Theories of International Relations

School of realism

• States are the primary actors in the international system

• States exist in a world of anarchy

• Basic goal of states: self-preservation - need power and security

• They operate in conditions of incomplete information – perceptions

• Power guarantees security

• Security enables the consolidation of power

• Alliances last as long as they are convenient

• Everything is business in international relations

• War is undesirable and evil, but natural

School of Realism – different cathegories

Classical realism

 People who lived before

 The birth of the state

Classical realist theory explains international relations through assumptions about human nature. The theory is pessimistic
about human behaviour and emphasizes that individuals are primarily motivated by self-interest and not higher moral or ethical
aspirations.Classical Realism is characterized by love for the visible world and the great traditions of Western art,
including Classicism, Realism and Impressionism. The movement's aesthetic is classical in that it exhibits a preference for order,
beauty, harmony and completeness; it is realist because its primary subject matter comes from the representation of nature based
on the artist's observation

Neo-classical

 From 20c.
 Pessimistic

 Neoclassical realists have identified a number of important limitations to the neorealist model—for example, states do not
always perceive systemic stimulus correctly, or the international system does not always present clear signals about threats and
opportunities. Adherents of neoclassical realism insist that their approach represents a significant improvement on existing
approaches to international relations and foreign policy, including “Innenpolitik” approaches

Neo-realism

 Teaching now

Neorealism or structural realism is a theory of international relations that emphasizes the role of power politics in international
relations, sees competition and conflict as enduring features and sees limited potential for cooperation. The anarchic state of the
international system means that states cannot be certain of other states' intentions and their security, thus prompting them to
engage in power politics. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neorealism_(international_relations)

1)Thydydides
Work: The History of the Peloponnesian War 

- an account of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC),

„Natural order of things” – between the strong and the weak

„… the strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must.”

Melian Conference / Dialogue

Melians. You may be sure that we are as well aware as you of the difficulty of contending against your power and fortune, unless
the terms be equal. But we trust that the gods may grant us fortune as good as yours, since we are just men fighting against
unjust, and that what we want in power will be made up by the alliance of the Lacedaemonians, who are bound, if only for
very shame, to come to the aid of their kindred. Our confidence, therefore, after all is not so utterly irrational.

Athenians. When you speak of the favour of the gods, we may as fairly hope for that as yourselves; neither our pretensions nor
our conduct being in any way contrary to what men believe of the gods, or practise among themselves. Of the gods we believe,
and of men we know, that by a necessary law of their nature they rule wherever they can. And it is not as if we were the first
to make this law, or to act upon it when made: we found it existing before us, and shall leave it to exist for ever after us; all we do
is to make use of it, knowing that you and everybody else, having the same power as we have, would do the same as we do. Thus,
as far as the gods are concerned, we have no fear and no reason to fear that we shall be at a disadvantage. But when we come to
your notion about the Lacedaemonians, which leads you to believe that shame will make them help you, here we bless your
simplicity but do not envy your folly.

Melians. …we believe that they would be more likely to face even danger for our sake, and with more confidence than for others,
as our nearness to Peloponnese makes it easier for them to act, and our common blood ensures our fidelity.

Athenians. Yes, but what an intending ally trusts to is not the goodwill of those who ask his aid, but a decided superiority
of power for action;

2) Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

• Historian, comedy writer,

• Founder of modern political thinking

• Work: The Prince

Types of rule

• Republic

• Principality

• Hereditary

• New

• Mixed
Feared or loved?

1. “Since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved
because ...love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their
advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails.”

2. “Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred; because he can
endure very well being feared whilst he is not hated, which will always be as long as he abstains from the property of his citizens
and subjects and from their women.”

Importance of perceptions

3. “he who seeks to deceive will always find someone who will allow himself to be deceived.”

