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The puemape site and the cupisnique culture: A case

study on the origins and development of complex
society in the central Andes, Peru

Arevalo, Carlos Gustavo Elera

Arevalo, C. G. (1998). The puemape site and the cupisnique culture: A case study on the origins
and development of complex society in the central Andes, Peru (Unpublished doctoral thesis).
University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/14532
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

The Puémape Site and the Cupisnique Culture: A Case Study on the Origins

and Development of Complex Society in the Central Andes, Peru

Cartos Gustavo Elera Arévalo

A DISSERTATION

SUBMllTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDlES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY

CALGARY, ALBERTA

SEPTEMBER 1998

O Cartos Gustavo Elera Arévaio 1998

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 Abstract

The rise of cornplex societies of northem Peni is related to the little

known Cupisnique Culture (ca. 2200-300 B. C.). Traditionally the Cupisnique

Culture has been understood as a result of the influence of the Chavin

civilization over great part of the Central Andes. In this regard Cupisnique

was taken as the northem regional manifestation of the Chavin phenornenon,

labeled uncfitically as 'Cuastal Chavinnl'Chavinoid", or "Classic Chavinn.The

"Chavin"culture, found at the Andean highland center of Chavin de Huantar

has been seen as a "mother culture" or source of fomalized religtous

ideoiogy, ceremonialisrn and monumental architecture in the Andes.

Research on Chavin has ov6rshadowed that on the Penivian North and

Central Coast, and Chavin derived models have been used to interpret the

pristine rise and development of cornplex societies on the coast. This study

discusses the archaeological data gathered at the northcoastal site of

Puémape for understanding the coastat nature of the Cupisnique culture. The

analyzeâ cultural and organic data came from a stratigraphie sequence of

domestic, funerary and ceremonid contexts.

The survey done in difierent rnicroenvironmentsaround and inland of

Puemape, as well as ecdogical descriptions, established the parameten for

undetstanding the coastal adaptation of the Cupisnique inhabitants of

Puémape. Analysis of organic remains from different ecological settings

provides information about the economic foundations of the site.

The study of 66 burials in t e n s of temporality, grave types, orientations,

presence, amount, and absence of grave goods associated, funerary

treatments, sex, age, disposal of the dead, and cultural modifications

indicates a high degree of msewatism in Cupisnique funerary customs. In

addition, using a north coastal regional temporal and cultural perspective, the

local origin and development of Cupisnique from the Precerarnic to the Late

Cupisnique Phase is argued. Preliminary glirnpses about social inequality and

socio-pollical organization in Cupisnique times are outlined. In this regard is

argued that a given economic specialization and shamanism were linked and

established the basis for Cupisnique political-religious leadership. It is also

suggested that there was a quite strong continuity in traditional cultural

preferences and technologies from the northern Precerarnic to the Muchik

culture nowadays. It is proposd that the abandonment of the Cupisnique

occupation at Puémape was the resuh of a natural catastrophe with apparent

drastic consequences in the Cupisnique heartland as a whole.

It is concluded that Cupisnique was a culture in its own nght rather

than derivative of Chavin and that many socalled Chavin conventions in fact
started during the Cupisnique Cultural development, being traditional on the

north coast but innovative at the Chavin de Huantar site.

 Acknowledgments

This dissertation is based on part of the data gathered by various

mernbers of the Puérnape Archaeological Project, including the co-director

José Pinilla Blenke, Elmer Atalaya Huerta, Emilio Rubio Diaz, José Antonio

Hudtwalker Moran, Maria Montoya, Mirtha Antuner, and Jeny Napadensky to

whom I am deeply thankful. I wish to thank also the multi disciplinary studies

team working in Puérnape and surrounding areas, compnsing by Luis

Mariaza Freyre, Victor Chang Joo. Mario Pefia, Franco Leon del Val, Manuel

Fernandez Honores, Carlos Ostolaza, Eloy Lopez Medina, Victor Vasquez

and Hildebrand0 Paredes. My thanks also to Teresa Rosales Than. I am

grateful to the people who helpeâ me in specialized analysis and the display

of the Puémape Archaeological Project results in 1991 and 1996 at the

Museo de la Nacion: Sonia Quirot Calle, Luis Miguel Tokuda Fujita, Rosario

Galdos Mongrut, Gricel Valdiviezo Ruidias, Diana Bustamante, Rodolfo Vera,

RaUl Pastor, Alberto Reboa, Carlos Passalaqua, Jaime del Castille, Enanno

Maniero, Cecilia B. Madrid, Rafael Vega-Centeno, Ricardo Garcia

Malpartida, Hector Walde, Rafael Segura, Maria Luisa Patron Esterripa,

Beatriz Miyashiro Kuai, Lourdes Chocano Mena and Milan Gillespie. My

sincere gratiiude goes to my father, as well, Gustavo Elera Nufiez who

helped me in X-ray examinations of the Puémape human remains and

funerary ceramics.

It was possible to carry out the survey and research at Puémape

between 1989-1990 thanks to the logistical and economical support of the

Museo de la Nacion of Penj under the presidency of Fernando Cabieses

Molina.

Later on a preliminary analysis and the above mentioned display of

the Puémape remains were done in the same institution in 1991, which was

possible thanks to Arturo Jiménez BoQacurrent president of the Mu- de la

Nacion at that time.

My special thanks and posthumous respect to Jorge Zevallos

Quiionet who helped me in ethnohistorical studies at Puémape. I always

keep in mind his encouraging me to do archaeological studies on the North

Coast of Ped from the Archaeological Museum of the National University of

Trujillo (U.N.T.) almost 20 yean ago. For sure I have followed his wise

adviœ.

I am deeply thankful to the traditional families of Puernape, Félix

Guaylupo and his family. Agwtin Palma Chinchayan and his family with

which I shared many Muchik cultural values in the way of eating, fishing,

gathering in the rocky littoral, as well as talking about some legends and

dreams.

vii
 1 rernernber a surrealistic image of Doiia Rosa Chinchayan Chunga,

the oldest Muchik inhabitant of Puémape, watching roaring waves beating the

rocks, with sea birds and the migratory Rampal (osprey) above hunting the

native fish during the sunsets at the Puémape bay. She used to be seated on

a reed mat, deep in her thoughts, before the immense and mysterious sea,

for hours and hours of solitude. I gazed across the horizon at Doia Rosa,

with her long shiny black braided hair glimmering in the last crepuscular

reddish-golden rays of the Sun. Metaphorically, she sadly rernains for me the

last pnstine echo of an endangered culture in this almost forgotten coastal

corner of the Andean world.

My deep thanks go to the Cupisnique Cultural Association of San

Pedro de Lloc consisting of the Major Virgilio Purizaga Calderon, Rosario

Garcia Rodriguez, and Rolando Alva. Posthumous acknowleâgment goes to

Jorge Ramirez Amgoni, a great expert of the Cupisnique region and curator

of the Antonio Raimondi Museum, a historic house Hmere his anceston. the

Amgoni famiiy, gave shelter in the last century to Antonio Raimondi dunng

his travels and studies in Peni.

I thank rny fiiends and colleagues Claude Chauchat, Peter Kaulicke,

Walter Alva. Luis Millones, lzumi Shimade, Ana Maria Hoyle, Yoshio Onuki,

Tatsuhiko Fujii, Yuji Seki, Segundo Vasquez, Duccio Bonavia, Miguel

Comejo Garcia, Henning Bischof and Daniel Sandweiss.

I fondly remember Don Juan Mejia Baca and his mythical place: the

Mom de Eten.

My deep gratitude goes to my advisory cornmittee and menton at the

University of Calgary, Jane Kelley, Peter Mathews and Scott Raymond for

their patient and excellent suggestions, and to my extemal adviser John

Topic for his valuable recommendations. To David Kelley rny sincere thanks

for his invaluable guidance too. Ta Lesley Nicholls and Linda Berreth I owe

thanks for their patience and excellent administrative guidance.

I do not have words for expressing my most sincere gratitude to my

supervisor Scott Raymond. His encouragement, patience, humanism. and

wisdorn in Andean matters, for my studies at Calgary were to me a great

inspiration which will be reflected in the Mure. Hopefully I do not want to

defraud the valuable academic support that I have found from hirn despite my

prudent silence but reflexive way of seeing things. Thanks to Patrick

Carnichael of the University of Calgary for his friendship and helping me in

some editing of my ceramic notes. My thanks also to a Research Grant of the

University of Calgary as well as a Grant of the Martha Anders Metnorial

Award of the same institution.

 My gratitude goes also to rny mother Elsa Arévalo de Elera and rny

brothen and sisters: Cesar, Gustavo, Rocio del Pilar, and Milagros who, along

with rny father Gustevo, are always present in my life. I am grateful indebted to

the sister of my grandfather my aunt Cannen Elera Ganoza, who from the city

of Trujillo, the Guaiiape littoral and the Vini Valley shared with me the respect

and love of the land, the sea and the ancestors. From my grandparents,

Carmen, Clara, Carlos Alberto, Gustavo Reynaldo, and Eulalia (Marnalala), of

Andean and Europeanheritage, I have leamedto understand and recognizethat

the complemty of the strong primordial Andean multicultural presence,

considered by many Craoles of the independence to be an obstacle to long-

sought modemity in my country of origin but which finally becarne a powerfut

signal of our uniqueness. Peni has begun to look at ls own face, just like its

history which gradually is beamiing a mestizo or 'chdon cubral view of its

destiny.

Finally my etemal gratitude to Patficia lnjoque de Elera, my wife H o u t

whose help it would have b e m impossibleto finish this preliminary task and my

affection to my sons Diego Eduardo and Andrés Alonso, who are sharing

already cultural values between Pen2 and Canada for a new tomorrow.
Dedicated to the Muchik people, with admiration and respect
 Table of Contents

Approval Page ................................................................................................... ii

Abstract .............................................................................................................iii

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................. vi

Dedication .............................
.......................................................................... xi
Table of Contents .............................................................................................xii

List of Tables .................................................................................................. xviii

List of Appendices ...........................................................................................Mx

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ............... 1

t ntroduction

A . Defining the Problem .......................................................................... 2

8. Research into the Formative Puémape Site ................................. .... 3
C. Overview of the Dissertation ............................................................. 5

CHAFTER W QBACKGROUND
: .....................................
......................... 8
Introduction .............................................................................................. 8
A. Cupisnique in Historical Perspective ................................................... 8
B. Chavin .............................................................................................. 13

CHAPTER THREE: FIELD RESEARCH AT PUEMAPE .................................. 35

A. Location and Description of Puemape ............................................... 35
6. The Physical Setting of the Cupisnique Region ................................. 39
B.l Geomorphology .................................................................... 39
8.2 Ecology ................................................................................. 42
 B.3 Flora .................................................................................... 46
8.3.1 The Puémape Rocky Littoral ................................... 48
8.3.2 The Puémape Sandy Littoral ...................................48
8.3.3 El Jaguey Gorge .................................................. 48
B.3.4 The Fossil Lagoon ................................................... 51
8.3.5 The Sunken Fields ..................................................51
0.3.6The El Barco Lagoon .............................................. 52
8.3.7The Chilco Plain ...................................................... 53
6.3.8 The Plain (La Pampa) ............................................. 53
B.3.9 The San Pedro de Lloc countryside ......................... 54
8.3.10 The Chilco River .............................................. 54
B.3.1 1 The Cupisnique Gorge .......................................... 54
6.4 Fauna ................................................................................... 57
0.4.1 Marine Fauna Habitats ............................................ 61
8.4.2 Aquatic and Terrestrial lnland Faunal Habitats ........ 63

CHAPTER FOUR: TOPOGRAPHY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL

EXCAVATION AT PUEMAPE ......................................................................... 69

A . Topography done in the Puémape site .................................. 69

B. Archaeological Excavations in Puemape ............................... 69
B.1 Excavation Unit 1 .......................................................70
8.2 Excavation Unit 2 ....................................................... 72
6.3Excavation Unit 3 .....................................................72
8.4 Excavation Unit 4 ....................................................... 73
B.5 Excavation Unit 5 .......................................................73
0.6 Excavation Unit 6 ...................................................... 74
8.7 Excavation Unit 7 ....................................................... 77
8.8 Excavation Unit 8 ....................................................... 78
8.9 Excavation Unit 9 ....................................................... 78
8.10 Excavation Unit 10 ................................................... 81
6.1iExcavation Unit 11 ................................................... 82
8.12 Excavation Unit 12 ................................................... 84
C. Correlation between the Excavation Units ............................ 85

CHAPTER FIVE: CULTURAL SETTINGS EXCAVATED AND

CONTENTS ................................................................................................ 88

A . Domestic Settings and Contents in different

Puemape Phases .................................................................. 88
A.l Early Puémape Domestic Settings at Excavation
Unit 11..................................................................... 89
 A.2 Eariy Puémape Domestic Setting at Excavations
Units 9 and 9-W ................................................ 91

B. Salinar Domestic Settings: a brief overview ...........................95

B.1 Salinar Domestic Setting at Excavation
Unit 11 ........................................................................ 96
8.2 Salinar Domestic Setting at Excavations
Units 9 and 9-W ......................................................... 96
8.3 Salinar Domestic Setting at Excavation Unit 10 .......... 97
CHAPTER SIX: TYPE OF MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE IN
THE LATE PUEMAPE PHASE .................................................................. 99

A . Location and Orientation ................................................ 100

B. Matenals and Constructive Techniques ................................ 101
C. Architectural Cornponents ..................................................... 102
C .1 The Main platforni ................................................. 102
C.2 Staircase .................................................................. 103
C.3 Secondary access ................................................... 104
C.4 East and south walls ............................................. 104
C.5 Secondary 'pathn ................................................... 105
C.6 The southeast terrace ............................................. 105
D. Associations and recorded features ............................ . ...... 106
E. Natural disaster, destruction and abandonment of the
Ceremonial Center .............................................................. 108

CHAPTER SEVEN: FUNERARY SETTINGS AND CONTENT IN

DIFFERENT PUEMAPE PHASES ................................................................. 110

A . Eariy Puérnape Funerary Settings at excevation

Unit 11 ................................................................................ 110
A.1 Coniext of the bunals ................................................110
A.2 Type. shape. and depth of the graves ...................... 111
A.3 Orientation of the graves .......................................... 111
A.4 Cadaver funerary coverings ..................................... 112
A S Objects a d a t e d . over. around or in between
the funerary coverings of the burials ........................ 112
A S .1 Rock (s)over the wrapped cadavers ........... 113
A 5 2 Gourds associated ...................................... 114
A.5.3 Ceramics associatecl ........................ . . ..... 174
A6 Objects in contact with the cadaver ......................... 115
A7 Sex and aga of the individuals buried ....................... 115
CHAPTER EIGHT: ORGANIC REMAINS: ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION ........................................................................................151

A . Flora: analysis and interpretation ........................................ 151

A .1 Botanical interpretation in the Early
Puémape Phase ...................................................... 152
B. Fauna: analysis and interpretation ........................................ 159
B.1 Methodology ............................................................. 160
B.1.1 Mollusks, Crustacean. and
Equinodenns .............................................. 160
8.1.2 Fish ............................................................ 161
B.1.3 Birds .......................................................... 162
B.1.4 Mamrnals ................................................ 163
8.2 The Puémape zooarchaeological data ..................... 163
6.2.1 Mollusks .....................................................163
6.2.2 Crustacean ............................................... 166
0.2.3 Equinoderms .............................................. 167
6.2.4 Fish ............................................................ 167
8.2.5 Birds .........................................................168
6.2.6 Mamrnals .................................................... 169
C . lnferenœs ............................................................................ 170

CHAPTER NINE: CERAMIC: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ............... 172

A. Pottery of the Eariy Puemape Phase .................................... 172

B. Pottery of the Middle Puémape Phase ................................. 176
B.1 Description and analysis of cerarnic associated to
in situ burials ............................................................ 177
8.2 Description and analysis of cerarnics from burials
disturbed prehistorically (D-1) ................................... 210
8.3 Description and analysis of ceramics from burials
disturbed in modem times (0-2) ................................ 219
C. Summary of Middle Puemape Phase cerarnics .................... 229
D. Summary of Late Puemape Phase ceramics ....................... 233

CHAPTER TEN: THE IMPORTANCE OF CUPISNIQUE IN ANDEAN

ARCHAEOLOGY .......................................................................................... 237
A . The Cupisnique Cultural Complex ........................................ 237
A.1 Early Puemape Phase .............................................. 239
A.2 Cornparisons with Eady Puérnape Phase ................. 241
 A.3 Early Formative: Early Puémape .............................. 255
A.4 Middle Formative: Middle Puemape Phase .............. 266
A.5 Middle Formative: Late Puémape Phase.
catastrophe. site abandonment ................................ 272
B. Disciission: Cupisnique and Chavin ..................................... 283
C. Conclusion .......................................................................... 288

REFERENCES ClTED ................................................................................. 291

 List of Tables

Table 1 Ceramic groups identified in the Galley of the Offerings

of Chavin de Huantar ..................................................................32

Table 2 Flora Composition. Frequency. Dominance and Importance

Values of the El Jaguey Forest Botanical Spedes ....................... 50

Table 3 Flora from the Puquio de la Mina (Pajarobobal Gorge) ................ 58

Table 22 Puemape Excavation Units ......................................................... 71

 List of Appendices
Page

Appendix 1 The "yuca de caballonplant (Probosciûea altheaefolia):

a &nefdescription ...................................................................... 303

Appendix 2 Fauna tables ............................................................................. 306

Table 4 Vertebrate: Fish Taxonomy. Sandy beach provenience ............ 307

Table 5 Vertebrate: Fish Taxonomy. Rocky beach provenienoe ............. 310

Table 6 Vertebrate: Birds Taxonomy. Littoral of Puémape ..................... 311

Table 7 Vertebrate: Terrestrial Mammals Taxonomy. Littoral of

Puémape .................................................................................. 312

Table 8 Vertebrate: Marine Mammals Taxonomy. Littoral of

Puémape .................................................................................. 313

Table 9 Invertebrate: Mollusk Taxonomy .............................................. 314

Table 10 Invertebrate: Cnistaceans Taxonomy ....................................... 323

Table 1 1 Invertebrate: Equinodem Taxonomy ........................................ 325

Table 12 Bathymetric distribution from the identified

rnollusks-Puemape .................................................................... 326

Table 13 Vertebrate: Fish Taxonomy. De! Barco Lagoon ......................... 327

Table 14 Vertebrate: Bird Taxonomy. Del Barco lagwn .......................... 328
Table 15 Vertebrate: Bird Taxonomy. The El Jaguey forest
and the Plain (La Pampa) ......................................................... 329

Table 16 Vertebrate: Terrestrial Mammal Taxonomy. The El Jaguey

forest and the Plain (La Pampa) ................................................ 330

Table 17 Vertebrate: Terrestrial Reptilia Taxonorny. The El Jaguey

forest and the Plain (La Pampa) ................................................ 331
 Paae

Table 18 Invertebrate: Mollusk Taxonorny. The Cupisnique and

Pajarobobal Gorges .................................................................. 332

Table 19 Vertebrate: Bird Taxonomy. The Cupisnique and

Pajarobobal Gorges .................................................................. 333

fable 20 Vertebrate: Terrestrial Mamrnal Taxonomy. The Cupisnique

and Pajarobobal Gorges ........................................................... 334

Table 21 Vertebrate: Terrestrial Reptilia Taxonomy. The Cupisnique

and Pajarobobal Gorges ........................................................... 335

Appendix 3 Tables of the Eariy Puemape Burials ........................................ 336

Tables
23-28 Early Puérnape mortuary practices: graves ............................... 337

Tables
29-31 Early Puernape Mortuary Practices: Grave Goods Sequence.
Objects found over the extemal reed mat cover ........................ 343

Table 32 Early Puemape Mortuary Practices. Objects in contact 4 t h

the cadaver found within the cotton textile primary cover .......... 346

Tables
33-38 Early Puémape Mortuary Treatments: Sex, Age, and
Disposal of the Dead ................................................................ 347

Tables Early Puemape Mortuary Treatments: Orientation and

39-44 Cultural Modifications .............................................................. 353

Appendix 4 Tables of the Middle Puémape Burials ...................................... 359

Tables
45-54 Middle Puemape mortuary pmdices: graves .............................360

Table 55 Middle Puémape mortuary pfactices: Grave Goods Sequence.

Bundled anirnaldObjectsfound over a third extemal reed
mat cover ................................................................................. 370
 Page

Tables
56-65 Middle Puémape mortuary practices: Grave Goods Sequence.
Objects found over or around the second extemal reeâ
mat mver ................................................................................. 371

Table 66 Middle Puémape mortuary pradices: Grave Goods

Sequence. Objeds found in between the second extemal
reed mat and the primary cotton textile avers .......................... 381

Tables
67-75 Middle Puémape mortuary pradices: Grave Goods
Sequence. Objects in contact with the cadaver found
within the cotton textile prirnary cover ........................................ 382

Tables
76-85 Middle Puémape Mortuary Treatments: Sex, Age. and
Disposal of the Dead ................................................................391

Tables
86-95 Middle Puemape Mortuary Treatments: Orientation and
Cultural Modifications ................................................................ 401

Appendix 5 Tables of Flora and Fauna Analysis .......................................... 411

Table 96 List of cultivated and wild plants identified in layer IV
of the Excavation Unit 11 belonging to the Earfy Puemape
Phase ....................................................................................... 412

Table 97 Classification of the maire spechens from Puemape ............... 413

Table 98 List of cultivated and wild plants identifia in layer IV

of the Excavation Unit 9 belonging to the Early Puémape
domestic settings ...................................................................... 4 14

Tabfe 99 List of cultivated and wild plants identified in layer V of the

Excavation Unit 9 belonging to the Early Puémape
domestic setting ........................................................................ 415
 Paae

Table 100 Chernical composition of marine organisrns adapted from:

La Composition de los Alimentos Peruanos, Ministry
of Health, 1975) ..................................................................... 416

Table 101 Excavation Unit 9: Early Puémape Phase NMI and

percentage of mollusks ............................................................. 417

Table 102 Names and stratigraphic distribution of crustaceans

found per epochs at Puémape .................................................. 419

Table 103 Narnes and stratigraphic distribution of equinodens

found per epochs at Puémape ................................................ 420

Table 104 Name of the fish remains recorded in the Early

Puemape phase ......................................................................421

Table 105 Distribution of the fish bones recordeci in the Early

Puemape phase .......................................................................422

Table 106 Relative abundance of fish in the Early

Puemape phase ................................................................... 423

Table 107 Relative abundance of birds in the Early

Puemape phase .......................................................................424

Table 108 Relative abundance of mammals in the Early

Puémape phase ........................................................................ 425

Appendix 6 Tables of Ceramic Analysis ...................................................... 426

Table 109 Ceramic of the Early Puémape Phase ....................................... 427

Tables
110-112 Funerary Ceramiw from the in situ Middle Puemape
Burials ....................................................................................... 429

Table 113 Funerary Ceramics from the Prehistorically Disturbed (D-1)

Middle Puemape Burials ........................................................... 435
Table 114 Funerary Ceramics from the Middle Puernape Burials
Disturbed in Modem Times (D-2) ............................... .
... . . 437
Table 115 Unassociated Middle Puémape Funerary Ceramic Finds.
Decorated and undecorated open vessels ................................439

Table 116 Unassociated Middle Puernape Funerary Ceramic Finds.

Decorated and undecorated open vessels ................................ 445

Table 1.17 Late Puémape Phase Ceramic Finds. Decorated and

undecorated open vessels ........................................................ 449

Table 118 Late Puémape Phase Ceramic Finds. Decorated and

undecorated dosed vessels ..................................................... 451

Appendix 7 Petrographic Analysis ...............................................................453

Appendix 8 Radiocarbon dates and Chronological Table 119 ..................... 465

Appendix 9

Chart 1 E P: Context of the Burials ......................................................469

Chart 2 EP: Grave Orientations ...........................................................470

Chart 3 EP: Rock(s) over the wrapped dead .......................................... 471

Chart 4 EP Cadavers: Disposition of the Hands ..................................... 472

Chart 5 EP Cadavers: Disposition of the Upper Limbs ........................... 473

Chart 6 EP: Cadaver Positions .................................. ................... 474
,
.

Chart 7 EP: Cadaver Orientations ......................................................... 475

Chart 8 MP: Context of the Burials ........................................................ 476
Chart 9 MP: Rocks(s)over the Wrapped Cadavers ............................... 477

Chart 10 MP Buriafs: Ceramic Associateci ............................................... 478

 Page

Chart 11 9 MP in situ Burials with ceramic ............................................... 479

Appendix 10 Figures ......................................................................................480

Figure 1 Location of Puémape ................................................................ 481

Figure 2 The Cupisnique gorge from 250 m -660 m a. s. I....................... 482

Figure 3 The Area of Botmical Exploration on the Cupisnique

Gorge .................................................................................... 483

Figure 4 Fauna from the Mouth of the Cupisnique to the Pajarobobal

Gorges (250 m .650 rn a. s. 1.) ................................................* 484

Figure 5 General Plane with the excavation units and topographie

Matures S: If500 ....................................................................... 485

Figure 6 Stratigraphy of one of the sections of E U . 6 5:1120 .................. 486

Figure 7 Part of the stntdure under layen I and II E.U.. 6 S: 1/20 .......... 487

Figure 8 West proiïle 5-Stratigraphy of Domestic Settings

of the Early Cupisnique Phase (IV-V) and Salinar
(Il) E U. 9. S:1/20 ............................................**......................
488

Figure 9 Profile 7 showing domestic components of the Eariy

Cupisnique Phase E.U..9. S: 1120 ............................................. 489

Figure 10 -
North Profile 16 Stratigraphy of the E.U..9 W. S: 1120 ............. 490

Figure 11 Domestic Salinar Occupation (II) and Middle Puémape

Phase funerary settings (IV) E.U.. 10. S:1120 ............................ 491

Figure 12 South Profile 21 of E.U.: 10

A Middle Puemape Phase funerary cyst can be recognized in
layer N . S: 1120 ...................................................................... 492

Figure 13 East Profile 25 - Stratigraphy of E.U.. 11. S: 1/20 ...................... 493

Figure 14 Profile 23 .Early Puémape Phase burials of the E.U.:11.
S:1/20 ....................................................................................... 494
Figure 15 Salinar domestic setting: Large and regular jan (Paicas).
hearth. mat. and food remains. E.U.. 10................................... 495

Figure 16 Profile 20. Detail of paicas E and F. E.U.: 10 S: 1120 .............. 496

Figure 17 Part of the excavated structure. E. U.. 6................................... 497

Figure 18 West and North profiles. Architectural dual construction

pattern: internai 'piecira p6meznand extemal basaltic
rocks......................................................................................... 498

Figure 19 Front of the staircase of the stnidure with the missing frst
three steps................................................................................499

Figure 20 Secondary access of the structure ............................................ 500

Figure 21 The southeast terrace of the structure. The stratigraphy

showed the construction proœss and the MPP burials
as a foundation of the temple .................................................... 501

Figure 22 Early Puémape Phase œmetery. Different orientation of the

burials. Sectoc 8-5. E U.. 1 1 .................................................... 502

Figure 23 EPP burial XCVll disturbed when EPP XCVlll was placed.
Sector: 8-5.E.U..11 ................................................................... 503

Figure 24 EPP burial CXI disturbed when EPP burial CX

was placed. Sectoc B.5. E.U.. 11 ............................................. 504

Figure 25 EPP burials CXI and XClV disturbed when EPP

burial X)(XVll was placed. Sector: 8.5. E.U.. 1 1 ....................... 505

Figure 26 EPP burial XXXVII . Sector: 6.5. E.U.. 11 .................................. 506

Figure 27 EPP burials U00<IX and UOO<Vlll. Sectoc 5 5 . E.U.. 11 .......... 507
Figure 28 Modern loating of EPP burial X M I. Sector: 8 5 .
E.U.. 11 .................................................................................... 508

Figure 29 .
EPP burial XXXII . Sector: 6.5 E.U.. 11 ..................................... 500

Figure 30 .
EPP burial WO(V. Sector: 6.5 E U.. 11 .................................. 510

Figure 31 EPP burial XCI I. Sector: B.5, E.U.: 11 ...................................... 511

Figure 32 .
EPP burial CXIII. Sectoc E S E.U.: 11 ..................................... 512

Figure 33 EPP buriai CXV. Sector: 8.5. E.U.. 1 1 ...................................... 513

Figure 34 EPP buriak XXXIII and XXXIV. Sector: 8.5, E.U .: li ................ 514
Figure 35 EPP burial XLIV. Sectoc 6-5. E U.. 11 ...................................... 515
Figure 36 EPP burial U 0 0 ( 1 1 . Sectoc 6.5. E.U.. 11 ................................... 516

Figure 37 EPP burial WO(lll . Sector: B.5. E.U.. 11 .................................. 517

Figure 38 EPP burial WO(VII . Sector: 8.5, E.U.. 11 ................................ 518

Figure 39 EPP burial XXXV. Sector: 6-5. E.U.. 11 ....................................519

Figure 40 Middle Puémape Phase œmetery. Different orientation

of the burials. Sectoc D 05. E U.. 9 ............................................ 520
Figure 41 Middle Puernape Phase œmetery. Diffkrent orientation
of the burials. Sectw. O -5. E.U.: 9-W ....................................... 521

Figure 42 MPP burial XXN disturbed when MPP burial XXI

was placed. Sectoc 0 4. E.U..9 .............................................. 522
Figure 43 MPP burial CXVl disturbed when MPP burial LWll was
plaed. Sector: D 05.E.U.. 9-W ..................................... ... . 523
Figure 44 A shaR tomb of the MPP burial I. Sectoc F 4 E.U.. 1 . ..........-.... 524
Figure 45 MPP burials XCIX-C and CXVIII. Sector: 0 05. E.U..6 .............. 525
 Pane

Figure 46 MPP burial XXX. Sector: O 05. E.U.. 9 ....................................... 526

Figure 47 MPP burial XCI . Sectoc D 05. E U.. 9 ....................

....... ....... 527

Figure 48 Disturbed MPP burial XXVIiI. Sector: D 05. E.U.. 9 .................... 528

Figure 49 Disturbeâ MPP burial CVIII. Sector: D 05. E.U.. 9 ...................... 529

Figure 50 MPP burial CI. Sector: D -5, E .U.. 9-W ..................................... 530
Figura 51 MPP burials XXW and XXVII. Sector: D 05. E.U.. 9 ................... 531

Figure 52 MPP burial XXII. Sector: D .5. E.U.. 9 ....................................... 532

Figure 53 MPP buMl XXIX . Sector: D 05,E U.: 9 ...................................... 533

Figure 54 MPP b u M XX Sector: D 05. E.U.. 9 ......................................... 534

Figure 55 MPP burial XXIII. Sector: D 05. E.U.. 9 ...................................... 535
Figure 56 MPP burial CW . Sedor: D .S. E.U.. 9-W ................................... 536

Figure 57 MPP buriai CIX. Sector. O 05, E.U.. 9-W ..................................537

Figure 58 Disturbed MPP burial LIX. Sector: D =5. E.U.. 9 ........................ 538
Figure 59 A carved sea lion fang @undin the disturbed MPP
burial CXXl Sectoc D 05. E U.. 9 ............................................... 539

Figure 60 MPP decapitated burial CIV. Sedoc D S. E.U.. 9-W ................ 540

Figure 61 Salinar œmetery (section) intnwive to the Late Puemape

Phase monumental architecture. Sectoc 0-5. E.U.. 6 ............... 541

Figure 62 Salinar human burial XXXIX along with a canid burial LIV
following the same orientation. Sectoc D.5. E.U.: 6 .................. 542

Salinar burial. The head was repiaœd with a bowl gourd

(lapa) containing purple crabs. Seclor: D.5. E.U.: 6 ................... 543
Figure 64 Salinar burial W I I severely amputated and decapitated.

Figure 65 EPP neckless ollas (No. 1. 2 and 3). Sector: D-5 E.U. 9. . .
Sector: 0-5. E.U.. 6 ............................................................... 544

Figure 66 EPP neckless ollas (No. 4 and 5). Sector. D-5. E.U. 9. .
Layers: IV-V .............................................................................. 545

Layers: IV-V .......................................................................... 546

Figure 67 EPP bowls (No. 7 and 8) .......................................................... 547

Figure 68 EPP neckless olb (No. 6).Sector: B-5. E.U.:11 ......................... 548

Figure 69 Detail of the decoration of the EPP neckless d a No. 6............. 549

Figure 70 MPP single-necked bottle associated to burial I ........................ 550

Figure 71 MPP stimip-spout bottle associateci to burial XX ....................... 551

Figure 72 MPP undecorated bowl associateci to buriat XX ........................ 552

Figure 73 MPP decorated bowl associateci to burial XX ............................ 552

Figure 74 MPP bowl associated to burial XX ............................................. 553

Figure 75 MPP stirrupspout bottle associated to burial XXl ...................... 554

Figure 76 MPP bowi associateci to buriat XXll ........................................... 555

Figure 77 MPP stimp-spobt bottle associated to burial XXlll .................... 556

Figure 78 RDght side profile of the MPP stirrupspout bottle

associated ta burial XXlll ....................................................... 557

Figure 79 Posterior side of the MPP stirrupspout botüe associated to

burial XXlll ......................................................................... 558

Figure 80 MPP ctay disk associatecl to burial XXlll .................................. 559

Figure 81 MPP decorateâ bowl associateci to burial XXIII ......................... 560

 Page

Figure 82 MPP neckless olla associated to burial XXlll ............................. 561

Figure 83 MPP single-necked bottle associated to burial XXVl ................. 562

Figure 84 MPP neckless olia associated to burial XXlX ............................. 563

Figure 85 MPP jar associated to burial XXlX ........................................... 564

Figure 86 MPP stimp-spout bottle associated to burial LVlll .................... 565

Figure 87 Right side profile of the MPP stimp-spout bottle

associated to bunal LVlll ..........................................................
566

Figure 88 Posterior side of the MPP stirrup-spout bottle associated

to burial LVlll ...........................................................................567

Figure 89 Three positions of the MPP stimip-spout botüe associated

to burial LVlll ......................................................................... 568

Figure 90 MPP neckless olla associateci ta burial LVlll ............................. 569

Figure 91 MPP bowl associated to burial LVlll .......................................... 570

Figure 92 MPP stimpspout bottle associated to burial CI ........................ 571

Figure 93 MPP stimip-spout bottle associated to burial CI seen

from the top .............................................................................. 572

Figure 94 MPP jar associateci to burial CI ................................................. 573

Figure 95 MPP bowl associated to burial CI ............................................. 574
Figure 96 MPP stimip-spout bottle associated to the
disturbed burial XXIV .................................................................575

Figure 97 Right side profile of the stimip-spout boffle associated to the

disturbed burial XXlV ................................................................. 576

Figure 98 Right side profile of the MPP stirmpspout bottle adated

to the disturbed buriat CXVl ...................................................... 577
 Paae

Figure 99 Left side profile of the MPP stimp-spout bottle associated

to the distufbal burial CXVi ...................................................... 578

Figure 100 MPP stimip-spout bottle associated to the disturbed burial

CXVl seen from the top ............................................................ 579

Figure 101 MPP bowl associateci to the disturbed burial CXVl .................... 580

Figure 102 MPP jar assodateci to the disturôed burial W<VIII .................... 581

Figure 103 MPP stimip-spout bottle associatecl to the disturbed

burial II ..................................................................................... 582

Figure 104 MPP jar associated to the disturbed burial CV .......................... 583

Figure 105 MPP neckless olla associatecd to the disturbed burial C W ........ 584

Figure 106 Detail of the tattooed face of the stimipspout bottle

associateci to the disturbed burial CXXl ..................................... 585

Figure 107 lncised motives over the abdomen and chest of the MPP
stimipspout bottle anthropomorphic representation.
Burial CXXl .............................................................................. 586

Figure 108 Detail of the motives incised on the right a m and the left
ankle of the MPP stimip-spout bottle anthropomorphic
representation ........................................................................ 587

Figure 109 MPP bowl associsted to the burial CXXI. Detail of the
manne wave motif representation ............................................. 588

Figure 110 MPP ocarina representing a coiling snake ................................. 589

Figure 111 MPP b~wls(1 .6). E U.. 9 ......................................................... 590

Figure 112 MPP bowk (7 8). E.U.. 9

O ........................................................ 591
Figure 113 MPP bôwls (9 .1O) . E.U..9 .................................................... 592

Figure 114 MPP bowls (1 1 13). E U.. 9O ..................................................... 593

 Paae

Figure 115 MPP vase (14). E.U.. 9 ........................................................... 594

Figure 116 MPP neckless olla (15 .17). E U.. 9 ......................................... 595

Figure 117 MPP cylindrical vesse1 (18 = 19). E.U.. 9 ...................................596

Figure 118 MPP pot (20). E.U.. 9 ............................................................... 597

Figure 119 MPP jar with handle (21). E .U.. 9 ........................................... 598

Figure 120 MPP jar (22). E.U.. 9 ................................................................. 599

Figure 121 MPP jar (23). E.U.. 9 .................................................................600

Figure 122 MPP jar (24). E.U.. 9 ............................................................... 601

Figure 123 MPP "cancheron(toaster) (25). E.U.. 9 ......................................602

Figure 124 MPP clay disk (26). E.U.. 9 .......................................................603
Figure 125 MPP stirrup-spout bottle (27). E.U.. 9 ........................................ 604

Figure 126 MPP stirrupspout bottle sherds (28 30). E.U.. 9 O ..................... 605
Figure 127 MPP stimip-spout bottle sherds (31 33). E.U .. 9 ..................... 606
O

Figure 128 MPP stimip-spout bottie sherds (34 37). E.U.. 9 O ..................... 607
Figure 129 MPP stimip-spout bottle bases (38 40) E.U.. 9 O ....................... 608
Figure 130 MPP 'castellated4mnbowl (41) . E.U.. 9 ................................... 609

Figure131 MPP "castellated-rim"bowl (42). E.U.: 9 ................................... 610

Figure 132 MPP bûwls (43 .48). E.U.. 10 ................................................... 611

Figure 133 MPP jars (51 .52) and body sheds of stirrup-spout
bottles (53 .54) E.U.. 10 ...........................................................612
 Pane

Figure 134 MPP neckless oila (49) and cylindrical vesse1 (50)
E.U.. 10 .................................................................................... 613

Figure 135 LPP bawls (55 - 57) .................................................................. 614

Figure 136 LPP WS -

(58 59) .................................................................. 615

Figure 137 -
LPP bowls 60 62) .................................................................... 616

Figure 138 LPP vases (63 - 65) .................................................................. 617

Figure 139 LPP vases (66 - 68) .................................................................. 618
Figure 140 LPP stimpspout boffle found in the fiIl of the
Late Puemape Phase structure ................................................619

Figure 141 LPP stirrupswut botties (70 - 71) ............................................. 620

Plates ...-............ ................................ .. . . ... . . .. . .. . .... ... . . . 621

Plate 1 Classic Cupisnique stimpspout boffle from

Puérnape. The dyadic Strombus/Spondylus motif .................... 622

Plate 2 Complex motif incised in the Strombus of the bottle .................. 622

Plate 3 Air photograph of the Puémape sitel :20,000

I.G.M. ........................................................................... .. 623
Plate 4 Classic Cupisnique stimp-spout bottle from
Puémape. The anthropofelinic motif ......................... ............... 624

Plate 5 The Cerro Puémape outcrop. Western view

from the Cupisnique region ....................................................... 625

Plate 6 Eastern view of the Cerro Puémape from the P a c k

Ocean and the Puémape archaeological site ............................. 625

Plate 7 Microenvironments around Puémape. The Cupisnique

river and its three branches (El Barco, PuernapelEl Jaguey
and Umcape) can be noted. ............................. ......................... 626

Plate 8 The traditional Puémape fishing village. View from the rocky
litoral. The site of Puémape is located over and amund the
village. ......................................................................... 627
Plate 9 The Puémape Rocky Littoral. The edible 'mococho'
(algae) (Gigadina chamisoi) growing around and inside
aie 'poza' (naturel pool). ........................................................ 627

Plate 1O The Puémape Sandy Littoral. The plant called 'liton

(Sesuvium portulacastnrm) ............................
........................ 628
Plate 1 1 The El Jaguey Gorge. View of the 'algambaln (mesquite
rOrest). ....................................................................................... 629

Plate 12 'Algarrobo' (mesquite) (Pmsopis sp.). El Jaguey ...................... 629

 Paae

Plate 13 El B a r a Lagoon ........................................................................ 630

Plate 14 San Pedro de Lloc countryside (Jequetepeque Valley) .

