sin r 1
repeated total internal reflections because the
μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r
angle of incidence is greater than the critical
As i and r are small ,
angle of the fibre material with respect to its
sin i = i and sin r = r
outer coating . As there is no loss of intensity
μ1 i = μ 2 r
in total internal reflection , the out coming beam
μ1 [α + γ] = μ2 [ γ – β]
is of as much intensity as the incident beam .
α , β and γ will be small and
Even if the fibre is bent light easily travels
P is close to M
through along the fibre .

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S.K KASHYAP [Ray Optics] CLASSES

[ = tan α =
AM
=
AM
]]}α THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
OM OP
sin i
THERMAL =
sin r
2
1
μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r
AM AM As i and r are small ,
β = tan β = =
MI PI sin i = i and sin r = r
γ = tan γ =
AM
=
AM μ1 i = μ 2 r
MC PC μ1 [γ – α] = μ2 [ γ – β]
α , β and γ be small . M is close to P
 AM AM   AM AM  AM AM
μ1  + = μ2  − α = tan α = =
 OP PC   PC PI  OM OP

 1 1   1 1  AM AM
+ β = tan β ==
μ1   = μ2  PC − PI  MI PI
 OP PC   
AM AM
2   − 1 γ = tan γ = =
+ 1 = 2 MC PC
PI OP PC
OP = – u, PI = + v , PC = + R  AM AM   AM AM 
μ1  −  = μ2  −
2   − 1  PC OP   PC PI 
+ 1 = 2
−u  1 1   1 1 
v R μ1  −  = μ2  − 
 PC OP   PC PI 
2 1  2 − 1 2   − 1
– = – 1 = 2
v u R PI OP PC
OP = – u , PI = – v , PC = – R
 2 − 1  − 1
Refraction at a concave spherical surface : + = 2
−v −u −R
The object lies in the rarer medium :
2 1  2 − 1
– =
v u R

Lens: A piece of transparent material (such as

glass) that has two opposite regular surfaces
either both curved or one curved and the other
plane.

XPY is a concave refracting surface separating

two media of refractive indices μ1 and μ2 .
In ∆ AOC , γ is an exterior angle
γ = α + i or i = γ – α
In ∆AIC , γ is an exterior angle
γ = β + r or r = γ – β

From Snell’s law

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]]}[THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL THERMAL
principal axis .
(c) The aperture of the lens is small .
(d) All the rays are paraxial , they make very
small angles with the normals to the lens
faces and with the principal axis .
Len’s maker formula for a double convex
lens :

Let a point object O is placed on the principal

axis in the rarer medium of refractive index μ1 .
I1 be the real image formed by first surface
2   − 1
– 1 = 2
v1 u R1
The image I1 acts as virtual object for surface 2.
I is the final real image of the point object O .
1   − 2
– 2 = 1 ………………..(2)
v v1 R2
Addition equation (1) and (2) ,
1  1 1 
– 1 = (μ2 – μ1)  − 
v u  R1 R2 
1 1   − 1   1 1 
– =  2   − 
v u  1   R1 R2 
If an object is placed at infinity , then the
image is formed at the focus , v = f , so
1  1 1 
=  2 −1  − 
f  1   R1 R2 
Assumptions made in the derivation of lens
maker’s formula : Len’s maker formula for a double concave
(a) The lens used is thin so that the distances lens: Let a thin double concave lens of
measured from its surfaces may be taken refractive index μ2 placed in a medium of
equal to those measured from its optical refractive μ1. R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature
centre . of the two lens surfaces
(b) The object is a point object placed on the

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]]} [THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL THERMAL

∆ Aʹ Bʹ C and ∆ ABC are similar .