4. “Alexander the Sixth did nothing else but deceive men, nor ever thought of doing otherwise, and he always found victims; for
there never was a man who had greater power in asserting, or who with greater oaths would affirm a thing, yet would observe it
less; nevertheless his deceits always succeeded according to his wishes, because he well understood this side of mankind. [*]
Alexander never did what he said, Cesare never said what he did. Italian Proverb”

5. “Men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand, for everyone can see and few can feel. Everyone sees what you appear
to be, few experience what you really are”

Other

6. “You must know there are two ways of contesting, the one by the law, the other by force; the first method is proper to men, the
second to beasts; but because the first is frequently not sufficient, it is necessary to have recourse to the second. Therefore, it is
necessary for a prince to understand how to avail himself of the beast and the man.”

7. “Any man who tries to be good all the time is bound to come to ruin among the great number who are not good. Hence a
prince who wants to keep his authority must learn how not to be good, and use that knowledge, or refrain from using it, as
necessity requires.”

3)Thomas Hobbes

(1588-1679)

Work: Leviathan

• natural conditions”: "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes).

• “No arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man
solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

The state is needed to make order and justice

4)Carl von Clausewitz

War is politics by other means”

Neo-Classical Realism

„Power is a necessary ingredient of any political order” CARR

The world’s imperfections are the result of forces in human nature – absolute good cannot be achieved, but a system of check and
balances can help MORGENTHAU

 Edward H.Carr

(1892-1982)

Work: The twenty years Crisis

  H.Morgenthau

Work:Politics among Nations

Neo-realists

 K.Waltz

Work: Man the state and war

Realism’s five assumptions about the world

J.J. Mearsheimer

1.The International system is anarchic

2.States have some offensive military capability,they can hurt each other

3.States can never be certain about the intentions of other states

4.The most basic motive driving states is survival

5.States think strategically; are instrumentally rational

Basic concepts:

 Self-help system
 Security Dilemma
 Balance of power
 Power transicion-Thusydides trap
 II.School of Liberalism
• Democracy

• International Trade

• International Organizations

• Tend to be normative

Different cathegories

• Classical Liberalism

• Neo-Classical Liberalism

• Neo-Liberalism

I.Kant

J.Locke

Kant: Perpetual Peace

• 1.—“No treaty of peace shall be regarded as valid, if made with the secret reservation of material for a future war.”

• 2.—“No state having an independet existence—whether it be great or small—shall be acquired by another through
inheritance, exchange, purchase or donation.”

• 3.—“Standing armies (miles perpetuus) shall be abolished in course of time.”

• 4.—“No national debts shall be contracted in connection with the external affairs of the state.”

• 5.—“No state shall violently interfere with the constitution and administration of another.”

• I.—“The civil constitution of each state shall be republican.”

• II.—“The law of nations shall be founded on a federation of free states.”

Neo-classical liberalism:

W.Woodrow

Fourteen points

• I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any
kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the pub….. view.

• II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas
may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.

• III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions
among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.

• IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with
domestic safety.

• XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual
guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

Theory of democratic peace

• Doyle, Michael W. (Summer 1983). "Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs". Philosophy and Public
Affairs. 12 (3): 205–235
 • Doyle, Michael W. (Autumn 1983). "Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs, Part 2". Philosophy and Public
Affairs. 12 (4): 323–353

Francis Fukuyama:

Work: The End of History and the Last Man

Chapter: The Unreality of "Realism”

„The first rule is that the ultimate solution to the problem of international insecurity is to be found through maintenance of a
balance of power against one's potential enemies.”

"The second precept of realism is that friends and enemies ought to be chosen primarily on the basis of their power, rather than
on the basis of ideology or the internal character of the regime.”

•  The twentieth century, it is safe to say, has made all of us into deep historical pessimists.”

• The crisis of authoritarian and dictatorial regimes began in the 1970s

• 2 worlds: historical and post-historical worlds

• Axis of interaction / collision:

1) oil; 2) immigration; 3) world order questions

• „The boundary line between the post-historical and historical worlds is changing rapidly and is therefore hard to draw.”
– democracy is spreading

"A third and related tenet is that in assessing foreign threats, statesmen should look more closely at military capabilities rather
than intentions.”

„The final precept, or series of precepts, of realist theory, has to do with the need to exclude moralism in foreign policy.”