Cerro Puemape to the west ...................................................... 631

Plate 15 One of the m k y outcrops called: 'Guardians of the

mouth of the Cupisnique region" ............................................... 632

Plate 16 Plant 'Yuca de Caballon(Pmboscidee altheaefdia) ...................633

Plate 17 Excavation of the structure. Tons of sand cover

the site of Puemape. E.U.. 6 .....................................................634

Plate 18 East side of the excavation unit 9. Behind the Cerro

Puemape ...................................................................................635

Plate 19 West side of the excavation unit 9. 6ehind the

Pacific Oœan ........................................................................... 635

Plate 20 Excavation Unit 11................................................................636

Plate 21 EPP funerary intrusions in the layers IV-VI of the excavation

unit 11..................................................................................... 636

Plate 22 Stoflng pit A containing 'palta" (avocado) (Persea amencana)

and pieces of 'anaeloten (angeffish) (Squetina annata).
E.U.. 9......................................................................................637

Plate 23 Storing pit 0. Pieces of 'lobo marino' (sea lion)(Otariasp.),

'angelote* (angeffish) (Squatina annate) and 'to~o'
(sand shah) (Mustelus spp.) ...............................
...................637
Plate 24 Gourd (Lagemîa sicenna) containing a folded cotton
textile. E.U.3 ............................................................................638

Plate 25 Detail of the folded decorated cotton textile............................... 638

Plate 26 ln situ coiled rope. E.U..11 ........................................................ 639

Plate 27 Salinar marnmifom jars . E.U..9 ................................................. 640

Plate 28 A human transporthg a mammifon jar in his baa. Salinar
style. Bottle found in Puérnape ....................... .
................. 641

Plate 29 Hearth found in the Salinar dornestic setting found in the

excavation unit 10 ..................................................................... 642

Plate 30 Disposition of large jars (paicas) in the Salinar domestic

setting. EU.: 10 ........................................................................ 643

Plate 32 Disposition of pots in the Salinar domestic setting.

E.U.:10 ............................................................................... 643

Plate 32 Megalithic appearance of the walls of the Late Puemape

Phase structure. An intrusive Salinar burial (U(VIII)
was placed. E. U. :6 .................................................................... 644

Plate 33 Floor of the LPP main platforni of the temple with many
disturbanœs caused by the later intrusive Salinar
burials. E.U.:6 ...........................................................................645

Plate 34 Bone artifact carved into chain link and pendant from the
second link. All were carved frorn the same piece.
E.U.: 6 .......................................................................................646

Plate 35 Notice the flexibility of the chained bone arüfact. ....................... 646
Plate 36 Rounded stones 'chunaosn. A sort of mortar and pestle
for grinding hematite over the fiooc of the main platform of
the temple. ................................................................................ 647

Plate 37 Clean sandy layer N covering the front steps of the platforni
and the architectural element of the big rock block painted
on one of its sides with hematite .............................................. 648

Plate 38 Erodeâ and broken MPP siimp-spout bottles were

distributed over the Mole surface of layer IV. E.U.:6 ................ 649
Plate 39 Flexed skeleton of the EPP burial XLIV. E. U.: 11 ....................... 650
Plate 40 Collar found in association to the child cadaver of the
MPP buria1XXI. E.U..9 .............................................................. 651

Plate 41 Quadrangular-shaped lapis lazuli bead found over the

anterior neck of the child cadaver of the MPP
burial XXIX . EU..9 ..................................................................... 651

Plate 42 Crystal rock bead asscciated to the MPP burial CXXI.

E U . 9 ....................................................................................... 652

Plate 43 Sea lion fang carved into a complete naturalistic standing

human. It was associated to the MPP
burial CXXI. E.U..9 ....................................................................652

Plate 44 MPP burial LVlll ........................................................................ 653

Plate 45 Detail of cotton textile folded packet in the rnouth cavity

of the fernale of burial MI1....................................................... 654

Plate 46 Extended Salinar burial XC intrusive to the floor of the LPP

platforni of the temple. E.U.:6 ................................................... 655

Plate 47 Single-necked bottle associated to the MPP burial I ................. 656

Plate 48 X-ray photo showing the single-necked bottle of bunal I........... 657

Plate 49 Cerarnics associated to the MPP burial XX ............................... 658

Plate 50 X-ray photo showing the bowi associated to the MPP

buria1 XX ................................................................................. 659

Plate 51 X-ray photo showing the stimpîpout bottle of the MPP

burial XXI .................................................................................. 660

Plate 52 Stimpspout bottle and bowl associated to the

MPP burial XXlll ........................................................................ 661

Plate 53 X-ray photo of the stimp-spout bottle of the

MPP burial XXI11 ...................................................................... 662

Plate 54 Clay disk associated to the MPP burial XXIII ............................. 663
Plate 55 X-ray photo of the neckless olla associated to the MPP
burial XXlll ............................................................................... 664

Plate 56 Single-necked bottle associated to the MPP

burial XXVl ............................................................................... 665

Plate 57 X-ray photo of the single-necked bottle associated to

the MPP burial XXVl ................................................................ 666

Plate 58 Ceramics and the anthracite mirror associated to the

MPP butial LVlll ........................................................................ 667

Plate 59 The jaguar naturalistic motif. Stimp-spout bottle

assocl'ated to the MPP burial LVlll ............................................. 667

Plate 60 X-ray photo showing the stimp-spout bottle associated to the

MPP burial LVIII ........................................................................ 668

Plate 61 Stimip-sput bottle and decorated jar associated to the MPP

burial CI .................................................................................... 669

Plate 62 X-ray photo of the stimpspout bottle associated to the MPP

burial XXlV ................................................................................ 670

Plate 63 The root of the 'yuca de caballon(Pmboscidea altheaefolia)

in cornparison with a stimp-spout bottle
found in Puérnape ..................................................................... 671
Plate 64 In situ position of the stimip-spout bottle with a foldecl reed
sealing the spout. It was associated to the
MPP bunal CXW ...................................................................... 672

Plate 65 Stimp-spout bottle associated to the MPP burial

CXVl ......................................................................................... 673

Plate 66 Stimp-spout bottle representing a contortionist. It was

associated to the MPP burial CXXl ........................................... 674

Plate 67 Ocarina representing a coiling boa. It was assoQated to the

MPP burial CXXtf ..................................................................... 675
 Paae

Plate 68 X-ray photo of the ocarina ....................................................676

Plate 69 MPP cylindrical vesse1. E.U..9 .............................-..................... 677

Plate 70

Plate 71 MPP 'castellated-dm" bowls 41 (E.U . 10)and 5 .

MPP pot. E.U..9 ........................................................................ 677

(E.U.:9)..................................................................................... 678

Plate 72 Classic Cupisnique decorated gourd from Puémape.

Pyroengraved with rnythical felines........................................... 679

Plate 73 The same pyroengraved gourd seen upside down.................... 679

 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Introduction

The nature of the different processes underiying the origin and

fmalization of complex societies has been one of the major themes of the

Andean archaeological literature of recent years. Traditionally Chavin has been

regarded as the most complex of the Fomative societies in the Central Andes,

comparaMe in the Amencas only with the Olrnec phenomenon from

Mesoamefica. Cupisnique, long recognùed as the principal Fomative

archaeological complex of the Peruvian North Coast, has been conceptualizeâ

under the shadow of Chavin and never as an integrated sociocultural reality.

Many Cupisnique cultural elements have been considered as sirnply mpresenting

the influence of Chavin de HuBntar, the highiand center of Chavin, over the

North Coast. Andeanists tsmmonly refer to these elements as 'Coastal Chavin'

or 'Chavinoid".

In this dissertation, hawever, Iwill propose that Cupisnique was an

important source of influence in its own nght and important for understanding

the so-calied 'Chavin phenomenon'. In support of my argument I will present

archaedogical data from the North Coast site of Puemape and discuss them in

cornparison wiai oaier contemporary Cupisnique and non6upisnique sites. Frorn

this discussion I will draw inferences about the economic, do-political and

religious context in which the Cupisnique Cultural Complex developed. Finally, 1

will attempt to demonstrate that Cupisnique was part of a long historical and

wRural tradition that originated and established its heartland on the Peruvian

North Coast. The data now available on Cupisnique technology and religious

ideology suggest a remarkabte pattern of consewatism. In fact continuity of a

number of distinctive cuitural features from the Cupisnique Cultural Complex to

the Muchik ethnicity of today argues for its unity and distinctiveness through time.

A. Definina the Problem

The archaeological site under investigation is Puemape, a rnulticornponent

site that has a clear and rich stratigraphie sequence from the Early to the Late

Formative period (Elera and Piniila 1990). The Puémape site is locatd on the

littoral of the Cupisnique semidesertic valley, between the Chiama and

Jequetepeque valleys on the Peruvian North Coast (Figure 1).

Puémape provides a unique opportunity to study Cupisnique cultural

contexts with relatively good preservation of organic and non-organic materials.

lndeed the richly detailed archaeological record of Pudmape can sustain a

correspondingly systematic reconstruction of the behaviour patlems that

produced it.
 First, the distribution and organization of dornestic settings can be related

with the utilization and management of different local resources from nearby

ecologically diverse environments. An environmental catastrophe is recorded in

the rernains at Puémape and the impact on the local ecology is evident. These

data provide an opportunity to examine and speculate about the economic and

demographic impact on the local population. Second, the large number of

excavated, intact tombs at Puémape provides a body of data for the study of

variability in mortuary practices and a comparative study of regional and inter-

regional mortuary patterns-Third,the csremonialism reflected in religious

monumental architecture, labour investment, architectural planing and specialised

activities provides evidence for examining the possibilities of ranked wcietal

divisions.

The theoretical goal, of this dissertation is to use the empirical data from

Puémape to examine different models of soda-plitical change on the North

Coast, inter-regional contact during the Fonnative, and to propose a new mode1

that supports an indigenous soda1 and cultural procass that underlay the ongin,

formalkation and distribution of the coastal Cupisnique Cultural Complex .

B. Research at the Formative Pu6mam Site

Folkwing notice in 1988 that looters had begun pillagingthe site of

Puémape, the Mu- de la Nacion (the new National Museum of Peni) initiated a
rescue project in June 1989, under the direction of Carlos Elera and José Pinilla.

An initial survey was followed by excavations, which were camed out from

Decernber 1989 to August of 1990.

The site of Puémape comprises over 20 hectares of houses, cemeteries.

and ceremonial structures representing superposed occupational phases. The

Early Puémape Phase (ca. 4400 I1 10 BP, see Appendix 8). associateci with

Early Formative Period Monte Grande-style cerarnics, is overlain in the Middle

Puémape Phase (ca. 3920 t 110 BP, see Appendix 8) by an occupation

containing Classic Cupisnique ceramics such as sculptured stimip-spout botties

from funerary contexts. Shapes and decorative techniques of the Classic

Cupisnique Phase appear to be derivations of those found in Monte Grande-

phase cerarnics, suggesting strong local cultural continuity (Elera and Pinilla

1990). The local, coastal character of the floral, faunal, and mineral remains

recovered from the excavations reinforces this unexpected situation.

The Late Puémape Phase occupation apparently endeci with a major flood

that destroyed the inferred masonry ceremonial centre (Elera. Pinilla and
Vasquez 1992). The Puemape stratigraphy indicates a hiatus in occupation

before the subsequent (final) extensive Salinar (ca. 2340 f 90 8P, see Appendix

8) and little VirG occupations, which ocwrred during the Late Formative period.
C . Ovewiew of the Dissertation

In Chapter 2, " Background," first the origin of the designation Cupisnique

is reviewed as well as its meaning and geochfonological context in Andean

archaeology. Second. salient aspects of the Chavin style and the location and

organizational plan of Chavin de Huantar are reviewed. Finally, wrrent

perspectives on the relationship between Cupisnique and Chavin are discussed,

and it will be suggested that the view of Cupisnique as 'Coastal Chavin" needs

re-evaluation.

In Chapter 3, "Field Research at Puémape", the Cupisnique region is

placed in its geomorphologic, environmental, and cultural setting. Special

emphasis is placed on the local mineralogical, floral and faunal (native and

migratory spedes) resources. The history of the research program carried out

there also will be recounted.

Chapter 4, "Topography and Archaealogical Excavations at Pubmapet',will

describe the site of Puémape, the excavations and the excavated contexts. Three

kinds of archaeological contexts were excavated straügraphically at Puémape:

domestic, funerary and ceremonial. Diffbrent methodological procedures,

according to the provenience of the archaeological record, were camied out

In Chapter 5, 'Domestic Settings Excavated and Contentsn,the main

purpose is to describe the domestic contexts and their contents. Chapter 6.

'Monumental Architecture in the Late Puémape Phase", presents the evidence

associated with the construction and destruction of a platfonn temple dunng the

Late Puemape Phase. Chapter 7, 'Funerary Settings and Contents in DifTerent

Puémape Phases,"descfibes, analyses and compares the bunals and funerary

patterns associatecl with each of the phases of occupation. The cultural and

natural processes that produced the Puemape stratigraphy are also discussed in

al1 three chapters.

In Chapter 8, "Organic Remains: Analysis and Interpretation", the botanical

and faunal remains from the excavations are presented and discussed in relation

to their roles in the ancient culture and with respect to the microenvironments in

which they were exploited. Chapter 9, "Cerarnics:Analysis and Interpretation",

describes the ceramic samples from both complete and fragmentary vessels and

from domestic, funerary and ceremonial contexts. The probability of local vs. non-

local ceramic production is considered, and it is argued that there is a

technological continuity in the construction of stimpspout bottles from the

Middle Puémape Phase through the Moche, Chimu and Chimu-Inca occupations

of the Penivian North Coast. Furthemore, it is argued that objects made in other

materials dernonstrate a local, conservative North Coastal tradition of arts and

cfafts that began as early as the Eariy Puemape Phase.

Finally, in Chapter 10, 'The Importance of Cupisnique in Andean

Archaeology", it is argued that the Cupisnique Cultural Complex was a local North

Coastal development. A soa*opoliticalmodel for Cupisnique is pmposed. The

supposed "Chavin influence"over Cupisnique. for example, the dose relationship

between the Chavin and Cupisnique iconographical representations. is

discussed. Linking the native and migratory species of the Pudmape area to the

complex representations found in the Middle Puémape Phase's iconography is

used to illuminate the coastal cultural essence of Me Cupisnique religious

ideobgy. And finally, the cnicial role of Cupisniqoe as one of the key Formative

complex societies for understanding the 'Chavin phenornenon" in the Central

Andes concludes the dissertation.

 Chapter 2

BACKGROUND

Introduction

A better understanding of the Cupisnique Cultural Complex and its

probable relationship to the Chavin phenomenon is a principal goal of this

dissertation. In this chapter, fint 1 will explicate the ongin of the designation

Cupisnique and its meaning and geochronological context in Andean

archaeology. Iwill then bnefly review the salient aspects of Chavin, including the

type-site of Chavin de Huantar, as they relate to Cupisnique and other Formative

cultures of the coast.

A. Cu~isniauein Historical PetsPective

Rafael L a m Hoyle found monochrome and incised pot-sherds on the

surface of the Cupisnique region, close to the town of Paijan seventy years ago

and narned the style Cupisnique after the geographical provenience. Later iarco

[in 1939 (1941)] excavated the Palenque, Barbacoa and Sausal cemeteries

located in the middle Chicarna Valley, recovering complete vessels, which he

used to propose the first chronological sequenœ of the Formative period on the
North Coast of Peni (194 1: 3446; 7 948:10-27). In addition. Lara, argued that

Cupisnique was the precursor of the Mochica or Moche culture.

 The chronological sequence established by Larco from the Chicama Valley

is as follows:

EPOCH EVOLUTIVE Ill

Initial Period

i PmCupisnique, first expenmentation in making stimp spout bottles.

Naturalistic representations. Incipient modelling of the bottle bodies.

Middle Period

Cupisnique, monochrome cerarnics sub-divided into A ,B, C, and D styles.

The stylistic differences are based on variability in the stirrup sput

morphology. The bodies of the bottles are modelled in naturalistic and

mythical images.

Cupisnique Transitorio, stimpspout bottles decorated using graphite. Bodies

are modelled with naturalistic and mythical rapresentations.

Cupisnique de Santa Ana, polished red stimip spout boffles and bowîs with

stepped rims. Mythical representations apparently do not exid in this stylistic

unit-

Late Period

Salinar and Vid

i ViFjCupisnicoide, a mix between the Late Cupisnique and Salinar styles. This

funerary œramic style was identilied by L a m in the Vini Valley.

 Lam's sequence, unfortunately was not well supported with stratigraphic

data. There are also some contradictions apparent in the grave lots. For example,

in a burial excavated by L a m (1941: 229, Fig 301) two bottles belonging to his

later Transitory Cupisnique style can be seen in association with a boue of his

earlier Cupisnique C style .

In general ternis the funerary contexts share diagnostic features. The

majonty are simple pits serving as receptacles for individuals flexed in different

positions (Larco 1941:162). Analysing carefully the burial pictures taken by Larco

as well his reportsd observations, the stratigraphic superposition is: 1.

Cupisnique, 2. Salinar, and 3. Mochica ( L a m 1941: 250-258). It may be that a

similar analysis of Larco's notes and photos of the Cupisnique burials will yield a

credible chronology for Cupisnique A, C, and D and Cupisnique Transitorio, but

such a chronology must be tested againsl modem excavations of Cupisnique

sites.

Lam's position is ciear when he refers to the relationship between Chavin

and Cupisnique:

The cultural manifestations of these people, which belong to the

evolutionary epoch of the Pewian culture, have been considerad by some
archaeologists as comsponding to the Chavin civilisation. But If we were
to analyse carefully the different cultures that have been daimed to be
included m i n the socallecl Chavin dvilisation, we would mach the
amclusion that, although they have cultural elements in cummon. they
have others in greater q u a n t i that allow us ta distinguish one culture from
 anothef (Larco 7948: 16).

At the North Coast site of Huaca Prieta the pracursor of the Cupisnique

cultural pattern can be seen in the Late Preceramic cultural manifestations.

Huaca Prieta presents a long cultural sequence from the Late Preceramic to the

Vini occupation, which is supported by a stratigraphy of superimposed refuse,

houses. and burials (Bird et al. 1985).

Many of the Huaca Prieta iconographie motives seem to &e related to the

eariy antecedents of the Cupisnique style around the year 2200 BC. For example,
the so-called "Condor of Huaca Prietan(Bird et al. 1985: 165-Fig. 111) is a

representation of a bird swallowing a fish with wings spread in a flying position.

The complete representation of the bird I would say was the avian component of

the winged mythical personages represented in Classic Cupisnique portable and

non-portable artefacts. The bird I would identify as the migratory '&uila

pescadoranor osprey (Pandion haliaetus camlinensis)and not Vie condor (Elera

1986). In like manner, the stylised feline face of the famous Huaca Prieta gourds

can be considered as the eariiest antecedent of the spectacuhr three

dimensional feline heads of the Cupisnique ceremonial centre of Huaca de los

Reyes (Watanabe 1976). In addition, a fully decorated gourd found in Puemape is

of the same shape, and site, and exhibits two mythical felines using the same

technique as the Huaca Prieta specimens (Elera and Pinilla 1990). The
similarities in material, technique, and dual convention suggest a strong cultural

continuity between the Huaca Prieta Late Precerarnic and the classic Cupisnique

style. Furthenore, the funerary custorns of the Preceramic cornponent of Huaca

Prieta are the same as those of Cupisnique, as I will discuss later.

Following the Preceramic cultural manifestations of Huaca Prieta there is

an initial cerarnic period(6ird et al. 1985: 50), stylistically related to the early

Guaiiape culture, which was first identified in the Vin2 Valley (Strong and Evans

1952). The following occupation is associated with Cupisnique style cerarnics.

Subterranean structures built of conical adobes occur at this time, a further

chronological tie with other Cupisnique sites. The terminus of this occupation was

marked by a catastrophe, possibly a Tsunami (Bird 1987).

During 1969 memben of the Chan Chan-Moche Valley Archaeological

Project under the direction of Dr. Michael E. Moseley and Dr. Carol J. Mackey

discovered the monumental Huaca de los Reyes ceremonial centre, a component

of the Cabal10 Muerto Archaeoiogical Cornplex (Pozorski 1983). This cornplex is

located in the middle of the Moche Valley. The œramics associated with Huaca

de los Reyes were of the style of the greylblack ciassic Cupisnique stimip spout-

bottles and graphite stimip spout-bottles (Pozorski 1983:25) of Cupisnique D and

Transitorio respectively under Larco's chronology mentioned above. The U-shape

plan of Huaca de los Reyes is sirnilar to that of Chavin de Huantar, with the sarne
orientation opening toward the east, and the plazas of Huaca de los Reyes

display panels of complex iiconography (Pozorski 1975).

B. Chavin

One of the more controversial S U ~ J ~ Cin~Andean

S archaeology is the origin

of the Chavin phenomenon. Despite the richness of archaeological data

associated with p M h a v i n and 'Chavin' sites, there have been few scholarly

meetings centred on Chavin studies, a major exception k i n g the Dumbarton

Oaks Conference on Chavin of 1968 (Benson 1974).

In many lost opportunities scholarly discussions about the origin and

nature of the Chavin phenomenon have deteriorated into tense nationalistic and

regionalistic conflicts. One impressive room (2000 square metres) of the Museo

de la Nacion exhibits the rich cultural manifestations of different complex societies

that developed during the Fmative period (1800 -100 BC). The subtle message

in part of the display, relating to recently available archaeological data, interprets

the Chavin de Hwntar site as a singular and significant plaœ where the

interaction of diffarent complex societies tcmk plaœ, a departure from the

traditional view in which Chavin de Huantar has been regarâed as the œnter of

the first Andean Empire (Carrion Cachot 1948) or the high cultural spot from

which civilisation spread throughout the 'savage societiesnof the Central Andes
during the Middle Formative.

The traditional and polemical comerstone of the discussion is between

coastal venus highlandAmazon rainforest ongins of Chavin. In some cases

subjectivity and chauvinistic biases are prevalent in these approaches, ignonng

an objective interpretation of the available archaedogical evidence.

Geographically speaking it is absurd to discuss the coastal versus the highland-

tropical rainforest ongins of the Chavin phenornenon. The physical character of

the Central Andean landscape is dominated by the Andean mountain range.

Under this geomorphologic reality the Pacific Penivian coast must be understood

as the western projection of the Andes. In this case we cannot think of the aiast

'as an independent land separate from the Andean highlands'. More properiy it

shouM be thought of as the Andean Coast as or in the case of Peni as the

Central Andean Coast instead of the coast itself as a separated geographical

reality. The same can be said for the eastem mountainous projection of the

Andes to the border of the Am- rainforest. Some authon cal1 the œia de

-
selva the Selva Andina (Andean Rainfomst)(Varese 1983).

Histortcally the Penivian physician and anthropologist Julio C. Tello has

been creâited with first recagnizing the importance of Chavin as the mother of

Penivian civilisation, using the archaeological data gathered for the first time from

the site of Chavin de Huantar (1960). However, as Richard Burger has pointed
out (1993:414 2 ) it was the German physician, Ernst Middendorf (1893-18%),

who first had the idea of a pan-regional Chavin Andean culture despite the ladc of

available archaeological data to support it. Sinœ the tirne of Tello and his feîlow

pioneen in Chavin studies, the terni Chavin has been used uncriticaliy as the

'official stylistical labelnfor every monumental and non-monumental artifact

'identical" or sirnilar to the style defined from the lithic sculptures found in the

great Chavin de Huantar œremonial centre. The Andean 'sacreci trilogy' of the

feline, aie bird of prey and the snake is central to the art and iconography of the
Chavin style.

The salient characteristics of the Chavin de Huantar site are: 1. A

carefully selected Andean highland landscape for its constniction; 2. An

architectural setting with tradiüonal antedents in aie central Andean Coast Late

Preceramic; 3. A cornplex iconography elaborated in a distinctive art style;

4.Caches of fine and ordinary goods and a variety of organic materials in ofbring

contexts, brougM from distant, exotic lands and seas; and 5. Presenœ of artifacts

and objects from different cultures in ritual contexts.

A key for understanding the Chavin phenornenon is the unusual

geographical sening of the Chavin de Huantar œremonial centre itself. Chavin de

Hudntar, located at the eastem foot of the majestic glaciated Cordillera Blanca

(White Mountain Range) at 3177 m. a.s.1. (Telbl960:44), sits in the confluence of

the Huacheqsa (Mariash) and Mosna (Puccha) Riven forming the Mosna Valley.

The Mosna Valley is known as a natural communication route between the

western Andean highlands and the Maraiion Valley (Bonavia 199 1). It is also

calW a 'knot of walks" (Lumbreras 1993).The two tributaries join to the norai-

east of Chavin de Huantar, and from there fiow to the Maraiion River.

The setting of Chavin de Huantar is impressive as an almost inaccessible

place of reverent solitude surrounded by a &il of rnountains. The west-east

orientation of the temple (s) follows the natural harrnony of the Andean landscape

with the glaciated Cordillera Blanca in the background (west) and the confluence

of two rivers in the foreground (east) one c m understand the possible great

syrnbolic importance of water originating from the Cordillera Blanca and foming

the Huacheqsa and Mosna Rivers which enclose aie south-eastern, eastern and

north-eastern sides of Chavin de Huantar. The geologicai and hydrological

p a o n of Chavin de Huantar, hugging the eastern dopes of the Godillera

Blanca, may have been symbdically significant. The eastern ride of the

pemanently gkciahd Cordillera Blanca is the source of the permanent waters

of the Huacheqsa and Mosna Rivers (Tello 1960:48) that flow to the Marafion

River, and which in tum is one of the main sources of the Amazon. The umtern

ride of the pemanently glaciated Cordillera Blanca is the source d the

pennanentwaters of the Santa River that flows into the Pacific Ocean. Wm
respect to the Santa River course:

The line through Huamey marks other environmental changes as well.

Onshore, the continental shetf dramatically broadens between goand 1O0
south latitude; the countour line 200 m below the surface widens from 40-
50 km to over 100 km. This change. together with the large discharge of
mineral nutrients by the Santa River (which drains the entire intetmontane
basin of Callejon de Huaylas), is important in sustaining the large fish
population found along this paficular stretch of the Penivian coast. The
port of Chimbote, well within the Mochica temtory, is indeed strategically
situated in this regard. On land, the line coincides with one of the major
ecological and topographical frontiers along the north-south axis of the
Andes. It marks the southem end of the elongated, fertile intermontane
basin of Callejon de Huaylas and the great Maraiion River drainage
formed by the t h e north-south ninning parallel mountain ranges . To the
south stretches the extensive puna or short grassland, m i l e to the north
one finds jalca. In ternis of both north-south and east-west movement,
Huamey is a strategic location. (Shimada 1994: 57).

Naturally the question anses: Was there an economic or religious reason

for choosing the geographical place where Chavin de Huantar was built?. No

mineralogical or other strategic raw materials are known to have been exploited in

the Chavin de Huantar vicinity. The population living near the ceremonial centre

was apparenfly srnall given the limiteâ amount of land area for agdcuitural
production in the Mosna Valley and despite additional lands for high-altitude

farming and camelid herding in the sunwnding mountains (Burger 1992:12&

129).The archaeological research that has been done at Chavin de Huantar

suggests that ideological patterns may have determined its geographical location

and layout. The proxirnw of the permanent waters in the Santa River to the west
and the Mosna-Puchm Rivers to the east, originating in the glaciated Cordillera

Blanca, may have been symbolic of the unique central natural connection

between west and east. This physical feature, then, c w l d be understood as a

principal reason for choosing Chavin as the site for building the temple, but to

sustain such an assertion we must find objective support from the ardiaeological

record at Chavin de Huantar.

The fundion, organisation and orientation of the Chavin de Huantar

temple must be analyseâ in relation to the landscape. The Lanzon idol in its

cruciforni chamber, the circular plaza, the ventilation ducts, canals, galleries and

offerings, as tangible manifestations of rituals and ceremonies associated with the

Old Temple, must be analysed in connection with the natural topography and

hydrology.

The temple of Chavin de Huantar has two principai phases of construction:

the so-called Old Temple and the New Temple (Rowe 1973). The Old Temple

has an 'Un shape. The left a m still stands; the right a m was mused for

building the New Temple (Rowe1973:254-255).The Lanzon or Great Image lies

on the main axis of the central building of the Old Temple (Telloi960: 172-
177;Rowe 1973:256). The Lanzon, a unique representation of the earliest

supreme deity at Chavin, is describeci by R. Burger:

 The Lanzon faces east along the axis of the Old Temple. Its right
a m is raised with open palm of the hand exposed. and its left am is
lowered with the back of the hand visible. This pose eloquently express
the role of the delty as a mediator of opposites, a personification of the
principle of balance and order. The association of the Lanzdn deity with
the concept of centraiii is expressed by its location at the centre of a
cniciform gallery, and is iconographically reinforced by four ropes or
guilloches rising from the base of the sculpture. The Lanzon's penetration
of the roof and floor of the gallery can likewise be seen as symbdic of its
role as an axis or conduit connecting the heavens. earVi, and the
undemorid. This axis mundi concept is furthet indicated by a vertical
guilloche that runs up the back of the Lanton, from floor to ceiling.
(1992: 136)

The cruciforni chamber-gallery is connected to the east with stairs leading

to a sunken plaza. The plaza is a rnagnificent cimilar space with the perimeter

lined with fine low relief representations of supernatural beings carved on slabs of

stone (Lumbreras and Amat 1969; Lumbreras 1989, 1993; Burger 1992).The

recognisable supernatural beings can be interpreted as a solemn procession of

jaguars and feline-anthropamorphic penonages carrying hallucinogenic San

Pedro cactus (T#chocereuspachanois) and playing snail tnimpets (Strombus

galeatus). Half of the figures in the cirwlar arrangement face clockwise and haif

countercfodrwise, as though they were al1 directed toward the west. or the

cniciform chamber of the Lanzon.

On boai sides, south and north of the drwlar pl-, subterranean

galledes were built: the Gallery of the Snails (Galeria de Las Caracolas) a

passageway built with three southern niches with an east-fscng entmnœ, and
the Gallery of the Offerings (Galeria de las Ofrendas), a passageway built with

nine northem cells and a west-facing entrance(Lurnbreras 1989).

A detailed analysis of the Chavin de Huantar site and its surrounding

landscape is beyond the scope of this dissertation. However, I will briefly

comment on the apparent symbolic connection among the landscape, the Old

Temple's Lanzon deity, the circular plaza and the southem and northem galleries.

This will provide a basis for discussing the nature of power in the Chavin de

Huantats elite leadership later on.

Burger and Salazar-Burger offêr the following interpretation of the dualism

expressed in the Lanzon:

The position of this supematural expresses graphically the pnnciple

of 'dual opposition." His clawed right a m is lifted up m i l e his left a m
hangs at his side, as if balancing the opposing forces of the cosmos. To
further underline this point, the right hand is show with the palm open,
while only the back of the left hand is visible. Thus the body position of the
Lanzon opposes right with left, up with dom, and front with back. In
modem Quechua thought, the right hand and the concept of up or
geographically, the puna, is associated with male forces while the left hand
and the concept of low is asîociated with female forces (e.g., apus or
mountain deities vs. the Pachamama [mother earth]). The supreme deity
of Chavin de Huantar can be interpreted as the mediator of the opposing
forces symbolired and as guarantor of cosmic harmony (1993:98).

The Lanzon deity and its wcifonn chamber are in darkness al1 year long.

It only gets sunlight during the beginnings of the Andean summer soisüce on
December 21 (Lumbreras 1981), the start of the three-four month rainy season,
contrasting with the nine dry months. The Lanzon's anthropo-felinic face is

oriented or 'watching' directiy to the east. In addition, the nght a m is raisad up

with its open palm of the hand exposed to the east tw (taking in consideration

the mllout of the Lanzdn representation), the direction from which the rains corne

(Pressand Siever 1986). The rains are most intense and associateci with thunder
and lightning at the start of the Andean summer. Between the Lanzon and the

eastem natural landscape is the Gallery of the Snails with its eastem acœss.

Partial excavations done in 1972 (Lumbreras 1989: 158-161) recovered offerings

of wt Strombus galeetus conch and Spondylus sep.(Thomy Oyster) shells, both

of equatonal regions from wann water along with Chommdyius chorvs purple

mussel shells of cold sea-water provenience. The three kinds of mollusks were

otiginally collected from deep sea waters by divers. As known h m the eaily

colonial cllroniclers as well as ethnographie data, shells, especially the Spondylus

sp., were highly valued and used in fertility or water propitiation mals by the

Andean agricultuml societies. With meaning varying according to the colour,

complete, bmken, cut, beads and grand tropical SpondyIus sp. seashells were

offered ritually to al1 kinds of water sources to assure abundant agriculural

hanrests (Herrera [ l 6 O l ] 1977;Cobo (16531 1956). In some cases, permanent

glaciated mounteins such as the Pariacaca, accordiftgto Andean myths. were

always 'anxiousa to eat the sacrd mullu (Avila[i598?]1966). (Mullu being the
quechua name for the Spondylus sp. [Murra 19751). In retum the glaciated

Pariacaca mountain 'delivers its watef through lagoons, creeks and rives to the

adjacent agricultural communities. In short, then, perhaps the upraised right palrn

of the Lanzon facing the east and Gallery of the Snails to the right of the Lanzdn

also facing the east and containing the predous marine-shell offetings
associated with water propitiation rituals symbolicalty 'connectednto the rainiest

Andean rnonths with the eastem source of the min.

The left a m of the LaMn, as noted above, is lowered with the palm

toward the west, and the Gallery of the OfTerings is to the north of the cimlar

plaza wiM a western access. Many of the offerings found in the passageway and

the nine cells of the gallery reflect a diversified assortment of fine and ordinary

goods, ornaments, rnortars. organic materials, munded Stones and so on from

different geographical Andean proveniences (Lumbreras 1993). Some of them

are related to the Central and North coast and rome to the Cajamarca highlands.

During the coastal Andean summer season the rivers have plenty of water and

the sea is nch in fish. In normal years fish abunôanœ increases in the summer

Andean season. 'Coincidentalty" the biologically richest stW.chof the PenMan

coast -one of the richest seas in the world- is located on the rod<y and sandy

littoral of the Santa, Nepeila, Casrna and Huarmey Valleys. A western projection

of the axis of the Chavin de Huantar temple leads to the Torhigas and Las Aidas
beaches (Casma), one of the main rocky spots under the sea for getüng not only

Csh but abundant mussels among other species.

Summarizing, when the Andean summer solstice occurs, the first light at

sunnse illuminates the central L a M n deity sculpture and at the same time

illuminates the cruciform chamber which is orientecl to the four cardinal points.

The Lanzon and the chamber, then, are a symbolic time marker associated with

the beginning of the rainy season. The Lanzon faces east toward the direction

from which the rain storms corne. The gallery to the south of the plaza also opens

to the east and contains shelts symbolic of rain and fertility. The gallery to the

north, opening to the west, contains an assortment of objects associated with

diverse and distant societies and cultures. A key fundion of the rituals camed out

at Chavin, then, may have been to assure the constancy of the meteorological

patterns associated wit h rainfall. The association of cultural objects from distant

locations and the size of the architectural amiplex suggests mat more than just

local populations were involved. Chavin de Huantar was descnbed by Antonio

Vasquez de Espinoza, a Spanish chronicler priest (1948 [1616]) as an important

Andean pilgrirnage centre comparable only with Jerusakm and Rome.

In years when El Nifio omn, meteorological patterns are abnormal in the

highlands as well as the coast. Ethnohistoric and ethnographic accounts attest to

a preaccupation Ath El Niiio events by Andean peoples. The catastrophes

associated with El NiAo muld well have encourageâ the investment of faith, time,

and energy into a monumental enter which might reâuce the frequency of

disasters and make them more predictable.

Chavin de Huantar was a key strategic and tellurian location, sumunded

by a signifiant Andean landscape, needeâ for building the physical and symbolic

foundations of the temple. Spedalists from different Andean expefienœs carefully

chose this highland landscape to build the Chavin de Huantar temple as one of

the main sacred pan-Andean centres for creating and disseminating information

to far-reaching settlements of peasants, fishemen, hunters, carnelid herdsmen

and so on.

On the southem side of the Old temple the New Temple was built. It is a

rectangular pyramidal structure. The main entrance, facing east, has an elaborate

facade built with stone, half black (south) and hdf white (north). Below and

aligned with the axis of the New Temple, a great rectangular plaza was built with

four stepped entries ofiented to each of the cardinal directions. Two platforni

mounds extend from the pyramid north and south of the plaza, creating a U-

shaped enclosure. Thus the new temple repeats the general layout of the Old

Temple on a larger sale and with a rectangular plaza.

There is disagreement in the interpretation of the radiocarbon dates

associated with the construction of the Old Temple. A radiocarbon date taken
from organic material found in the Old Temple's Gallery of the Offerings is 750

BC (2700 k 85 BP) (Lumbreras 1989:113) and corresponds closely with the dates

of the eariier Urabamu Phase that range between 820-750 BC approximately

(2770 t 75 BP). It is unclear, however, why Lumbreras places the earliest

occupation of Chavin de Huantar at 1200 BC (1993). Burger (1992) places the

earliest occupation of the site at 1000 BC despite his later dates for the Ufabamu

Phase. Elsewhere, Burger and Salazar suggest the approximate date of 900 BC

for the establishment of the fifst temple at Chavin de Huantar(1993:98). In my

estimation the year 850 BC is a more acceptable date for the construction of the

Old Temple.

The available archaeological data support a coastal ongin for the U-

shaped temple plan and the sunken cimlar court (Williams 1971,

1972,l979,l98O,l985; Moseley 1985). The earliest examples of drcular sunken

courts have been found at the Preceramic sites of Alto Salaverry in the Moche

Valley (Pozorski and Pozorski 1979 b) and Salinas de Chao (Alva 1986 a). This

architectural feature is assoca

i teci mainly with the North and northem Central

coastal regions during the Preceramic and Initial periods.

The U-shaped plan has its earliest manifestation at El Paraiso in the

Chillon Valley (Moseley 1992; Williams 1985) and occurs rnainly on the Centrai

coast during the Preceramic and Initial periods. Thus, as Burger

(1992: 156) puts it:

'.. . the Old Temple is a creative synthesis of architectural elements drawn

mainly from the Pacific Coast." (Burger 1992: 156).

I am in agreement wîth Burger's position, but I would add that the

iconographie representations on the stonasculptures that define the 'Chavin

style" are also derived from earlier representations in sites on the North and

Central Coasts during the Middle Formative period.

Lurnbreras (1993: 353-356),however argues that the architectural

antecedents of Chavin de Huantar, specifically the stone rnasonry and the

ventilation ducts, defived from the north-highland, Preceramic Kotosh-Mito

tradition. Lumbreras uses particularly the monumental La Galgada site (Ofleder

and Buano 198 1, 1985)as an example of the Kotosh-Mito tradition for cornparison

with Chavin de Huantar. There is a dear temporal hiatus, however, between the

late highland Preceramic pend (2500-1800 BC approximately) and the

construction of the Chavin de Huantar Old Temple. Furthemore, the closed ritual

chamber, featunng a semi-subterranean firepit with ventilation duct for the

buming of offerings, is a characteristic architectural unit of Kotosh-Mito

centres(lzumi and Temda 1972; Burger and Salazar-Burger 1985; Grieder and

Bueno 1985; Bonnier 1983; Bonnier and Rozemberg 1988), has no analogue at
Chavin de Huantar.