A' B ' B' C
let a point object O is placed on the principal =
axis,. First spherical surface forms its virtual AB BC
image I1 . ……………………(1)
 2 1  − 1 Also ∆ Aʹ Bʹ F and ∆ DOF are similar ,
– = 2 ………(1) A' B ' B' F
v1 u R1 =
DO OF
The image I1 acts as an object for second
But DO = AB
surface. I is the final virtual image of the point A' B ' B' F
object O . = ……………..(2)
AB OF
1   − 2
– 2 = 1 ………..(2) From (1) and (2) ,
v v1 R2 B' O B' F B ' O − OF
Addition equation (1) and (2) , = =
BO OF OF
1  1 1  BO = – u . BʹO = + v , OF = + f
– 1 = (μ2 – μ1)  − 
v u  R1 R2 
  − 1   1 v v− f
1 1 1  =
– =  2   −  −u f
v u  1   R1 R2 
If an object is placed at infinity , then the vf = –uv+uf
image is formed at the focus , v = f
Dividing both sides by u v f ,
1  1 1 
=  2 −1  − 
 1   R1 R2 
f 1 1 1
= –
f v u
It is Lens Maker Formula
Derivation of lens formula for a convex lens
Derivation of lens formula for a convex lens when it forms a virtual image :
when it forms a real image :
Let an object AB placed on the principal axis of
a thin convex lens. A real , inverted and
magnified image Aʹ Bʹ is formed on the other
side of the lens .

Let an object AB placed between the optical

centre O and the focus F on a convex lens , the
image Aʹ Bʹ formed by the convex lens is

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[
virtual , erect and magnified .
]]} THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
∆ Aʹ Bʹ O and ∆ ABO are similar
A' B '
THERMAL =
AB
B' O
OB
……….(1)
A' B '
=
B' O
……….(1) ∆ Aʹ Bʹ F and ∆ DOF are similar , A' B '
=
B' O
AB OB A' B ' B' F AB BO
=
∆ Aʹ Bʹ F and ∆ DOF are similar , DO OF
A' B ' B' F But DO = AB
=
DO OF A' B ' B' F
= …...………..(2)
But DO = AB AB OF
A' B ' B' F From (1) and (2)
= …...………..(2)
AB OF B' O FB' FO − B' O
= =
From (1) and (2) , BO FO FO
B' O B' F B' O + OF
= =
BO OF OF Object distance , BO = – u
Image distance , BʹO = – v
BO = – u BʹO = – v OF = + f Focal length , OF = – f
−v − f +v
−v+ f
=
−v −u −f
=
−u f vf = uf–uv
– vf = uv–uf uv= uf–vf
uv= uf–vf
Dividing both sides by u v f , Dividing both sides by u v f ,

1 1 1 1 1 1
= – = –
f v u f v u

Linear magnification : The linear

Derivation of thin lens formula for a concave magnification produced by a lens is defined as
lens : the ratio of the size of of the image formed by
the lens to the size of the object . It is denoted
by m .
size of image
m=
size of object
h
= 2
h1

Let O be the optical centre and F be the h2 v

m= =
principal focus of concave lens of focal length f h1 u
. AB is an object placed perpendicular to its
principal axis . A virtual , erect and diminished Power of a lens : The power of a lens is a
image Aʹ Bʹ is formed due to refraction through measure of the degree of convergence or
the lens . divergence of the light rays falling on it .
∆ Aʹ Bʹ O and ∆ ABO are similar

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]]} [THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
P =
1
f
(
when f is in m)
Equivalent power
THERMAL
P = P 1 + P2
100
P = (when f is in cm) For n thin lenses in contact ,
f
1 1 1 1 1
The power of a lens may also be defined as the = + + + ……+
f f1 f2 f3 fn
reciprocal of its focal length .
SI unit of power : Dioptre Equivalent power ,
Equivalent focal length and power of two P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……+ Pn
thin lenses in contact : Let L1 and L2 be two NOTE:There can be two ways to cut a convex
thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2 respectively , lens into two equal parts - one, along the
placed coaxially in contact with one another . principal axis and another, perpendicular to the
Let O be a point object on the principal axis of principal axis. If the lens is cut along the
the lens system . principal axis, then there will be NO change in
the focal length of the lens. But, if it is cut
perpendicular to the principal axis, then the
focal length will be twice the original one.