Neo-liberalism:

• Major concern: how to achieve cooperation in the international system – interested in international organizations –
Neo-Liberal Institutionalism

• Accept varios neo-realist ideas

• Possibility of progress

• Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, jun.: Power and Interdependence

• Robert Keohane: After Hegemony

Keohane / Nye - Complex Interdependence

• Societies are connected via multiple channels

• No straightforward hierarhy of issues – the military is not necessarily the most important – many challenges

• Military force is not always effective

• Result: countries tend to cooperate

 III. The English school
• Principal alternative to North American theories

• British Committee on the Theory of IR set up in the 1950s

• Principal investigators

– Martin Wight

– Hedley Bull

• Subject of IR: not only interstate relations, but the global political system

• Importance of historical context

• There is no escape from values

• Normative but not utopian; practical

Constructivism

Nicholas Onuf:

Work: World of our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations

1989

Consructivism

• The nature of the international system is not given / set but is made by the states

• States are central actors is global politics

• The behaviour of states is not static but dynamic

Anarchy is What States Make of it: The Social Construction of International Politics

(Alexander Wendt, 1992)

Constructisivm reaches back to Sociology

• How we structure the world in our thoughts determines how we see it and how we act

• Our reality is the result of societal construction

• Case study: Tenochtitlán

Making of foreign policy

• Political culture, history, forms of government, domestic politics all shape national identities and via them, foreign
policy

• Foreign policy is shaped by a nation’s history and its self-perception

– Eg. Bolivia

– Case study:Bolivia
 Role of identity

• Identity shapes how states think about their interests

• Actors (states) have identities – who they are and who others are

• Who we are determines how we see the world and what we want

• Relations of amity and emnity – enemies considered dangerous

Constructivism

• Self-help system, power politics – not a set structure – result of practice – practice is prior to structure

• The World is a social system

• States will follow similar social rules as individuals

Contemporary Interpretations of International Relations

Francis Fukuyama

Work: The end of history and the last men

Robert Kagan: Of paradise and power

America and Europe in the New World Order

USA is not able to enter the post-historical world - gatekeeper

Zbigniew Brezinski: work: Out of Order (Zabolátlanul)

• Governments’ authority ¯

• Mass influx of refugees

• Terrorism and organized crime

• Ethnic conflicts

H.Kissinger: work:Diplomacy

• The US tried to shape the world 3 times (WW1, WW2, after the Cold War)

• The lifespan of international systems is getting shorter

– Westphalian system – 150 years (1648-Napoleonic Wars)

– Congress of Vienna – 100 years (1814/15-WW1)

– Cold War – 40 years

• What should NOT be done?

• USA exceeds, or on the contrary, isolates itself

• US supports Russian imperial pretensions

• Germany and Russia make friends / allies

Immanuel Wallerstein: work: Introduction to World-system Analysis

 • Unidisciplinary

• Wide time framework

• Analyses systems

• Mini systems

• World systems

– World empire

– World economy

• We live in a Capitalist World-system

• Beginning: c. 1500

• Attempts to turn it into an empire have failed

• (Charles V, Napoleon, Hitler)

Wallerstein:

• Centre

• Semi centre or semi periphery

• Periphery

Dependency model

Households- income

– Salary

– Small entrepreneur

– Real estate, bonds, savings deposit

– Generational transfer

– Costs a company has to pay

– Salary

– Raw materials

– Tax

– Costs that companies evade

– Use of infrastructure

– Environmental damage
Samuel Huntington: work:The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order

Paradigmas after Cold war

1. One world; euphory (Francis Fukuyama)

2. Chaos (Zbigniew Brezinski)

3. Appr. 200 states (realists/ neorealists)

4. Two worlds (we and they, instead of East-West division: South-North

S.Huntington

The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order

Civilizations

• Long-term entity; has a beginning and an end

• Ancient civilizations

• Actual civilizations

It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily
economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain
the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of
different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the
battle lines of the future

Major civilizations acc. to Huntington:

Core state-USA

Lone state- Ethiopia, Haiti

Cleft state-India.Ukraine

Torn state-Mexico

Samuel Huntington: The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order

• Rules of the post-Cold War era will be formed by culture and cultural identities
 • Multipolar and multi-civilizational world politics

• The balance among civilizations will be modified

• Small states around core states

• The West will face increasing conflict with the Islamic civilization and China, due to its universalist pretensions

• Western civilization is unique but not universal

The West will lose influence. To counterbalance it:

• Greater integration – include Central Europe

• Westernize Latin America

• Keep up technological and military superiority

• Japan and China should not be allies

• Not to interfere in the affairs of other civilizations

Author Book

Samuel Huntington The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order

Francis Fukuyama The End of History and the Last Man

Henry Kissinger Diplomacy

Zbigniew Brezinski Out of order

Immanuel Wallerstein World-Systems Analysis

Robert Kagan Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order

IV.Cold war
 Role of Europe

• Europe - a territory to divide

• Not a predominant actor any more

• Khrushchev: cabbage comparison

• Balance of Power system substituted by US-Soviet rivalry – bipolar division

USA after WW2

• Already a winner of WW1

• WW2: economic growth - by 1945:

• half of world industrial production

• 1/3rd of export,

• US GDP 4-5times bigger than that of SU

• No war damage on US mainland

• A loss of “only” 400.000 people

• Asymmetric vulnerability – ocean shield

• Biggest navy of the world

Monopoly on the atomic bomb

Soviet union before the Cold war

• Separate peace with Germany in WW1 (Brest-Litovsk) –

abandons allies

• 1917, civil war, international intervention

• 1922 –formation of the Soviet Union

• Stalin’s rule

• Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact – partition of Poland

• Katyn massacre

Beginnings of the Cold war

• Long Telegram

- " …we have here a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with US there can be no permanent modus
vivendi that it is desirable and necessary that the internal harmony of our society be disrupted, our traditional way of
life be destroyed, the international authority of our state be broken, if Soviet power is to be secure.”

- "Gauged against Western World as a whole, Soviets are still by far the weaker force. Thus, their success will really
depend on degree of cohesion, firmness and vigor which Western World can muster. And this is factor which it is
within our power to influence.”

- "Much depends on health and vigor of our own society. World communism is like malignant parasite which feeds only
on diseased tissue.”

George F. Kennan, 1946

 • Iron Curtain Speech - Churchill (Fulton, 1946)

"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all
the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest
and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in
one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from
Moscow.”

• Greece, Turkey (Domino Theory)

"like apples in a barrel infected by one rotten one, the corruption of Greece would infect Iran and all to the east. It would also
carry infection to Africa through Asia Minor and Egypt, and Europe through Italy and France…"
Acheson US Secretary of State, 1947

Beginnings of the Cold War

• Truman Doctrine, 1947 (containment)

• Marshall Plan

• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OEEC), 1948

Truman doctrine

At the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choose between alternative ways of life. The choice is too often
not a free one.

One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free
elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression.

The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and
oppression, a controlled press and radio, fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms.

I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressures.

I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way.

Marschall Plan

Beginnings of the Cold war

• Sovietization sped up

• Cominform, 1947 (Comintern between WW1-WW2)

(Moscovites – ‚national’ Communists)

• Zhdanov Doctrine, 1947

• Molotov Plan

• Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon, 1949)

Comecon (1949-1991)

• Founding members: Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania

• 1950: East Germany

• 1960-70s: Mongolia, Cuba, Vietnam

• drawbacks
 • North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 1949 – permanent US presence

Founding members: USA,

Canada, UK, France, Italy,

Belgium, Luxemburg,

Holland, Denmark,

Iceland, Norway,

Portugal

Germany:

• Bizone, 1947 – Trizone, 1948

• Currency reform in the Western Zone

• Berlin Blockade – 24 July 1948 - 12 May 1949

• The West did not leave – air lift (324 days)

• Ex-allies faced each other for the first time (armed)