The overwhelming Mine component of the Chavin iconography led

scholars to propose an Amazonian connection or ongin because the Arnazon

forest is the natural habitat of the jaguar (Felis onca). Raptors are also a

cornmon element of the iconography (Tello 1960). The avian features have been

interpreted as the a0-a pescadora or osprey (Pandiom halieetus mmlinensis)

(Yacovleff 193235-Ill), the Andean condor (Tello 1960), and as the monkey-

eating crested eagle (Harpya harpvia) (Lathrap 1971). The possibility of

Arnazonian influence cannot be mled out given the natural access from Chavin

de Huantar to the east, fdlowing the Mosna river to the great Maraiion River and

reaching the Amazon rainforest.

It has becorne sort of an axiom that the Amazon tropical rainforest was the

inspirational source of the cornplex motives that define the Chavin style (Tello

1923, 1960; Lathrap l971,I 974; Ravines 19W; Burger 1992). Nevertheles, it is

dear that the conventionalised main personages, with their associated symbols

and attributes, that form the core of the Chavin style appeareâ fully developed on

the stone sculptures. This raises the question of whether we are able to follow,

step by step, the developrnent and formalkation of Chavin iconography in earlier

regional Formative ailturai complexes?

 The archaeological data f m the Chavin site and surounding area do not

support the local origins of the Chavin style and iconography (Elera 1986: 222).

Both the architectural plan of the ceremonial wmplex and Chavin style, then, are

intrusive or new to the region. Two difkrent styles can be distinguished in the

iconographie representations at Chavin. One follows the stylistic patterns of

prestigious portable artefacts and monumental religious representations

belonging to the Anch-Garagay cornplex from the Central Coast (Rosas 1970;

Ravines and lsbell 1976), and the second follows stylistic patterns of pmstigious

portable artefacts and monumental religious representations belonging to the

Cupisnique Cultural Complex from the North Coast (Elera 1997).

The designation Chavinoid in referenœ to many Formative portable

objects and sites does not pay enough attention to the origins of specific stylistic

units. As I will explain later in more detail, in 'Chavinoid" specimens we can

clearly see the reflection of cultural preferences and technological choices

developd from particular Andean socielies in a given regional setting through

time. The pre-Chavin de Huantar styles need re-evaluation and redefinlion, as

does the Chavin style itself.

Under the rubric of the 'Chavin style', 'Coastal Chavin', or 'Chavinoid" are

iconographical representaüons on ritual objects, monuments, murals, friezes and

so on that appeared on the Central and North coasts earlier than in the highlands.
In fact prestigious objects bearing iconographic motives described as

representative of the 'Chavin stylen, seem to have been brought to Chavin de

Huantar from as eariy as the first moment of the building of the temples. These

independent motifs can be fdlowed and understood as the simple beginnings of

the later complex representations in the Chavin de Huantar style stone

sculptures.

Arnong the Chavin motives which seem to derive from the coast are the

agnathic rnouths, the strombus-spondylus dyad. and the San Pedro cactus

representations. The agnathic mouth (Rowe 1967) or 'agnathic fanged mouth"

(Burger 1992) is frequently represented in different complex iconographic ways

on stone sculptures and fine cemmics found in the Gallery of the Offerings of the
Old Temple and on columns, stelaes, and facades of the New Temple. It also

occurs in high frequency on the fanciest stimip-spout bottles of the North Coast
(Lam 194 1: 154, Fig. 2 11; C. Elara, personal observations. 1990). The agnathic

fanged mouth as a symbol of power was also found in repousee on a gold c m

associatecl with the remains of an impoitant person from a Kuntur Wasi Phase

tomb (700 BC) exmated at the site of Kuntur Wasi cerernonial centre (Onuki

1995). Burger (1992: 205, Fig. 227) refers to this specimen as an example of a

'Classic Chavin" motif. Earlier examples of aie agnathic mouth motif occur on the
Classic Cupisnique friezes of Huaca de los Reyes, Caballo Muerto Archaeological
Compiex in the Moche Valley which is dated between 1730 to 850 BC (Pozorski

1983: 6)

The dyadic StmmbuslSpondyius (rightlteft) motive also occun early on

Cupisnique stimipspout bottles (Elera 1997). The Strombus on the right side and

the Spondylus on the left side can be seen in a Classic Cupisnique stimipspout

bottle found in Puémape (Plates 1 and 2). I would argue that the religious

ideological basis of this syrnbolic dyad of tropical Mollusks appeared earlier

during the Middle or Classic Cupisnique and was later depicted at Chavin de

Huantar on the stone icon known as representing the 'smiling god", which

according to Rowe belongs to Phase D (1967: 103, Fig. 21). (Rowe [1967]

defined a chronological seriation of the monumental art at Chavin de Huantar

comprising 6 Phases, A-F.)

One of the most interesting oomponents in the Chavin de Huantar

iconographie corpus is the representation of mythical personages with anthropo-

Mine features associated with the hallucinogenic San Pedro cactus

(Tricnocereuspachanois). San Pedro can be seen associatecl with the

supematural personages found in the Old Temple's circular plaza (Lumbreras

1981: 166, Fig. 26), and is also depicted over a miniature tenoned head in Chavin

de Huantar (Burger 1992: 176, Fig. 181). Regarding the origins of this symbolic

association between supematural anthropofdine personages and San Pedro

cactuses, again eariy representations are found on Classic Cupisnique stimp-

spout funerary bottles. San Pedro cactuses are associated with the jaguar, boa.

eagle among other attributes. Such representations wuld have been inspired by

the particular ecological settings of the jaauevs or lagoons of the North Coast

(Elera 1993) where the hallucinogenic cactuses and such animals cooccur.

The San Pedro cactus still is of vital importance in the traditional

sharnanistic rituals of the Peruvian North Coast and neighbouring highlands as

well as in the Ecuadorian south highlands (Polia 1988: 48; Staller 1994:436439).

The religious symbolism of San Pedro cactus associated with feline, bird of prey,

snakes, mountain, and water (sea-waves?) representations is a conservative

feature that survives in the North Coastal Muchik ethnicity.

I have mentioned only a few significant elements that are usually ascribed

to 'Classic Chavin" and comrnonly understood to have originated at Chavin de

Huantar and diffused over the North and Central coasts, as well other regions.

Several additional Cupisnique and Mn-Garagay cultural elements appear to

have been wrongly interpreted as representative of the Chavin style by modern

archaeologists.

For example. Lurnbreras (1993) suggests that the indigenous soQety of

Chavin de Huantar that made what he calls the local Chavin ceamics (OfFering,

Dragonieno, Qotopukio and Floral, Table No. 1) was also responsibb for
 TABLE 1

C E W C GROUPS iDENTmED IN THE GALLERY OF THE OFFERIPJGS OF CELAVIN DE

HUANTAR (Lumbreras 1993: 99).

1. Ordinary Ceramic:
Plain Grey
Plain Red
2. Chavin Ceramic:
OfFerings Ceramic
Dragomano Styie
Qotopukto Styte
Floral Style
3. Raku Ceramic:
Raku Style A
Raku Style B
Raku Style C
4. Wacheqsa Ceramic:
Wacheqsa Styte A
Wacheqsa Styie B
5. Mosna Ceramic:
Mosna Style A
Mosna style B
6. Puca Orqo Ceramic
depicting the supematural feline/avian beings on the 'localn Floral-Style bottle

(Lumbreras 1989, 197: Fig. 89; 1993, 511:Lam.49, Figs. 415 and 415a) from the

Gallery of the Offerings and on the stone-sculptures. The earlier occurrence of

this motif, however. he traces to the Precerarnic textiles found by Bird (1948,

1985) at Huaca Prieta, locateâ on the littoral of the Chicama Valley. Huaca Prieta

of course is situated in the heart of Cupisnique tenitory. Later I will attempt to

demonstrate that as early as 2200 BC Huaca Prieta presageà many of the subtle

but distinctive patterns and customs of the Cupisnique culture (Elera 1986, 1993,

1997). In this regard we can follow the origin and formakation of the Mine with

avian attributes with human anatomical and cultural etements from Huaca Pneta

to Classic to Late Cupisnique (Elera 1986: 92-116). In that light, 1 does not seem

plausible to infer that the supernaturallfeline/avian k i n g represented on the

Chavin-Floral style ceramics developed directly from the Huaca Prieta Late

Preceramic by-passing Cupisnique as a stylistic intermediary and messenger.

A chronologid issue that needs resolution concems the nature of the

association of the 'miscellaneous ceramicsnMich were found by

Lumbreras(l993) in the Gallery of the ûfferings. These are fine ceramics in the

style of the Janabamu or Rocas Phase, which is associatecl with the New

Temple of Chavin de Huantar. Lumbreras regards them as intrusive to the

Gallery. Some of these pots (Lumbreras 1993:Lam. 82, Figs. 654, 655 and 660),
as seen from the North Coast. are Late Cupisnique. Similar specimens occur at

the Morro de Eten site. in the Lambayeque Valley (Elera 1986) and at the Kuntur

Wasi site (Inokuchi 1991). In both sites the greyiblack Late Cupisnique ware is

associated with red-over orange ceramics similar to Mosna at Chavin de Huantar,

which is also found in the Gallery of the Onerings. In Anwn, on the Central

Coast, Rosas (1970) found in his Chavinoid phase the local Anwn-Garagay

ceramic style in association with Late Cupisnique ceramic. This picture shows an

apparent coexistence among different ceramic styles at the same time in difFerent

regional settings, which raises the question of whether the Late Cupisnique-like

ceramics are intrusive in the Gallery of the Offerings or if they were included with

the original cache. I will take this issue up again in chapter 10.
 CHAPTER 3

FIELD RESEARCH AT PUEMAPE

A. Location and Oescri~tionof Puémam

The Puémape site location is: 0 7 O 31' 15' south latitude and 7 9 O 32' 15'

west longitude (Figure 1 and Plate 3). It is situateâ from 00 to 15 m above sea

level (IGM 1985:National Chart, page 16-E, Chocope District, Department of La

Libertad, Penj). Puémape is approximately 11 Km southwest of the San Pedro de

Lloc tom. A western roadbed deviation from Km 655 of the Pan Arnerican

highway leads to the site. This roadbed crosses The Plain (La Pampa) and the

Del Bara, branch of the Cupisnique nverbed. Politically Puémape belongs to the

San Pedro de Lloc District, capital of the Pacasmayo Province. Department of La

Libertad.

In 1989 during the planning and organisation of the exhibition on the

archaeology of the Central Andes for the new Museum of the Nation (Museo de

la Nacion) in Lima, which was my responsibil~,archaeologist Walter Alva told

me about intensive recent looting at Puémape. One of the main reasons for

looting at Puémape was the high demand for the socalleci 'Classic Chavin"

ceramics (Plate 4) and ritual paraphemalia, which were sold on the black market

to national and foreign antiquw traffckers.

 In the interest of saving the site from further looting and to enlarge the

Formative collections with provenience, the Museo de la Nacion agreed to send

an tnvestigative team to Puémape. A preliminary survey was carried out by

archaeologists Peter Kaulicke Roman, José Pinilla Blenke and the present

author at Puémape in June of 1989. We determined that there was still enonnous

archaeological potential for the site regarding the Formative Period, despite the

destruction done by modem looters.

Different archaeological cornponents could be identified from their shape

and sue although they were covered Ath tons of eolian sand. Diagnostic cultural

rernains were found on the surface, as well as some in situ architectural features.

This preliminary examination in situ was the starting point in developing a

methodological strategy for excavating the site.

I presented a proposal to the Museo de la NaciiKi Project's Presidency and

the National lnstitute of Culture. I got the offiûal permission frwn the Penivian

govemment under the Ministenal Resolution No.170-90-ED on Febniary 2. 1990.

Finally, the Puemape Archadogical Project becorne a reality thanks to the

economic and logistical support from the Museum of the Nation, which was

officially inaugurated on Febniary 19, 1990. Metaphorically speaking the

Puemape Archaeological Pmject was bom along with the new Museum of the

Nation of Peni.
 The Puémape archaeological site is slwted on the traditional fishing cove

of Puémape, which is located in the Cupisnique estuary. Natural mounds of

different heights surround an extensive open space which was apparently used

for different purposes-domestic, funerary and cerernonial- in the Formative

Period. The site covers 20 hectares.

One of the key factors, I believe, for chaosing the Puémape location for

human occupation was its surounding resources. Microenvironments, potentially

rich in natural resources, are found in the r&y and sandy beaches, fresh water

lagoons, forests, watertable, fertile soils, and desertic areas in the immediate

vicinity of the site. Another factor may have been the protection given by the

natural rnounds distributed around the site against the strong south-western

winds from the Pacific Ocean.

Three traditional families live al1 year long in Puémape. These families are:

Guaylupo-Soto; Guaylupo-Quispe and Palma-Chinchayan. Despite the small

number of modem inhabitants descended from the Muchik ethnicity, there is still a

wealth of valuable information to be leamed from them regarding traditional

practices, so important for cornparisons with the excavated araiaeological data.

Puémape is one of the favourite summer spots frequented by people from

San Pedro de Lloc, Pacasmayo and Trujillo. National and foreign surfers are

frequent visitors tao, given the international fame of the waves on the south side
of the Puémape rocky point, north of Puerto Chicama.

The main traditional economic activity is fishing, hunting and gathering of

mollusks, crustaceans and seaweed. Natural conditions of the rocky point and

seashore permit relatively easy access to manne resources.

An unfortunate practice, which mars the beauty of the Puemape rocky

kaches but which ironically is 'good" for the local economy, is the mining of shell

from deposits along the seashore. The Puemapefios (inhabitants bom in

Puérnape) seIl it to famers in the neighùouring valleys who use it to balance the

calcium content of chicken feed.

The deposits of shell, or conchuela in fact is one of the main physical

characteristics of the Puémape rocky shore. The conchuela along with sand is a

biotic setting where the highly appreciated underground sea animal called

'ancocon (sea-cucurnber)in the extinct Muchik language lives. The 'ancoco

blanco' (Phy//obonrsPemvianus) is a Holothuroideo which during low tide period

can be recognised because a sort of flower (it is the mouth) appean over the

humid surface (Teresa Rosales Than and Victor Vasque, personal

communication, 1997). The ancoco is gathered by the Puémape fishermen who

eat the intestines on special occasions. The consumption of 'ancoco blanco" is a

very local food specialisation in Puemape nowadays.

B. f he Physical Settina of the Cu~isniaueReaion

The Cupisnique region, part of the volcanic geology of the Pewvian coas?,

is politically divided between the San Pedro de Lloc and Paijan districts which

belong to the Pacasmayo and Asmpe Provinces, La Libertad region. Its borders

are: the Jequetepeque Valley on the north, the Trinidad mountainous a m which

rises 3000 metres above sea level (Chauchat 1992:13) in the Contuma&

Province, Cajarnarca to the east, the Chicarna Valley to aie south, and the Pacific

Ocean to the west. In fact, geographically speaking Cupisnique is an enigmatic

region. On the one hand it has been describeci as a typical coastal desert,

apparently a very and land behveen the fertile Jequetepeque and Chicarna

Valleys; on the other hand, a dry riverbed c m be seen extending from the

Cupisnique gorge and dividing into three branches as it reached the littoral. In

çome surnrner seasons the Cupisnique riverbed, bringing abundant waters from

the highlends, is a true river. ~sually,this special and key physical characteristic

is forgotten by investigators working in the region.

B. 1 Geomomholwy

The Cupisnique region is undedain by rocky volcanic-sedimentary intrusive

outcrops, detritus consisting of fragmented rocks and minerals which have been

mechanically erodeâ and transported, and edian formations originating from the
littoral (Chauchat 1982).

Volcanic outcrops and alluvial fans located in different secton of the

Cupisnique territory are rich in mineral sources. They are made up of yellow-

pinkishrhyolite, tuff, possible quartzite, quartz, and dacite (Chauchat 1988:53). In

addition, chernical analysis has identified pyroclastic rocks such as andesite

(Hecker and Schreiber, 1985).

Another non metallic mineral typical of the Cupisnique region as well the

adjacent rniddle Chicama Valley is anthracite. It is considered as:

The most highly metamorphosed fomi of coal, containing 92 to 28% fixed

carbon. It is black, hard, and glassy (Press and Siever 1986:627).

Anthracite quames are found in the Cupisnique gorge where a modem

mine is located. The anthracite is of very high quality. Anthracite nodules can also

be found on the Puemape littoral. where they have been rounded and shaped by

the splashing of the waves onto the shore. In addition, the Cern Azul outcrop,

dose to the Puemape littoral, is nch in hematite (C. Elera, personal observations,

1990).

Dune clusters can be seen in sume secton of the Cupisnique tenitory.

Close to the neighbouring valleys dunes are 'immobilisedn by vegetation covers.

Tnie dunes in constant movement, thanks to the strong sea winds, are typical in

the extended flat area of Pampa de los F6siles.

 Cerro Puémape, is one of the rocky outcrops near the Puémape site

(Plates 5 and 6). There is evidence of pre-Hispanic wpper mining on the north-

eastem side of Cerro Puémape. The Puémape site is located strategically within

the three branches of the Cupisnique strearn-bed. The northem branch, called

Del Bara, borders the northem edge of the site and ends in a fresh water lagoon

of the same name. The central branch, called Puémape, nins south of the

archaeological site, and the southern branch is called Urricape and is near a point

and Formative site of the same narne. There is a natural connection between Del

Bara, and the Puémape branches in the Cerro Chilco area.

Excellent clay sources exist in the alluvial deposits adjacent to the dry

riverbeci h m the middle Cupisnique Gorge to near the marine shoreline of the

Cupisnique estuary.

On the Cupisnique littoral there are two extrema and opposite volcanic

outcmps: Malabrigo and Puémape. Puémape, the northwestem outcrop is lower

and more massive than the Malabrigo outcrop, situated to the southwest.

Puémape foms a rocky point jutting into the sea. The tomd sea on the south

side of the rocky point contrasts with the placid sea on the nom side. Extensive

sandy beaches are located to the nom and south of the rocky point. On the ro&y

segments of the Puérnape and Umcape shorelines rounded stones or cobbles

can be found along mth pomus light rock calW locally 'piedra Domer", which is
not true pumice but forrned by biological processes (V. Vasquez and T. Rosales:

personal communication,1998).

Small and medium hills surround the flat spaces covered by eolian sand

that extend behind the Puernape rocky and sandy haches. The Puemape

archaeological site extends over these flat spaces and onto some of the hills. The

Del Barco branch borders good agricultural land and the lagoon at its terminus

provides a source of freshwater. The watertable along the Puémape and Umcape

branches is high, and the peasants and fishemen living there today are able to

grow corn and gourds without irrigation (C. Elera, personal observations, 1990).

0.2 Ecolwy

The Pacitïc Ocean has played a vital role in detemining the climate and

ecology of the Central Andean coast in general and the Cupisnique region in

particular (Usselmann 1989). The cold temperature of the Peruvian current in a

tropical latitude with its nch nutrients has produced a unique coastal ecology

(Weberbauer 1944; Koepcke 1963).

Nomally the coast is rainless and winds rare and gentle. Through the

austral winter months much of the coast is blanketed with a thick fog tuania)

which obscures the Sun. The hurnidity from the fog supports an herbaceous

vegetation known as lomas on the lower most slopes of the coastal hills. These
conditions are subverted only when the cool Peruvian current is over-ridden by

wam equatorial waters. Such a condition is referred to as El Nifio. Its effecff are

catastrophic on land and sea.

During a Mega Nifio that stnick the Peruvian North Coast in the summer of

1983, the Cupisnique river inundateci the desertic region. Suddenly desert was

covered with vegetation, especially gramineous, and peasants from the

Jequetepeque Valley were able ta grow corn (C. Elera, personal observations,

1983). The apparent 'desertic' Cupisnique region, then, is a fertile land when the

sudden presenœ of water perrnits agricultural activities.

Has the Cupisnique region ahmys been a desert? Scant archaeological

and paleo-ecological data show a diffwent picture regarding the ecology of the

Cupisnique region in the past. Larco (1948) and Bird (1948) were the Zrst to

report early lithic artefact industries belonging to hunter-gatheren from sites of

Pampa de los Fosiles (extensive treetess plain Ath fossiis). The Pampa de los

Fbiles is so named because of the notable presence of petrifiad plants. In fact,

among the most interesüngfinds in the Cupisnique region surface are

paleontological remains:

Edentates such as Eremotherium, Scelidodon, the giant armadillo

Pampatherium as well as probascideans Heplomastoûon, equids such as
Equus (Amehippus),and carnelids such as Paldama are the most
frequently found of these animak,. .."(Chauchat 1988: 57-58).
 The 1996 field research led by Chauchat and his team in the Cupisnique

region has recovered new data about Pleistocene mega-fauna finds (V. Vasquez,

personal communication, 1996). One of the main research questions has been

the possible coexistence of the first human occupation of the Cupisnique region

and the local late Pleistocene mega-fauna. The archaeological data have not yet

provided convincing evidenœ of such a coexistence (Chauchat 1988:58).

The eariiest cultural cornplex defined from the lithic industry by Chauchat

(1976) in the Cupisnique region (8500-7000 BC) is known as Paijan. Chauchat

has defined the Paijanense economic foundation as:

'...the first human adaptation to manne resourcas on the Penivian coast

during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition." (1988:66).

The milling-stones, however, found by Chauchat in Paijanense sites reflect

other economic orientations in the Cupisnique study area. A mked economy of

marine and temstrial resources seems to have been practised by the

Paijanenses since the beginnings of their adaptation to the Pacific littoral of the

Central Andes.

The milling-stones led Chauchat (1988) to infer a more dense vegetation in

the past than nowadays in the Cupisnique region. Srnall tandsnails of the genus

Pumides were found in some Paijanense campsites in Pampa de los Fosiles.

Chauchat pointed out that these landsnails are typically associated with humid
conditions in the fertile neighbouting valleys and are bioindicators of more

humidity in Pampa de los Fosiles dunng the Paijanense occupation. The Pacific

Ocean would have played a secondary role in detemining the high humidity of

the dimate during the Pleistocene-Holocenetransition in contrast to a pnmary

rote played by the inland climate over the Cupisnique region. Chauchat's

paleodimatic reconstruction of the Cupisnique region is based on the low sea

level shore of the Late Pleistocene where:

The shore then would have been at a minimum distance of about 10

km h m the present shoreline, according to Penivian naval charts. It must
not be forgotten the main factor anecting the ciimate and the vegetation in
coastal Peru is the distance to the sea. With a farther seashore, influence
from the Andes would have b e n stronger in the piedmont and more
frequent min discharges coming down during the summer could be
expected. Moreover, this period coincides mth a phase of deglaciation and
increased humidrty in the high Andes. Rain discharges coming d o m from
the Cordillera during the rainy season should have been stronger than they
are at present. Last but not least. it is quite possible, aithough not
completely proven, that glacial phases should be characterisad by a
weakening of oceanic high-pressure cells. In this case, upwelling, though
present, would have been weakw, so the influence of the sea would act on
a shorter distance."(Chauchat 1988:SQ).

Conditions in the Cupisnique region apparently became drier during the

Early and Middle Holocene as the sea level rose. As data from the Huascaran iœ

cores (Thompson et al. 1995) are interpreted we may leam details about the

chronology of dimatic change and the frequency of El Nifio events, but the
sequence rernains sketchy at present.

The Puémape Archaeological Project's team with a mutidisciplinary focus

camed out successive explorations in the field, registering the native flora and

fauna as well as their actual ecological parameten in the Cupisnique region

between 1990 and 1992. In the following I will describe the flora and fauna of the

Cupisnique region.

B.3 Flora

Flora are considerd to be the most sensitive bioindicators of microclimatic

environments. Our interest in indigenous flora is to try to reconstnict the past

environment(s) as well as the plant communities that humans will have

encountered and used for different purposes during the Formative Penod in the

Cupisnique region.

From systematic surveys in different rnicroenvironments or biotic zones of

the Cupisnique region it was possible to ccllect botanical samples for an

herbarium. The main reason for this native herbarium was to cany out detailed

cornparisons of the archaeobotanical samples identified in different cultural

contexts excavated in the Puemape site. The flora and fauna comparative

analysis was not only conœived as an aid to the reconstruction of human diets

and other procurement patterns but to understand the environment at the time of
the Puémape occupation.

Concurrent ethno-botanical studies have shown that there are strong

wntinuities in cultural preferences between the present dey Muchik and the

people occupying the region during the Late Precerarnic.

Botanist Eloy Lopez Medina with the assistance of Biologist Victor

Vasque Sanches of the National University of Trujillo and Mr. Franco Le6n del

Val of the lnstitute of Traditional Medicine of Lima, carried out botanical studies

from PuémapetsPaciZc littoral to the Cupisnique gorge (400 m above sea level).

They also collected from a lateral gorge called 'Quebrada del Carbon" or

'Quebrada de la Mina" (650 m a.s.1.) so named because of the presence of a

modern anthracite mine.

The following micmenvironments were identifieci (Plate 7): The Puémape

Rocky littoral (El litoral rocoso de Puémape); The Puémape Sandy littoral (El

litoral arenoso de Puemape); El Jaguey Gorge (Quebrada de El Jaguey ); Fossil

Lagoon (Laguna Fosil); Sunken Fields (Hoyas, Huachaques, Bajamaes, Chacras

Hundidas etc.); El Barco Lagoon (Laguna El Barco); Chilco Plain (Pampa de

Chilco); The Plain (La Pampa); The San Pedro de Lloc Countryside (CampiRa de

San Pedro de Lloc), Chilco River (Rio Chilco) and finally, the Cupisnique Gorge

(La Quebrada de Cupisnique). starting from 250 m above sea level.

B.3.1 The Puérna~eRockv littoral

Different seaweed communities were identified growing around the rocky

Puémape point (Plates 8 and 9). The rnost common algae is the 'mococho' or

'cochavuvo' (Gigartina chamissor); followeâ by 5 manne algae species: Ptfonites

decipiens, Ahnfeltia duMllaei, Chondrus chpus, Ulva fasciata, and Prionjtes

SP*

8.3.2The Puema- Sandv Littoral

Over low sandy mounds close to the seashore to the southwest and

northwest of Puémape a predominant plant called locally 'w (Sesuvium

portulecastrvm) was identified (Plate 10). This halophytic succulent plant called

'clavel chino" (Chinese carnation) in the Paracas shorelines, South Coast of

Peni, is considered to be a pioneer dune stabilising plant (Craig and Psuty

1968:127).

8.3.3 The Et Jacruev Gorcie

Less than one kilometre southwest of Puémape the El Jaguey Gorge

discharges to the sea. This is the central branch of the Cupisnique riverbed.

There are different components and altemations in oie soi1 of the El Jaguey

gorge. It is predominantly Stoney, and sandy with layers of very fine day.
 The El Jaguey Gorge is separated from the sea by a short sandy shore

with srnall dunes. The mouth of the gorge is covered with sparse vegetation, a

grass called 'grama saladan(Distichlis spicata) being dominant. Approximately

200 m ftom the sea a dune partially buried artmreal and shnibby forms such as

'esoinon (Acacia macmcantha), 'paiaro bobow(TessariaintegrifMa) and "chilm,"

(Bacchans glutinosa) indicating presence of watertable.

Ascending through the gorge, 150 m from the dune where the little forest

begins, the bed becomes and and supports only a few low shnib species such as

'chocen (Clyptocatpus pyrifonnis), 'zamten(Capparis macmphy/la), and 'peaInor

'w (Scuttia spicata), as well other scant shnibby and arboreal forrns such as
'azote de CnsW (Parkinsonia aculeeta), and 'mezauite" or 'algarrobo" (Prosopis

sp.). Some herbaceous plants occur as well, such as lpomoesa cmssifolia and

Aîtemanthera sp.

The preâominant alaarrobal of El Jaguey Forest (Plates 11 and 12) begins

about 4 km from the sea, at an elevation of about 50 m a.s.1. and extends 700-

800 rn along the gorge. Using the Interceptive Line Method representative

botanical samples wem collectecl along 25 transects. The results are presented in

Table 2.

Quantitatively the most important species is 'g&ambd (Pmsopis pallida).

of which three varîeties are present, as detennined by Ferreyra8smanual (1987).
 TABLE 2

FLOW COMPOSITION,FREQUENCY,DOMINANCEAND IMPORTANCE VALUES OF l'FE EL,

JAGUEY FOREST BOTANICAL SPECIES

El Jaguey Forest: Absolute Relative Absolute Relative Im~ortance

~otanicdSpecies Frequency Frequency Dominance Dominance due
Gakzia JP. 16.00 % 5.13 % 0.000193 2.23% 7.3 O
h
Scuma qvicara
Acacia humango
Prosopis paZli&
Parkimnia amleara
Cgptocutpuspynformis
Chenoptxùurn petidare
Capparis cordclta
C w i s ovaf~oiia
Aliemanrhera Penrviana
îûcimrs cornmunis
Acacia macrac4nha
Encelia canescem
Bacchans sp.
Wigaradia urem
The varieties are: pallid, asmata, and annularis. Alaarrobo occurs in association

with the Cryptocarpus pynfomis and 'guavabito de aentiln (Cappans ova/iblia)

shrubs. The next most m u e n t species are upealn(Scuttia spicata), 'bichawn

(Cappans ovalifolia) and "azote de Criston(Parkinsonia aculeata).

6.3.4 The Fossil Lauoon

The Fossil Lagoon, a dried depression approximately 800-1000 m in

diameter, is located 600-800 m SW of the Puémape site. Atthough we do not yet

have a complete analysis of the sedimentary deposits, independent lines of

evidence such as a thick mud layer indicate a desiccated lagwn. The depression

is also covered with dense Disfichlis spicata locally calleû 'oramadal" another

bioindicator of watertable.

The modem vegetation in the Fossil Lagoon is Sesuviom portulacastmm,

which is an indicator of salty water. A few Acacias sp. also occur, as well a great

Cqptocarpus pyMrmis bush.

8.3.5 The Sunken Fields

Parallel to the north-west shoreline of Puémape is a series of sunken

fields. The open Rat spaces of these fields are covered with Distichlis spicata,

sumunded by numerous lineal sand ndges, ranging in height between 2-3m.

The soi1 is sandy with thin salt cnists. In the sunken fields furthest from the sea

there is a notable lack of sea winds.

6.3.6The El Barco Laaoon

This fresh water lagoon. 500 to 600 m2in area, is located 70 m from the

sea (Plate 13). It represents a considerable volume of freshwater which is mixed

with rnoderate marine filtration because of the doseness to the sea. El Barco

Lagoon is located 1 km approximately northwest from Puémape and is the main

source of fresh water used by people living in the area today.

The predominant aquatic vegetation is 'iuncon (Cypenrs wnglomeratus)

ranging up to 1.20 rn in height and Cypenis maHimus 0.50 m high. Small low

shrubs of 'veIitan (Eleochans elegans) grow along the shore. A 'gramadal" of

Distichiis spicata between 0.10-0.15 m high men the eastern lagoon side

extending hundreds of meters along the dry El Barco rive-. Thanks to the

underground humidity of the mudlsandy soil, a dense riparian shrubby

community is present. It is mostly composed of 'paiaro bobo" (Tessana

integtiifoa) anâ dchilcon(Bacchans glutinosa). In addition, 'eminon (Acacia

macracantha). "espinobaion(Acacia huerango), 'auavabito de aentiln(Capparis

ovalifoli), 'vichavon (Capparis cordWia), 'chodpenor 'nacuoillo" (Cryptocarpus

pyn'fomis), Parkinsonia aculeata and some Prosopis sp. are present.

There are some open spaces in the shrubby community which were used as

agricultural fields in the past, and according to local references, the soi1 is highly

fertile for farming. The fertile land surrounding the lagoon was abandoned

following a destructive fiood of the Cupisnique river through its three branches

during the Mega Niiio in the summer of 1983.

B.3.7 The Chilco Plain

Located southeast of the Cern Chilco, which is situated to the east of

Puémape, the Chilco Plain is a vast and semi-and alluvial land with sandylstoney

soils. In the botanical surveys carried out on the Chilco Plain only Parkinsonia

aculeata, small shrubs ranging up to 2.50 m in height, were identified, spaced an

average of 4 m from one another.

8-33The Plain (La Pampa)

Located north of the El Barn Lagoon, this is a very extensive and intncate
Rat area. The plain (La Pampa) is adjacent to the southwestern border of the

Jequetepeque Valley. The soils are predorninantly siltylsandy with low salinity

levels. Freshwater from the ground as well as irrigation from the Jequetepeque

River are available. Extensive agricultural activities and herding activities are

camed out on The Plain nowadays. The best industrial native cotton, with
reddish grey fibre 'alaodon del paisn(Gossypiumbarbadense), is produced here.

B.3.9 The San Pedro de Lloc countwside

This area bordes the southem side of the Jequetepeque Valley (Plate 14).

Silty soils are predominant and intensive domestic fanning is prevalent, but in

some parcels there are deposls of saltpetre.

Typical trees close to irrigation canais are the 'sauce" (willow) (Salix

humboldtianam), 'mollen (Schinusmolle), and Pmsopis sp. 'Aliven fences

sumounding agricultural fields are made up of 'pifion" (Jatropha gossypifoIia) and

'uva de culebra" (snake grape )(Cissus sicyoides), along with herbaceous

communities.

8.3.10 The Chilco River

This is the section of the dry Cupisnique riverbed extending from the

Cupisnique Gorge to the Cerro Chilco. It is one of the most arid alluvial soils of

the Cupisnique region. A few solitary cactuses of the "aiaanton' (Neoraimondia

gigantea) constitute the only vegetation.

8.3.1 1 The Cu~isniaueGorae

The mouth of the Cupisnique Gorge is over 250 m above sea level.
Usually the temperature in this area fiuctuates between 2 8 O to 30° C. dunng the

day with relative humidity of 52 to 58 % (taken on April 15 of 1990 and 1991). The

sandy soi1 is humid to a depth of approxirnately 0.15 m.

Two isolated low rocky outcrops, called the 'guardians of the mouth of the

Cupisnique Gorgen(Don Jorge Rarnirez Amgoni, personal communication, 1990)

and located in between the Andes cordillera and open territory of the Cupisnique

region, are notable topographical landscape features (Plate 15). The

suroundings of both outcrops, with predominantly sandy soils, are the natural

setting of a particular plant called 'yuca de caballon(Pmboscidea altheaefolia)

(Plate 16). This plant presents an interesting donant cycle dunng part of the

year. One of its main morphological features is the liquid-storing big root which

looks like a 'yucan -manioc- (Manihot esculenta). The Puémape Project was the

first to identify this plant in the Cupisnique region. (For more details of the

botanical cycle of this plant see appendù 1).

The scattered vegetal community in the area is characterisecl by

Neoraimondia gigantea, Neoraimondia sp., Melccactus sp., Novoespostoa lanata,

'flor de arena' (Tiquillo sp.), Sarwstemma solanoides, Capparis angulata,

Cappans ovalifola, Capparis codata, and Scuttie spicata.

The following characterises changes in floral communiües in the gorge in

relation to altitude (Figures 2 and 3). Collading was carried out from the mouth of
the gorge to a distance of 10 km.

1. From 250 to 330 m above sea level

Scattered vegetation characterised by low bushes in the dry Cupisnique

riverbed.

2. From 330 to 350 m above sea level

Predominantly cactus cornrnunities. The Neoraimondea gigantea is the

most common succulent. Small stands of Pmsopis sp. are present too.

3. From 330 to 370 m above sea level

Cactuses and isolated small wooâs are present. There is a dense Prosopis

sp. community on the right side of the Cupisnique Gorge.

4. From 370 to 400 m above sea level

Dense forests made up of a mix of cactuses and Prosopis sp.-bushes are

present over the mole section of the Cupisnique Gorge. The dominant botanical

specie is Pmsopis sp. in its pallida and armata varieties. Pmsopis decurnbens

and annularis varieties were not found.

The dominant cactus is the Neoraimondia gigantea along with ' r a b de

z o W (Haageoc8reus pseudoversicolor) and Melocactus peruvianus which were

identifid in situ by the succulents specialist Dr. Carlos Ostolaza (1991:71-76).

In short, the vegetative composition is similar but less varied than the El Jaguey

Forest. There are fewer herbacaous smes and a proliferation of shnib

vegetation composed of Cappans cordata, Cappans ovalifolia,and Bacharis sp.

In addition. 'overo" (Coda lufea)and "ortiaa de le6nn(Wigandia urens)were

more abundant and taller than in the El Jaguey Forest. In contrast, the Pmsopis

trees are not as tall as in the El Jaguey Forest.

Over 650 m above sea level a freshwater body is located close to the

anthracite mine. This is the only spring in the first 15 kilometres from the

Cupisnique mouth. It is 5 Km distance from the Cerro Oso to the spring, following

the narrow and humid Pajarobobal Gorge which presents a notable vegetative

community (Table 3).

The dense and predominant "carricilIo nativon(Phragmytes australis) do

not permit easy access to the top of the Pajarobobal Gorge. Very wann

temperatures during the day and cold temperatures during the nights are

prevalent in the spnng area.

8.4 Fauna

One key aspect of the Puemape Archaeological Project was the

identification and observation of the modem native and migratory fauna from the

Puérnape littoral to the Cupisnique Gorge. The modem fauna provide a base line

for cornparisun with the faunal remains recovered from the different cultural

contexts excavated in Puérnape. Knawing the presant and p s t local fauna could
 TABLE 3

FLORA FROM THE PUQUIO DE LA M I N A

(PAJAROBOBAL GORGE)

Botanical Specie Family Common name

Cassisa b i c q m 1 d . s CWIMACE4E "Alcapadon
Cforis holofila P0ACE;clE ?
Galvezia hticosa ESCROFULARIACEAE "(-Uri", "pitau"
I'moea cras.nifoiia CONVOLMJLACEAE ?
i . e p f o g I ~ ~schwenchoi&s
~ls SOLANACEAE ?
N i c o t i m gfauca SOLANACEAE "Supai ccarcco*, "Cjarnata"
FIawria P e m m m ASTERACEAE ?
Pluchea chingoyo ASTERACEAE "ChiIca" "Tonuzw
Rue/Ziaflribun& ACANTACEAE ?
SchwnopIechts caIifomicus CPERACEAE "Totora"
SolPmnn agremoniaefoiiwn SOLANACEAE "Tomatecimarron"
S o h m nignmr SOLANACEAE "Yerba mora"
Tiquilio pronychioides BORAGTNACEAE "Fior de arena"
Xklypteris &nma TELlPTEIUDACAE "Hdecho"
T~pmudclnlc4 ASTERACEAE ?
Wedelfa/an-ofia ASTERACEAE ?

Dominant specie: Phracrgmyies 411~tlaiis"CarricilIo"

provide answen regarding environmental changes, nutritional potential, and

cultural preferenœs in food through time. An additional goal was to use the

zoological taxon and the life cycle of particular native and migratory species to

gain insight into the inspirational sources of cornplex iconography represented in

the archaeological record. Following these aims we have used various kinds of

approaches for getting first hand data about the fauna.

Rare specialised bibliography, local interviews and personal observations

about species' habitats, information on traditional hunting, fishing and gathering

provided a basis for understanding traditional ethnic food-getting strategies, and

preferences, some of which can be traced to earlier times.

In this regard, taking as a main reference the microenvironmentalsettings

described above, I will outline the typical fauna, which in some cases are limited

to a specific environment(s) and in other cases cover a very extended territory

which includes different environrnents.