In the absence of second lens L2 , the

first lens L1 will form a real image Iʹ of O at
distance C1 Iʹ = vʹ . Using thin lens formula ,
1 1 1
= – ………..(1)
f1 v' u
PRISM: A triangular prism has 3 rectangular
The image Iʹ acts as a virtual object (u = vʹ) for faces and 2 parallel triangular bases.
the second lens L2 which finally forms its real
image I at distance v .
1 1 1
= – …………..(2)
f2 v v'
Adding equation (1) and (2)
1 1 1 1
+ = – ……..(3)
f1 f2 v u
For the combination of thin lenses in contact , if
f is the equivalent focal length , then
1 1 1
– = ……….…….... (4)
v u f Deviation produced by a prism : Let the light
From equation (3) and (4) is incident at a small angle i on the prism , then
1 1 1 angles r , rʹ and iʹ will also be small .
= +
f f1 f2

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]]}[THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL THERMAL r =
A
2
From Snell’s law , the refractive index of the
material of the prism will be
sin i
μ=
sin r

In ∆ AQR A + m
sin
A+90- r -90- r ʹ=180 μ = 2
r + rʹ = A …………….(1) A
sin
For refraction at face AB , 2
sin i Factors on which the angle of deviation
μ =
sin r depends :
i (a) The angle of incidence
=
r (b) The material of the prism
i = μ r (c) The wavelength of light used
(d) The angle of the prism
For refraction at face AC Dispersion of light
sin i ' The phenomenon of splitting of white light into
μ =
sin r ' its component colours on passing through a
i' refracting medium is called dispersion of light .
=
r' The pattern of the coloured bands obtained on
iʹ = μ rʹ the screen is called spectrum .
deviation produced by the prism is ,
δ = i + iʹ – A

= μ r + μ rʹ – A
= μ (r + rʹ) – A
= μA–A [ r + rʹ = A]

δ = (μ – 1) A
Angular dispersion and dispersive power :
Angle of minimum deviation : When a prism
is in the position of minimum deviation , a ray
of light passes symmetrically
i = iʹ , r = r ʹ , δ = δm
A + δ = i + iʹ
A + δm = i + i
a + m
i =
2
A = r + rʹ
The angular separation between the two
= r+r= 2r
extreme colours (violet and red) in the spectrum
is called the angular dispersion .

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By-Sandeep Kashyap SIR- 9555878436,8287246374
 BALAJI
S.K KASHYAP [Ray Optics] CLASSES

[
Angular dispersion = δV – δR
]]} THERMAL][[]]]]]]]]]HERMAL
= (μV – 1) A – (μR – 1) A
contains blue colour
THERMAL in a larger proportion .
That is why the sky appears blue .
= (μV – μR) A (2) Reddishness at sunset and sunrise
Dispersive power : Dispersive power is the During sunrise and sunset, the rays have to travel a
ability of the prism material to cause dispersion larger part of the atmosphere because they are
very close to the horizon. Therefore, light other
. It is defined as the ratio of the angular than red is mostly scattered away. Most of
dispersion to the mean deviation . the red light, which is the least scattered, enters
Angular dispersion our eyes. Hence, the sun and the sky appear red
Dispersive power ω =
Mean deviation
 −R
= V

(V − 1) A − ( R − 1) A
=
( − 1) A
 − R
ω = V
 −1
Rayleigh’s law of scattering : According to (3) Clouds appear white : Large particles like
Rayleigh’s law of scattering , the intensity of raindrops , dust and ice particle do not scatter
scattered light is inversely proportional to the light in accordance with Rayleigh’s law , their
fourth power of wavelength λ , provided the scattering power is not selective . The scatter
size of the scattering particles are much smaller light of all colours almost equally . Hence the
than λ . clouds which have droplets of water with a > >
1 λ are generally white .
I 
4
(4) Danger signals are red : According to
Rayleigh’s law , the intensity of scattered light
is inversely proportional to the 4th power of
wavelength . In the visible spectrum , red colour
has the largest wavelength , it is scattered the
least . Even in foggy conditions , such a signal
covers large distances without any appreciable
loss of intensity due to scattering . Therefore ,
Daily life phenomena based on scattering of red colour signals are preffered .
light :
(1) Blue colour of sky : Rayleigh’s law of
scattering , the intensity of scattered light ,
1
I 
4
So the light at the short wavelength (blue) end
of the visible spectrum is scattered about 10
times more than the light at the long wavelength
(red) end . When we look at the sky , the
scattered light enters our eyes and this light

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By-Sandeep Kashyap SIR- 9555878436,8287246374