• The West cooperates with Germans

• 1949: Federal Republic of Germany and German Democratic Republic

Berlin Blocade

Khrushev Thaw

• Death of Stalin – 1953

• Austrian neutrality - 1955

• 20th Congress of the CP of the USSR

• Geneva meeting of the Big Four, 1955

• Khruschev’s visits: China, 1954; Yugoslavia, 1955; USA, 1959

BUT

• Supression of the East Berlin uprising, 1953

 • Military intervention in Hungary, 1956

• West Germany becomes a NATO member, 1955

• Warsaw Pact, 1955

US Foreign policy in the 1950s

• Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand,

UK, USA, France

• Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)

Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, UK, (USA)

• Bilateral agreements: Spain

• New NATO members: Greece, Turkey

• Eisenhower Doctine: roll-back strategy

Khrushchev Thaw ?

• Victory of the Cuban Revolution (1959)

• Cuba declared Socialist (1961)

• Berlin Wall (1961)

1949-61: more than 3 million East Germans left

• Space race – sputnyik (1957), Gagarin (1961),

Armstrong (1969)

• Caribbean missile crisis (1962)

V. Cuba in the cold war

 F.Batista

I believe that there is no country in the world including any and all the countries under colonial domination, where economic
colonization, humiliation and exploitation were worse than in Cuba, in part owing to my country’s policies during the Batista
regime.” /John Fitzgerald Kennedy/

26 july 1953

"I know that imprisonment will be harder for me than it has ever been for anyone, filled with cowardly threats and hideous
cruelty. But I do not fear prison, as I do not fear the fury of the miserable tyrant who took the lives of 70 of my comrades.
Condemn me. It does not matter”. History will absolve me

Riports

Sierra Maestra Declaration (1957)

- Batista must renounce

- Elections

- Agrarian reform

1959-getting to power

• Wave of emigration

• Purges, executions

• Secret services set up

• Gambling, casinos, prostitution banned

• Prensa Latina news agency

(Gabriel García Márquez, Carlos Fuentes)

Bay of Pigs invasion-april 1961

Cuba delared Socialist – May 1, 1961

OAS suspended the membership of Cuba: January, 1962

• Cuban Missile Crisis (USA)

• Caribbean Crisis (Soviet Union)

• October Crisis (Cuba)

• Facts

• - middle of October: Soviet medium and intermediate range missile are detected in Cuba by U2 plane

• 22nd Oct: Kennedy speech – naval blockade

• 26 and 27th October: Kruschev promised to withdraw missiles

• 29th October: naval blockade lifted

Changing perspective-new evidence

• 1987 – Jupiter missiles

• 1989 – Mongoose operation

 • 1992 – Soviet predelegation (Anatolij Gribkov)

• 1998 – US predelegation (since 1957)

• 2002 – Soviet submarines with predelegation

• 2012 – Tactical nuclear weapons in Cuba (Luna)

Current understanding of the crisis

• Kruschev decided on the deployment of the missiles in May 1962 (Operation Anadir)

• Soviet goals

• Protect Cuba

• Increase influence in the Caribbean

• Restore strategic balance

Pre-crisis 14-22 october 1962

• U2 plane images of Cuba – middle of October – President notified – crisis management group formed

• 18 Oct: Kennedy – Gromiko meeting

• 22 Oct: Kennedy speech – the crisis becomes public

Crisis 22-28 october 1962

• 22 Oct - Kennedy Speech

• Evidence on Soviet weapons of agression in Cuba

• Naval blockade

• Any Cuban attack on the US would be retaliated on the Soviet Union

• 22 Oct – Kruschev informed about content of Kennedy’s speech a few hours before – withdraws predelegation licences

• 23 Oct – US informs NATO allies about possible dismantling of Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Italy

• Tension – U2 spy plane shot down over Cuba; submarine incident

• 28 Oct – Kruschev’s radio announcement: we withdraw from Cuba „the nuclear weapons characterized by you as
weapons of agression”

Post-crisis 28 october -22 november,1962

• US wanted the withdrawal of middle and intermediate range missiles + IL28 bombers – Kennedy threatened with
strategic bombing – did not know about tactical nuclear weapons on the island (Luna)