The biologist Dr. Mario Peiia of the Univenidad Nacional Agraria de La

Molina (UNALM) along with biologists Victor Vdsquez of the Universidad Nacional

de Trujillo (UNT), Alfredo Marti (UNT) and Dr. Alfonso Gomes (UNT) were

charged with identifying scientifically the modern local fauna along with the

ancient faunal remains from the Puemape archaeological deposits. In addition,

given the daily coexistence of the crew with traditional fishemen, gatheren, and
hunters as well as the cornmon use of local manne and terrestrial resources

for food,each member of the Puémape team project has contributed valuable

faunal observations. details about traditional methods of capture, and notes on

ancient legends about terrestrial and marine animals.

Our study of the local fauna was done dumg the prelirninary survey in

1989 and dunng the fint field season at Puémape and the surrounding

Cupisnique region in 1990. We do not yet have available a set of specialised

publications providing detailed descriptions of the modem native and migratory

fauna from the Cupisnique region.

The modem faunal identification, description, and distribution presented

here begins with the Pacific Ocean which bathes the rocky and sandy Puémape

beaches in particular and the Cupisnique littoral in general. Tables present each

marine faunal comrnunity according to its biotopic provenience. Tables 4 through

11 list the species identified. Latin taxonomie classification names of the species

are given along with the Native (Mochica, Quechua and any other pre-European

language spoken locally), Spanish, and English cornmon names, where known.

I have used the Mochica vocabulary written by Ennque Bruning between

1886-1925 for the Lambayeque Valley (Schaedel 1988) and a unique dictionary

of the Mochica language written by the Spanish priest Fernando de la Carrera

(1644) as well as some personal ethnographie observations among the

descendants of the Muchik.

8.4.1 Manne Fauna Habitats

The manne habitats in which the modem marine fauna species have been

identified are: rocky and sandy beaches and seashore. The numben at the end

of the tables indicate the relative abundance of each species as follows: 1. Few

or less frequent, 2. Frequent. and 3. Abundant.

According to the high and low tides of the sea. Dr. Pefia has elaborated a

table regarding the bathometric distribution of where some manne invertebrate

species can be captured alive (Table 12). This is a very useful table for

understanding the strategy of gathering moilusks and particularly for knowing how

deep some specialised rnembers of the prehistoric human population had to dive

to gather certain species of shelifish.

The habitat of most of the carülaginous bsh belonging to the class

chondnchfhyes is the shore where the waves break (Koepcke 1963) which has a

mixture of muddy and sandy soils at Puémape. The fish that typically occur

around the rocky shore are represented by the families chemûacfylidae,

blenniidae e specially the hallucinogenic 'borracho' (Scartichthys gigas)-,

clinidae, mureniche, pomaadasydae, gobiesocidae and senanidae.

Sea lions (Otmfasp.) are present on the rocky littoral. On some occasions,
 whales, dolphins, and big sea lions are run aground on the shore. During ouf first

field work at Puémape a dead 'ballena iorobada" (hurnped whale) (Megaptera

novaeangliae)was nin aground at the seashore 100 metres frorn the

archaeological site. The variety of animals feeding on the m a l e refiected a

trophic chain: crabs, birdson some occasions including Andean condors a n d

dogs.
Sea birâs are abundant in the Puérnape area. They are an important

staple or a sort of delicacy among some of the traditional local inhabitants. The

'huanav" or 'patillon (corrnorant) (Phelacrocorax sp.) is especially prized. This

special North Coastal preference cm be observed from Guaiiape, on the littoral

of the Vinj Valley, to Puerto de Eten and Santa Rosa, on the littoral of the

Lambayeque Valley (C. Elera: personal observations lWO-I99O).

A very singular observation regards the food chain beginning with the

small, and silver-plated fish (silver smelt). called locally 'peierrev" (Odonfhestes

regia), wt~ichis hunted by a medium sized predator fish with very sharp teeth

called 'cachema" or 'awnaue" (Cynoscion sp.). The 'cachema' is hunted by the

- migratory falconiforme called fiampaln(osprey) (Pandion haliaetus CamIinensis)

which appears during the summer Andean season ( Koepcke, 1970; Blake, 1977:

272-273).

Usualiy during the summer season, dense shoais of 'peierref from the
rough open sea amve jumping in the quiet waters of the Puemape bay. Following

the 'peierref are the aggressive 'cachemasn and over them the ospreys.

According to our in situ behavioural observations of the above mentioned fish,

they appear during the high tide which ocwr in some cases during the sunrises or

the sunsets. In short, it is a beautiful and colourful spectacle seeing the fish and

the 'fiam~al"following the vital cycle of feeding lit by the eariiest or latest reddish-

golden crepuscular rays of the Sun at Puémape bay. The North American

'fiam~al"can be seen mastering its fish hunting habits in the South American

summer season only because of its migratory habits. The "iiam~al"

flying and

hunting can be seen representeâ in the local iconography along with fish and

shellfish (Spondylus sp.). In addition, the imagery around the migratory 'fiamoal"

is understaxi in the present dissertation as a powerful symbolic icon underlying

the avian attributes of the complex hybrid half human and feline religious

Cupisnique representations.

6.4.2 Aauatic and Terrestrial lnland Faunal Habitats

1.The El Barco lacroon

The El Barco lagoon hosts a fauna consisting of one kind of fish (Table

13) and birds (Table 14). Sornetimes the migratory 'fiampal" (osprey) hunt rnullet
in the El Barco lagoon.

2. The El Jaauev forest and the Plain (La Pam~a)

The faunal compositions of El Jahuey Forest and the Plain (La Pampa) is

basically the same (Tables 15, 16 and 17). Edible lizards such as the 'cafiann

(Dicmdon holmbergr) or 'alaarrobera" (Dicmdon guftuiatum)which live in

symbiosis with the algarroôo tree. are continually hunted for their tasty flavour

and the aphrodisiac content of the meat. This lizard has been consumed since

the first human occupation of the Cupisnique area. A traditional way of hunting

using a sort of 'curtain horizontal trapn has been used since the Moche

occupation of the North Coast of Penj. There are only two places where the

'la~artiieros"(lizard hunterleaters) can hunt 'cafiann:the Vin2 Valley and the San

Pedro de Lloc sunoundings. In the case of San Pedro de iloc the hunting area is

wncentrated in the El Jaguey forest and the plain (La Pampa). In short. hunting

and consumption of the 'cafiann is under extinction nowadays among members of

the Muchik ethnicity in the above mentioned places.

Poisonous and dangerous snakes such as 'chaouira' or 'coraIn (Micrutus

mertensi), which present different colours, and 'sancarrancan (Bothropspictus)

are present A unique species is the coastal boa called 'macanchen or

'maconchon (Boa oonstn'ctor ortoni). A boa measuring 7 metres long was hunted
in the Jaguey forest in 1990. The macanche boa has hexagonal black and yellow

designs and looks identical to an Amazon boa, 'yacumaman or 'anacondan, with a

very penetrating look from its eyes. Another distinctive feature of the macanche

boa is the bifid tongue, which is shiny black. In addition, when the macanche boa

senses danger, it produces a very strong sound similar to the sound from the

breaking waves of the sea, or a strong wind, or the sound of a human forcefully

expetling air from the throat.

I observeci in June of 1989 a macanche sunbathing in the moming near its

residential hole-den at La Pampa. As noted eariier, a main soi1 component of La

Pampa is pure clay. The macanche boa builds its reproductive and residential

place by digging hoies in the dense clay deposits. A stirrup-spout bottte of Classic

Cupisnique style from Puémape represents a macanche boa leaving a hole that

resernbles the hole-den in the clay described above.

San Pedro de Lloc is a unique coastal town nowadays where macanche

boas are hunted for food. According to the hunters, macanche boas usually creep

over the algarrobos looking for prey. When they are startled, they quickly seek

out the spineous 'Q@!" or 'î&g shmb (Scuttia spicata) to hide. Apparently there is

a symbiotic relationship between the pial and the macanche boa, and the sweet,

edible pial fruit is called 'grape of the snake" &y the North Coastal traditional

inhabitants.
 The reproductive cycle of the coastal boas takes place over the dunes

where the male and fernale macanche boas during sexual interwune becorne a

sort of 'braid". Sometimes the 'braided macanche boas" roll down slowly over the

slopes of the dunes under the strong sunlight. The 'snake braidsnstrongly

resemble the braided snake-hair of supematural beings carved in some Stone

sculptures at Chavin de Huantar and iconography on some Cupisnique objects.

Macanche boas are found in Our study area from the Jaguey forest, the plain (La

Pampa), the San Pedro de Lloc axintryside. and the Cupisnique Gorge.

The puma (Feiis concokxj along wiai the "venado de cola blanca" (white

tale deer) (Odocoileus virginianus)and the 'zorro de la costan(fox) (Lycalopex

sechume can be seen from the Puémape littoral to the Cupisnique gorge. In the

summer of 1990 a puma was seen in the Puémape seashore of the sandy beach

(F. Guaylupo: personal communication). The presence of the jaguar (Felis onca)

on the coast sometimes is underestimated because of its cornmon association

with tropical rainforests. The available data, however, indicate that jaguars were

formerly found in some parts of the North Coast of Penj but are now neariy

extinct. In the mangroves of Tumbes on the Far North Coast jaguan were

hunted some decades ago (V. Baca: personal communication 1980). In the

middle Jequetepque jaguan were reportedly hunted in the Cerro Sapo area.

which is close to the Monte Grande site (Elera 1993) and which has some
jagueys (lagoons) where coastal boas and San Pedro cactuses (Tnchocereus

pachanois) are found. The last jaguar hunt in the Zafia Valley was 62 years ago

(W. Alva: personal communication 1979). Both the Zafia and Jequetepeque

Valleys are close to the Cupisnique region, so it is quite probable that jaguan

existed in the Cupisnique region too. The word 'tiaren (tiger) in San Pedro de

Lloc and many traditional north-coastal communities rnay refer to the jaguar. In

the town of Ferreiafe , in La Leche Valley. there is a traditional Muchik dance

called 'El baile de los tigresn(The dance of the tiges) in which the feline is

related to the Sun. Finally. in the National Park of El Angolo (J. Mejia Baca:

personal communication 1988) in the inland western Alto Piura (Upper Piura)

jaguan still live under protection of the Peruvian government.

3.The Cudsnique and the Paiarobobal ciornes

From the mouth of the Cupisnique (250 m a.s.1.) to the Pajarobobal

gorges(650 m a.s.1.) are mollusks. birds, rnammals and reptiles (Figure 4)(Tables

18, 19. 20 and 21). The unique Andean bear called 'oso de anteoios" (spectaded

bear) (Thmerdus omatus) is found hem This plantigrade, a cactuses eater, has

been reported fmrn the Cupisnique Gorge to the Cern Puemape, which faces the

Puemape site to the west (J. Rarnirez Anigoni: personal communication 1990).

An edible mollusk called 'caracol de tierra or cerroa(land snail) (Scutalus sp.)

lives on the 'giaanton" cactus and lichenavered stones. This mollusk is

hallucinogenic if it is not purged with maize (Elera 1993). and its shells are found

in numbers in settlements since the first human occupation of the Cupisnique

region. It is still a traditional food consumed by the Muchik comrnunities mainly in

the Viti Valley nowadays, but the gathenng and consumption of the land snail is

in decline.
 CHAPTER 4

TOPOGRAPHY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS AT

PUEMAPE

A. Tomara~hvdone in the Puérna~esite

A theodolite was used to map and establish referwice points in the

archaeological site and some microenvironments. Contour lines of 0.25 m

intervals were used, and the mapped area was divided into Sectors, Excavation

Units, and Sub-units or Quadrants.

The site area was divided into Secton of 50 by 50 m. which were oriented

to the magnetic north. These Sectors were designated by Capital Letters and

Arabic Nurnbers. Excavation Units, nonnally 10 by 10 m were modified in size

acmrding to the excavation priorities. Finaily, 1 by 1 m Sub-units or Quadrants

were established within the Excavation Units and used to record three

dimensional measurements of artifacts and features found during the excavation.

B. Archadoaical Excavations in Puemaoe

The excavation followed the superposition order of the cultural and natural

strata. Sometimes it was dificul to keep vertical profiles given the light texture of

the eolian sand. which is the most abundant sedimentary component of the site.
Modem and ancient disturbanœs created problems in some Excavation Units.

Despite physical alterations in some units, we were able to identify and record

horizontal associations among many features, which we measured in situ,

drawing and photographing in place. In some exceptional cases, we were able to

detect Formative burial-pits from opening the mouth of the funerary matnx or the

initial cut of the funerary pit. Standard procedures were used for Uiree

dimensional measures wntrol. Scale drawings were made of all the stratigraphic

profiles.

Twelve Excavation Units were dug, including test pits and open-area

excavations (Table 22 and Figure 5). Areas for Excavation Units were selected

according to surface indications. In one case. for example (Unit 6), the main

goal was to identify the kind of architectural structure, a little portion of which we

recognised on the surface durhg the initial survey at the site. In other cases,

looter's pits were indirect indications of in situ stratigrapic units.

In the following, I briefly note the physical cultural contexts recorded for

each Excavation Unit. At the end of the chapter I will briefly summarize the

interrelationshipsamong the contexts.

8-1 Excavation Unit 1

Test pit of 4 by 4 rn and 2 m deep over an altered area. The main goal was
 TABLE 22

Puchape Excavation Units

Excavation UNts Secton Sizes ~xcavatedareas

1 F-4 4 by4 m 16 ma
2 F-5 3 by3 m 9 m2
3 F-5 2 by2 m 4 m2
4 F-4 2 by3 m 6 m2
5 G-4 4 by4 m 16 m2
6 D-5 (extended) 300 d
7 F-2 6by2 m 12 m2
8 F-2 3by2 rn 6 m2
9 D-5 16 by16 m 256 m2
9-W D-5 10 by 16 m 160 d
10 D-5 10 by 10 rn 100 mz
11 B-5 (extended) I 07 m2
12 B-5 6 b y 4 rn 24 m2
Total : 1026 d
to becorne familiar with the cultural and natural depositions of the site, as well as

its borders. The following natural layen were recorded:

-Layer 1: Light colour and humid fine eolian sand, containing disturbed human

mrnains and artifacts as a consequence of modem looting activities.

-bayer II: Dry fine eolian sand, containing very deteriorated vegetal remains.

Cultural contexts disturbed.

-Layer III: Semi-compact sand. Contains opening of funerary pit of burial 1, which

is intrusive in layer IV.

Layer IV: Gravel and alluvial sand. Pit of burial I intrusive in this layer.

B.2 Excavation Unit 2

The main goal was to clean systematically disturbed funerary matrices.

1he test p l (3 x 3 m and 1 rn deep) is located in Sector F-5. The following natural
layers were recorded:

-Layer 1: Eolian fine sand. Disturbed burials.

-Layer II: Coam sand and gravel. The disturbed burial II was intrusive.

0.3 Excavation Unit 3

The main goal was to dean systematically a disturbed area containing the

possible presence of in situ cultural contexts. This 2 by 2 rn and 2.40 m deep test
pit was located in Sector 5. The following natural layers were recorded:

-Layer 1: Eolian fine sand. Disturbeâ human remains.

-Layer II: Dry sand. Archaeological refuse with disturbed funerary contexts. A

multiple burial (No. III), in part disturbed, was recorded.

8.4 Excavation Unit 4

The main goal was to ciean looter's pits systematically, which revealed in

situ stratigraphy. This 2 by 3 m and 2 m deep test pit was located in Sector F4.

The following naturaf layers were recorded:

-Layer 1: Eolian light sand with disturbed cultural remains.

-Layer II:Coarse sand containing a sort of hard caliche. Burials IV ,VI1 (partially

disturbed); V and VI (very disturbed) were recorded. Association of artifacts

recuvered with burials is uncertain.

B.5 Excavation Unit 5

The main goal was to clean systematically an area dense in hurnan

remains. This test pit of 4 by 4 m and approximately 2 rn deep was located in

Sector G 4 . The following layers were recorded:

l a y e r 1: Eoiian light sand. Disturbed canine bones were recorded.

-Layer II: Fine. light sand mixed with stone debris. Fragments of sticks and wood
carefully laid as a surface cover were interpreted as the roof of burial CXIV.

which had been distubeci.

6.6 Excavation Unit 6

At first this cut was intended to be a test pit. During our Rrst survey at the

site we observed a tiny megalithic component on the surface. Trying to identify

the construction of this architectural element, we began excavating a test pit of 6

by 6 m in Sector D-5. Cleaning up and defining the structure we recordeci an in

situ burial (No. VIII). Our fint idea was that maybe we were facing an

architectural component of a funerary cyst surrounding burial VIII. The apparent

cyst, however, was part of a complex building. To investigate this we extended

an open-area excavation of 12 by 25 rn (the largest excavated area along the

noNi axis). Three hundred m2were excavateà which was 4 m deep on the nom

and 1.60 rn deep on the south. This excavated extension permitted us to

recognise and record a sample of in situ domestic amas and burials as well as

ceremonial architecture of varied cultural affiliations (Figures 6 and 7; Plate 17).

These undisturbed finds a u s e d us to redesign in essence the primary rescue

nature of the Puémape Archaeological Project to a more detailed excavation,

given the potential richness of the new data regarding the North Coastal Middle

and Late Formative periods.

 The following natural and cultural layen were identified:

-1ayer I: Eolian light beige coloured sand. Cultural content consists mainly of
domestic refuse, which is of greater density to the west and north-east of the

open-area excavation. Layer Iwas subdivided in a and b. Diagnostic modified

sherds. isolated perforated stones, mollusks, etc. were recorded.

-layer II:Eolian light beige-yellowish coloured sandy matnx, with dense domestic

refuse. Among the cultural and organic materials collected are: pottery sherds

(being the most common artefacts); charwal, faunal and botanical remains,

coprolites, pigments, diatomite?, lithics, and so on.

Along to the southeastern edge of the excavated area, a cornplete 'paican

was located, which is the native name for a jar of great dimensions for keeping

freshwater and chicha. This upaicanwas close to a hearth area. To the southwest.

northeast and northwest of the excavation area the domestic remains appeared

completely disturbed. The disturbance was caused by the intrusion of numerous

initial cuts of funerary pits. The following burials were identified: Burial VIII; burial

IX; burial X; burial XI; burial XII; burial Xlll; burial XXXVlll; burial XXXIX;

butial XL; burial XLl; burial XLll; burial XLlll; burial XLV; burial XLVl; bunal

XLVll; burial XLVlll; burial XLIX; bunal L; burial LI; bunal Lll; burial LM;

burial UV; burial LV; burial LVl; burial LW; burial LXlll; burial MIV; burial

LW; burial LXM; burial Wl; burial W l l ; burial U I X ; burial LXX, bunal
ml;burial Wll; burial W l l l ; burial LXXIV; burial Wl;burial W I I ;

and burial U00(1.

-Layer III:Mostly pure eolian, semi-cornpacteci, yellowish, fine sand with a few

domestic rernains as a consequence of the digging of funerary pits. In fact layer

III is the matrix of many in situ burials dug from layer II. In some cases the burials

are intrusive in the floor of a platfom that forms a wmplex architectural structure

(layer V) which is covered by the above mentioned eolian sand. Evidenœ of

destruction by a natural phenornenon was identified over the building (layer IV).

-Layer IV: Coarsegrained, grey, loosely compacted sand. This coarse, clean

sand was clearly deposited by torrential waters that washed over the site in a

natural disaster that seriously affected the monumental architecture. This layer

also covered the front steps of the platfom as well as an architectural element

consisting of a big rock block painted with hematite. Some points of this layer

were altered because the intnisive burials of Layer II already described.

l a y e r V: The monumental architectural cornponent was labelled as layer V for

the purposes of stratigraphie control. In fad, layer V consists of the thick

yellowish day floor of the platform of the temple, mixeâ with grey coarse-grained

sand belonging to layer IV. Once abandoned the monumental architecture was

covered by eolian sand (layer III). Later, some burials fiorn layer IIthat were

intrusive to layen III and IV, were cut into the clay floor of the platfbrrn (layer V) to
f o m the bottoms of the Salinar tombs of bundled extended hurnan cadavers and

dogs. The cuts followed the shape of the extended individuals buried there.

The megalithic structure is the physical cultural hallmark of the Late

Puémape Phase, and will be describeci and interpreted after the analysis and

interpretation of the Early and Middle Puémape funerary data.

-Layer VI: Light clayey and sandy mixed soils of a yellowish colour. Three cultural

events were identified stratigraphically from the bottom to the top: domestic

adivities associated with the Early Puémape occupation; intrusive burials

belonging to the Middle Puémape occupation and construction of the monumental

architecture associated with the Late Puémape occupation. The remains of the

eariy domestic activity had k e n greatly disturûed by the subsequent funerary

activities and architectural construction. Similarly the funerary wntexts had been

disturbed by construction of the monumental building. The following inclusive

burials in it were identified:

Burial W(V; burial XCV; 'burial XCIX-Cm;burial CXVII; and burial

CXVIII.

B.7 Excavation Unit 7

The main goal was to detenine the possible domestic nature of an

apparent artificial mound with a concentration of purple mussels (Chommytilus

chorus) on the surface. A test p l of 6 by 2 m and 0.50 m deep was excavated in

Sector F-2. However, only sterile soii was recorded. Two layers were recorded:

-Layer 1: Eolian fine sterile sand.

-Layer II: Alluvial sterile soils.

B.8 Excavation Unit 8

The main goal of this 3 by 2 m and 1.30 m deep test pit was to recagnise

part of the extension of the cemetery discovered in Excavation Unit 6. This

excavation Unit was located in Sector F-2 within a very disturbed area close to a

small artificial mound. The following layers were recorded:

-Layer 1: Eolian fine sand. Area disturbed by looten.

-Layer II: Eolian yellowish fine sand. Burials were identified, some of them

partially disturbed. The following burials burial were recorded: XIV; burial XV;

burial XVI; and burials No.%XVII, XVlll and XIX.

B.9 Excavation Unit 9

An open-area excavation of 16 by 16 rn and 1.70 m deep located in Sector

D-5, which was extended to the west 10 by 16 rn (Excavation Unit 9-W) because

of the important domestic and funerary data recorded in layen III and IV (Figures

8.9, and 10; Plates 18 and 19).

 The area chosen was an apparently undisturbed side of a natural mound

covered with clean sand. No evidence of disturbed cultural and organic materials

was found over the surface. In contrast, the surrounding eastem and northern

œmeteries had k e n severely looted from 1989 to the beginning of December of

1990. Private collectors from Pacasrnayo. Trujillo and Piura had bought fine

Classic Cupisnique stirn.Jp spout bottles from burials looted in the above

mentioned cemeteries. Excavation Unit 6 was situated to the northwest of 9.

The folIovuhg layen were recorded:

-Layer 1: Eolian fine sterile sand.

-Layer II: Greyish compact sand with organic materials. Domestic remains

included pottery sherds, faunal and botanical remains as well N, situ mamiform-

shaped jars and a 'paica" close to a hearth.

U y e r III: The compact surface of layer iVs, consisting of a sort of saitpetre

cnist. This layer is altered because the presenœ of pre-Hispanic and modem

disturbance. The following burials were recorded: Burial XX; burial XXI; burial

XXII; burial XXIII; burial X X N ; burial XXV; burial XXVI; burial XXVII; burial

XXVIII; burial burial XXX; burial LVlll; burial LIX; bunal LX; bunal MI;

burial MI; burial C M ;burial CXXl and burial CXXII.

-Layer N:Made up of compact dayey and sandy mixed soils of a yellowish

cdour. The compactness was caused by domestic activities as attested by the

presence of a great amount of domestic refuse. Bumed stones for woking.

faunal and botanical remains, mortam, manos, and so on, along with features

such as potholes, storage pits containing selected food frorn temestrial and

marine sources, as well as textiles in gourd containers indicate the primary

domestic nature of these areas in level IV. The burials intrusive frorn Layer III had

severely altered the above mentioned domestic area. The bunals intrusive frorn

layer III to layer IV were: Bunal XX; burial XXI; burial XXll and burial XXIII.

-Layer V: Sterile sand mixed with yellowish clay over the bedrock. Funerary

intrusions from the layer IV were recorded. The burials intnisive to layer V were:

Bunal XXIV; burial XXV; burial XXVI; bunal XXVII; burial XXVIII. burial XXlX

and burial X X X .

Intrusive burials in between Layen IV and V were: Burial LVIII; burial

LIX; burial U; burial LXI; burial Mll; burial CXVl; burial CXXl and burial

CXXII.

In the case of Excavation Unit 9-W the same five cultural and natural

layers were recorded as for Excavation Unit 9. In layer IIIthe following burials

were recorded: Burial XC; burial XCI; burial CI; burial CI!; burial ClII; burial

CN; burial CV; burial CVI; burial CVII; burial CVIII; burial ClX and burial CXII.

Layer V was strongly altered by the domestic and funerary events of layer

IV. Sorne ash spots were present as well as decornposeâ plant remains. The
inferior portions of some of the intrusive burials from layer IV extended into layer

IV. Intrusive burials in layer IV were: Bunal XC; burial XCI; burial CI; burial CII;

burial CIII; burial CIV; burial CV; burial CVI; bunal CVlll and burial CXII.

Intnisive burials in between Layers IV and V were: Burial CVll and burial CIX.

B.1O Excavation Unit 10

Examining a looter's pit in betwean Excavation Unit 6 and the foot of the

low hill called 'mullu' an important refuse concentration was identifed in the

profiles. Another aim was to investigate the extent of the archaedogical site to

the west, where the mullu hill is the natural boundary before Puémape' s rocky

littoral. An excavation unit 10 by 1O m with a depth of 3.40 m was excavated in

Sector D-5 (Figures 11 and 12). The following layen were recorded:

-Layer 1: Eolian fine sand with organic and cultural materials disturbed by a

modern looter's pit located in the southem side of the Excavation Unit.

-Layer II:Eolian sand cwered a domestic activity area. This is a very interesting

in situ domestic a m , which contained jan, 'paicas", and pots of diffenng shapes,

sizes, and disposition, faunal and botanical remains, hearths. pottery sherds,

lithics and remains of mats.

-Layer III:Eolian fine steriie sand. Only the southem side of the excavation unit

was excavated because of the presence of mixed organic and cultural remains
from layer II and layer IV. Apparently the disturbed portion of layer III was done in

pre-Hispanic times.

-Layer IV: Made up of sticky clayey-sand of a semicompact texture and

yellowish colour. Layer IV was used for funerary purposes only. The following

disturbed burials were recorded: Burial UO(VII1; burial LXXIX; burial UOO(; and

burial CXX.

-Layer V: Sterile sandyclayey yellowish soi1 over the bedrock, which is part of the

- hill. Funerary intrusions from layer IV were rewrded.

'mullun

B.11 Excavation Unit 1A

The main goal was to investigate the kinds of human activities carried out

on the 'Mullu' and 'Huacan hills, which connect to Puemape' s rocky seashore.

This is an openarea excavation unit in Sector 6-5, measuring 1O by 10 rn and

150 m deep, which was extendeci 7 m2 (Figures 13 and 14; Plates 20 and 21).

A former roadbed along the littoral, which was the antecedent of the modem Pan

American Highway, crossed the area where Excavation Unit 1 1 was located

from north to south. The following layers were recordeci:

-layer 1: Eolian fine sand with disturbed cultural and organic remains.
l a y e r II: Semicompact eolian sand, with organic and cultural remains. The

partially disturbed burial U00(iV, which is intrusive to layer III, was recorded.
-Layer III:Semi-compact mixed clayeylsandy soils of a yellowish colour.

Domestic refuse consists of: faunal and botanical remains, storage pits, liaiics.

Layer III covered the initial cut area of the mouths of the burial pits of layer IV.

-Layer IV: Compact mixed clayeylsandy soils of a yellowish colour. In general

these are the same soi1 cornponents describeci in layer III, the only difierence

being the texture. The Rat surface has a slight gradient to the southwest of the

excavation area. An architectural feature was recorded. It was part of a lower

floor covered w'th a white component similar to lime. In part it was cut by the

funerary intrusions of layer IV. Some worked upiedrah m e f , faunal remains, and

a necklace of fish vertebrae found in situ support its primary domestic nature.

Over the surface of layer IV the mouths of 22 burial pits intrusive to layer N and

V were recorded. The following burials were recorded: Burial XXXI; burial

XXXII; bunal XXXIII; burial XXXIV; burial XXXV; burial XXXVI; burial XXXVI1;

burial XLIV; burial U00<11; burial WO(lll; burial UOO(Vll; burial 000<Vlll;

bunal 000(IX; burial XCII; burial XCIII; burial XCIV; burial XCVII; bunal

XCVlll; burial CX; bunal CXI; burial CXlll; and burial CXV.

-Layer V: Packed down daylsand soils with a very compact texture and a

yellawish/brown colour- A great amount of cobbles, apparently brought to this

area, are mixed with mostly sea faunal remains. Cobbles and faunal rernains are

deposited over a sort of natural terrace which underlies layer VI. Maybe this was
 a domestic area that was altered by funerary pits from layer IV. Finally, burials

WO<V and W I were intrusive between layers IV and V.

B

U y e r VI: Natural terrace made of the same compact yellowish sand as that of

the immobilised dunes. Some cultural cuntexts are intrusive from the layers

above. This kind of soi1 is the original cover of the bedrock of the western

physical projection of the La Huaca and El Mullu hills, which are part of the rocky

littoral.

B. 12 Excavation Unit 12

The main goal was to explore and detemine the character of refuse

rernains coveflng a spot in front of the southwestern part of Puémape' s rocky

littoral. A test pit of 6 by 4 m and 1.0 rn deep was excavated in Sector 8 5 . Only

one iayer was recorded.

-Layer 1: Eolian fine sand. Pottery sheds. faunal and botmical remains were

abundant. The kind of cultural and organic data recorded in layer I indicate that it

was related to domestic activities. Because of time canstraints we did not

continue extending and digging this Excavation Unit. We recommend, however,

that it be extended in another field season.

C. Correlation between the Excavation Units

Here I will attempt to correlate the racorded laye= from the top to the

deepest natural and cultural depositions according to the provenience of each

Excavation Unit. Layen I and II,made up of fine eolian sand, were used elher for

domestic purposes and in some cases, once abandoned, for funerary intrusions

belonging to the same Salinar cultural affiliation during the Late Formative period.

In the case of the Excavation Units 7. 9, and 9-W layer I was cornposeci of sterile

eolian sand. In addition, layer Il of the Excavation Unit 7 was composed of sterile

alluvial soils. Salinar funerary intrusions were recorded only in layers I and IIof

Excavation Units 1, 2, 4, 5, 8,and Il.Salinar domestic activities were recordecl in

layer IIof Excavation Unit 9 and 9-W and in layen I and II of Excavation Unit 10.

A particular sluation can be seen in layers I and II of Excavation Unit 6. Layer I

contained domestic Salinar refuse which was denser to the west and northeast of

the Excavation Unit. Layer II presented an in situ domestic cornponent. However,

to the southwest, northeast and northwest of Unit 6 Vie domestic setting

appeared completely disturbed because of the presence of Salinar burials which

were intnisive to this domestic sandy layer. Finally, layers I and II of Excavation

Unit 12, cornposecl of eolian sand, belonged to a Chimli domestic occupation.

A sterile semicompacteci sandy Layer IIIwas recorded only in Excavation

Unit 1. Layer III of Excavation Unit 6, consisting of semi-compacted yellm'sh

eolian fine sand mixed with dornestic refuse and funerary cuts belonging to the

Salinar occupation. Excavation Unit 10, layer II! had the same composition as

layer III of Excavation Unit 6, the only difference k i n g the light texture of the fine

eolian sand. In Excavation Units 9 and 9-W a sort of saltpetre crust was

designated as layer III. Finally, in Excavation Unit 11 compact mixed clayeylsandy

yellowish soils were associated wtth disturbed and in situ domestic refuse without

ceramics, used by the Early Puémape inhabitants for burying their dead.

Layers IV, V, and VI, of Excavation Unit 11 had no ceramics associated.

These layers have the same texture, yellowish clayeylsandy soils, some features

in cornmon, as well as the same biological contents as layers IV and V of the

Excavation Unit 9 and its extension 9-W. The only difference is the absence of

cerarnics in the deepest layers of the Excavation Unit 11. The only exception is

burial XCN, which was associated with a neckiess olla. This bunal started in

layer III of the Excavation Unit 11, which had the same kind of soils and texture

as layers IV, V, and VI of the same Excavation Unit. The funerary neckless o h

from Excavation Unit Ilshares the same style as the few racorded sheds of

neckless ollas and bowls related to the Early Puémape human occupation found

in the layers IV and V of Excavation Unit 9. In addition, the funerary intrusions

belonging to the Middle Puémape occupation were done on the surface of layer

IV of Excavation Units 9, %W, and 10. In Excavation Unit 10 laye= IV and V had
the same composition as the deepest layen of the Excavation Units 11, 9 and 9-

W. but they were sterîle containing only the above mentioned intnisive Middle

Puérnape burials. Finally, in Excavation Unit 6, layer V was cornposed of coarse,

clean waterdeposited sand. Layer N covered a great part of layer V, cornposed

of the destruction of the yellowish clay of the floor of a megalahic platform

structure. For stratigraphie control the monumental structure belonging to the

Late Puémape occupation was labelled as layer IV.

 CHAPTER 5

CULTURAL SETTINGS EXCAVATED AND CONTENTS

An assessrnent of cultural and natural processes which fomed the

stratigraphie layen constitutes the substantial part of this chapter and the

following two chapten. I will describe the contents and interpreted cultural events

in sequence from bottom to top recorded in the layen of the excavation units.

Cross cornparisons will be made among the related layen. Cultural affiliation of

each domestic layer was inferred through the association of diagnostic ceramic

styles. Funerary settings were also found. The domestic and funerary ceramic

assemblages. will be evaluated in greater detail in Chapter 9. Apparent

'Preceramicn strata were recorded only in the deepest layers of Excavation Unit

fi.

A. Domestic Settinas and Contents in different Puémam Phases

The earliest and latest cultural events recorded in our first field season at

Puémape were related to domestic adivities. The domestic contexts were

parüally or completely disturbed by cultural events in the past and the present, as

I will describe later. From Excavation Units 6, 9, 9-W. 10 to 11 we identified

domestic data belonging to different cultural events. I will describe the domestic

settings in order, following the stratigraphy of the site. It is beyond the sape
of this dissertation to analyze the extensive Salinar domestic occupation. Only a

brief overview will be presented.

A. 1 Earlv Puérnaw Domestic Settinas at Excavation Unit 11

The earliest dornestic areas were identified in layers III, IV, V. and VI of

As noted eariier this excavation unit faces the Puérnape

Excavation Unit Il.

rocky littoral. In the yellowish layer III bumed wbbles or rounded stones, locally

called 'chunuos" or 'chunauitosn, were record&. And a small concentration of

mussels (Chomrnythi/uschonrs) measuring 0.40 by 0.30 m and 0.20 m in

thickness, was recorded in the 91-92 sub-units.

In layer IV, along the east side of Excavation Unit 11, a purple mussel

concentration with "chunçrosnwas recorded (Quadrants 's 10, 11, 22, 23,24,46,

47, 48, 57, 58, 59, 60. 70, 71, and 72). Either mature purple mussels were

intentionally 'discarded" or this was a sort of mussel shell depository. Associated

with the concentration of purple mussel shells were two pits. The first one, feature

1, measuring 1.60 rn by 1.40 ml and 0.50 m deep, contained an unidentifiable

powdery light brown organic material along with a vertebral column belonging to

the Chondrichthves fish class. The second pit, feature II. measuring 0.88 m in

diameter and 0.30 m in depth, contained an unidentifiable pawdery light brown

organic material too. In addition, it had a thick floor of yellowish day mixed
with a white limelike substance. The same whitish material was used as a sort of

plaster to cover the top and sides of a platforni, which was built with stones and

coarse sand as a fill. Burials CXIII, LXXXIX and CXV intruded from layer III into

the platform.

A very interesting feature in sub-units 41-42 was a pit measuring 0.55 m

in diameter and 0.25 m deep, which contained a concentration of carnelid

excrement. Botanical analysis of the camelid excrernent identified sea weed as

the principal component, which suggests that plants of marine origin may have

k e n used as fodder for llamas kept at the site. The intentional concentration of

carnelid excrement in the pit suggests its use as fuel. Traditional North Coastal

fishemen today use equine and donkey excrement for fuel for fires and for

producing dense s&e to drive away the mosquitoes that are common dunng

the summer season.

In sub-units 42.43, 54, and 55 an irregular matrix was recordeci that

contained an unidentifiable powdery light brown botanical organic material. It's

color is similar to the camelid excrement, suggesting that it May be the remains of

dned seaweed. It is possible to consider that this pulverized botanical remains

was dry seaweed. Stones of basalt, denved from the rock formations on the

littoral, were found in association, as were stones locally called 'piedra p b m e f .

The 'piedra &mer" stones, common on the Puémape littoral, are in fact of
biological not volcanic ongin (V. Vasquez: personal communication, 1998). They

consist of chunks of calcareous concretions produced by colonial polychaete

Worms.

Finally. two round& holes, the first measuring 0.30-0.31 m in diameter and

0.15 m deep, and the second measuring 0.20-0.25 rn in diameter and 0.20 deep,

were located in sub-units 40, 41, 54, and 42. These holes only contained clean

sand. Ceramics were not found in association with these layers.

A.2 Eadv Puéma- Domestic Settings at Excavation Units 9 and 9-W

In Excavation Unit 9 and its western extension (9-W) in layers V and VI a

primary domestic activity area was identifid despite the heavy disturbance

occasioned by the later Middle Puémape intrusions and modem looting. Although

one of the aims of the Puernape Archaeological Project was to identify houses

plans we did not remrd a complete house (s) due to above mentioned

disturbances. However, sorne domestic features were recorded in situ and

provided insights regarding patterns of food, procurement, preparation and

cooking. Groupings of 'chunaos", M d remains, textiles, and non-portable and

portable storage facilities were recorded. Information regarding the different

marine and terrestrial resourœs recorded from these layers will be presentd in

Chapter 8.
 A few domestic neckless olla and bowl fragments, reflecting a simple

pottery technobgy. were found in association with the first occupation of the flat

area surrounded by low hills. This area, as I said before, was probably chosen

because of the natural protection against the strong southwestern manne winds.

The pattern of the postholes reaxded in layer V (Excavation Unit 9)

reflects a type of house construction using separate poles and sticks as a main

framework. Organic dark brown lines and spots may have been related to the

house walllroof. The dark brown wlor is similar to decornposeci portions of the

reed mats of the funerary bundles, which I will describe later. The organic brown

lines and spots, then, may be the remains of reeds used in construction of the

walls and roofs of houses.

Grouped and disturbed bumed 'chunaosn measuring between 0.07- 0.10

rn in diameter are commonly associated with ashy deposits. The 'chunaos",

once heateâ. may have b e n useâ for roasting food directly. In sub-units

151,152,153,164,165, and 166 a large concentration of unbumed 'chunaosn,

rneasufing 1.85 by 1.20 nt, was associatecl with a pit (0.30 m of diameter). It

rnay be that stones were intentionally collected and stored in a given area of the

domestic setting for later use in cooking. These unused 'chunaos" have the

same shape, average diameter and rnineralogical composition as the bumed

'chun(30sn.
 In another feature, stones and broken rocks are associated with whale

bones, mainly the vertebrae, (this feature rneasures 0.83 by 0.70 m). And

another feature consists only of a pile of 'piedra ~ornez".As I will explain in

more detail later, such materials are part of the funerary structure in some of the

Formative burials excavated at Puemape.

Two pits with organic remains were recorded, each approximately 0.30-

0.40 rn in diameter and 0.30 m deep. Pit A contained five seeds of 'paltan

(avocado) (Persea amencana) and five wt pieces of thorax vertebrae of diffennt

sites from an adult 'anaeloten (angel shark) (Squatina annata) (Plate 22).