• Gentlemen’s agreement between Robert Kennedy and Amb. Dobrinin – withdrawal of Jupiter missiles from Turkey

• UN Secretary General U-Thant visited Cuba

• Mikoyan visited Cuba – decided not to leave the Luna systems

Cuba comecon member since 1972

F.Castro
Temporary transfer of power: 2006

President: 2008-2018

Death of Fidel Castro: 2016

Results:

• Free education

• Free health care, eligibility based on citizenship

• Life expectancy: above 79 years

• Highest ratio of university students, 2009, Unesco

„The only way to be totally free is though education.”

(José Martí)

 One of the leading medicine exporters of the world

OAS and Cuba:

Ban in Cuba suspended and considered a “historical error”

Cuba did not return

Cuba and current leadership:

Miguel Diaz-Canel

President of Cuba since 2019

First Secretary of the CP since 2021

 VI.Guatemala Chile
Guatemalan Revolution (1944-54)

• Banana Republic, United Fruit Company

• Ubico dictatorship comes down (1944)

• Elections – Juan José Arévalo (1945-50) philosopher – 85% of votes

• 1945: constitution

• Program: breaking up of large estates; industrialization; legalization of political parties and trade unions (except the
Communist Party)

• Emphasis on education and culture

• Only Guatemalan companies can produce oil (law, 1949)

• President: Jacobo Arbenz (1950-54)

• Land reform

• 1954: Guatemala protested in the UN and the OAS against the impending military intervention

• Relations with Socialist countries

Chile and Hungary

CHILE HUNGARY

Territory: 757 000 km2 > Territory: 93 030 km2

Population: 17.6 million > Population: 9.89 million

Population density: 21/km2 < Population density: 106/km2

Inhabitants of Santiago de Chile: > Inhabitants of Budapest: 1.76 million

6.1 million
 Capital city/country: 35% > Capital city/country: 18%

Population density of the capital > Population density of the capital city: 3305/km2
city: 8964/km2

Chile: economy and society

Mining:

saltpeter

copper

- Even in PreHispanic times – bronze tools

– c. 2000 – No.1.

lithium – No. 2

Fishing - 6435 km coast (salmon export, No. 2)

Fruit growing – grapes, viticulture

70% Catholics

A lot of European and Asian inmigrants

Ethnical composition:

• „white country”

• Indigenous people: Araukan indians – some tribes maintained independence till 19th century - exterminated

• Today less than 5% of the population is indigenous

• Biggest group: Mapuche indians (south)

S.Allende

doctor

-co-founder of the Socialist Party

-MP (Valparaiso)

-minister of Public Health (30 years old)

-presidential candidate 4x
-won the 1970 elections

His program:

• Socialist program

• Land reform

• Nationalisation – banks, mining sector

A.Pinochet (1973-1990)

• Neoliberal model

• Public expenditure 50% ¯

• Economic role of the state ¯

• No state control of prices and salaries

• Privatization of education and health care

• 200.000 public employees sacked

A.Pinochet

• More competitive economy

• GDP growth 5.1%, 1984-85

• Share of mining products (copper, iron, molibden and saltpeter) got reduced in the export

• BUT

• Elitist, middle class shrinks

• More than half of the population below poverty level

Dictatorship

• 1982 – economic crisis

• 1983 – partial amnesty

• 1986 – unsuccessful assesination attempt

• 1988 – referendum –

• Should Pinochet be the only

candidate for the 1989 presidential

elections? -

„Coalition of Parties for NO”

– 56%

Chile in 1990 and afterwards

• Negotiated transition
 • 1989 – elections

• 1990 – Pinochet handed over power, but

was head of the army until 1998, and after that, life-long senator

• Binominal electoral systems, Chileans abroad could not vote

Protests in Chile in 2019

VII.Cold war II in Central America

Armed conflicts in Central America in the 1980s

(Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala)
Little Cold war:

• Soviet overconfidence (Vietnam, oil crises)

• Soviet expansion – Afghanistan (1979)

• Cuban revolutionary export – (Angola, Ethiopia)

Little cold war-US response

• Carter doctrine (1980)

• “Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be
regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any
means necessary, including military force.”