Pit B contained two grouped marine mammal and fish remains. The first

group included a ri4 of 'lobo marinon(sea lion) (Otaria sp) and a group of six

thorax vertebrae from 'angeloten (angelfish) and "tollo" (sand shark) (Mustelus

spp, Mustelus sp). The vertebrai remains are from fish of various species and

were cut into various sizes. The second group induded three artiwlated cervical

vertebrae, four ribs together and a humerus of a young sea lion. Under the

humenis a single sand shark vertebrai column was recorded and anatornical

remains of the same species over the fourth sea lion nb (Plate 23).

It seems probable that these pits were used for storing pieces of dried

meat fish, unripe avocados, and dried sea lion meat, al1 of which would have

been covered with dry sand.

 Enrique Bruning reports identical storage practices from the tum of the

century for the Muchik living in the Villa de Eten, in the nearby Lambayeque

Valley:

Bnining mentioned in his own words using Muchik ternis the following

obsewation regarding the way of storing food:

Pozo para guardar charnache (anchoveta) kolyek, antiguamente se encolcaba

entre arena, en pozos hechos a prqxjsito, pescado salado y desecado, para
guardarlo para los tiernpos de escasez. Un hablante de Eten, de mas de 50 anos
de edad, me dijo que habia conocido todavia esta costurnbre y que se usaba
para ella el chamache, pez de mar que en cierto tiernpo suele ser muy
abundante". (Schaedel 1988: 11 1).

Although it is rare today, some familias in Puémape still dig holes for

storing salted and dried fish. which they cover with clean and dry sand (Rosa

Chinchayan, 75 years old: personal communication 1996).

Finally, in sub-unit 121 a unique artifad was recovered. It is a largeovoid

shapedgourd (Lagenana sicerana) (Plate 24) which contained a carefully folded

cotton textile with a painted geometrical design done in white and blue (Plate 25).

Unfortunately, the gourd and textile were pooriy preserved because of the strong

presenœ of saitpeter. The use of gourds for the storage of textiles may be a long

terni tradition on the North Coast. In Guailape (personal observations 1970) and

in Puémape gourds have been used as cloth containers until quite recently by the
Muchik (Rosa Chinchayan: personal communication 1996).

The archaeological gourd containhg the textile was found along with a

group of flat rounded cobbles (approxirnately 0.14-0.16 rn by 0.10 m width by

0.02-0.03 m). Another gourd. bowl-shaped, was fwnd on the base of the

grouped stones. It was also in a poor state of preservation.

The flat rounded cobbles had been selected and brought to the site from

the seashore, where such stones are found in abundance. Flat stones of this type

are used today as net weights in Puémape (Fetk Guaylupo: personal

communication, 7990).

B. Salinar Damestic Settinas: a brief ovewiew

The latest dornestic Formative occupation at Puémape is related to the

poorly known Salinar Phase. Salinar dornestic activity areas were recorded in the

first layers (1 and II) of Excavation Units 6. 9. 9-W, 10 and 11. These first two

layers are composed basically of semicompact eolian sand. This eolian sand
coven the yellowish clay layen which comprise the Cupisnique occupation at
Puémape. The origin of the eolian sand will be discusseâ later.

In the case of Excavation Units 9, 9-W, and 10 the domestic Salinar

setüngs consisted of abundant food remains of difrent ecotogical proveniences.

A number of comptete and broken large ceramic jars and pots was recorded.
In contrast, few complete and broken anthropomorphic figurines were found in

association with hearths, mats, carved h a l e vertebra and other artifacts

typically found in coastal houses.

In general terms, some significant differences are apparent between the

pre-Salinar and the Salinar dornestic practices including the way of cooking, the

use of large jars and the presence of predominant wam-tropical manne species

used as food.

6.1 Salinar Dornestic Settina at Excavation Units 6 and 11

Salinar funerary intrusions into dornestic settings belonging to the same

phase were recorded in Excavation Units 6 and 11. No complete big jars were

found, only broken ones because of re-use of the area for funerary purposes. An

in situ coiled rope, however, was found in layer II of Excavation Unit 11 (Plate

26). The funerary events marked the abandonment of the area by the Salinar.

8.2 Salinar Domestic Settina at Excavation Units 9 and 9-W

Domestic activity areas were identified extending over the gentle dope of

one of the low hills and its lower northwestem projection in the eolian sand layers

I and II. Food remains, predorninantly of fnafine provenience, along with ashes

fmm a fire were recovered. Large rnammiform jan (approximately 1.30 m

high) were also found (Plate 27). These jars cannot stand upright. A modeled

Salinar bottle found at Puemape (Plate 28), depicts a human transporting a

mammiform jar on his back, with the flat side against the back and a piece of

string looped around the neck of the jar used to hang onto the vessel. It would

seem that these mammifom jars were useâ to transport liquids during Salinar

tirnes.

8.3 Salinar Domestic Settina at Excavation Unit 10

In the first two layers of d a n sand an in situ Salinar domestic unit was

recotded which sheds new light on how the Salinar organized their domestic
space (Figures 15 and 16).

The domestic unit included the following:

i Hearth Plate 29)

The hearth was a shallow pit, measuring 0.60 rn and 0.45 m by 0.27 m deep.

The floor of the hearth was lined with large sherds, covered with ash and bits of

charred wood. The sherds rested on the natural sand and may have sewed to

intensify the heat dunng the buming pmcess. Surrounding the depression were

broken rocks end large rounded stones, with dear evidence of heat fracture.

The base diameters of large pots fit very well with the diametet of the

hearth, and those that have abundant soot over the surface, particularly on
the base as well as over great part of the bodies, may have been used for boiling

liquids and cooking over the hearth.

Mat

A mat or "petatenextended over an open area of 2.70 by 2.00 m

approximately . The mat was woven from reeds (Scirpus toton). On the north

central edge of the mat a pot was placed (designated as H). The northem.

eastern and western edges had been destroyed.

Discmsition of lame i a n and mts(P1ates 30 and 311

In beniveen the mat and the above described hearth and the area

surounding the northeastern and eastern boundaries of the hearth were 4 big

jars or 'paicasn.These ' p a i d (designated C, D, E and F) are of different

shapes and sires, and one of them had a cover made of rushes. Six pots, also

'paicasn. (designated as A, 8,G,H, I and J) were found around the perimeter of

the mat. Pot H sat on the edge of the mat. Pots G, 1, and J were separate from

each other, while pots A and B were together.

 CHAPTER 6

TYPE OF MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE L N E PUEMAPE PHASE

Excavation Unit 6 revealed architecture on a monumental scale (Figure

17). The monumental sire, orientation, and care in construction of the structure

suggest that it was built for ceremonial and religious purposes. Its importance is

enhanω by the location and orientation, the megalithic appearance of the walls

and platfoms (Plate 32). the materials used, the organization of the architectural

components in different levels, and the apparent special activity carrieci out on the

main platform. The foundation was laid over the Middle Puémape Phase

cernetery. In fact, the funerary intements altered during the constniction process

were at the same time part of the physical foundation of the temple.

The temple was abandoneci as a consequeme of a naturai disaster related

with sudden flooding. This catastmphic event marked the end of the Late

Puemape Phase. Finally, the temple was covered with tons of eolian sand, which

later on was used as a domestic and funerary setting by the Salinar Culture

during the late Formative period. Over the floor of the main plathm of the temple

were many disturbances caused by the later intrusive Salinar burials (Plate 33).
A. Location and Orientation

The temple was situated in the Rat depression between the El Mullu and

the La Huaca hills to the north and lower hills to the south. The approximate

distance from the temple to the seashore is 400 m. The orientation of the temple

seems to direct the attention to the sea to the southwest and the Puémape

mountain to the northeast.

The southwest orientation of the temple points to a very significant

geomorphologic dual opposition, which may have been the reason for seleding

this particular location along the shore. This is the point where the sandy and

rocky shore meet. Frorn the temple looking toward the southwest the white foam

of the quiet waves breaking on the sandy shore contrasts with the dark basaltic

rocks with noisy waves crashing against the shore. This opposition is also

reflected in the temple construction. Black basaltic slabs and roundeâ stones
were used for the extenal face of the walls, platfomis, and staircases. In

contrast, 'piedra Domez"were used for reinforcing the interna1 face of wall-

platfomis (Figure 18). The clear tone and soft texture of the 'piedra dmer"

contrasteâ with the dark tone and hard texture of the basalt. The basalt is

associated with the rocky shore, and the 'piedra m5meznis from beneath the sea.

The contrasting oppositions of mountainlsea and rockylsandy shore, then,

may have been principal reasons for selecting this spot for sacred ground.
Additionally, the proximity of the sea would have stressed the key role that the

sea played in the food economy and probably in the system of religious beliefs.

This is the place where it was possible to make observations of the cycle of the

tides and its relationship with the moon. the setting of the Sun, position of the

stars and constellations, the planet Venus. different biological cycles from sea

plants to invertebrate and vertebrate fauna, presence-absence of species as

bioindicators of season, and so on. The fact that the foundations of the temple

were built on the funerary grounds also may have played a role in selecting the

location since the region may already have been dedicated to the anœstors.

B. Materials and Construction Techniaues

The temple was buitt with basaltic rocks cut and brought from the rocky

littoral. The basaltic slabs were aitemated with small rounded stones. which ara

easily collecteci from the my shore.

k

The big basaltic rock slabs and the small rocks were joined using yellowish

clay as rnortar. We found no evidence of plaster over the walls, atthough it may

have been eroded away. In situ hernatite spots were found over the intemal

surface of the southwestern megalithic wall of the main platïorm. The floor was

made of a thick, fine yellowish clay. Finally fills containing organic marine remains
and sand were cummon in the platfoms of the monumental architecture.
C. Architectural Commnents

The record of architedural wmponents is limited to the small sector of the

monumental architecture that was excavated in 1990. It is clear that a great part

of the temple lies toward the southeastem area and is still under hundreâs of tons

of eolian sand. The following architectural components were identified in

Excavation Unit 6: the main platform. staircase, secondary access, east and

south walls, secondary path, and the southeast terrace.

C. 1 The main ~latform

The main platform is elevated and built with retention walls faced

extemally with large basaltic rock slabs alternated with small basaltic rocks and

rounded stones. The quadranguiar platbtm measures 18 x 18 m (324 m2). Over

the platforrn was a thick floor of yellowish clay mixed with sand and with a whitish

substance, possibly lime, which gave a hard consistency to the fioor. The fioor

measured between 7-10 cm in width. Evidence of reddish spots and ashes

associated with burned snails suggests the use of small hearths over the floor.

Two postholes, recorded parallel to the eastem wall, probably supported a kind of

roof over part of or the mplete main plaffon.

The yellawish clay used in the fioor construction is typical of the

surrounding alluvial deposits of the Cupisnique river. We do not yet have a

completed analysis of a sample of the whitish lime-like substance (sample 15).

The whitish substance may be only ground seashells used as a temper during the

mixing of clay and sand dunng the fioor construction. A great part of the thick

floor had been aitereâ by disastrous flooding and the fater intrusion of the Salinar

burials.

C.2 Staircase

A sbircase, located on the northeastern front was the main access to the

main platforrn. The disastrous fiood had eliminated the first three steps of the

staircase. The remaining three steps were recorded in situ. The exact number of

steps was detemined by measuring the height of each step (0.20 m) and the

height of the northem front (1.20 m). The wdth of the staircase is 6 rn, a third of

the platfon, and each step was 0.40m deep. The front of each step was faced

with regular basaltic rock slabs joined with yellowish clay mortar, which was used

also as the fiIl for the step. Some basaltic rock slabs, possibly belonging to the

first three steps, were found out of context over the top three steps of the

staircase, as tangible evidence of the power of the flood waters (Figure 19).
C.3 Secondant access

This is a ramp located on the east side of the main platform. From the

southwestern top, which is part of the main platfom, an entrance of 0.60 m in

width was built. The entrance is frarneâ by two large basaltic rock slabs (Figure

20).

C.4 East and south walls

Walls were built atop the platftm along the east, southwest and northwest

edges, joining at the southeast corner. Part of the noraiwest wall was recorded.

The east wall was 17.60 m (it did not quite extend to the north edge of the

platforni) and had an average height of 1.30 m. This wall was double-faced with

basaltic rock slabs and yellowish clay mortar. A secondary entrance, desuibad

above, was situated at the southwest end of this wall. The southwest wall

measures 18 rn long and 1.30 m high, and was faced only on the interior
(platfom side) since 1 was a retaining wall for a terrace to the southwest of the

platform. Many basaltic rock slabs were found out of their original positions,

apparently because of the destruction suffered by the building during the inferred

natural disaster.
C S Secondaw "~ath"
On the extemal side of the eastern wall of the main platfon there is a sort

of path approxirnately 1.00 m wide. This path can be reached by walking out the

secondary access or by circulating around the main platform.

C.6 The southeast tertace

A deep modem looters's pit in the southeast terrace provided a good

opportunity for understanding the datail of the construction process. The

southeast terrace showed the following sequence of construction techniques and

kinds of materials. First, a retaining wall was buiM of big basaltic rock slabs

altemated with small rocks joined with yellowish day. Second, against the

intemal surface of the basaltic rock wall an intemal wall was built using 5 or 6

alignments of "piedrachez" joined with the same kind of yeltow clay. The

pumice stone intemal wall reinforced the extemal basaltic rock wall and at the

sarne time contained the fills made up of manne organic materials and sand

(Figure 21).

The terrace wes covered on the top with sand and rounded porous red

volcanic stones, not yet identified geologically. The sandy and organic filk rested

on a whitish layer which covered layer VI, which represented the remains of a

primary domestic setting of the Earty Puémape Phase and was used later as
a cemetery dunng the Middle Puémape Phase. This is the stratum where

partially undisturbed and disturbed burials were recorded because of the

construction of the temple.

D. Associations and Recorded features

Two interesthg finds were recorded associated with the flaor of the main

platform. The first find was a diagnostic broken carved bone artifact (Plates 34

and 35), a sort of awl with the distal section carved into chain link and pendant

from the second link a carved bone fruit representation. All were carved from the

same piece of bone. The awl had fine-line incisions into which hematite had been

rubbed. Along with the bone artifact were two valves of purple mussels

( C h o ~ i u chorus),
s also containing hematite.

The second find (Plate 36) was recordeci in unit 460, associated with and

alrnost at the center point of the southwestern side of the wall (8.80 m from the

southeast corner). This was a rounded white stone, a sort of mortar. resting on

the floor, w*!h a pestle of black rounded stone on top. As I said before, these

rounded stones are called 'chunaos" and are used for gnnding edible vegetables

by the Mudiik ethnicity today.

Hematite residue adheied to both stones, and lumps of hematiîe were

found in the surrounding area. Five valves of purple mussel (Chommytiius

chonrs),1 clam valve (Euromalearufa) and 1 valve of 7raquicardium sp.
containhg ground hematite were found in association. A little rounded stone 4 cm

long (called 'chunauitosn) covered with hematite was found in association to the

mollusk valves containing the ground hematite. In addition, othen mollusks were

recorded around the stone mortar and pestle: 46 valves of 'conchitas" or

'maruchan (Donax obesulus); 6 valves of Espisula adamsi; 3 white snail shells

(Polinices sp.) and 1 mail shell (Inassariusdentifer).Finally, 5 fragments of

beads carved in 'muIlun or thorny oyster (Spondylus princeps) were found, which

apparently were fractured intentionally.

This feature clearly represents an activity related to the grinding of

hematite and its placement inside of some chosen mollusks and painting little

rounded stones. Hematite pigment was also found over the adjaœnt

southwestern wall. Given the neamess of the feature to the wall, it possibly was

protected by the wall during the natural disaster. This adivity of ritually gflnding

hematite, pladng it in shell containers, and smearing lon little rounded stones is

a typical characteristic of the North Coastal Formative period. Mollusk containers

and 'chunauitos" with hematite have been found as a part of funerary o M n g s in

the North Coastal Formative burials. In addlion, they have also been found as

part of an important offering within one of the galleries of a highland temple of

panohdean significance, as I will discuss in a later chapter.

 A dewrated, diagnostic pot sherd was found in the fiIl of the southeast

terrace (Figure 140). This ceramic fragment fts very well chronologically with the

style of the above described carved bone artifact.

E. Natural Disaster, Destruction and Abandonment of the Ceremonial Center

As described above, in the stratigraphy of Excavation Unit 6 loose, coarse-

grained, grey sand made up layer IV. This layer was sterile, except for intrusive

pits from Salinar burials. The sand was cleariy water deposited. During the

excavation we thought that the destruction of the temple and the sandy deposit

were the result an ENS0 (El Nifio and the Southern Oscillation) shift and the

associated torrential rains and Roading of catastrophic proportions (Elera, Pinilla,

and Vbsquez 1992; Elera 1993; 1997). However, analysis of the data in greater

detail raises another possible explanation for the destruction and abandonment of

the religious architecture during the Late Puemape Phase.

The destruction of the temple was clearly the resuît of a flood of water

washing over the site. The clean sandy layer IV covered the front steps of the

platfon and the architectural element of the big rock block painted on one of its

sides with hematite (Plate 37). It was ciear that the mass of water came from the

southwest to the northeast, given the pattern of destruction observed over the

floor, double wall and the staircase of the main platform. In addition, from the
south-western to the north-eastem sides of the quadrangular main platforni a fan-

shaped destruction of the floor can be noted with the narow section on the

south-western side. The fioor was cornpletely destroyed in the fan-shaped atea,

and seems to have been the point of impact. It seems dear, then, that the water

mass came from the sea. If we are right, the natural disaster may have been a

powerful tsunami. The clean grey sand typical of the bottom of the sea could

have been brought by the waves crashing ashore at the Puémape littoral dunng

the Middle Formative.

In the stratigraphie profiles facing the staircase layer IV shows a very

irregular disposition, clearly related with a severe and violent movement of

waters. Eraded human remains and broken diagnostic stimp-spout bornes were

distributed over the whole surface of layer IV (Plate 38). The style of the stimp-

spout bottles belongd to the Middle Puérnape Phase, meaning that the sudden

wave (s) crashing and its backwash removed Middle Puemape burials. Finally, a

cmst of saltpetre over the Middle Puemape cemetery was recorded in Excavation

Units 9 and 9-W. It is possible that the origins of the saltpetre cnist was as a

result of condensation of sea water over the œmetery after the tsunami.
 CHAPTER 7

FUNERARY SETTINGS AND CONTENTS IN DlFFERENT PUEMAPE PHASES

The Puémape funerary data is organized in tables. The tables are

arganized according to the phases in which the bunals were done. The Salinar

occupation and funerary data are beyond the scope of this dissertation. Only a

brief ovewiew will be given about the Salinar funerary practices.

The pre-Salinar funerary patterns at Puémape exhibit a high degree of

continuity, indicative of a local cultural tradition that continued over a long span of

time.

A. Eariv Puérnape Funeraw Burials of Excavation Unit 11

The Early Puémape funerary corpus is represented by 24 burials

(Appendix 4: Tables 23-28) from Excavation Unit 11, which onginally was used as

a residential area and later as a cemetery (Figure 22).

A. 1 Context of the burials

Some instances of re-use of a burial p l for a new interment were noted.

Wth respect to the integrity and degrees of aiteration of the remrded funerary

contexts, Chart 1 shows that: 18 were in situ burials and 5 were disturbed
during the same cultural phase. During the internent of burial XCVIII, buml XCVll

was disturbed (Figure 23),and burial CXI was disturbed during the internent of

burial CX (Figure 24). Burials CXI and XCIV (Figure 25) were disturbed when

burial XXXVll was placed (Figure 26).

The disturbed burials look like secondary burials; however, the funetary

origin of the alteration is clear. in addition, an intriguing fact was that the

disturbed burials had missing bones.

Although both were in situ, WO(VIII overlapped burial WO(IX (Figure

27). Finally, burial XXXl (Figure 28) was partially disturbed in modern times.

A.2 Tvoe. sham. and d e ~ t hof the uraves

All of the graves were simple pits dug into domestic settings, and al1 were

oval. Depth from the original surface to the funerary matrix mouth ranged from

1.03 m to 0.23 m. The depth of the funerary matnx ranged from 0.85 m to 0.28

m.

A.3 Orientation of the araves

The orientation of the simple oval pits followed the disposition of the

cadavers. The orientation of the burials varied (Chart 2). NElSW was the most

common orientation in the sample, and WIE was the least common. In short,
the burials did not follow a common orientation pattern but instead followed all

the cardinal orientations. Finally, the intrusive burials menüoned above followed

different orientations from those they disturbed.

A.4 Cadaver funeraw covennas

The sequence of coverings over the cadaver followed a consistent pattern

during the Eariy Puémape Phase, including the placement of a limitecl number of

objects over or inside the covers (Appendix 4:Tables 29-32). Two kinds of

covenngs were used, folldng a constant order: an extemal mat made of twined

reeds and an intemal cotton textile. In one case, burial WII (Figure 29), there

were two mats. In this burial an extended mat underlay the cadaver, which was

wrapped with the primary cotton textile, and the second mat wvered the top.

A.5 Obiects associated over, around or in between the funeraw coveflnas of the

bunals

The coverings served as physical divisions or boundaries between the

funerary offerings. Some objects were placed over or around the extemal mat

cover. In some instances objects were placed in direct association Ath the

cadaver inside the primary cotton textile covering. In some cases there was a

total absence of objects associateci with the cadavers, but the coverings were
present, wlh the exceptions of burials UOO(V(Figure 30 ), XCIII, XClV and CXI.

A. 5.1 Rockk) over the w r a ~ r x dcadavers

Rocks were one of the types of objects placed over or around some of the

wrapped cadavers. Two types of rocks were used: hard basalt rocks and the soft

'piedra bmezn(Chart 3).

The 'pieâra nomet" identified in association with the wrapped cadavers

had temains of manne life inside, mainly crustaceans such as the 'pico de loro"

(conical bamacle) (Balanus tintinnabulum). This means that the piedra rnjrnez''

since their formation were under water or in the intertidal section of the sea. The

basalt came from the rocky shore, beaten by the waves.

Three burials had 'piedra &nezw: In burial MXXVIII 4 'piedra m5mer'

were placed along the natural arch of the bundled cadaver's vertebral cdurnn; in
burial XCll (Figure 31) one ''piedfap5mez' was placed on the bundled cadavers

frontal bone; in burial CXlll (Figure 32)2 'piedra Domet were placed, one over

the left frontal and parietal bones of the skull and the second behind the occipital

bone.

Only two burials were associated with basaltic rocks. In bufial XXXll three

basaitic rocks were placed over the wrapped cadever. The largest rock,

measuring 0.70 m by 0.40 m, was placed over the upper and lower limbs,
thorax and pelvis. The second largest rock measuring 0.46 m by 0.20 rn width

was placed over part of the feet. The third and smallest rock, rneasuring 0.20 m

by 0.15 m was over the lowest part of the skull.

In the case of burial XXXlll only one basaltic rock measuring 0.30 rn by

0.25 m was placed over the right side of the skull. The remaining 19 burials were

without rocks.

A. 5.2 Gourds associated

A modified gourd, containing a cotton textile with blue decoration, covered

with apparent lime, was found in burial XXXIV. It was placed over the left side of

the upper rnaxilla and lower rnandible of the individual. The rest of the cadaven

were found without gourds; however, because of the poor preservation of organic

materials our picture of the frequency of use of gourds as funerary offenngs is

probably biased.

A.5.3 Cemmics associated

Only one case of associated ceramics was recordeci in the 24 Early

Puemape burials. A broken decornid neckless olla was found close to the

wrapped skull of burial XCIV; bacause of the disturbance of burial XClV caused

by the placement of buMl XXXVII, we do not know the exact original location
of the decorated neckless otla.

A.6 Ob-iects in contact with the cadaver

Objects in contact with the cadaver within the cotton textile primary

covering were found in bunal CXV (Figure 33). Vary fragile textile strands were

recorded over amis and legs. Remains of a textile headdress and a dense

amount of hematite covered the orbits of the skull. It is possible the hematite had

been containad in a little cotton textile bag, the rernains of which were found
nearby. This was the only case in the Early Puémape funerary corpus of the

association of hematite with mortuary pradices. For burials LXXXIX and XCll a

dense concentration of textiles was found over the skull and the pelvis.

Unfortunately, given the bad preservation of the textiles, we are not able to

identify the type of textiles used. In addition, in burial CX a textile cord was

recorded under the knee.

The poor preservation of textiles prevents us from being certain about the

practice of tying the cadavers. It may be that textile cords were used to tie only

some selected cadavers or that cords were used for tying al1 the cadaven.

A.7 Sex and aae of the individuals buried

The sex and age identification of the cadavers was done by Milan
Gillespie (University of Calgary) in 1996 at the Museo de la Nacion in Lima, Peni.

More female than male individuals were identified (Appendix 4:Tables 33-38);

however, for 46 % of the cadavers, the sex was unknown. The age range is from

infant to young adult.

A very interesting pattern regarding the sex and age of four individuals

emerged from burials XXXIII-XXXIV and WO(VIII-WO(IX, in which the oval

funerary pits were 'connected" to each other. Burials XXXIII-XXXIV contained a

male and a female young aduit cadaver (20-35 yean old) respectively (Figure

34). Burials WO<VIII-LXXXIX contained a young adult female and a middle adult

(35-50 years old) male respectively. Given the disposition of the funerary pits,

objects associateci, and the gender difierences of the cadavers, these burials

may represent symbolic dual oppositions. The implications of this with respect to

Andean ideology will be discussed in chapter 10.

A. 7.1 Cadaver wsitions

The rnajority of the cadavers were flexed, with the lower limbs brought up

to the thorax and the minority semidexed. It rnay be that the flexed position was

secureci by using textile cords to üe the upper and lower lirnbs.

A.7.2 Diswsition of the cadaver hands

Twenty-nine % of the cadavers had both hands over the face, 4% had

both hands over the head and the cheek, 4% had left hands over the head, and

4% had right hands over the cheek and the abdomen (Chart 4). There was a

notable variability in the disposition of the hands. The apparent tendency was to

dispose the hand (s) over the faa.

A.7.3 Dismsition of the cadaver umer lirnbs and finaers

The upper lirnbs were mostly flexed (Chaft 5). In only one case were the

upper limbs crossed. The fingers were mostly extended, with a srnall number

having clenched fingen.

A.7.4 Body dismsitions

The predominant (46%) disposition of the bodies was right lateral (Chart 6)

(Figures 35, 36, 37 and 38) (Plate 39). Thirty three per cent was left lateral

(Figure 39).

A.7.5 Cadaver orientations: from the thorax taiven bv the vertebral column)

The orientation of the thorax (as given by the vertebral column) vafied

between the northeast, which was the most çomrnon orientation, and the
southeast and west orientations, which were the least common (Chart 7)

(Appendix 4:Tables 394).

A.7.6 Cadaver orientations: rotation of the head (aiven bv the face orientation)

The cadaver orientations from the rotation of the head (given by the face

orientation) were also variable from the rnost common west orientation to the

least wmrnon northeast and south orientations of the sarnple (Appendix 4:Tables

3944). Only one burial, WO<IX, had the face orientation up. Both the orientation

of the cadavers as well as the orientation of the receptacles lacked a consistent

pattern.

A. 7.7 Cadaver cultural modifications

Only one skeleton had evidence of cultural modification: burial CXV, with

the orôits of the skull painted with hernatite (Appendix 4:Table 44).

B. Middle Puéma- Funeraw Seîtinas of Excavation Units 1. 2.6, 9, 9-W and 10

The Middle Puémape funerary corpus is represented by 42 burials

(Figures 40 and 41) (Appendix 5: Tables 45-54) from Excavation Units 1, 2,6, 9,

9-W and 1O. The excavation units with domestic contents that were used as a

œmeteries later on during the Middle Puemape Phase are: 6, 9, and 9-W.
Excavations units 1, 2 and 10 had sterile layen where intrusive Middle Puémape

burials were ptaced.

B.1 Context of the burials

As noted for Early Puemape, Middle Puémape burials were also

sometimes interred in the location of a former burial. Of the 42 burials 19 were in

situ burials, 10 were disturbad bunals in different phases of the Formative period

(D-1) and 13 were disturbed in modem times (D-2)(Chart 8).

Burial XXlV was disturbad during the internent of burial XXI (Figure

42)and burial CXVl during the internent of burial LVlll (Figure 43). Bath events

occuneâ in the same cultural phase. As was the case for the disturbad burials of

the Eariy Puemape Phase, these burials had the appearance of secondary

burials and had some bones missing. The cause of the disturbance, however,

was very clear.

Burials UOOJ, XCV, and CXVll were disturbed during the building of the

monumental architecture which belonged to the Late Puémape Phase.

lnterestingly the foundation of the monumental building followed the plan of the

burials. It seerns, then, that the Middle Puemape funerary setting was

intentionally chosen by the builders of the monumental architecture for ideological

reasons, a point I will take up later.

 The cause of the disturbance of burial XXVlll is not clear; however, it

mtained only a small number of human bones, stones, reed and cotton covering

remains as well. Burials UOMII, LXXIX. WO( and CXX. recorded in layer IV of

Excavation Unit 10, were directly beneath a domestic Salinar occupation

belonging to the Late Formative period (layer II).The disturbanœ of the burials

was caused by the intrusion of holes with organic and cultural remains from the

Salinar domestic layer. It was clear that the Salinar were searching for prestige

objects in the burials (Elera 1997).

of the araves
B.2 TYW, shape and d e ~ t h

Middle Puérnape graves show çome variation in shape. Thirty-five of the

42 are simple pits. Twenty-eight were oval pits, 6 rounded pits, and 1 was a

triangular pit with rounded corners. One burial had a shaft tornb, buriai i (Figure

44),unique for the site. Two burials, XXV and UOO<Vlll, had cysts, one with a

rounded shape and the other with a rectangular shape. For four of the disturbed

bunals we were unable to recognize the shape. The depth from the surface of

where burial openings began ranged from 1.O3m to 0.23 m. The depth of the

funerary rnatrix ranged from 0.85 m to 0.28 m.

6.3Orientation of the araves
The orientation of the shaft tomb and simple pits followed the disposition of

the cadavers. The orientations of the oval pits were taken from the pit border

section surrounding the skull. Unfortunately we were not able to record the

orientation of the cysts because of disturbances. The NiS (24 %) oflentation was

the most common in the funerary sample. and NEISW (5%) was the least

common orientation. In short. the burials did not follow a consistent pattern of

orientation.

8.4 Cadaver funerarv wverinas

Middle Puémape cadavers, like those of the Eariy Puémape Phase, were

wrapped in a sequence of covenngs. which, as I said eariier, implies a sort of

fomalized funerary program. Two kinds of coverings were used in the following

constant order. an extemal mat cover twined wiVi reed and cotton warps, which

covered a primary cotton textile wrapped around the cadaver. There were 18 in

situ cadavers wrapped with both covers. Remains of both avers in 23 disturbeâ

bunéils were recorded. The disturbances ocairred in the same cultural phase,

Late Puémape Phase and modem times. I would suggest that the use of both

coverings was a very cornmon characteristic in the way of preparing the cadaver

to be buried during the Middle Puémape Phase(Appendix 5:Tables 55-65) .

 Only one 'bunaln, XClX-C (Figure 45). lacked a cover. In this case two

individuals were placed over an extended cotton textile, and the disposition of the

cadaven, and mutilations were also atypical of the funerary customs followed

with the rest of the burials. This was possibly a human sacrifice instead of a

typical Middle Puémape funerary internent.

In some cases two mat coverings were recorded (burial XXI). Remains of

tmne made of rushes were found wrapped around the funerary 'packetn. In the

case of burial XXX (Figure 46) an extended reed mat covered the bottom of the

funerary pit (over the extended reed mat). The cadaver was placed and was

wrapped in the traditional primary cotton textile and the second extemal mat

caver. In one case a burial (XXVII) was recorded with two reed mat coverings and

no funerary offerings .

The pdrnary cover in every case was apparently a plain textile woven

entirely of cotton. We were not able to identiiy structural or painted designs in the

fragmented textile rernains. The cotton textile or primary cover, was in direct

contact with the cadaver.

B.5 Obiects associated over and amund the mat extemal funeran, mverinas

In the Middle Puémape cultural and organic materials such as wrapped

animals, rocks (painted with or without hematite), upiedran6mez", modifiecl

gourds, food remains, ceramics, and so on were placed over or in between the

mat coverings in different positions and dear associations W h the bunals. As

with the Eariy Puémape bunals, reed and cotton coven marked divisions

between different parts of the burial event.

B.S. 1 Wra~rxdanimals

Over the second mat cover of burial XXI, facing the mouth of the pit, were

two small funerary bundles containing a 'wn

(guinea pig) (Cavia potcellus) and a

dog (Cannis sp.) respectively. Both animals were wrapped with cotton textiles.

Close to the wrapped animals a modifieâ gourd was found. Only one burial

associated with wrapped animals was reported in the funerary sample.

B.5.2 Rockk) over the w r a ~ w dcadavers

In burial XCI (Figure 47) one big 'piedra Dom& was placed over the

bundled occipital skull's bones. Two 'piedra Wmez" were found in burial XXVlll

(Figure 48) but because of disturbance their original position could not be

detennined.

Five bunals were associated with basaltic rocks. Burial CVlll was

associated with three rocks placed over the wrapped lower limbs of the cadaver

(Figure 49) (Chart 9).

 In burial CI (Figure 50) a large basaltic rock was placed over a smaller fiat

basaltic rock, the upper surface of which had been painted with hematite. The

large rock covered the skull and the thorax, and the smaller rock was in direct

contact with a group of ceramic vessels, which were placed over the right pelvic

region. Two other burials were associated with flat basaltic rocks painted with

hematite on the upper surface. In burial MVI (Figure 51) the rock was placed

over the rigM side of the skull, and in burial L W the rock was over the left side of

the skull. No rocks were found in association with the remaining 35 burials;

however, given the degree of disturbance of some of the 35 bunals, it is difficul

to know whether or not they were associated with rocks.

8.5.3 Gourds associated

Ten of the 19 undisturbed burials contained varying numbers of modified

gourds; the other 9 had no gourds. No gourds were found in the 23 disturbed

burials, but considering the fragility of these containers, 1 is impossibleto know

whether they might have originally b e n included in the burials.

The nurnber of modified gourds varies from one to four. Only one gourd

was associated with the fdlowing burials: In burial XX the gourd was mer the

wrapped right side of the lower limb, dose to the left hand. In burial CI the gourd

was associateci with a group of three ceramic items (Specimens 105, 106,
and 139), which will be described later. A Rat basaltic rock with hematite. noted

above, was placed over the wrapped nght side of the distal section of the lower

limb as well as the right hand, cubit and radius and the right side of the pelvis of

the cadaver. In burial Clll the gourd was placed over the wrapped cadaver,

exactly between the distal part of the right humenis and the clavicle as well as the

right side of the face of the individual.

The following burials were associated with 2 gourds. In burial XXll (Figure

52) one small gourd was covered with an up side down big gourd and both were

placed between the extemal mat cover and the Cotton textile pnmary cover,

adjacent to the southwest edge of the posterior skull. Burial XXlX (Figure 53) had

a large gourd containing a vesse1jar (Sp. No. 61). They were placed over the

right anterior shoulder. A second gourd was placed over the left anterior am.

In burial XM, two gourds were placed in between the extemal mat cover

and the cotton textile prîmary cover. The gourds, containing poorly preserved

textiles, were over and following the direction of the nght a m of the wrapped

cadaver.

In burial LWII. one small moâified gourd inside a larger modfied gourd

along with a stimip-spout bottle (Sp. No. 92) were placed over the extemal mat

cover. The spout of the boffle was in the open mouth of the small gourd. This

association could be interpreted as a material manifsstation of the stirrup-

spout bottle being used to serve liquids in the small gourd. North Coastal

ethnographie accounts record the use of cut gourds as vessels for drinking

'chicha" (corn beer).

One bunal, XXI, had 3 gourds. One gourd, -together with a stinup-spout

bottle (Sp. No. 52)- was placed over the extemal third cover facing the mouth of

the funerary pit. The other two gourds were placed between the extemal third

cover and aie second cover. Both gourds were placed close to the upper part of

the right side of the cadaver, which was in a seated position.

In burial XXlll four modified gourds were recorded over different points of

the wrapped cadaver. Two gourds were placed over the southeast surface of the

extemal mat wver (above the posterior skull). lnside the larger gourd was an

inverted decorated ceramic bowl (Sp. No. 55), and a small, whole gourd rested

on aie external base of the ceramic bowl. The remaining gourd was found on the

east and southeast surface of the external mat cover. The eastem modified gourd

(located below the posterior left femur) was facing a neckless olla to the west

(Sp. No. 56) (located below the posterior right femur). Outside the wrappeâ

cadaver on the southeastem side was a modified gourd of the same shape and

size as the eastern modifmd gourd.

B.5.4 Oraanic remains associated

Unidentified fish rernains were recorded on the bottom of the pit of burial

WII. Mussel (Chommytilus chorus) valves were found in two burials. A mussel

valve was found over the wrapped cadaver of burial XXX. Mussel valves along

with plant remains were found within a bowl (Sp. No. 106) over the wrapped

cadaver of burial CI. The fish, mussel and plant rernains may represent food

staples disposad as a part of the funerary offerings. Finally, a mussel valve

(ChommytiIus C ~ O N S )containhg hematite was found over the left a m of the

cadaver of burial XXII1. The presence of hematite in the mussel would seem ta

signe the high symbolic value of this pigment in a natural container that is

usually associated with spedal offerings.

6.5.5 Ceramics associated

Stimrp-spout bottles, bottles, jars, neckless ollas, pots, M s , and clay

disks were found over and around the extemal reed mat cover. Nine of the 19

undisturbed burials contained ceramics (Charts 10 and 11). Ceramics were found

in several of the disturbed burials; however, because they were not in situ, the

position with respect !O the cadaver was not recordeci.

In burial I a bottle representing snakes (Sp. No. 5) was found over the

lumbar vertebrae of the wrapped cadaver. In burial XX (Figure 54) a stimip-

spout bottle representing two edible roots(Sp. No. 46). grouped with a fniit-shape

bowl (Sp. No. 50) that contained a srnall undecorated bowl (Sp. No. 47), was

recorded bordering the southeast bottom of the funerary pit. A decorated bowl

(Sp. No. 48) was placed above the right side of the wrapped anterior skull.

A stimp-spout bottle, representing a marine tropical bivalve rnollusk (Sp.

No. 52), was recorded in burial MI.The bottle was placed to the northwest of the

anterior skull. In burial XXll a plain large bowl (Sp. No. 57) was placed over the

posterior left shoulder of the wrapped cadaver. In burial XXlll an upright stirrup-

spout ôottle (Sp. No. 53) and a vertical clay disk (Sp. No. 54) were placed

bordering the funerary packet over the wrapped posterior right a n of the

wrapped cadaver. An inverted large decorated bowl (Sp. No. 55) covered by a

gourd was plaœd beside the cadaver. Also, a decorated neckless alla (Sp. No.

56) was placed over the posterior wrapped right l m r iimb.

In burial XXVl an upright bottle with a broken spout was found over the

extemal cover (Sp. No. 86). Beneath the location of the bottle and between the

extemal cover and the prirnary Cotton textile two gourd-bowls were found. The

gourds were directly above the left side of the face and the proximal section of

the humenis. The sequence of the objects, then, from top to bottom is as follows:

the vertical bottle, extemal mat cover, 2 gourd-bowis with the mouths facing up,

primary Cotton textile, mouth of the cadaver. This assoca

io
tin c m be seen to
represent the a d of consuming liquids from the container bottle, on the upper

level, to the gourd (s). on the middle level. which were placed dose to the mouth

of the individual buried in the third level.

ki burial XXlX a plain neckless olla (Sp. No. 60) was placed over the

anterior wrapped right shoulder, and to the west. over the anterior wrapped left

shoulder, was a modified gourd containing an upright little jar (Sp. No. 61).

centered in the gourd. Again. note the association gourd-bottle, related

functionally to serving and containing liquids. A sirnilar situation was recorded in

burial LVlll where an indined stimp-spout bottle (Sp. No. 92) was found with the

spout inside a gourd-bowl over the fiexed wrapped lower limbs of the cadaver.

Finally, in burial No. CI over the extemal mat cover a stimipspout bottle (Sp. No.

139) was found grouped wrth a small jar (Sp. No. 105) and a dacorated bowi (Sp.

No.106) containing marine and temestrial remains. As mentioned above, a big

basaltic rock covered most of a small Rat painted rock, which at the same time

was covering and in direct contact with the srnall jar and the bowt containing the

organic remains, but covering only a small part of the stimipspout bottle. Most of

the stimip-spout bottle was under the big basaltic rock.

The placement of the stimip-spout botües did not folkw a rigid pattern.

They were placed in different positions over the wrapped cadavers, and less

commonly, around thern. The recurrent association between bottles and

gourds wuld represent containing and serving liquids, disposed as a offenngs in

soma burials. In addition, the funerary stimip spout bottles, which appear for the

first time in Middle Puemape, were the main medium for representing natural and

supernaturai beings. The representation of the flora and fauna of the local

environments as well as from distant tropical seas was quite clear. These will be

analyzeû and discussed in Chapter 9.

Four of the burials disturbed at the time of occupation contained ceramics

(Dl). 'Coincidentallyw,both burials XXlV and CXVl had similat, modeled stimip

spout bottles representing roots of a possible local wild botanical species (Sp. No.

51 and Sp. No. 91, respectively). In addition a sherd of a fruit-shaped bowl (Sp

No.145) was recorded for bunal CXVI. The stimp-spout bottle frorn burial CXVl

was found in situ despite the burial disturbanœ. A folded-leaf frorn a reed, was

stuck in the opening of the bottle like a stopper, a kirther evidence that such

bottles were used to hold liquid. Finally, burial W(VIII contained a plain jar (Sp.

No. 102) and burial UOO( had a broken stimip-spout bottle (Sp. No. 153). Both

burials were disturbed during the Salinar occupation.

Five burials disturbed in modem times (0-2) had cerdmics. Burial II

contained a broken stimpspout bottle (Sp. No. 7). lmmediately to the south of

the disturbed human remains of burial CV a plain jar was found in sRu (Sp.

No.100). It was placed beside the boundary of the bottom of the funerary pit.
Within the disturbed human remains of burial CVll a fragmented plain neckless

olla was found(Sp. No. 107). Burial CXXl contained a sherd belonging to a

stimp-spout bottle (Sp. No. 197) and a decorated bowl (Sp. No. 88). Finally,

burial CXXll contained an ocarina (Sp. No. 76) with red and white post-fire paint

representing a coileci naturalistic snake.

8.6 Obiects found in between the second external reed mat and the ~ r i r n a ~

cotton textile covers

Only three burials contained objects between the two coven (Table 66).

Two epidote pendants (Sp. No. 65) of a shiny green luster were recordad in burial

XXlll along the left side of the posterior wrappeû pelvis. In burial XXVl two

gourds were placed in between the external mat cover and the cotton primary

cover and between the left side of the face and the proximal section of the
humerus. Finally, in burial LVill were a fine anthracite mirror (Sp. No. 93) and a

basket woven wiai rushes (Sp. No. 93-a), and inside the basket was an ovoid

piece of chalk (Sp. No. 93-b). Weavers, today, usually use this kind of chalk,

when they are spinning cnide cotton or wool. According to traditional weavers of

the North Coast, the chalk is used to prevent the sweat of the hands from

contacting the vegetal or animal fiben. This group of artifacts from burial LVlll

was found facing the knees and hands of the wrapped cadaver.
6.7 Objects in contact with the cadaver found within the cotton textile ~rimary

-
=ver

Twelve of the undisturbed burials contained objects inside the primary

cover (Tables 67-75). Mostly omarnents made of different local and imported raw

materials were found. In some cases implements related to some ecunomic

activities were recorded. Plants and the ubiquitous mussel shells (ChommytiIus

chonrs),with or without hematite, were recorded in different positions as well.

Ceramic containers were rare but present as special containers of pigments and

processed vegetable fiben. The dual burial, XCIX-C, without a cover, was

exceptional. To the southeast of the cadaven, 5 mussel shells(ChommytiIus

chorus) as well as one shell from the mussel Aulacomya ater on top of the

extended cotton textile, and a son of pocket of ash measunng 0.15 m by 0.10 m

was found to the south of the skull of the cadaver No. C.

Three pointed bone a t i i c t s (Specirnens No. 1,2, and 3) were recorded

between the right side of the pubis ardi and the calcaneus of the left foot of burial

1, and between the proximal left tibia and rigM fibula of the lwer limbs, two valves

of mussels (ChommytiIuschonrs)were found. A broken bone needle (Sp. No.

141-a) was rewrded with the infant cadaver of burial XX. The exact provenience

of the needle was not noteâ because it was not distinguished from the small
infant bones during excavation. Over the proximal section of the left humenis,

two epidote green beads (Sp. No. 141-b) were placed. Five shell omaments (Sp.

No. 141c)and one bird bone bead (Sp. No. 1414) were placed as a headdress

over the skull. Four of the shell omaments present rounded and ûiangular

shapes. The remaining sh8ll omament was carved in a bird shape. These

omaments had one or two wholes on the top and were carved in valves of mussel

(Choromyfilus chorus). Sticks, about 0.20 m long were plaœd along the upper left

limb. the left side of the back, and behind the skull as a sort of artificial support.

but no evidence of strings for tying the cadaver was found. A crystalline quartz

fragment (Sp. No. 140) was found with the cadaver also. In burial XXI a mussel

(Chommytiius chorus) valve was found over the nght side of the chest. Three

round4 and two rhomboid stone beads (Sp. No. 64) carved in epidote were

recorded over the knees and the chest. In burial XXll one mussel (Chommytilus

choms) valve was found over the chest, as well as fruits of a@ (Chili pepper)

(Capsicum sp.) over the neck and the chest.

On the cadaver of burial XXlll a bracelet (Sp. No. 117) was placed around

the proximal section of the left radius and ulna. The bracelet was made of

unidentMd shell and stone. Over the posterior nght side of the pelvis girdle,

exactly over the iliac crest, were two decorated spindle whorls (Sp. No. 117-b) or
possibly big beads carved of sepiolite. Under the chest were two purple
mussel valves (Chommytilus chonrs). Between the right anterior clavicle and the

right lateral mandible was a bundle of coca leaves (Etythoxylum novoganatense

var. tmxillense) wrapped with a cotton textile (Figure 55). Around the neck of the

cadaver of burial XXVl was a collar (Sp. No. 135) of 395 beads carved from the

shells of 'mullun (thomy oyster) (Spondylus princeps) and a sepiolite pendant

carved as a stylired coiled snake (Plate 40). Over the anterior neck of the

mdaver of burial M I X was a long quadrangular-shaped lapis lazuli ôead (Sp. No.

63) (Plate 41). Under the nght posterior low side of the back of the cadaver was

a cluster of 19 white snails (Polinices uber) (Sp. No. 62). each of which was

roughly perforateci on the top of the shell. which would have allowed them to be

string as a necklace. Along with the snail shells was a mussel shell (ChommytiIus

choms). Two different end complementary habitats, then were associated with

the cadaver: the white snails fmm the sandy littoral and the bla& mussels from

the rocky littoral.

A necklace of cawed white beads made ftom unidentifiable seashell was

found around the neck of the cadaver of burial L W . Two rhomboid and one

rwnded sepiolite stone beads (Sp. No. 129) were disposed as a bracelet around
the proximal cubit and radius bones. A bundle of cactus needles (Sp. No. 99) was

found baside the distal section of the right humerus. A spindle whorl of dark

limestone (Sp. No. 128) incised and covered with hematite was also
recorded. There were two ceramic containers plaœd in opposite positions and

locations. An upside dom plain bowl (Sp. No. 104), containing cotton skeins and

hematite, was placed in between the articulation of the radius and ulna with the

humerus of the left arrn and over the left side of the last ribs of the thorax. A

neckless olla (Sp. No. 103) was placed vertically, with the mouth up, under and

close to the articulation of the femur with the fibula and tibia of the right leg.

Two bracelets were found on the cadaver of burial XCI. One consisted of

an epidote bead placed around the proximal section of the ulna and radius of the

right a m , and the other consisteâ of a nacre (mother-of-pearl) bead placed

around the proximal section of the ulna and radius of the left am. The materials

of which the beads were made contrasts the terrestrial and marine settings.

An interesting feature of burial CVI was a bicotor (da* orange and green

colon) textile band around the fiexed cadaver(Figure 56). The band was tied

across the twelfth thoracic and the first lumbar vertebrae and around the flexed

proximal sections of both femurs and both tibias and fibulas. It was quite clear

that the band had b e n used to tie the cadaver in a flexed position. A rectangular

omament carved in mother of pearl (Sp. No. 116) with two hotes on the edges

was found under the left lateral side of the mandible of the cadaver. Two similar

artifacts were found associated with the neck of the cadaver of burial CIX. Both

as well had a hole along the edge, probably for attaching a string. The
measurements are 0.06 m of long by 0.03.2 m wide. In addition, a fragment of

mother of pearl was found. Another find close to the chest of the cadaver of

burial CIX was the exoskeleton of a black sea-urchin (Tetrapygus niger) (Figure

57).

Some artifacts were found under the cadavers (0-2)disturbed in modem

times. In the in situ skull and part of the upper thorax section of the cadaver of
burial LIX was a necklace (Sp. No. 130) made of 7 stone beads (5 opals, 1

epidote and 1 sepiolite) and 2 unidentified bone beads. Behind the posterior skull

and the neck were two vertical sticks (Figure 58). In burial CXll 11 rounded bone

beads were found(Sp. No. 123). In burial CXXI, which we calied the 'contortionist

burial' because of the above mentioned cerarnic find from this funerary wntext,

quite notable omaments were found: a fine carved bead made of crystal rock (Sp.

No. 45-a) (0.1.5 rn by 00.1 m) (Plate 42), a marine snail (Oliva peruviana) (Sp.

No. 45-b) perforateci in its distal section, Wo cerarnic rounded spindle whorîs,

one plain and the other decorated with geometric incisions (Sp. No. 4 5 4 , sixteen
tubular and rounded shell and stone beads (Sp. No. 45d), one tubular bone bead

(Sp. No. 45e) measunng 0.02 m by 0.0.5 m, a flake of crystal rock (Sp. No. 49)

and finally, an adult sea lion fang (Otaria sp.) carved into a complete naturalistic

standing human (.0.5xO. 13).The carved fang has a hole from which it could be

suspendeci (Plate 43 and Figure 59).

B.8 Sex and arre of the individuals buned

Of the 20 in situ cadaven 5 have been identified as female (Intements: 1,

CIXXI, LVII1, and CIX); 1 male (Internent: CVI): and 14 as unknown (Interments:
XCIX, XX, XXII, XXIII. XXVI, XXVII, XXIX, XXX. XC, XCI, CI,CII, CIII, and CIV).

The ages were determined as:2 neonates (Intements: XXVll and C11);5 infants

(Intemients less than (or <)1 years old: XX, XXIII, XXIX. XXX, and C1);S children

(Intements less than 12 yean old: XCIX, M I I , XXVI. XC, and XCI); 1 adolescent

(intements less thanl8 years old: CIII); 4 young adults (Intements from 20 to 35

years old: I, ClM I , and LVIII); 2 middle adults (Interments from 35 to 50 years

old: CIV and CIX); and one individual of unknown age (CVI) (Tables 76-85),

Of the 10 burials disturbed during the period of occupation (Dl)3

wntained the rnixed remains of more than one individual. Of the 7 burials with

one individual only 2 females (UON and XCV) could be identified sexually. for the

remaining 5 (XXIV. MVIII, C M ,W(V and XCV) no sex identification could be

made. The following ages were recorded: one middle adult (35 to 50 years old:

W<V); one young adult (20 to 35 years old: XCV); one Infant (leas than 1 yaar

old: LXXIX); and 2 children (lesthan 12 years old: XXVlll and CXVI). lndividuals

from burials X X N and W(VIIIare of unknown age. For the mixecl burials the

following was recorded. In burial CXVil one old adult male (more than 50
years old), one child and 2 adolescents of unknown sex were identified. In burial

LXXX rernains of one child and one adolescent of unknown sex were found. In

burial CXX one child and 2 adolescents of unknown sex were found.

Of 13 bunals disturbed in modem times (D-2) 3 çontained the mixed

remains of more than one individual. For the burials Ath a single individual the

following identificationswere made: in burial XXV an old adult female (more than

50 years old); in burial CVlll one middle aduit (35 to 50 yean old); burial LIX an

J a female of unknown age; in burial MI a

infant of unknown gender; in burial i

young adult of unknown gender; in burial CV a child of unknown gender; in burial

CVll a male of unknown age; in burial CXll a child of unknown gender; and in

burials II and CXXll fragmented human rernains that could not be it identified with

respect to sex or age. For the mixed burials the following was recorded: in burial

CXVlll 3 adolescents of unknown gender; in burial C M I a child and young adult

of unknown gender and in burial UII humans remains for which age and sex
determinations could not be made.

B.8.1 Cadaver msitions

Of the 20 undisturbed cadaven, 8 were flexed, 8 semi-fiexed and 4 were

extended. Wah the exemption of CW, none had corda or bands tying their legs in

the flexed position; however, considering the state of preservation. it seems

probable that al1 were tied but that the evidence did not survive.

8.8.2 Dismsition of the a n s and hands of the cadaver

Most cornrnonly the amis and hands were positioned to the side of the

cadaven. In 6 (XXII, XXVI, XXVII, XXIX, XXX, and CI) cases both upper limbs

with open hands were position against the sides of the cadaven. Burials XXIII,

LVIII, XCI, and CIX had only the right limb along the side, with open hand. In

burial XXlll the left upper limb with an open hand was under the pelvis. In burials

LVlll and XCI the lefi upper limb was flexed with an open hand. position. Burial

CIX had the lei?upper limb over the chest with an open hand. In the case of only

one left upper limb along with of one side of the cadaven were record& in burial

XX . In the same bunal the right flexed upper limb was disposed with the hand

over the pelvis. Burial XXI had both upper lirnbs in between the lower lirnbs of the

seated cadaver.

Burials XC and CVl had both hands over the face. XC had clenchecl fis&

and CVi had open hands. CIV had both upper limbs crossed, with the left hand on

the right knee and the right hand. Specifically 1 was the right a m and the hand

with the extended fingen over the mediai section of the left a m . For the dual

burial XCIX-C, cadaver XCIX had the left upper limb extended and open to the

southwest. with the right upper limb flexed and the Cngers denched but not
carefully positioned. Cadaver No. C presented only a partial left upper lirnb, and

the right upper limb was missing.

B.8.3 Bodv discmsition

For the 20 undisturbed cadaven the following body dispositions were

recorded. These cadavers were from burials: XX, XXVI, XXVII, XXIX, XXX, C and

CI were placed on their backs. Five (LVIII, CII, CIII, CVI, and CIX) were on their

right sides. Four (MII, XXIII, XCI, and XCIX) were placed on their chests. Three

(1. XC, and CIV) were on their left sides. And one (XXI) was in a seated position.

8.8.4 Cadaver orientations: from the thorax (oiven bv the vertebral column)

Cadaver orientations as detemined by the vertebral column were recorded

as follows. The six cadavers (XXI, LViII, XC, CI, CII, and CIV) had northwest

orientation; 3 cadaven (CXX, XXIII, and XXX) swtheast; 3 cadaven (XCIX

[XCIX-Cl, CIII. and CIX) southwest; 3 cadavers (XXII, XXVl and XXM) south; 2

cadavers (XCI and CVlll) east;1 cadaver(XXVl1) noftheast; and 1 (No. 1) had an

east-west orientation. Burial LIX, of the disturbed bunals under the P 2 category

was oriented ta the west.

8.8.5 Cadaver orientations: rotation of the head (aiven b~ the face orientation1

The most cornmon cadaver orientation based on the rotation of the head

(given by the facial orientation) was facing up, with 9 cadavers (XX, XXVI, XXIX.

XXX, XC, CI, CII, Clll and LIX) recordeci in that position. Two cadavers (XCIX

[XCIX-C] and XCI) were facing dom. Three (1. XXI II, and LVIII) faced southwest.

1hree (C [XCIX-Cl, CVl and CIX) faced northeast. The cadaver of burial XXI
faced northwest, and XXll faced east.

0.8.6 Cadaver culturaf modifications

Cultural modifications to the cadavers are organized under two main

categories: physical trauma produced by extemal force and cultural elements

inside or over the cadavers. In the physical traumas category cases of

decapitation, amputation and possible buming were identfied. Three cadaven

exhibited decapitation or amputation. Only the cadaver of burial CIV had the head

cut off but the seven cervical vertebrae were severed as well. The decapitated

cadaver had b e n wrapped following the same ûeatment as the aimplete

cadavers but with a complete lack of offerings (Figure 60). The two cadaven of

XCIX- C had amputations. The fernate young aduit (cadaver No. C) had toes of

the left b o t amputated. Cadaver XCiX, a child, had several amputations. The

skull was incomplete. The left hurnenis, the Mole right upper limb, the left
hand, toes of the right and left feet had been removed. As mentioned above, this

burial deviated in many respects from the others. Lack of care in positionhg the

limbs is evident . The cadaver appears to have been tossed into the pit. A cotton

textile had ben placed in bottom of the pit. but the cadaven were not wrapped.

Only mussels shells and a block of ash were plaœd in the tomb as funerary

offerings.

Thtee burials (XX, XXIII, and XXIX) had partially carbonized bones. Burials

XX and XXlX were infants and XXlll was a child. All three, then, were of very

young individuals, and al1 three were associated with noteworthy grave goods.

Cotton textiles folded into small packets were found in the mouth cavities

of burials XXll (child) , XXVl (child) and LVlll (femele young adult) (Plates 44 and

45) and LIX (infant).

Hematite had been painted on some cadavers. Hematite was painted

densely over the frontal bone of the infant cadaver from burial XXlX and over the

complete face and the parietal bones of the cranium of the female young adult

from burial LVIII. The infant cadaver from burial CI had hematite painted under

the nght foot. A lump of hematite was placed in contact with the right side of the

skull of the adolescent cadaver from burial Clll and some of the color had

diffused into the bone. Hematite was recorded from the undisturbed graves of

burials XXI (female young adult). W I (child), and CVI (male) but exact
provenience is not known. Under the D-2 category (disturbed in modem times)

hematite was recorded in association with human remains of burials XXV (femaie

old adult) and CXll (child).

C. Late Puémarie burials

Burials and diagnostic funerary ceramics belonging to the Late Puémape

Phase were discovered on the northeastem-southwestem right side of the hills.

These hills border the open flat spaœ where the described temple was built.

Another important, but looted, Late Puémape œmetery is located to the northeast

of Cerro Azul, which is surrounded to the southwest by the El Jaguey or

Puémape branch of the Cupisnique river. From our observations of the looted

burials, the Late Puémape Phase seems to have followeâ the same funerary

customs reported for the Late Cupisnique Phase at the Morro de Eten site,

located on the littoral of the Lambayeque Valley (Elera 1986).

D. Salinar Funerarv Settinas: a brief overview

The Salinar cemeteries in Puemape extended over earlier cerneteries and

monumental architecture of the site. Stratigraphically the Salinar cemeteries

covered the Middle Puémape cerneteries. Fm-three Salinar burials were

identified at Puémape, the largest number in Excavation Unit 6 (Figure 61).

The fint two layers of Excavation Unit 6, had a matrix of d i a n sand, which

covered the Late Puémape temple. The area was first used for domestic

purposes by the Salinar, and after they abandoned it as a cemetery. Layers 1 and

2 contained the remains of the domestic activities and the Salinar burials intruded

into layen 2 and 3.

During the Salinar occupation, the ventral and back extended position for

the cadaven was the predominant pattern. The cadavers were usually wrapped

with a &ton textile and tied with rush ropes. Wth few exceptions the cadavers of

al1 ages were oriented to the southwest, i.e., toward the ocean (Plate 46). This

pattern of orientation was not exclusive to the human cadavers but also included

11 dogs of various ages (Figure 62). This, of course, contrasts rnarkedly with the

random orientation of the Eady and Middle Puémape bunals. Both Salinar

humans and dogs, in sume cases, were associateâ with rnodifed gourds. In the

human caâavers the containers were placed mainly around the head, in one case

replacing the head (Figure 63). Some gourds contained sea food, such as

'canareio violaceon(purple crab) (Platyxanthus onbignyi). Some of the human

cadavers exhibited severe physical trauma such as decapitation or amputation of

the upper limbs and severed fingers and toes (Figure 64).
E. Puémam Funeraw Patterns

Continuities from Early to Middle Puémape funerary practices are a corner-

stone for assigning them to the same cultural tradition. Similady, if the Late

Puémape Phase (LPP) can be show to have been culturally rooted in the Middle

Puémape Phase, a long standing local cultural tradition will have been defined,

which was only intemipted by a natural catastrophe that occurred before the

Salinar people amved in Puémape.

The following presents the similarities and differences between the Early

Puémape and Middle Puémape funerary practices:

A. The disturbance of in situ burials during the sarne cultural phase was a

cornmon practice in both phases. In both the EPP and MPP the muse

of a former burial spot for a new internent was a typicai funerary

practice.

B. Simple oval pits were the principal type of burial chamber in both the

EPP and the MPP. New fulerary receptacles appeared during the MPP

with the addition of a few shaft tombs and cysts. In general both the

EPP and MPP funerary matrices burials were shallow.

C. Neither the EPP not the MPP burial had a consistent pattern of burial

orientation. There was a slight tendency for EPP burials to be oriented

NUSW and for the MPP burials NB, but burials were oriented in al1

cardinal directions.

Both EPP and MPP burials were wrapped in reed and cotton covers. In

the undisturbed burials of both phases the following standardized order

was used: one extemal reed mat, which covered completely a primary

cotton textile which was directly over the cadaver. The covers in both

phases established a saquence of burial and physical boundaries

between associated objacts. In a few cases there were two extemal

reed mats only in the MPP burials. Cords binding the burials were rare,

probably because of poor preservation, but present in both phases.

E. A difference between the phases is evident in the quantity of funerary

goods. The majority of the EPP burials had no associated funerary

goods. In contrast, the majority of the MPP burials has associated

goods.

F. Rocks were placed over some of the m p p e d cedavers in both

 EPP and MPP burials. Basaltic and 'piedra b m e f from the rocky

shoreline were used. The basaltic rocks plaœd over some of the MPP

burials were painted with hematite.

G. Modified "empty" gourds and gourds containing artifacts and organic

and mineralogical remains were recorded in both phases. The main

difference was the nurnber of gourds per burial and Meir content. Only

one case of a modfied gourd containing a textile covered with

apparent lime was discovered in the EPP burials sarnple. In contrast,

during the MPP, 1O undisturbed burials had from one to four modifieci

gourds. The gourds were placed in speafc locations over the

wrapped cadaver.

H. Only one oeramic vessel, a neckless olla, was found in one of the EPP

burials. In MPP burials ceramic vessels and musical instruments were

found. Vessels inciuded neddess ollas, bawls, stîmpspout bottles,

botties, jars, pots, and clay disks. An ocarina was also found. In some

cases bowk mntained terrestrial and seafood.

1. Objects in contact with the cadaver inside the primary cover were
 abundant in the MPP burials. These included tools and omaments

made in semi-precious stones, exotic shells, day and bone. The

association of funerary goods with some of the children and

adolescents was notable. Some MPP burials, however, lacked any

funerary objects. In contrast, only one EPP burial, with a textile

hairdress, has associated grave goods in contact with the cadaver.

J. There were more female than male cadavers in both the EPP and MPP

samples. The dual burial of EPP, however, was unique and the two

individuals in opposite position were of opposite sex. Maybe the same

funerary custom had existed during the MPP but we have not

recovered the evidenœ.

K The rnajority of the cadaven in both phases were flexed or semi flexed.

In the MPP, however, some children and adolescents had extended

cadavers.

L. The disposition of the amis and hands of the cadaven vaned in both

the EPP and the MPP burials. In the EPP cadaven, however, there

was a slight tendency to dispose the hand(s) over the face. In the
 MPP cadavers there was a slight tendency to dispose the upper

Iimbs to the sides of the individuals.

M. The predominant disposition of the bodies was right lateral in the EPP

cadavers, followed in order of frequency by the left lateral disposition

of the bodies; whereas, for the MPP burials the order of frequency was

dorsal, right lateral and left lateral.

N. Conceming the body orientations (as measured by the vertebral

column) the highest frequency for EPP burials was to the northeast,

the southeast orientation Ming the lowest. For MPP the highest

frequency was the northwest orientation, and east-west was the

lowest.

O. Of the orientations as measured by the rotation of the head (the face

orientation) the highest frequency for EPP burials was to the west; the

lowest was to the northeast. For the MPP most were facing up, with

the least frequent being northwest and east orientations.

 P. Cultural modifications of the cadaver were l e s common in the EPP

than in MPP, with only one case having hematite nibbed over the orbits

of the face. In the MPP several cadavers had hematite applied over the

skull or the face. Folded Cotton textiles inside the mouth were another

feature of some MPP cadaven. Decapitationand amputation were

recordeâ as well.

There are more sirnilarities than differences between the EPP and MPP

bunals. The changes during the MPP seem to be additions to and elaboration on

a basic funerary pattern which is manifest in the EPP. The marked increase in
the ocairrance of funerary goods during the MPP is the most noticeable change.

Such changes in the association of burials with status or wealth objects most

likely reflects changes which were occurring in the social, political and religious

organization of the society. This possibility will be explored further in the

concluding chapter.
 CHAPTER 8

ORGANE REMAINS: ANALYSE AND INTERPRETATION

The results of the analysis of the floral and faunal remains from Puémape

are presented in the chapter.

A. Flora: Analvsis and Intemretation

The study of archaeological plant remains from Puérnape was camed out,

as mentioned, by Botanist Eloy Lopez Medina of the National Univenw of

Trujillo (UNT) Peni, who is an expert in the native north-coastal Peruvian flora.

He was assisted by Biologist Victor Vasquez of the Archaeo-biological and

Paleo-ecological Andean Research Centre (UNT) and Mr. Franco Le6n del Val

of the lnstitute of Traditional Medicine of Lima. They also received valuable help

in the histology studies h m Dr. Manuel Femandez Honores, who is a specialist

in vegetal morphology (UNT).

The main emphasis here will be the analysis of botanical remains used for

food and industrial purposes from the Early to the Middle Pubmape Phases. The

plant remains were found in domestic and funerary contexts. and constitute a

more limited, archaeological botanical sample than those recoveted from the

Salinar occupation. The Salinar botanical remains were more abundant, vaned,

and better preserved in cornpanson to the Early and Middle Puemape Phases but
the Salinar botanical sample wtll not be presented and discussed here with the

exception of maize, which will be wnsidered briefly in ternis of its morphological

identification for the North Coastal Formative period.

Botanical remains were recorded only in the domestic areas of the Early

Puémape Phase. Some botanical remains associated with Middle Puémape

Phase burials were recorâed. Botanical remains were not recovered from the

Late Puémape Phase assemblages.

A.1 Botanical identification in the Eartv Puéma- Phase

The few culüvated and wild botanical species recorded in the domestic

settings of the Early Puémape Phase came mainly from laye= IV and V of

Excavation Unit 9 and layer IV of Excavation Unit 11. There were too few remains

to carry out meaningful statistical tests.

The esdiest domestic layer containing botanical remains belonged to the

'Preceramic" layer IV of Excavation Unit 11 (Table 96). Gourd, cotton and

'faiauen or "es~ino"(acacia) were recorded. Wiih respect to gourds (Lagenana

sp.) we have excellent ethnographie observations regarding its cuîtivation and

traditional use at Puemape. A traditional fisherman, Mr. Geman Perez Cornejo,

grcms gourds and native squash along the sandy and humid Jaguey or Puemape

branch of the Cupisnique river. The extreme western section of the Jaguey or

Puémape branch where gourds and squash can be planted is only 100 meten
from the sandy sea shore. Given the close presence of underground freshwater

in the Jaguey or Puémape branch, which also ocairs in the southem Unicape

and the northem El Barco branches of the Cupisnique river, it is probable that

these terrains were used for temporary agncultural purposes in the past too.

Nowadays, in the rainy summers. the Cupisnique river brings water from the

highlands to the Pacific Ocean. Water flows through the otherwise dry river-bed,

renews the nutrients and recharges the water table, creating an ideal soi1 for

planting maize, gourds and squash. In addition, sunken fields, identified to the

northwest of the Puemape site, provide artifidal microenvironments for planting

edible cultigens. The sunken fields. however, have yet to be fully investigated and

dated.

Native cotton (Gossypum barbadense ) fibers are among the most

common plant remains recorded. As I mentioned before in the section wnceming

the ecology of the Cupisnique region, the main ecological setting of wild native

cotton plants is the microenvironment of La Pampa, between the Cupisnique

region and the Jequetepeque Valley. Given the special conditions of the clayey

soils of La Pampa it may have been the main area for producing native cotton for

the occupants of Puémape.

Branches of 'Miken,'huaranao" or 'esninom(Acacia sp.) were identified in

the botanical remains of layer W . The nearest microenvironments with acacias is

El Jaguey forest and inland small forests of the Cupisnique region. Traditional
fishermen from Puérnape nowadays get their mesquite and acacia wood from the

El Jaguey forest which is located in the El Jaguey or Puémape branch of the

Cupisniqe river. The fishermen use the wood of these native wild trees as a

combustible for cooking and for house building.

Laye= IV and V of Excavation Unit 9, which are associateci with the

earliest œrarnic complex in Puémape contained more plant remains (Tables 98

and 99) than the Preceramic layer IV of Excavation U n l 11. These layers

contained domesticated food cmps as well as industrial plants. These induded

avocado, maue and chili pepper. Avocado (Persea ametkana) seeds. mentioned

earlier, were found inside pits that may have been used for storage. Avocado

trees can be g r m exœllently, nowadays, in the fertile Jequetepeque Valley,

which is very dose to Puémape. Usually Avocado trees require very clayey and

humid mils for optimum growth and production of fniits.

In the Early Puémape Phase and in the Salinar occupation maize cobs

were found in association with food remains of both marine and terrestrial origin
and also in association with branches of mesquite and acacia used as fuel found

in the dornestic remains of layer IV of Excavation Unl9 and rnaize was not found

in isolated contexts or in the Salinar layers of the same excavation unl. Most of

the cobs found were carbonireci, showing that they had probably been used for

fuel. Today maire cobs. locally called 'tuasm.are u s d as fuel in the stoves

alone or mked with mesquite branches and logs. 'Tuasn and mesquite, when
bumed in a controlled, slow fire give a special smoky flavor to the food that is

prized by the Muchik.

Dr. Duccio Bonavia (Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia) and Dr.

Alexander Grobrnan (Universidad Nacional Agraria de La Molina) advised on the

classification of the rnaize. ARer examining the maize sarnple. they concluded that

the Puémape maize falls within the range of variation of maize frorn other Andean

Formative sites (Table 97).

Two types of chili peppers, 'ai?' and 'aii mocheriton, (Capsicum sp. and

Capsicum chinense) were identified in layer V. 'Aii mocheritonis today one of the

favorite chili peppen used by the Muchik ethnicity in their seafood. It is grown in

the fertile Jequetepeque Valley nowadays, but could have been grown along the

sandy shores of the Jaguey on Puémape branches of the Cupisnique river. In the

fishing villages of Guafiape and Puerto Mori, on the sandy littoral of the Vid

Valley, it can be seen growing in househoM plots using watertable faming (C.

Elera: personal observations 1972). In these gardens, in addition to 'a

mocherita" (Chili peppers), 'za~allode aentiln(squash) (Cucurbita moshata),

beans and maize are grown along with native fruit trees such as 'pacav' (Inga

feulleo. Pollen analysis in two archaeotogical sunken fields adjacent to the Puerto

Mori's fishing village revealed the cultivation of Zea mays, Leauminosae, and

Solonaceae as eariy as the beginning of the second millenniurn A D. (West

1979).
 Cotton and gourd remains were identified in Layers IV and V. Wild

botanical species recorded were 'zacmten, 'cimulo" or 'bichavon, 'alaarrobon or

mesquite, "faiauen,rush and reed. The 'zawten (Capparis macmphyIa) identified

in layer IV as well as the 'cimulon or 'bichavon(Capparis ovaiifola), mesquite

(Pmsopis sp.) and 'faiauenidentified in layer V are native species of the El

Jaguey native forest and the inland small forests of the Cupisnique region.

"Zamtentrees are also found in La Pampa and the Cupisnique desert. The

'zamte", 'cimulo" or 'bichavon, mesquite and 'faiaue" is used mainly for fuel. In

addlion, 'zamten produces gum and has an edible fniit. "cimuIo" or 'bichavon

also produces edible fniit. Mesquite seeâs are edible and very nutritious.

The evidence of rushes (Cyperus sp.) in layer IV and reeâs

(Schoenoplectuscalifomicus) in layer V suggests the exploitation of these aquatic

plants frorn neighboring iagoons. Ethnographic information from Puémape

documents the use of reeds and rushes for woven mats. These are used for

building walls and roofs of houses, for beds, and a place for eating and drinking.

In addition, the b a t s are buik of reeds. A go& example of the boat can be seen

in a picture taken by Bruning in 1908 (Schaedel l988:45) in Santa Rosa, which

is located on the littoral of the Lambayeque Valley.

The El Barco lagoon today is the natural habitat of nishes and reeds, and,

is a permanent source of fresh water. which would have been a natural habitat to

nishes and reeds as well in the past.

 The seaweed from the Early Puémape Phase is a broad-leaf species (Ulva

fasciata). Local ethnographie data documents a quite frequent cunsumption of

seaweed along with crabs and fish. 'Mocochon (Giogina chamisor) is the

preferred seaweed today and is in high demand by the Muchik ethnicity. In

addition, highlandenfrom the upper Jequetepeque Valley arrive once a year

(July-August) to collect 'mococho" seaweed. Once dried, it is transported to the

highland t o m of San Pablo in Cajamarca. In the highlands the dneâ seaweed is

considered a delicacy.

The following conclusions can be drawn from the botanical remains:

A. The local microenvironmentswithin relatively short distances of the

Puémape site together with the adjacent Jequetepeque Valley would

have provided all of the habitats required for growhg and harvesting

the domesticated and wild plants found at the site in the Eariy and

Middle Puémape Phases.

B. A small botanical sample lacking food plants was recorded at Puérnape

frorn the 'Preceramic" domestic area of layer IV, Excavation Unl11.

Food plants were first found in association with layers IV and V of

Excavation 9 together with the initial ceramics of the site. There was a
 signifiant increase in botanical cultivated species along with the known

native wild plants during the Salinar occupation of the site.

C. The rush and reed fiber technology was developed and used for
intertwined and woven mats. House-walls and roofs may have been

built with reed mats during the Early Puémape Phase. In addition, mat

covers from the Early to the Middle Puemape burials. The mat covers

were woven using cotton warps.

D. Secondary covers in direct contact with the cadaven of the Eariy and

Middle Puémape burials were woven of native cotton. In addition

decorated cotton textiles were also identified in domestic settings of

the Eariy Puemape Phase.

E. Gourds as containen were important to the ancient Puemape

inhabitants Mostly undecorated gourds of different sizes, shapes and

cuts were used for different purposes: containen of food, liquids,

textiles, and possibly lime. There was a strong tendency to imitate cut

or complete gourds of different sizes and shapes in the ceramic bowl,

'toastenn, and boffle-shapes of the Middle Puemape Phase potters.

 F. The range of variation of the Puémape maize sarnple conforms with the

racial variation of maire from the Early to the Late Andean Formative

period.

B. Fauna: Analvsis and Intemretation

lnvertebrate and vertebrate marine terrestrial animal remains were

recorded in the domestic areas of the Early Puémape Phase. Some fauna

remains associated with Middle Puémape Phase burials were recorded. Few

faunal remains were found in the Late Puémape Phase.

The following tables provide data about the fauna exploited during the

Early Puemape Phase. Referenœs tu the fauna associated with the Middle

Pu6mape Phase burials and the Late Puémape Phase ceremonial center can be

seen in Chapters 6 and 7 respediveiy. It is beyond the scope of this dissertation

to present and discuss the dense Salinar faunal remains recorded in the upper

layenr of Excavation Units 6,9,9-W and 10. The same applies to the late p r e

Hispanic occupation, culturally Chimu, of the upper layers of Excavation Unl12.

The fàunal analysis, done by the biologists Dr. Mario Peiia (UNALM),

Biologist Victor F. Vasquez, Dr. AMedo Gomez (UNT), and Biologist A l M o

Marti (UNT) is the corner stone for understandingthe animal resources us& by

the occupants of Puémape and their relianœ on local and extra regional

TesOurces.
B. 1 Methodolwy

The methodology followed varied according to the taxon under study. Both

qualitative and quantitative parameters were u s 4 in the analysis of some of the

most abundant faunal remains in the assemblages.

B.7.1 Mollusks. Crustaœans and Eauinodemis

The methodology used in the analysis of mollusks, cnistaceans, and

equinoderms followed the following stages:

1. The samples were cleaned and wnditioned for taxonomie identification.

2. Species were idenüfied using a specialized bibliography and a comparative

collection made up of modem and archaeological sarnples of species native to

the Peruvian North Coast.

3. The Minimal Number of lndividuals (MM) was caiculated according to the

univalve and bivalve mollusk types. For the Gastropod Class, an individual has

been considered as a complete specimen. If fragmented, it was counted as one if

the fragment contained the diagnostic apex or the complete peristoma.

In the bivalve mollusks the MN! was quai to the larger number of left or

right valves. For fragmented specirnens, if the hinge was present it has been

quantified as one valve.

 In the P O ~ V D ~ ~ class
COD ~ O ~ ~ known as the chitons. the MN1
commonly

quantification needed a clear morphological knowledge of the eight plates which

represents one individual. It was necessary to aiunt the number of cephalic and

anal plates, the larger number k i n g the MNI. When these parts are absent the

central plates are used. The central plates require that several plates from

specific positions (2. 3.4, 5 , 6 , and 7) be disiinguished and counted. The larger

number of plates from a determined position will be the MN1 for the species under

study.

In the case of crustaceans and equinodemis the MN1 quantification was

more cornplicated. Generally the remains are clam and exoskeletal. Due to

problems of preservation, the crustacean samples were quantified according to

the site and positions of the claws. The equinodems were possibly the most

difficult to quant@, since the remains consisted only of some spines and

exoskeletal fragments.

The bamacles(8alanidae) are easier to quantify, although their presence

in the archaeological sites is intentional, they not represent an important staple.

B. 1.2 Fish

The majonty of the fish osseous remains consisted of vertebrae and facial

bones. The recovered vertebrae were counted, the diameters rneasured (in
mm.).The bones of the face were separated according to their original disposition
and anatomical name.

The size and location of the vertebrae within the vertebral column were

used to establish MNI. Two or more vertebrae from the same location, then,

indicated the same position in the axial siceleton. Two or more individuals, and

vertebra of different sizes from adjacent locations on the vertebral column

indicateâ 2 individuals.

For species identification both a comparative collection and a specialized

bibliography were used (Chirichigno 1974; Barreda 1978; and Vegas 1987).

B.i.3 Birds

The bird remains were deaned and measured. The sue of the wingspread

(in mm.) was used as a diagnostic characteristic of the bird fauna occupying the

diverse biotopes sumunding the site. A modem osseous native bird colledion

and speaalized bibliographies by Von den Driesch (1976) and Koepcke (1970)

were used for species identification.