• More intensive US-China relations

• NATO reenforced

• USA did not participate at the Moscow Summer Olympic Games(1980)

• Ronald Reagan US president, 1981-1989

• Soviet Union = “evil empire”

• Reagan doctrine (1983): promised to help those

• fighting against Communism over the whole worlds

• "We must not break faith with those who are risking their lives on every continent from Afghanistan to Nicaragua to
defy Soviet-supported aggression and secure rights which have been ours from birth . . . Support for freedom fighters is
self-defense."

• Plan of SATO (South Africa, Brasil, Argentina)

Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI)

• Outer space
 • Force Soviet Union into bankruptcy

Little cold war in Central America

A.Cesar Sandino (1895-1934)

Nicaragua

• Sandinista National Liberation Front (1961)

• Augusto César Sandino (1893-1934)

• Dictatorship of the Somoza family (1936-1979)

• Sandinista victory – 1979

• Aims: reducing social differences and economic dependence

• Ronald Reagan - blockade of Nicaraguan economy, helping the Contras

• Increased internal oppostion and dissatisfaction in Nicaragua

 Miskito Indians

 Spending on arms and military

 Iran-Contra affair

 1990 elections

 Victory of the oppositon

 Violeta Chamorro

 Widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro

El SALVADOR

Red Indians-The Massacre of 1932

• Pending foreign intervention (US and British boats)

• President: Gen. Maximiliano Hernández Martínez (1931-1944)

• Communist leader: Farabundo Martí

• Appr. 30 000 indigenous people were killed

El Salvador in the Cold war

• Military dictatorship for more than 50 years

• Soccer War of 1969

• 4 000 victims (both military and civilian)

• 80 000 Salvadorians fled from Honduras; Día de la Unidad Nacional

• El Salvador celebrated victory – officially: Guerra de la legítima defensa

• Increasing desire for a change – formation of rebel groups in the 1970s

• Fuerzas Populares de la Liberación (FPL, 1971)

• Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo (ERP, 1972)

• Fuerzas Armadas de la Resistencia Nacional (FARN, 1975)

• Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores Centroamericanos (PRTC, 1976)

EL Salvador
• FMLN established (1980)
Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front
• Farabundo Martí (1893-1932)
• Civil War 1980-1992 – then FMLN turned into a political party – first in oppositon – 21st century: in power

GUATEMALA
Guatemala civil war
• 1960-1996 – the longest in Central America
• 200 000 people died,
• 1 million people emigrated,
• 200 000 people moved within Guatemala

Political murders – estimated numbers

1972 30-50/month

1980 80-100/month

1981 250-300/month

1982: the most important insurgent groups formed the

Unidad Nacional Revolucionaria Guatemalteca (UNRG)

Peace process

• Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica (REMHI) project (1994- )

• Guatemala: Nunca más (4-volume work, 1998)
• Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico
• Guatemala: Memoria del Silencio (12-volume work, 1999)
• Atrocities against the Mayan population = genocide
• More than 90% of civil war atrocities have been perpetrated by the army or paramilitary forces
 Summary:
• Local conflicts exacerbated prolonged by the Cold War
• US national interest in Cold War – anti-Communist regimes
• Price of the civil wars
• Less interest of the international community in post-conflict period

VIII.POST COLD WAR ERA

Emerging issues in IR
•
Issues of sovereignty,after 1990 (failed states, fragile states).
 • Changing priorities of international security (resources)
• Environmental issues (climate change)
-Should not only be a new field, but a new perspective for IR
Green Theory
• The cold war preserved the political structure. Map fragility in the world 2022 () https://fragilestatesindex.org/
• If its gonna be prblem firstly you will look for non military solution.