All the data from the analysis were registered on carûs and quantitatively

processed to establish the frequency of bird remains per stratigraphie layer.

B. 1.4 Mammals

The majority of the osseous mammal remains are made up of sea lion

bones. The bones were cleaned and repaired, in soma cases. Age was

determined through the examination of hard parts, fusion of the epiphyses and

biometric measurements.

The mammal remains were classified taxonomically using the comparative

method with modem samples and a specialized bibliography as Olsen (1982)

and Von den Driesch (1976). MNI is equal to the highest number of isdated bone

elernents of the identified species in the animal inventory. For example, 4 right

sea lion hurneri mean that there were 4 sea lions, and if an additional left

humenis were found that did not match in size any of the right humeri, an

additional individual was counted. The MNI, then, would be 5.

Alterations in the bones resulting from intentional cuts, bums, erosion, or

thermo-fractureâ were noted.

8.2 The Puémape zooarchaeoloaical data

Following are the faunal data from the Early, Middle and Late Puemape

occupations.

8.2.1 Mollusks

An unusual natural event occuned on the shores of Puémape from Apnl

through August 1990 that underscored the need to be cautious about

interpretations of clirnate from the mollusks remains. Hundreds of tropical

mollusks were washed ashore on the Puémape beaches. Some species such as

the Purpure patula, Littonna paytensis and Fissurella sp. were found alive on

these beaches. This anomaly did not occur on the beaches to the noRh or çouth

of Puérnape, but was a localized anomaly limited to Puémape. Taking this into

account. the specialists were ver' cautious about interpreting the mollusk

colonies from which the archaeological specimens denved.

All of the mollusks associated with the Early, Middle and Late Puemape

Phases are species that inhabit the cold waters of the Penivian Province, with the

exception of 7 tropical species, represented in minimal quantities, which may

have been intruded from the Salinar layen. Mollusks from the Salinar occupation

were predominantly of tropical species typical of the mollusks of the Panamanian

Sea Province. In Salinar layen the- was an increase in the diversw of species

and a significant decline in the frequency of cold water purple mussels such as

the 'choro zaoato" (Chommytiius c h u s ) , dam such as 'macha" (Mesodesma

donacium) and marine snails such as the 'caracol blanco" (Polinices uber).
From the Early through the Late Puernape Phases, the majonty of

mollusks exploited wefe from the sandy littoral, prtiailarly the 'caracol blanco'

(Polinices uber), 'machan (Mesodesma donacium), and in less quantity the

'conchita" or 'manicha" (Donax obesulus). The main species collectecl frorn the
rocky littoral were the abundant mussel (Chommytilus choms) and two kinds of

snails (Thais haemastoma and Thais chocolats ). With respect to the

Chommytilus chorus during the Late Holocene its distribution and frequency was

more restricted because of the increase of the salinity of the sea. The decreased

representation of ChommytiIus choms in the midden deposits after 300 BC is

evident.

Mollusk would have provideci an important high quality source of protein

for the inhabitants of Puémape. According to Erlandson (1988) the animal

resources. including mollusks, supply the most effective and complete synthesis

of proteins necessary for human nutrition wiai respect to metabolic regulation and

reproduction. The nutritional values of the five most frequent mollusk m e s ,

according to the Penivian Health Ministry report (1975),would contribute 45.9

gram of protein per 100 gr., plus 453 mg. of Ca, 492 mg. of P,6.2 mg. of Fe, 0.1
mg. of Tiamine ; 1.4 mg of Riboflavin, 3.3 mg. of Niacin and 1.4 mg of reduced

Ascorbic acid per 100 gr. of meat consumed (Table 100).

In the Eariy Puemape Phase the species economically most important

were: 'caracol blancon(Polinices uber) (59.17 %); 'macha' (Mesodesrna

donacium) (11.40%); 'carad de rocan(Thais haemastoma) (5.43 Yo);

'chom

zapatoB(Choromytilus chonrs) (5.33 %) and 'caraml de rocas(Thais choco/ata)

(4.58 %) (Tables 101).
B.2.2 Crustaceans

Two species of bamacles and one spedes of crabs (Table 102) were

recorded for the Early Puémape Phase. The role of the bamacles in the diet is

unknown. Pozorsky (1 979) has suggest that they were usad for food during the

Fomative on the North Coast of Peni. The greatest abundance of bamacles

(Balanus tintinnabulum)was recorded in the layers V and VI of Excavation Unit

1 1 which represents the earîiest excavated occupation at Puémape. The bamacle

Balanus, has been shown by Vegas (1971:43) to be a sensitive indicator of sea

temperature. Populations of Balanus decrease as sea temperature rises.

Referring to Vegas's study Pefia and Vasquez (1990) have correlated the

abundance of Balanus in the Early Puérnape Phase with a cold manne

environment. In addition, they infer strong tides, which are known to favour the

reproduction and fixation of Baianus. The same situation has been noted with the

Balanus in the Early Fomative site of Grmalote, Huanchaquito, on the littoral of

the Moche Valley (Velasquez 1987).

The crab that supplied protein for the Formative period was the 'cannreio

vio18ceon(purple crab) (Platyxanthus orf,@nyi).Although the- is no meaningful

quantification, given the poor preservation of the cmb remains, undoubtedly the

purple crab was the most popular crab meat for this pend. High populations of

purple crabs are found in the cold water of the Pewvian or Humboldt current
8.2.3Eauinodemis
The fragmented state of the exoskeleton of the sea urchin made it difficult

to quantify the remains (Table 103). Sea urchins, however, were found in

association with the Early Puemape Phase. Ethnographie data documents the

consumption of the gonads of the 'erizo colorado" (red sea urchin) (Ahacia

spatuligera) on the coast of Peni today. However, the 'erizo nearow(black sea

urchin) (Tetrapygus niger) was probably the most cornmon sea urchin consumed

at Puémape given the amount of poorly preserved remains found in the

excavations.

6.2.4 Fish

Fish remains were among the most important food staples recorded in the

Early Puémape Phase.The Chondrichthves, comprising the "tovosn(sand sharks)

(Mustelus sp., Mustelus spp. ), and 'anaeloten (angelfish) (Squatina annata),

represent 62% of the vertebrates identifid in the Eariy Puémape Phase (Tables

104-1 06).

In the Osteichthves group, the Sciaenidae have the highest representation,

comprising the 'suco' (Parelonchunrssp.), the 'cachema' (Cynoscion sp.) and

-
'loma' (Sciaena deliciosa). These fish and the Chondrichthves species are

typical inhabitants of the cold waters of the Penivian or Humboldt current. The

Mustelus $p., Mustelus spp.. and Squatina amata inhabit the sandy bottom of the
neritic waters and are captured using nets called locally 'chinchorro' or fishhooks.

The Cheilodactylus sp., Anisotremus scapulads, Cynoscion sp., Paralonchurus

sp. inhabit the rocky seashores where they c m be captured also using nets or

fishhook. In the i990 field season, on the rocky Puémape seashore.

coincidentelly during a high tide. we observed shoals of 'peierrevsn (silvered

smelts) (Odontesthes regia) despainng and quickly swim to the seashore,

punued frenetically by the 'cachemas" (Cynoscion sp.), which were jumping,

capturing and eating the silver smelts. If this situation ocairred in the past it

would have been easy for humans to capture both kinds of fish. The 'cachemas'

are notable among the native fish for their sharp big teeth. The 'iiam~al"(osprey),

which seasonally frequents the North Coast, is the predator of the 'cachema'.

8.2.5Birds
Arnong the sea bird rernains reported for the Early Puemape Phase were

'gaviotau (sea guli) ( L a w sp.), "pioueron(booby) (Sula sp.), 'pelicanon (pelican)

(Pelecanus sp.) and 'huanaf (cornorant) (Phaîacmrax sp.) (Table 107). The

most abundant species (6.%) was the cornorant, which is today the best and

preferred sea bird rneat consurned by the Muchik ethnicity.

B.2.6 Mammals

Among the mammals (Table 108) the sea lion (Otaria sp.) was the main

source of protein during the Early Puémape Phase. The main microenvironment
of the sea lion is the rocky littoral. According to some infamants in Puémape the

sea lion was abundant some decades ago. We observeâ some of thern during

the summer of 1990. lncluding a rare albino sea lion resting on the rocky littoral.

During the Early Puemape Phase, sea lion ribs, humeri and cervical vertebrae

were found along with Chondnchthves vertebral columns as the contents of a

possible food storage pit. The sea lion fang was also used for carving omaments

with naturalistic and mythological designs during the Middle Puemape Phase.

Bone remains of Balaenidae would indicate the beaching of whales. In May

of 1990 a hurnpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae ) fan aground on the

seashore west of the Late Puémape temple spot. When a whale died in this way,
it was probably utilised for vanous purposes by the populations of the p s t . In

Puémape we found whale bones as structural elements in domestic and funerary

settings in the Early and Middle Puemape Phases respectively. Carved male

bones with mythological representations were also found associateci with Classic

Cupisnique burials in the Chicama Valley ( L a m 1941:112, Fig. 177).

Among the terrestrial faunal remains were Camelidae. Indirect evidence of

llamas was the excrement found in the in deepest layen of Excavation Unl11,

Early Puemape Phase. Remains of dog (Canis sp.) were also identifid. Little
rodents 'raton de campon(Sigrnodon sp.). despite their small size, could have

been used as a source of protein.

C. Inferences

Some inferences are evident from analysis of the Puémape' s faunal

remains:

A. The Puérnape site, consistent with its geographic location by the

seashore, had a subsistence pattern oriented mainly to the capture of

marine resources. In order of importance during the Early Puémape

Phase were: 1. mollusks, 2. fish, and 3. mammals. Under the manne

vertebrae species fish represented 74.5%; mammals 15.6% and birds

9.3%. In addition. domesticated and wild plants supported a mixed

economy, but marina resources were predominant.

B. Marine resources captured in the Early Puémape Phase were from cold

water habitats. In addition, the diagnostic mollusk remains associated

with the Middle Puemape burials as well as the Late Puemape Phase

temple were from cold waters tao.

C. Although they were not induded, the organic remains of the Salinar

occupation reftect a drastic change in the subsistence patterns. This

 change seems to have been a conseguenœ of an El Niio climatic

phenomenon. A possible catastrophic ENS0 happened between the

abandonment of the Late Puémape Phase temple and the Salinar

occupation in Puémape. Crustaceans and fish of w a n waters were

bioindicators of the natural phenomenon. In Salinar times most of the

protein came from bony fish mainly Sciaenidae. The sea lions

continued to be main staple. Mollusks of the m k y littoral becarne more

important and there was an absence of Mesodesrna and Polinices.

The biochemical data from the mollusks, crustaceans and fish indicates, in

general ternis, that the ancient inhabitants of Puémape had a diet rich in manne

proteins. minerals and vitamins, a diet essential for optimal development.

reproduction and good health. An important task still to be done is an isotopic

analysis of human remains to detemine the relative dietary importance of the

marine and terrestrial resourœs.

 CHAPTER 9

CERAMICS: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Pottery from domestic and funerary contexts is one of the most informative

adifact categories from Puémape. In the fdlowing sections ceramic analysis and

cornparison will be used to understand the cultural and technological choices of

the Puémape potters within a regional and rnuiürregional framework.

A. Pottew of the Eariv Puérnaoe Phase

A small sample of nomdiagnostic and diagnostic sheds was recovered

from the Early Puémape domestic areas of Excavation Unit 9, layers IV and V
(Table 109). The total nurnber of diagnostic sherds was 5 fragments of neckless

ollas (Figures 65 and 66),and Wo sherds from decorated bowls (figure 67). ln

addition, an almost complete decoratd n e c k W olla (Sp. No. 72, Figures 68

and 69) was found along Ath burial XCN recorded in the layer No. IIIof the

Excavation Unit 11. In the following analysis this vesse! has been designatecl as

No. 6. These finds are describeci in table 109.

The cemmic data in tabk 109 indicates the folkmng trends:

a. The nedcless olla was the most common vesse! bm in funerary and
domestic conte*. The predominant lip shapes were the interior haîf
 ogive and its half reinforcad ogive variant. The half ogive Iip was

present on neckless ollas No. 1 and 2 and its variant on neckless ollas

No. 3 and 6. In addition, a convex lip shape was identifiecl on neckless

ollas No. 4 and 5. Finalîy, a convex lip shape was used on bowl No. 7

and an ogive lip shape was present on bawl No. 8.

b. Because of fragmentation it wes difficult to determine the shape of the

neckless ollas No. 1,2, 3,4. and 5, though they show a convex profile

dose to the fim. Taking into consideration the conical shape of the

almost complete neckless olla No. 6, 1 could generalize this shape as

typical of al1 closed vessels. However, I prefer to be cautious about

the shape of the rest of neddess ollas because of possible

rnorphdogical variation. These observations apply to W s No. 7 and

8 which present a convex profle close to the rim, but are missing the

middle and lower body sections.

c. Regarding the compasiüon of the paste, fine sand was the main
tempering material identifieâ, ranging from thick to semi-thick te>dure

(See petrologic analysis of three chosen samples: appendix No. 7).

 On the intemal surface of neckless olla No. 6 (Sp. No. 72) slight

horizontal traces can be seen related to the making of the vessel. It

could be inferred frorn olla No. 6 that the coiling method was used to
construct these vessels. Surface finishing was done by the follawing

methods: smoothed over the extemal surface of the vessel bodies

(No. 1 and 2); smoothed over the extemal surface and red polished at

the rim (No. 3, The red color is results from the hematite used as a
slip).

e. Decoration techniques used on the neckless ollas show the following

patterns: horizontalgarallelshallow lines indsed on the neckless olla

No. 4; cuwed-parallel shallow-lines incised on the neckless olla No. 5.

In both vessels the kind of shallow-line incision were of the same type.

Olla No. 6 was dacorated over the smooaied surface with nght oriented

diegonals of 3 or 4 incised lines each. Between the polished red tim

and the beginnings of the diagonal inased lines, a horizontal fillet with

continuos notching was applied.

f. Decorative techniques on the bowls showed the following patterns:

over the horizontal smoothed surface band of bowi No. 7 were applied

fillets Ath discontinuous notching. The notched fillets follow a nght

orienteâ diagonal pattern. The dm and the rest of the extemal surface

surrounding the srnoothed, decorated area was polished. The intemal

surface of the bowl was also polished. The same area for decorative

purposes was identified over the smoothed horizontal surfaœ band on

bawl No. 8. The smoothed horizontal surface was decorated with rigM

oriented diagonals consisting of 3 or 4 incised lines, and the same

number of left oriented diagonals. The diagonal lines were connecteci

at the ends or beginnings with applique of punctated semi-rounded

bosses. In some cases the bosses were applied independentiy to the

diagonal incised lines. As on bowl No. 7 the rim and the rest of the

extemal body surfaœ surrounding the âemrated areas was polished,

and the intemal surface was also polished. It is clear the bowis

received similar dewrative treatment and the incised and applique

designs appear in the seme locations. The same kind of incisions and

notched Cllet appliqués were used on the bowls and the neckless ollas.

Firing techniques useâ for the nedrlegs ollas and bowis show the

following characteristics: oxidizing atmosphere for neddess ollas No.

1, 3, 4 and 5, where both intemal and extemal surfaces present a light

red color. On olla No. 2 the centrai section is dark and the intemal and

extemal surface oxidized. This change of tonality is related to poor

 firing. The extemal surface is red and the intemal surface is a light

brown culor. On the semiamplete neckless olla No. 6 clear ash spots

can be seen fmrn the rniddle to the base of the vessel, suggesting a
cooking fundion. Finally, the bowls have a brown color tone on their

extemal and internai surfaces.

In summary, despite the lirnited sample sire, the morphology and

decarative techniques of Early Puémape p~tterypresents a unifon stylistic unit.

Clay and tempering material came from the irnmediate surroundings of the

Puemape site. The petrography analysis shows that quartz and plagioclase

feldspar were the most common rnineralogical elements. 80th rninerals are part

of the sand surrounding the Pu6mape point and hills. The cornparisons of the

Eariy Puemape Phase ceramics and its inclusion in aie beginnings of the
Cupisnique Cultural Complex wiM be discussed under a regional and interregional

fiamework in the conciuding chapter.

B. Potterv of the Middle Puémaw Phase

Middle Puemape ceramics are represented mostly by cornplete vessels

associated with burials. In addition, there is a collection of bmken vessels from

disturbed burials which I used for comparative purposes because the same
shapes and decorative tediniques are shared with the in situ funerary vessels,

thus representing part of the same stylistic unit (Appendix 4:Tables 1 10-1 16).

In the foflowing discussions cerarnic description and petrologic analysis will

be compiementary to X-ray examinations of some selected funerary vessels. The

methods are used to elucidate the technological choices made by Middle

Puémape potters. In situ material will be treated separately from the material

recovered from disturbed contexts (prehistoric or modem).

B. 1 Descri~tionand analvsis of the ceramics associated with in situ burials

Burial I

One bottle (Plate 47) was associated with burial 1.

Sinde-necked bottle S a No. 51 lFiaure 701

ShaPe
aea!i
A tall single spout wÎth an everted ogive rim. The sides of the spout show a

sligMly concave profile-shape. A notable morphologie characteristic is the

abrupt evertion of the rim.

w
The body has a conical profile-shape. The top section is convex and the

bottom section slightly convex.

Measurements

The intemal diameter of the spout is 3 m. The spout measures 8.02 cm n

height and is 3.07 cm in width. The complete botüe is 21.O6 cm in height

with a maximum width at the base of 14.08 cm.

Peste
Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Fiflnq

The vesse1 was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical dark color is

predominant in the peste.

Manufacture

X-ray examination shows the spout and body were made separately (Plate

48) The body was coiled and the spout was then inserted in aie top, as

shomi by the base of the spout inside the hole at the center of the convex

upper section of the body.

Finishinq

The entire extemal surfacewes polished from the everted rim of the spout

to the vesse1 base.

Decotation

AU decoration was applied prior to firing. A broabline was incised around

the base of the spout at the point of juncture with the body. The applqu6
 technique was used to produce four notched fillets representing undulating

snakes. The distal end of the notched fillets terminate in rnodeled snake

heads. The eyes are two incised circles with a dot at the center, the nose

is fomed by two dots, and the rnouth is done with a simple horizontal fine-

lin8 incision. Once the four applique snakes were completed, the potter

added irregular polished incisions. Most of these incisions are vertical

cross-hatching and are present in a small ana of the superior surface.

Motif

Over the boffle four plain naturalistic snakes were modeled cmwfing from

the bottom to the top of the body. The shape of the vesse1 body is similar

to diagnostic conical adobes useâ in the building of religious architecture,

as well as houses and tombs during the Middle Formative on the North
Coast of Peni.

Burial XX

Four vessels were assaciated with burial XX (Plate 49). These vessels

were a stimp~poutboWe and three bowls. The description and analysis of the
vessels is as follows:
Stirrupswut bottle SD.No. 46) Fiaure 71)

Shaw

S t i m i ~and Spout

The stimip has a quadrangular profile which is slightly semiçonvex in the

joint where the spout was inserted in the stimip. The spout is finished with

a slightly everted ogive rim profile. Finally, the spout sides show a slightly

concave profile.

BQ&
The body is fomed by two identical, sub-conical shaped chamben, joined

in the middle.

Measurements

The spout is 4.04 cm in height, 3.00 cm. in width. and has an intemal

diameter of 2.07 cm. The stimip is 5.02 cm in height Ath ils maximum

and minimum widths being 7.09 cm and of 7.07 cm. respectively. The

maximum high of the stirrup spout boue is 14.07 cm. and the maximum

width of the body 11 cm.

Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The plastic material is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

The vesse1 was fired in a reduced atrosphere. A typical dark wlor is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The stirrup spout bottle was modeled in four independent parts. These

parts are the spout, the stimp, and the two bodies. The spout was

inserted in the upper hole of the stirrup, and the stimp extremes were

fitted into the top of each body. The bodies were interconnected leaving a

slight biconical bulge marking the connection.

Finishinq

The extemal surface was polished from the rim to the base, and also

around the intemal surface of the slightly everted spout rim. Two srnall

holes W h radiated incisions were done when the clay was unfired. They

are located over the center of the rounded sides of the bodies.

Decoration

Fine surface incisions were done in the bodies.

-
Motif

The bodies are two naturalistic plants resembling the native Andean edible

root called *achiran(Cannis eddulis). The holes in each body resemble a

broken pedunde.
Bowl ( S a NO.47) [Fiaure 72)

Shaw

This bowl has a semi-convex profile- and a rounded nm.

Measurements

Maximum height is 3.09 cm; intemal diameter is 10.06 cm.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering matenal. The clay is very

homogeneow in its composition.

Firinq

This vessel was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical dark color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The bowl was modeied following the ooiling process.

Finishinq

It is a plain bowl. The intemal and extemal su*œ were carefully polished.

Motif

The bowl resernbles half of a small gourd.

Bowl SD.No. 481 (Fbure 73)

aa2e
This bowl presents a semiconvex profie with a flanged shape of the rim.
Measurements

The intemal diarneter of the bowi is 13.03 cm, and the maximum height is

4.09 cm.

Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering matenal. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

The vesse1 was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical dark color is

predorninant in the peste.

Manufacture

This bowî was produced by the coiling proœss.

Finishing

The interna! and extemal surfaces of the vesse1 were carefully polished.
The decorative designs were done mth superficial, fine-line incisions made

in a reiatively dry paste.

The bowl resembles haIf of a gourd. The fine incised designs are

disposed in a rcm around the exterior of the M.and consist of

rectangles separated with vertical bands. The interior of each rectangle is

divided into four triangles. The vertical triangles present vertical, rounded,

joined verüces, while the horizontal triangles endose srnalier, seperated

 triangles. The dual pattern of opposition and complementary connotation

underlying these geometric designs is evident.

Bowî (SaNo. 501 (Firiure 74)

ShaDe

This bowl has a semi-rounded profile ending with a flat lip.

Measurements

The intemal dimensions of the bowf are 13.07 cm in length by 11.O4 cm in

width. The maximum height is 4.07 cm. The pedunde is 7 mm long by 6

mm of wide.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

This bowl was fired in a reduced atmosphm. A typical dark color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufadure

The bowl was produœd by the coiling method. The X-ray shows a

peduncie was inserted at the upper center of the widest section of the bowi

(Plate 50).
Finishinq

The internai and extemal surface were carefully polished. Despite the

lustrous shine of the internai surface, curvilinear poiishing marks are

clearly visible.

-
Motif

The bowf body resembles haif of a fnil called 'zamte*(Capparis

mecmphyla), typical botanical species of the Cupisnique region.

Burial XXI

One stimp-spout boffle was found mth this burial. The description and

analysis is as follows:

Stinu~-smu?
boffle 60.No. 52) (Fiaure 75)

s!Bm
Stirru~and Smut:

The sümp sides have a somewhat trapezoidal profile, which is slightly

semiconvex where aie spout was inserted. The spout is finishd wiü~an

everted ogive rim. The spout is short with a slightly concave profile.

w
The chamber is modeled Iike a bivalve mollusk.
Measurements

The intemal diameter of the spout is 3 cm,height 5 cm.and its minimum

and maximum widths are 3.02 cm and 3.03 cm respedively. The stimp

has a height of 8 cm, with minimum and maximum widths of 8 cm and of 9

cm respectively. The maximum height of the stimp spout bottle is 17 cm

and the maximum width of the body 9 cm.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

This vesse1 was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical dark color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The X-ray examination done on this vessel shows three structural parts for

building the bottle and protuberances (Plate 51). These structural parts are

the spout, the stimp and the body. In addition, over the body were added

pointed, applique protuberances and a plain fillet. Once the body was

modeled imitating the shape of a marine bivalve mollusk, the stimp was

inserted into two holes in the extreme upper sides of the body. There is an

irregularity in the modeling on the sides of the stimp. The spout was

inserted in a central hole on top of the stimp. The X-ray shows were the
 spout was inserted into the stimp. and also highlights the modeled spines

and hinge typical of this rnollusk.

Finishina

The extemal surfaces of the stimp and spout were polished, but the body

was unpolished.

Decaration

Irregular, amical protuberances imitating spines of the thomy oyster were

added by means of applique to the unfired chamber. In addition, some

surface incisions were done fallowing the naturat line patterns of this

mollusk. A high relief plain fillet was used to rerepsent the hinge of the

bivalve.

-
Motif

The body is a naturalistic imitation of a closed thorny oyster or U m ~ I I ~ '

(Spondyhs sp.). This rnollusk lives in the equatorial waters of the PaciTc

Ocean.

Burial XXll

There was only one bowl in this burial.

Bowî (SaNo. 571 (Fiaure 76)

Shape

The base is ftat, with rounded edges rising to staight, everted sides. The

rim presents an ogive shape.

Measurements

The intemal diameter of the bowl is 18.06 cm and the maximum height is

6.05 cm.

Paste

A sample of the bowl was taken for petrologic analysis (See appendix No.

7). Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is veiy

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firing

This bowl was fired in a reduced atrnosphere. A typical dark color is

pradominant in the paste.

Manufacture

This bowl was coiled.

Finishinp

It is a plain bowl. The intemal and extemal surface were carefully polished.
Burial XXlll

Four vessels were found with burial XXlIl (Plate 52).Thesewere a stimp

spout bottle, a clay disk. a bowl and a neckless olla. The description and analysis

of the vessels is as follows:

Stimi~smutbottle (SD. No. 53) lFiaures 77. 78 and 79)

Shaw

Stirni~and swut
The sümip sides have a slightly trapezoidal profile which is flat in the joint

where the additional stirrup and spout were inserted. The spout has a

slightly everted ogive lip shape. Seen from the front the spout appears to

have a slightiy concave profile. however, from the side it has a samewhat

convex shape.

Bod~
The double body and the little body hanging from the additional short

stirrup shows the same fruit shape, varying only in the sues.

Measumments

The intemal diameter of the spout is 2.07 an;it is 5.04 cm in height and its

minimum and maximum widths are 3.02cm and 3.03 cm respedively. The

stimip has a height of 9 cm.mV, minimum and maximum widths of 9 cm

and 11 cm respectively. The maximum height of the stimp spout boüie is

20.05 an,and the maximum width of the body is 16 cm.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering matenal. The day is very

hornogeneous in its composition as well.

This vesse1 was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The X-ray of this vesse1 reveals it is construded from six separate

structural parts: the spout, the main stimip, an additional secondary

stimp, and three independent bodies representing the same botanical

specie (Plate 53). The spout was insertad in the upper hde of the main

stimip. A hole was made in the front side near the spout and here the

secondary stimp was inserted, the distal end of which was joined to the
smallest fruit chamber. In a sirnilar proces the main stimp was joined to

the two larger fniit chambers, which in tum were wnneded leaving a slight

biconical bulge.

f inishinq

The extemal surface was polished from the rim to the base, and also

around the intemal surface of the slightly everteâ rim.

ûecoration

Concentric, verticakradiated, fine-line incisions imitating the same lineal

patterns that characterire the ediMe root were applied to the unfired body.

Two small holes with radiating incisions were placed over the center of the

rounded sides of the bodies.

Motif

The three bodies represent naturalistic plants. The shape and the radiated

patterns done over the bodies resernble the native Andean edible mot

called "aChiran(Cannis eddulis). The holes in each body resernble broken

pedundes.

Clav disk (SaNo. 541 Fiaure 80 and Plate 5 4

s!ms
A solid rounded disk with a flat rim.

Measurements

The diameter is 14 an and the maximum and minimum widths are 1.04 cm

and 7 mm respedively.

B!s&
Fine sand was usml as a tempering material. The day is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

The disk was fired in a reduced atmosphere, but some red spots on both

surfaces indicate limited oxygen circulation in a poorly controlled firing

process. The dark color is more intense over the center of the disk and

decreases toward the rim. A typical gray color is predominant in the paste.
Finishing

Both plain sides as well as the Pat rim were highly polished.

Bowl W.No. 55) (Figure 81 1

Shaw

The bowî is a serniconvex shape with a flanged rim.

Measurernents

The intemal diameter of the bowî is 19 cm, maximum height 5.02 cm.

-
Paste
Fine sand was used as a tempenng material. The day is very

hornogeneous in its composition as well.

Firina

This was fired in a reduced atmosphere. but some oxygen circulated

during the firing process resuîting in localked areas with ligM brown to

rsddish tones. The paste is a b m color.

Manufacture

The bowl was modeled following the coiling p m u , and lightly polished

on the interior surface.

Finishinq

The intemal and extemal surfaces were carefully polished, including the

area around the bowl where decorative designs were done.

Decaration

Over the soft clay of the unfired bowi geometnc designs were incised.

-
Motif

The body resembles half of an extended flat gourd called 'Ia~a'in the

Muchik language. It is decorated amund the nm with redangles separated

by vertical bands. The interiors of the rectangles are divided into terraced

motives. The vertical tenaced motives are placed opposite and in

complementary positions. These geometric designs show the dual pattern

of opposlion and complementarity.

Necicless olla (So. No. 56) (Firiure 821

a!a?S
The body of the neckless olla presents a semi-convex shape ending in a

rounded rim.
Measurements

The intemal diameter of the nedcless olla is 7.01 cm; the maximum height

8 cm.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

This olla was Cred in a reduceâ atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predominant in aie paste.

Manufacture

The bowl was produceci followingthe coiling process (Plate 55). Evidenœ

of coiling can be seen over the intemal surface.

Finishinq

The extemal surface was highiy polished.

Decoration

The extemal surhce was carefully polished. The d-rative designs were

done with finaline superfcial incisions made in a rdatively soft paste.

Some irregulatities can be seen in the incisions sumunding the nm.

-
Motif

The neckless olla was decorated a m n d the rim with a semi-continuous,

munded star shape. This undulant cu~lineardesign suggests a sense of

'moving water".

Burial XXVl

One vessel, a single-necked boWe, was found with this burial.

Sinale-neckeâ bottle (Sn. No. 861 (Fiaure 83 and Plate 561

Sham

The spout is tall with a slightly everted ogive rim. The sides of the spout

have a sligMly concave profile.

BQ&
The top and bottom areas of mis generally mwrded shape are slightly

flatteneci.
Measurernents

The spout is 5.08 cm in height with a maximum width of 3.05 cm and an

internai diameter of 2.05 cm. The cornpiete bottle ha9 a height of 14.08 cm

and a maximum width of 11.07 cm.

Paste

Fine sands sue was used as a tempering matefial. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

This vesse1 was fired in a reduced atrnosphere. A typical dark color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The X-ray examination done on this vesse1 shows the spout and body

were fomed separately (Plate 57). Once the body was modeled following

the coiling method, the spout was inserted in the upper hole of the rounded

body. The insertion of the base of the spout inside the hole at the center

of the convex body is clear. On the X-ray an undulating variation in the

wïdth of the sides of the spout is alço evident.

Finishinq

The extemal surfaœ and everted rim of the spout were polished. The

rounded body chamber was only smoothed, presenting a mat tone.

Decoration

The crosseâ bands are highly bumished on the smoothed extemal surface

of the body to heighten the visibility of these geometnc patterns.

-
Motif

The shape of the body is similar to an entire bottîeshaped gourd. The

bumtshed c m e d bands simulate a net coveting the gourd. making 1

resembie a fishing gourd fioat.

Burial XXlX

One neckless olla and one jar wen found with burial XXK.

Neckless olla {SR. No. 60) (Ficlure 84)

Shana

This fragmented neckless olla exhibits a semi-convex shape with a

rounded rim.

Messurementg

The internai diameter of the neckless olla is 8.08 cm;maximum height is

13.06 cm.

faste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The clay material is very

hanogeneous in its composition as wdl.

Firing

This dla was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predominant in the peste.

Manufacture

The olla was produceâ following the coiling procass, as show by marks

on the intemal surface.

Finishinq

The plain exlemal surface was carefully and compietely polished.

Jar (Sp. No. 611 [Fiaure 85)

Sham

-
Ne&

It has a short single spout with a slightly everted, rounded rim. The sides

of the neck show a slightly invertedancave profile.

enov
The body presents a rounded shape from the bottom to the upper

shoulders.
Measurernents

The spout is 3 cm in height with an intemal diameter of 3.04 cm.The

cornpiete jar has a height of 11.O7 an.

Paste
Fine sand was used as a tempering matefial. The day is very
homogeneous in b composition as well.
Firing

The firing technique used was under reduced atmosphere. A typical dark

color is predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The jar was built in two structural parts: the spout and the chamber. Once

the body was rnodeied following the coiling method, the spout was inserted

in the upper hole of the body.

Finishinq

The extemal surface of this plain jar was polished f m the eveRed rim to

the base.

Burial LVlll

Three vessels were assocl'ated with burial LVlil (Plates 58 and 59). These

vessels were a stimp-spout bottle, a neckless olla and a bowl. The desaiption

and analysis of the vessels is as follows:

Stirru~sooutbottte GD.
No. 92) Figures 86.87 and 88)

Shaee

Stirru~and Smut

The stimip presents a slightly tramidal shape whidi is semiconvex in

the munded join where the spout was inserted. The spout has a slightly

everted flat nm. Sem from the frcnt the spout sides appear slightly
 concave, but when the vessel is rotated the spout profile is convex.

Morphologically speaking, the concave versus the convex apparance of

the spout creates a clear visual differentiation during the rotation of the

stimp spout bottie.

&&
The body is a semi-rectangular-globular shape showing four sides.

Measurements

The intemal diameter of the spout is 3 cm and its height is 5.05 cm. The

maximum and minimum vthdth of the spout are 3 cm and 2.08 cm

respectively. The stimp is 7 cm in height with maximum and minimum

widths of 11 cm and 10.07 cm respecavely. The maximum height of the

boffle is 23.0 cm, and the maximum width of the body is 16 cm.

-
Paste
Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

This vessel was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical gray cdor is

predorninant in the paste.

Manufacture

X-ray examination teveals twr main structural parts, each separately

manufacturecl, which were usecl in construcüng this Dtirrupgpout bottle:

 the spout, the stimip, the body, and the sculptural feline (Plate 60). The

spout was inserted in the upper hole of the main stimip, and both distal

extremes of the stimip were placed in simitar holes in the top of the body.

The body has on its right, back and left sides the addition of four high relief

geometnc designs. In the case of the sculptural feline the head, ears,

eyes, body, tail. and paws were modeled independently and later attached

to the front of the chamber.

Finishinq

The rim, spout, and upper chamber were highly bumished, as were the

terraced-volute designs added over three sides of the body and most of

the feline head. This shine heightens the visibility of the terraced-volute

designs and the feline.

Decaration

Among the decorative techniques used were the contrast between

polished and smoothed surfaces; the high relief and fine-line incising of the

tenaced-volute designs; the applique of the feline and its components, the

ears, eyes, tait, and paws. Fine-line incisions were used for the concentric
cirdes which represent the body markings of the modeled fidine.
-
Motif

One side of the bottle exhibits a naturalistic feline. The body martcings

indicate this is a jaguar (Felis onca). It has an aggressive open mouth with
threatening fangs. The feline is flanked by two of the terraced-volute

designs. These motifs are tenaced representations of volutes which

appear to simulate the waves of the sea. This geometnc representation is

also present on the back of the vessel. Çeen frorn the left side, the

modeled jaguar and continuos 'tenaced marine waves" are following the

same orientation, but one wave modeled on the right side of the body is

oriented in the opposite direction. An interesting characteristic is the

naturalistic, aggressive jaguar apparently 'maring" which was placed

opposite aie terraced waves (Figure 89). Another interesting feature are

the asœnding steps of the terrad side which c m ôe interpreted as the

ascension or nsing of the waves. f he wave crests are show as they

becorne higher and steeper until the breaker plunges. lmplicit in this design

is the opposite and complementary up and dom movement cf the wave.

On this bottle a jaguar appears sumunded by waves, presenting an

interesting juxtaposition of terrestrial and marine themes. It mey be

speailated that the loud deep, ~ f i n g of the jaguar is k i n g compared to

the waves crashing ont0 Vie beach. Perhaps these powerful natural

sounds from different but mmplementary ecological settings were

syrnbolically linked in the religious beliefs of the andent Pudmape

inhabitants.
Neckless olla ISo. No. 103) lFioure 90)

Sham

This neckless olla has a convex shape and a rwnded dm. Some chipped

spots are present on the extemal surlace. This chipping occurred in the

past, podsibly as a result of daily use. The vesse1 has a flat base.

Measurements

The diameter of aie neckless olla is 8.08 cm king its maximum high 8.08

m.

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firing

This neckless olla was fired in a reduœd atmosphere. A typical gray color
is predominant in the paste.

Manufadute

The coiling method was used to produce this neckless olla.

The extemal plain sutface was highly polished.

Bowl (Sn NO. 104) (Fhure 91)

Shape

This bowl has a semi-munded profile and a flat rim. The base is almost

fiat.

Measurernentq

The diameter is 11.O7 cm, and its maximum height is 6.03 cm.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

hornogeneous in its composition as well.

Firing

The vesse1 was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical dark cdor is

predominant in the peste.

Manufacture

The bowl was producd by aie coiling process.

Finishinq

The interna1and extemal surfaces were carefully polished. Desplte the

ptesence of dense hematite on the interior sur&œ, pdishing marks are

evident.
Burial CI

Three vessels were associated with burial CI. These vessels were a

stimip-spout bottle, a jar (Plate 61), and a bowl. The description and analysis of

the vessels is as follows:

S t i m ~ s w uboffle
t ISD.No. 139) (Fiaures 92 and 93)
Sham

StirnJ~and Swut

The stimip has a somewhat trapezoidal shape which is semi-convex in the

rounded join where the spout was inserted. The spout has an everted flat

rim. Seen from the front the spout has a slightly concave shape, but when

the vesse1 is rotateâ the spout appears to be more convex in shape. The

concave versus the convex sides of the spout create a visual impact

when the vesse1 is rotated.

Bnav
The body is globular with a Rat base.

Measurements

The spout is 6.01 cm in height with an intemal diameter of 3.03 cm.The

maximum and minimum widths of the spout are 3.08cm and 3.06 cm
respectively. The stimip is 7.07 cm in height with maximum and minimum

widths of 12.05 cm and 11.05 cm respectively. The maximum height of

this bottle is 24.08 cm, and the maximum widM of the body is 18.05 cm.
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

This bottle was fireâ in a rsduced atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The vesse1 was built with three independent structural parts: the spout, the

stimp, and the body. The spout was inserted in the upper hofe of the

stimp, and the distal extremes of the stimp were inserted into the top of

the chamber in a sirnilar fashion.

Finishinq

The extemai surfacewas polisheâ from the spout to the base of the body,

as was the intemal surface of the rim of the spout.

Decoration

A star-shaped design was incised with a fine-line technique and inside the

motive fine discontinuous lines were incised.

-
Motif

The star-shaped motif was incised over the upper and middle sections of

the body, resemMing the marine sunfiow8r (Pymopodia helianthoides)

which lives on the Puémape rocky littoral. This illustration on this boffle
 looks very much like this kind of echinodem when it is attacheci to marine

rocks.

Jar (SD. No. 1051 (Fiaure 941

Shane

This vessel has a globular shape with a rounded rim. The neck has a

concave profile. The base is rounded on this vessel.

Measurernents
The intemal diameter of the ned< is 3 cm in height with an intemal

diameter of 8.03 cm. The amplete jar is 10 cm in height and the maximum

width of the body is 12 cm.

Paste

Fine sand was added to the clay. This tempering material is similar to the

decorated bowl No. 8 aiready desaibed which belonged to the Early

Puémape Phase. The mineralogical components are quartz and

plagioclase feldspars. Both minerals are part of the sand detived from the

volcanic cmst of the Puémape area.

Fir i n ~

This vessel was fired in an oxidized atmosphere. A typicat red-brown color

is ptedominant in the paste. Much of the extemal surface exhibits ash

deposits likely rswlting from mking activities.
Manufacture

The jar was produced by the coiling process, as demonstrated by

horizontal markings on the interior surface.