Green theory

• Ecological blindness of IR – focuses on „high politics’

• Green Theory challenges traditional understanding of security, development and international justice

New call words:

Ecological security -

Sustainable development - development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs

Environmental justice

• Environmental degradation – long history, but uneven and localized

• Modern ecological crisis

(from 2nd half of 20th century)

economic boom, new technologies(more people, more inovation), rising population BUT

More energy and resource consumption, more pollution and waste, decreasing biodiversity

• Birth of modern environmental movements (from the 1960s onwards)

Difference in threats

Military threat:

 Deliberate
 Specific
 Needs immediate action

Environmental threat,problems:

• Many unintended – ‚side-effect’

• Diffuse

• Transboundary

• Long time scale

• Implicate wide range of actors

• Solution needs long negotiations

• „Wicked problems”

Envoronment =Global issue

Book „Silent spring”,1962
Club of Rome :the limits to growth,1972
 The ecologist:blueprint for survival,1972

1972 UN conference on environmental issues

Green theory
Green wave in political parties in the 1980s
Aims:
-ec.responsibility
-social justice
-non-violence
-grass-root democracy (if people have a choice they will rather choose what is better for the environment)
Theory has two branches
Normative branch:
Questions of justice,rights,democracy

Political economy branch:

Relationship between state,economy an the environment

Greens:

-nature is more complex

-there are limits to human knowledge

-explore relations between risk, science ,technology and society

Western capitalism Soviet-type regimes

• Human domination of Nature is necessary for progress

• Subjugation of indigenous people

• Abandonment of traditional forms of agriculture

• Technological advancement and economic growth are necessary

Traditional IR

• States want absolute gains, do not pursue environmental cooperation

• Rational exploitation of nature

• Tap: resources

• Sink: waste to oceans, etc

Ulrich Beck(1944-2015): Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity

Modernization brings about man-made, yet unwanted side effects, which can have a negative impact on societies on a global
scale.

Decreased confidence in science

Industrial society - the distribution of ‘goods’, Risk society - distribution of ‘bads’.

Bads are more democratic

Points out the dark side of modernization

The rule of science mentioned in a book

Environmental injustice

1) Environmental costs are externalized

2) Privileged groups leave oversized ec.footprint

Environmental justice

1)Expansion of affected community (future generations, non-humans)

2Participation of citizens in decision-making

3) Minimization and fair distribution of risks

4) Compensation for those negatively affected

Texaco-law suit(иск)

Venezuela,Ecuador,

Economy-Environment

• Curb economic growth; zero-sum game – politically undesirable

• Grassroots democracy is a tendency towards designing political processes that shift as much
decision-making authority as practical to the organization's lowest geographic or social level of
organization.

• SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

• Brundtland Report: Our Common Future (1987):

• „development that meets the needs of the present generations without sacrificing the ability of the future generations to
meet their own needs”

• Political compromise

Ecological modernization

• Stronger environmental regulations more innovation

• Economic competition + technological innovation lead to economic growth with less energy, resource and waste
production
• Win-win approach

Environment and security

• Resource scarcity
• Environm.degradation
• Ecological refugees

Security problem anlge/securitization goes against core green values

Postcolonialism

• Colonial projects (1500-1945)

• After 1945: massive decolonization – 3rd world
• We – They / The Other
• Men - Savage
• Civilized men - Barbarian
• History – Folklore
POST?
• Change: decolonization
• Continuity: hierarchy, dependency, inequality – neocolonial practices

Károly László (1815-1894) Diary

• „On the river bank full of sleeping crocodiles only, there will be swift steamships loaded with California gold, […]
beautiful towns will be built […] and the treasures hidden in the fertile land will be produced, as if by magic, by the
tireless North American farmers. […] The now wild country will become the home of civilization and abundance…”

Postcolonialism

• IR dominated by the West

• Colonial times shaped academic instituions – science
• Emerging states want a different IR (after 1990)
• Call words: egalitarianism, social justice and solidarity and inclusive international order
• Non-Western IR is hardly visible
• Often considered as a „bad copy” of Western IR
• Remains marginal

• Criticism: it assumes a static history – colonial structures should be fading away