Finishinq

The extemal plain surface was polished except for the neck, which was

smoothed on the exterior but polished on the interior.

Decaration

Technially speaking it is an interesting vessel. The ne& was decorated

with geornetric designs done with sharp incisions over the unfired surface

of the vessel. An anthropomorphic face was placed on the front of the

chamber. The components of the face were done using the appliqué

technique, adding rounded wncentric eyes with a dot at the center. a

small triangular nose, and the rnouth which resernbles a coffee bean. The

face is flanked by semicircular ears. Dark f a a l design were produced by

the negative painting technique.

DeCoratiori

The human face is decorated with painted curvilinear tattoos. Bands of

tattoos were placed around the eyes, as well as semicimlar designs at

the ears. A painted band traces the base of the ne&, and anothsr band

tums up behind the mrs. The ne& is decorated with a zone of zigzag

designs resembling a hairdo. The globular shape of the jar imitates a

 human head, and the designs on the neck look like an adomment placed

over the head.

Bowl (SD. NO.106) (Fiaure 95)

Shaw
This bowl has a semi-rounded profile and flat base. The rim profle is a half

ogive shape.

Measurements

The interna1diameter of the bowi is 15.04 cm,and the maximum height is

5.01 cm.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

hornogeneous in its composlion.

Firinq

The œnter of the paste matria is gray while the exterior and interior

surfaœs are r d , indicating and oxidizing atrnosphere during firing.

Manufacture Drocess

The bowl was produced using the coiling technique.

Çinishing

The intemal and extemal surfatxs were poorly polished.

Decoration

lrregular incisions were used for making geometric designs over the semi-

dry surface of the bowl.

-
Motif

The incised design shows horizontal geometric metnc elements

suspended from a line around the mouth of the bands.

8.2 Descriotion and analvsis of ceramics from burials disturbed wehistorically

(D-1)

Burial XXlV

Only one vessel. a broken stimipspout bottle, was found with this burial.

Stirm~smutboWe (SD. No. 511 Fiautes 96 and 97)

shêee

~ Smut
S t i m and

The stimp has a somewhat traperoidal shape, which is amvex in the joint

where the spout was inserted. The spout has in a slightly everted ogive rim

shape. Seen from the front the spout has a concave profile, but when the

vesse1 is rotated, the spout profile appean to be more convex. The

concave venus convex sides of the spout create a clear visual

differentiation Men the bottle is rotated.

 BQ&
The base is flat and the chamber has the amorphous shape of a botanical

species.

Measurernents

The intemal diameter of the spout is 2.04 cm and its height is 5.03 cm.

The maximum and minimum widths of the spout are 3 cm and 2.08 cm

respectively. The stimp has a height of 8.02 cm, and its maximum and

minimum widths are 9.09 cm and 8.07 cm respectively. The maximum

height of the stirrup spout bottle is 23.03 an.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

homogeneous in its composition as well.

Firinq

This bottle was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predorninant in the paste.

Manufacture

X-ray and visual examination of this broken vesse1 establish that the spout,

stimp and body were produced separately (Plate 62).The spout was

inserted in the upper hole of the stimp, and the b e r ends of the stimip

were inserted into the top of the body. The amorphous chamber may have
 been assembled from separate pieces also. Striations and fingemail marks

are present over the intemal surface of the chamber.

Finishinq

The extemal surface was highiy polished from the rim to the base, and

around the intemal surface of the everted rim.

-
Matif

The body is a capricious, naturalistic, mot-shaped plant. The botanical

mode1was likely a wild native root plant which grows in the desert of the

Cupisnique region (Plate 63). It is locally called in Spanish 'yuca de

caballo"(manioc of the horse) (Proboscidea akheaefolia).

Burial CXVI

A sümip-spout bottle, complete and in situ, with a reed sealing the spout

(Plate 64), was found in association with a bowl fragment in this buriai.

Stimi~smutbotüe (SD.No. 91) (Fiaures 98. 99. and 1001 (Plate 65)

Shane

~ Smut
S t i m and

The stimp has a slightly trapezoidai shape, which is convex in the joint

where the spout was inserted. The spout has an everted flat rim. Seen

from the front the spout appears to have a concave profile, but when the

vesse1 is rotated the profile is more convex. Morphologically speaking the

 concave versus convex sides of the spout mate a clear visual

differentiation when the bottie is rotated.

BQ&
It has the amorphous shape of a botanical species.

Measurements
The spout is 5.06 cm in height and has an intamal diameter of 2.08 cm.

The maximum and minimum widths of the spout are 3 cm and 2.07 cm

respectively. The sümp has a height of 8.01 cm.and its maximum and

minimum wîdVis are 11 an and 9.09 cm respedively. The maximum

height of the bottle is 23 cm.

-
Paste

Fine sand as a tempering material. The ciay is very homogeneous in its

composition.

Firinq

This vessel was f red in a reduceâ atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The vessel is forrned from three separate parts: the spout, the stimp, and

the body. The spout was inserted in the upper hale of the stimip, and the

lower ends of the stimp were inserted into the top of the body. Apparentîy

the amorphous shape of the body was modelai in parts too.

Finishinq

The extemal surface was highly polished from the rim to the base, and

around the intemal surfaœ of the slightly everteâ rim.

Oecoration
The fine-line incised technique was used to execute designs on the

chamber when the paste was semidry.

-
Motif

The body is a naturalistic, mot-shaped plant. As in the case of the stimp

spout bottle from burial XXlV already described, the botanical parallel is a

wild native mot plant (Proboscidaa althaeefolia) which grows in the

Cupisnique region. However, the previous specimen does not have incised

designs. The current vesse1 has incised, stylùed human heads in profile

on its chamber. Al the eyes show concentric irises. The noses are

indicated by a volute. ~ h e s e
appear to be decapitated heads. This

impression is reinforcd in the majoriîy of the cases where the severed

necks coincide with the cut ends of the root. In other instances the heads

are set o p p i t e one another, and in another case two heads share the
same mouth and severed ne&. The dual patteming and seversd heads
juxtaposeâ with severed roots is striking.
Bowi GD.No. 1451 (Ficiure 1011

Sham

This bowi has a semi-rounded profile and a fIat n'm.

Measurements

The intemal diameter of the bowi is approximately 15.02 cm,and the

maximum height is 6.06 cm.

-
Paste
Fine sand was used as tempering material. The day is very hornogeneous

in its composition.

Firing

This vesse1 was fired in a reduced atmosphefe. A typical dark color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The bowl was made by the coiling technique. A conical stem is visible in

the upper center of the widest section of the bowl.

Finishinq
The intemal and extemal s u a c e were thoroughiy pdished, but despite

the lustrous shine cuMlinear polishing marks are visible on the interior

surface.
-
Motif

The bowl body resembles a half-'zamten(Cappais macrophyIa). It is

similar to Speamen No. 50 from the in situ burial XX already described.

Burial UO(VIlI

Only one jar was found with this burial.

Jar GD.No. 1021 lFi~ure102)

Shaoe

The body of this vesse1 has a globular shape with a flat base. The neck

has a slightly inverted profile, and the nm is rounded.

Measurements

The intemal diameter of the ne& is 4.08 cm, and its height is 3.08 cm. The

complete jar is 11.O9 cm in height.

-
Paste

Coarse fine sand was used as a tempering material.

Firinq

This jar was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A gray color is predominant in

the paste.
Manufacture

The jar was producd by the coiling process.

Finishinq

The extemal plain surface was polished fiom the rim to the base. The

polishing induded also the intemal surface of the ne&.

Burial LXXX

One broken stimip-spout bottle was found with this bunal.

Stimm-spout bottle (SD. No. 1531

Sham

and Smut:
Stimi~

The stimp sides have a slightly rounded profle which is semi-convex in

the joint where the spout was inserted. The spout has an ogive rim shape,

and straight sides.

BQ&
The body is globular.

Measurements

The spout is 5 cm in height with an intemal diameter of 2.08 cm. The

maxi'rnum and minimum widths of the spout are 3 cm and 2.06 cm

respectively. The stimip is 6.04 cm in height and its maximum and

minimum widths are 12 cm and 11.O5 cm respectively.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition as weil.

The extemal surface of this vesse1 is oxidued, but the intemal matrix is a

da* color indicating poor firing control.

Manufacture

Vsual examination reveals three indepandent structural parts to this

M e : These structural parts are the spout, the stimp and the globular
body. Once the globular body was ready the stimip was inserted in two

holes on the upper sides, and the spout was inserted in the central upper

hole of the stirrup.

Finishinq

The extemal surface of the stimipspout was poiished from the rim to the

existent part of the body. The red d o t used as slipping was hematite. It

was applied over the dried surface of the bottîe and polished pdor to
firing.

DaCoration
Fine incisions were used to produce geometric designs on the body.

aven the fragmenteci state of this body it was not possible to idenbfy the
motik represented.
8 . 3 Oesd~tionand analvsis of œramics from burials disturbed in modem times

JD-2)

Burial Il

A single, broken stimp-spout bottlewas recorded.

Stirruo-s~outbottle ISD.No. 71 IFigure 103)

a!as
w
The ftagmented body reprasents a zoomorphic shape.

-
Paste
Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The clay is very

homogeneous in I s composition.

Firing

The bottie was fird in a reduced atmosphere. A typicel gray cdor is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

Given the fragmented condition it can be infened that the shape of an

animal head formed the chamber.

Finishing

Pait of the face, which induded the top W o n of the nose, snout. and

eyes, was highiy polished. The mat or smoothed extemal surface

 treatment of the nasal cavities, mouth, teeth, and fangs contrasts with the

polishing.

Decoration

High relief was used in the anatomical components of the animal face.

Fine-line incisions were done over the nose. Rectangular fans were

appliquéd to the extreme sides of the open mouth.

-
Motif

This is a feline representation shawing an aggressive open rnouth with

threatening fans. It is a very common representation on stimpspout

bottles during the Middle Puémape Phase.

Buriai CV

One jar was found with this burial.

Jar (SaNo. 100) (Fiaure 104)

Shaw

Has a globular shape with a niunded base, concave ne& and rounded

rim.

Measurements

The ne& is 4.05 cm in height with an intemal diameter at the rim of 4.09

an. The complete jar is 16.03 cm in height.

-
Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering matefial.

Firinq

This vessel was Cred in a reduced atmosphere. A gray calor is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The jar was made by the coiling method.

Finishinq

The extemal plain surface was polished frorn the rim to the base. The

polishing included the intemal surface of the ne&.

Burial CVll

Only one fragmented neckless olla was associated with this bunal.

Neckless olla (SaNo. 1071 (Fiaure 105)

asQe
The body of this vessel has a semkonvex profile and an ogive tirn shape.

Measurements

The intemal diameter of the neckless olla is 10 cm; the maximum height is

9.08 cm.
-
Paste

Fine sand is used as a tempering material. The plastic material is very

hornogeneous in its composition.

Firina

This vesse1 was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The bowl was made with the coiling method. Coil marks are present on

the intemal surface.

Finishinq

The extemal surface was carefully and completely polished.

Burial CXXl
A stimip-spout bottle and a bowl were found with this burial.

Stirmesmut bottle (SD.

No. 92) (Plate 661

Shaw

Stirru~and Swut

The stimp is a trapezoidal shape which is semi-amvex in the rounded

joint where the spout was inserted. The spout has a slightly everted ogive

rim. Seen fmm the front, the spout profile appears concave, but when the

vesse1 is tumed, the spout profile 6 more convex. Morphologically

 speaking the concave versw convex sides of the spout create a clear

visual differentiation during the rotation of the stimp-spout bottle.

Bsev
The base is Rat and the chamber was xulpted to represent an

anthropomorphic body.

Measurernents

The spout is 6 cm in height with an intemal diameter of 3.03 cm. The

stimp is 8 cm in height and its maximum and minimum widths are 10 cm

and 9 cm respectively. The maximum height of the bottle is 39 cm. It is the

tallest Middle Puémape Phase funerary vessel in the sample.

Paste

Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

homogeneous in ils composition.

Firina

This bottle was fired in a reduced atmosphere, but there are some red

spots on the spout. In general, a typical gray &or is predominant in the

paste.

Manufacture

Unfortunately this vessel was not submitted to X-ray examination. In

general ternis it is composed of three independent structural parts: the

spout, the stimp, and the body. The human head, upper lirnbs, thorax.
 and lower limbs foming the body of the vesse1 may have been modeled

independently and assembkd at the end. The spout was inserted in the

upper hole of the sümp, and both distal extremes of the stimip were

inserted into the top of the body.

Finishin~

The extemal surface was highly polished from the spout to the base of the

body. It was also polished around the intemal surface of the everted rim.

This polishing contrasts with the mat extemal surface of the face where

incisd geometric designs were done. In addition, the naiis of hands and

feet also have a mat finish.

Oecoration

Among the decorative techniques used were findine incision for the

geometric desqns, and appliqué for a curvilinear ' n a m strip" in the right

hand.

-
Motif

The anatomical position of the represented individual is very unusual. It is

the naturalistic representation of a young contortionist or acrobat hanging

a snake from his fight hand. Unfortunately the left a m and hand are

absent. The eyes have curvilinear lines around thern, possibly

representing tattoce implying a 'fiying* position (figure 106). The

abdomen and chest are deoorated with a longitudinal band (Figure 107).
lnside the band are three incised decapitated human heads in profile which

are delimited by hexagonal interconnecteû spaces. The first two, fm the

top to the bottom, decapitateâ head profiles have the same orientation. In

contrast, the third decapitated head was p l a d upside-down but facing

the first two. The first decapitated head profile was placed over the belly of

the contortionist. Between the hexagonal-decapitated head motifs were

incised triangular 'smiling faces'. The upper left section of the vertical

band is not closed. At this point half of a hexagonal space amtains vertical

lines but a complet8 decapitated head. From this open space an

amorphous decapitated head emanates to the extenor of the band. On the

extrerne left side of this head an upsidedomi decapitated head is

represented. This head is facing volute designs interconnectecl with the

vertical band. The iconographie representation over the abdomen and the

chest shows a band oontaining decapitated human heads delimited by

hexagons, which is open at a given point. From this point issue other

'flowing' heads. It is important to note the amorphous shape of the

decapitated head axpelled from the vertical band. There appears to be a

transition from the ~xpelled,amorphous head to a dear representaüon of

one decapitated head done upsidedown. Apparently, the artist is showing

decapitated human heads 'flowing'. The orderd repmsentations done in
 the vertical band shift to a disordered flowing of decapitated heads

emanating to the left side.

Around the flght Wst a sort of chained bracelet is represented

(Figure 1084). Finally, the left ankle is decorated with a band of incised

zigzag designs, hanging h m the bottom is a decapitated head (Figure

1Wb).

Bowl ISD. No. 88) (Fiaure 109)

çhape
The body has a semi-rounded profile with a fht base, and a fianged rim.

Measurements

The intemal diameter of the bowi is 13.08 cm;

and the maximum height is

4.07 cm.

Paste
Fine sand was used as a tempering material. The day is very

homogeneous in its mmposition.

Firinq

This bowl was fired in a reduced atmosphere. A typical gray color is

predominant in the paste.

Manufacture

The bowi was made by the aiiling method.

Finishina

The intemal and extemal surFdces were carefully polished. CuMiinear

polishing marks are present on the interior surface.

Ckcoration

Fine-line incisions were used for making rectilinear and cuwilinear designs

over semi-dry extemal surfaces. The geometric designs appear inside a

band around the h w l .

-
Motif

The designs appear to represent a marine theme with waves and the

undulating motion of water.

An ocarina was the only objed associated with this burial (Plate 67).

Ocarina (SaNo. 761 (Fiaure 110)

Sham

The ocarina is modeled in the fwm of a coiled snake. The body is a

m v e x shape with a cirailar hole in one end.

Measumments

The ocarina is 5.07 cm in height with a maximum width of 5 cm.The

mouthpiece has a diameter of 1 cm, and the secondary hole has a

diameter of 3 mm.
-
Paste

Sand of fine texture was used as a tempering material. The clay is very

homogeneous in its composition.

The ocarina was fired in an oxidized atmosphere. A typical light orange

cdor is predominant in the paste.

Manufadure

X-ray examinaüon and visual inspection indicate the ocarina was made by

coiling (Plate 68).

Finishinq

The decorated extemal light orange surface was carefully and completely

polished.

Decoration

Fine-line incising was used to outiine the eyes, nose, and open mouth

showing teeth and fangs, and for concentric body markings. Red hematite

and a pst-firedwhite paint were used to fiIl the incisions and ailor the
pdished s u m .

w
The ocarina was modeled in the fwm of a spotted snake. The snake has

an aggressive open mouth and redangular threatning fangs. The main

hde is at the back of the snake's head, and a secondary hole is at the joint
 of the coiling bady. Blowing through the main hole while moving the finger

over the secondary hole produœs musical sounds. The spotted skin of the

snake resembles the native coastal boa living in the suroundings of

Puemape. It is called boa or 'macanchen(Boa constrictor ortonir).

C. Sumrnarv of Middle Puémaw Phase Ceramics

The sample from all sources (Appendix 6: Tables 110-1 16) (Figures 111-

141) (Plates 69, 70 and 71) indudes 26 bowls, 2 'castellated-flm" bowls. 1

everted vase, 2 clay disks, 23 stimip-spout bottles, 2 single-necked bottles, 9

neckless ollas, 3 cylindrical vases, 8 jars, 1 jar with handle, 1 pot, 1 canchero,

and 1ocarina. The number of vessels pIaW with individual burials ranges from

one to four. Aîthough the sample derives from four sources (in situ burials, burials

disturbed prehistoricslly, recently disturbed burials and unassoaated funerary

ceramic), unifomiity of style and manufaduring technique demonstrate these

recuveries represent a single ceramic phase. It is reinforœd by the following:

a. The predominant tempering material used in the 79 ceramic specirnens

was fine sand of fine grain texture. Only one jar was ternpered with
medium-graineâ sand. The clay used was very fine and quite plastic for

easy modeling and resembled the natural day deposits abundant in the

Pubmape surroundings.
b. Construction methods were restricted to coiling and joined parts.

Bowls, everted vesoels, nediless ollas, cylindrical vessels, the

ocarina, the canchem, and jars were made by coiling. Parts were joined

in the constniction of stimip-spout and single-mked bottles. In some

cases, both construction methods were used in making a closed vesse1

such as a stimpspout bottle.

c. Extemal surface finishing was predominantly pdishing but in some

exceptional cases bumishing was wed on stimpspout and single-

necked bottles. Pattern polishing and pattern bumishing were used to

-te contrastive surfaces. lntemal surface finishing was also

predominantly polishing on the open vessals. Only one exceptional jar

exhibiteci srnoothing, siipping, polishing, and negative painting

techniques. The ocarina was polished and covered with post-fired paint.

d. The decoraüve techniques on bowls and 'castellated-rim" bowls were

findine incision, bmd-line incision, and rough incision. Broad-line

incision was used on the everted vesse(, and Fine-line incision on

cylindrical vessels. Fine-line incision and punctation were useû on

neckless dlas. Applique, fine-line incision, and cane impressions were

used on the jars. The ocarina was decomtecl with cirde and dot
 impressions and fineline incision. The day disks have plain extemal

surfaces.

e. Singlanecked bottles had drck and dot impressions, fine-line incision,

broaô-line incision, bnishing and appliqué fillets Ath sepamted

notches. The decorations used on the stimpspout bottles, apart of the

modeling, wre circle and dot impressions, fine-line incision, broad-line

incision, plain fillets, fillets with separated notches, rounded and

pointed protuberances. The stimpspout and singlenecked boffles

wem the most decorated vessels in the whole MPP œramic sample.

f. The bases of the bowls were flat, rounded, and concave. The single-

n&ed bottles rounded &ases. The stimpspout bottles had fiat or

rounded bases, as did the neckless ollas. The jars had rounded bases,

as did the ocarina.

g. The bowls had either convex or straight sides. Castellatebrim bowls

had stmight sides. B d s with rounded sides resemble h a l of a gourd.

Neckiess ollas had munded or ainical shapes. Cylindrical vases

imitated cyiindrical baskets. Some of the bodies of the jars, pots, and

cancheros imitated gourds of different sues and shapes.

h. The lip protiles of the open vessels were: straight, flanged, half-ogive,

and wnvex in the bowîs. Ogive and flanged on the castellated-rim

bowis; and Flanged on the everted vessels. The lip profiles and ne&

shape of some of he closed vessels were: Convex and ogive on the

nekdess ollas; HaIfogive on the cylindrical vases; Convex and half-

ogive on the jars. The necks of the jars were slightly inverted, concave

and concave-inverted with oblique sides. The jar w'th the thick handle

and the pot had convex lips and the canchero had straight lips.

i. Single-nwed bottles had ogive lips and concave side profiles of the

spout. The singleneckeâ bottle bodies irnitated bottle-gourds and other

geornetric shapes.

j. The stirrup-spout boffles had ogive and straight-shapeâ spout lips. The

profile of the spouts appeared concave from the front and convex from

the side. Most of the stimp profiles are slightly trapezoidal. One had a

quadrangular shaped stimip and another had an ogive spout shape

but a rounded stimp profik. The chambers are variable in shape,

representing naturalistically local plants, animals and people. In

addition, supematural beings were modeled, and in some cases,

species from distant environments were repmnted.

 k. Middle Puérnape motives followed naturalistic and geometric patterns.

A particular way of modeling and incising some flora and faunal coastal

species was quite common. The dual principle, underlying the

disposition of the motives as well as the shape of sorne vessels, was

cleariy in the mind of the MPP potters. The materializationof this

ideological principle can be seen best in the stimpspout bottles in

tems of: shape, contrasting of finishes, naturalistic and geometric

motives, and sea and land environmental representations on the same

vessel.

1. The predominant firing method used on the MPP cerarnics was the

reduced atmosphere. Only in the case of a jar and the ocarina was an

oxid~edatmosphere used. In general tems, given the variability of the

cdor of the paste in the MPP funerary vessels, there was no

consistent contml of the firing process. Hawever, the gray color of the
paste was predominant given the reduced atmosphere in the kilns used

by the MPP potters.

D. Surnmarv of Late Puemabe Phase Ceramics

The sample from ail sources (Appendix 6:Tables 117-118) indudes 8

bowis, 6 vases, and 3 stimipspout bottles. Although the maIl sample derives
from three sources (Cerro Awl disturbed burials (CA), burials disturbed in the

adjacent cemetery of the Late Puémape temple (TC) and a diagnostic sherd

found in the fiil of the Late Puémape temple), uniformity of style and

rnanufactunng technique demonstrate thaï these spedmens represent a single

ceramic phase. This is reinforcd by the following trends:

a. The predorninant tempering material used in the 17 ceramic spedmens

was fine sand of fine grain texture. The clay used was very fine and

quite plastic for easy rnodeling. It resembles the natural day deposits

abundant in the Puémape sumundings.

b. Construction methods were restrided to coiling and joining of parts.

Bowis, and vases were made by coiling, and stinup-spout bottles by

joining parts. In some cases,both construction methods were u s 4 in

making a dosed vesse1 such as the stirrupspout boffle.

c. Extemal su*- finishing was predominantly pdishing. In some cases

smoothing. Pattern polishing and burnishing were used to achieve

contrastirtg surfaces. lntemal surface finishing was also predominantly

pdishing in the open vessels.

d. The decorative techniques in bowls were broad-line incision, polished

lines and brushing. Fine-line and broad-line incision was used on the

vases. Some open and dos& vessels also had plain extemal

surfaces.

e. The decoration used on the stimip-spout bottles, apart from the

modeling, was fine-lined incision.

f. The bases of the bowls were flat or rounded of the vases, flat.

g. The bodies of the bowls had convex or straight sides. The vases had

everted sides.

h. The lip prafile in the open vessels was: flangd on the bowis; flanged,

straight, half-ogive, and convex on the vases.

i. The stimp-spout bottles had ogive and straight shaped spaut lips. The

spouts had nearly straight sîdes.

j. Late Puérnape motives followed predominantly geometric patterns. The

 dual principle underlying the disposition of the motives as well as the

shape of sorne vessels was clearly in the mind of the LPP pottem. The

materializaüonof this ideological principle can be seen best in the

stimip spout bottles in ternis of: shape, contrast of finishing. and

naturalistic and geometnc motives on the same vessel.

k. The predominant firing method of the LPP ceramics was a reduced

abriosphere. The gray color of the paste was predominant given the

reduced atmosphere used in the kilns by the LPP potten.

 CHAPTER 10

THE IMPORTANCE OF CUPISNIQUE IN ANDEAN ARCHAEOLOGY

A. The Cuoisnioue Cultural Com~lex

The excavations at Puemape have provided substantial new data for

understanding and testing the coastal mis of the Cupisnique Cultural Complex.

Some radiocarbon dates from Puemape indicate a very early occupation during

the Earîy and Middle Puemape Phases (Appendix 8). My approach in this

dissertation is to attempt to demonstrate the pristine North Coastal cultural origins

and development of the Cupisnique culture and to dispute what I believe is the

confused and untenable view of Cupisnique as the socalled 'Coastal Chavin' or

as denving from 'Chavinoid influence" over the North Coast.

Cupisnique was an important cultural-geographic region during the

Formative with numerous little known Cupisnique settlements, as I will discuss

bslow. Questions that emerge from Vie research at Puémape are: Can the

Pubrnape cultural sequenœ be linkeâ to the origins and development of the

Cupisnique Complef? Was Puérnape a key part of the Cupisnique heartland?

Was the littoral of Puémape in partÎcular and aie inland Cupisnique region in

general, together with adjacent valleys, an interaction sphere in which manne

and terrestrial resources were exchanged during the Formative? Did shamanic

religious ideology link the various Cupisnique communities and is that reflected in
the iconography represented on the movable and immovable cultural materials at

Formative sites in the North Coastal region?

At the end of this discussion I will argue that the interaction between the

littoral and the coastal inland Cupisnique communities thorough tirne led to the

formalization of the distinctive and essential cultural charader of the Cupisnique

phenomenon as a whole. In this regard, Iwilluse the available archaeological

evidence, from technology to shamanic religious ideology, to demonstrate the

idiosyncratic coastal nature of the Cupisnique complex. Frorn this starting point, I

will suggest a model in which the Cupisnique complex is understood as a North

Coastal phenomenon that had a sudden influence over a great part of the

Central Andes.

In short, Iwill argue that the supposed 'Classic Chavinncultural presenœ

on the North Coast of Pen3 was sensu stnctu Cupisnique, Le. an idedogy and

cultural pattern that developed from Late Preceramic and Early Formative Pend

cultures of the North Coast.

The available archaeological data, beginning with the Late Preceramic, will

be reviewed, lwking for long term traditional cultural patterns on the North Coast.

The Late Preceramic or Archaic period, I will argue, is the cultural fwndation for

understanding the Puernape sequenœ and its place and meaning within the

Cupisnique Cultural Complex.

A.1 Earlv Puémaae Phase

The earliest occupation at Puemape was related to layers IV, V, and VI of

Excavation Unit 11 and faœd the open Puhape rocky littoral and the vastness

of the sea. An architectural feature, excavated in Excavation Unit 11, was part of

a lower flaot covered with a whitish substance similar to lime. The same kind of

white substance was iden- over part of the floor of the Late Puemape Phase

cerernonial centre. Oespite the time lapse between the two,they show a

conünuity in this cultural pattern from the Earîy to the Late Puemape Phases.

At first we infened that layer IV-V of Excavation Unit 11 (Chaptet 5) was a

domestic setting. Howver, large amounts of mussel shells, vertebralcolurnns of

ChondricMhveg fish,and possible dned seaweed in pits wggests that it was

possibly a temporary storage area for proœssing sea resources. The marine fora

and fauna of layers N to VI are all cold-water indicethg that the shores wem

bathed by the cold Penj cumnt at the time.

Native cotton, gourds, resds, and acacia were also found; cotton and

gourds. used fw the manufadure of net floats, ernphasise the importance of

fishing.

Camela excrement in layer N of Excavation Unit 11 is evidenœ of

Carnelids, possibly Ilamas, at Puémape. The composition of the coprdites

induded prccessed and digested seawesd. Llamas may have been used to

transport marine resourœs from Puémape to the inland sites,which mises the
 question of what was received in retum. Pits containing dean a n d were also a

. feature of the early occupation. Another feature racorded were hoies containing

clean sand. These may have been u s d for stodng dried fish, as is recorded

ethnographically on the North Coast.

No ceramics were found in association with this earliest occupation, but

given the nondomestic character of the evidence from layer IV it is unclear

whether or not there is a tnie Praceramic occupation at Puémape. Nevertheless,

for rnethodological reasons, the presence/absence of initial pottery will be used to

divide the earliest pend of occupation at Pudmape. The aceramic occupation.

associatecl wîth laye= IV, V and VI of Excavation Unit 11 is designateci Early

Puemape Phase 1 (EPP-1). Layer III lacked associatad ceramics; however. it

ovedies a burial with cerarnics and consequently belonged to a ceramic period.

The domestic occupation associateci with the first occurrence of potteiy.

layers IV and V of Excavations Units 9 , 9 W and the burials intnisive to layers IV-

W of unit 11, are called Early Puémape Phase2 (EPPâ).

ît is possible that the lack of pottery in the lower layers of unit 11 mis

because pottery was not necessary for proaiasing, stonng and transporüng sea
resources. Layer III of Excavation Unit 11 was similar to the ceramic bearing
layen (Nand V) of E x c ~ vUni&
~ ~9Q ~ 9-W. The same kinds of domestic
and

features, marine rnollusks, and fish were found. A grsater variety of marine and
terrestrial faunal species and botanical remains were identified. however, in the

layers associateci with the EPP-2 than in the E P P l layers.

Of the 24 burials cut into layer N of Excavation Unit 11, only burial XClV

had a ceramic vessel associated (Sp. 72). Otherwise this burial was

indistinguishabk from the other 24 burials. The funerary vessel, a neckless olla,

was indistinguishable in form and technique from the neckless olla and bowl

fragments recorded in the deepest domestic layen (IV and V) of Excavation Unit

9 and 9-W. The evidence from the earliest levels of Excavation Units 11, 9 and 9-

W, then, constitute the empirical foundation for defining aie Early Puémape

Phase. and this early phase wiil be a comerstone for defining the beginnings of

the Cupisnique Cornplex.

In defining the Cupisnique complex as a regional phenornenon it is

necessary to identify a pattern of configurations in economics, technoiogy,

funerary practices, political organisation, iconography, religious ideology and so

on; those factors that make an ethnic community a whole.

A2 Com~arisonswith Eadv Puémape Phase

Putang the Early Puémape f hase into a regional context, a number of

detailed similarities exist in the funeary and nonfunerary patterns between

Puémape and Late Preœramic settiements which have been reporteâ from the

North Coast, notably the sites of Huaca Prieta, located on the littoral of the
Chicama Valley; Alto Salaverry, located on the littoral of the Moche Valley; and

Huaca Negra de Guafiape, on the littoral of the Vini Valley. The sites define an

apparent cultural tradition which extended from Cupisnique to the Vin2 Valley,

beginning in the Late Precerarnic. No Late Precerarnic sites have yet been

identified in the neighbouring valieys, but with the advent of pottery it is clear that

the region from the Jequetepeque to the Vin3 Valleys share a cornmon cultural

tradition.

Cornparisons between the earliest Huaca Prieta burials and the Eariy

Puemape Phase (EPP-2) bunals are a good starting point for idenwing an

ancient North Coastal funerary tradition. Amrding to Bird et al. (1985) the

skefetal rernains of at least 33 individuals were found in the domestic refuse of

Huaca Prieta. The very earliest burials (More 2500 BC) were found in shallow

graves and other burials had been placed in mail. cobblelined subtemnean

houses. The relative chronology of the burials is describeci as follows.

Among the preceramic bunals, the many skeletons from the top of the
mound (881 to 895E) are the more recent, and probably equate with 896,
the most ment (uppermost) bunal in Test Pit 3. The oldest burials in Test
Pit 3 are 902, 903, and 904, coming from the lower layers. The burials
from Test Pit 2 (905 to 908) are sirnilariy old, equating in age to those of
the lower sûata of Test Pit 3 . (Bid et al. 1985:59)

The oldest burials from Test PR 3 (hemafter referred to as HP 3) b a r the

closest resemblanœ to the EPP-2 burials. The graves of burials 902, 903 and
904 were shallow .oval pits, excavated into the domestic refuse (Bird et al 1985:

67 fig. 38;70 fig. 41), like those of EPP-2, and the cadavers were interred in a

flexed position. None of the HP 3 burials showed evidence of the muse of the

same bunal pit; given the small sire of the excavation unit, however, it may be

that the area sampled was too small to identify this practice.

The earliest burials of HP 3 were also similar to those of EPP-2, in that

no consistent pattern of orientation was followed. Regarding the wrapping of the

cadaven, No. 902 had traces of textile under m e parts of the skeleton. which
may have been the remains of a cover wrapped around the corpse. Burial 903

preserved the remains of mat made of woven of reeds (juncu) with a cotton weft,

identical in construction to those from Puemape, and inside the matting were

remains of a cotton textile covering the cadaver. From the buMl pit to the

treatment of the cadaver, then, burial 903 anticipated in detail the EPP-2 burials.

No traces of textiles wem found in association with burial 904, though it is

possible that the textiles decayed and disappeared over tirne.

Bird reairded Stones and five porpoise bones immediately above burial

902. The association with the burial is uncertain; however, based on the evidenœ

from Puémape, I would argue that they were deliberately piaced above the burial.

Wfih respect to the association of grave goods, Bird reports the foilmhg

with respect to burial 903:

 The burial, No. 99.11903, with which these specimens were found did not
difbr in arrangement from others above and below it, exœpt that it was
the only one in which artifacts other than matting had been deliberately
placed with the body (Bird 1963:30).
Above the mat et the center of the grave was a small pieœ of twined
totora matting, and on this lay an old, worn, twisted junco cord pouch of a
single-hitch construction containing a gourd bottle (?), pieces of gourd vine
stem, two gourd seeâs, leaves similar to willow, small 'turin flowers, and
two pieces of juna, tuber. The bottle gourd was not fully ripe and was in
very poor condition. Under the matüng, the remains of at least 6 fabrics
were found. One was a small pouch of cotton, woven in the form of a
cylinder and holding two gourd aintainers(Bird et al. 198570).

The cylindrical cutton pouch containing two highly decorated. empty gourd

containers (Bird et al. l985:il figs. 42 and 43; Bird l963:35, Plate II) was among

the most noteworthy Cnds from Huaca Prieta. The pouch, placed over the nght

k g just above the knee, was associateci with the cadaver of an aged female,

which Bird nicknamed "Lady of the gourds". Only one EPP-2 burial (No. =IV)

was a d a t e d with a rnodified gourd containing a textile and a sort of lime, and

coincidentally (?), the cadaver was female (young adult). Burial XXXN was the

fmale of the dual burial at Puémape. The male (burial XXXIII), as noted in

Chapter 7. was buried opposite the female in the complementary position, and

above the cadaver, rocks and manne mammal bones had been placed. If burial

902 was paired with 903, the dual burial of Pu6mape repeated a pattern that had

been represented at Huaca Prieta several œnturies earlier. Not only was the

dual opposition of female vs. male repeated, but the association of fernales with

gourd containers and males with rocks and sea mammal bones.
 The hinerary patterns of shallow oval graves with flexed cadavers

wntinued through the rniddle and upper layers of HP 3. The only ditference being

that burials 896 (Layer C-D) and 897 (Layers F-G) were not as tightly flexed as

the earlier butials. Stones were placed over the cadavers in a manner similar to

the Puémape burials.

As rnentioned above, subterranean structures were also used as tombs.

Sometime after the first occupation at Hwca Prieta, subtemnean houses

came into use. lndividuals were often burîeâ in their m m s , or recesses in
those rooms. The bodies often lay, like the burials in the refuse, on either
side with amis and legs fiexed, and no partiwlar orientation (memo,1959)
(Bird et al 198559)

In the later subterranean houses the- were multiple burials, varying from

2 to 8 individuals and of difbrent sex and age. The multiple burials were not

predorninantly flexed, as were those associated with the earliest occupation of

Huaca Prieta, e.g., burial 903.

Muîüple burials were found in 5 subterranean structures at the top of the

Huaca Prieta mound, al1 without ceramics associateci. The extended, semi-

extended and semi-flexed disposition of some of the 8 cadavers are strongly

comparable to some cadavers with the same disposition during the Middle

Puémape Phase (MPP) but not mai the EPP cadavers. House 1 containeci 8

chidavers, comphsing 7 women and one man, mostly middbageâ individuals.

(Bird et al. 198561 and 66). An unnumbered burial was associated with the first

funeraty use of red pigment on the North Coast:

The remains of an additional individual (') frorn House 1 were not

presewed and therefore have no AMNH catalogue number. That burial
was located in Room 1 and was not intact. That skull was cnished, lying
face down, and had red p i n t under it. The right hand and foreann were in
a natural position but the other bones were not. A OMned Cotton fabric was
present (Bird et al l985:66)

For the EPP-2 burials we recorded onty one cadaver, burial CXV, with red

painting. In this case the hematite was disposed also over the face of the

cadaver.

Given their small size and lack of firepits inside Grieder (1997) has

recently questioned whether the subterranean structures of Huaca Prieta were

houses or possibly were built as tombs.

If th8 Huaca Prieta examples were actually built as tombs they may
represent the earliest such structures we know at this time. Shaft tombs
similar to the Huaca Prieta structures, thaugh often deeper, are widely
knomi along the Padfic coast of the Americas, but the history of the type
is unknown. The wide-spread use of shaft tombs is an argument for their
anüquity, and Huaca Prieta b k s like an early member of the series (1997:
108)

I am more inclined to agree with Bird's interpretation of these as houses

which were subsequently used for burials. Some of the 5 Preœramic

subterranean structures recorded on the top of the mound, as well as similar

structures located to the northemmost of the Huaca Prieta mound. but associated

with the Early and Middle Formative periods, (recordeci as Excavation Units HP

4 and HP 5, Bird et al. 1985: 47-50) were never used as tornbs. The later

structures are of the same size and shape, but additional materials were used in
their construction, induding cylindrical, biscuit and conical adobes (Bird et al.

1985:49 fig. 31), diagnostic marken of the transition from the Late Precerarnic

and the Eariy and Middle Formative periods.

The lack of firepits inside the subterranean structures is explained by the

fact that cooking was done outside the house. Bumed and or fir8-cfacked cobble

stones were found in the debris outside the constructions. The same use of fire-

cracked rocks was identifed in the EPP domestic settings of Puémape. Using

heated stones to mok inside the small stnictures mxild have been impracücal.

Heating the cobbles in preparation for codOng requires an open spece for

ventilation and the oxygen required to increase the heat of the fire. With the

sarrcity of fuel, it is unlikely that Cres were used to heat the structures.

The houses were small, as Grieder points out. For exampde, House 2 on

top of the mound was 2.50 m in diameter and 1 rn high. These structures,

hcwever, may only have been used for resting and sleeping, as shelters from the

wind; as such, the small size would have b e n an advantage in that body heat

could have kept them wam.

 At Huaca Prieta, then. it seems that houses were recyded as tombs. The

houses of the living became the houses of the anœstors. New generations buiit

new houses atop the old. This practice continued over almost 2000 years at

Huaca Prieta and the symbolic connedion between aôandoned houses and

tombs is evident in the EPP, MPP, and Salinar occupations at Puemape, as wdl.

The economic activities here and at Puemape were done outside the

structures. Food remains and the tools for processing and cooking are recordeci

frorn the debris outside the houses. The processing of industrial plants such as

the native cotton for making nets, cords, cloths, gourds net-floats, domestic

containers, and objects of art, was probably done outside the subterranean

houses. Such a use of space would conforni with the ethnohistoric and

ethnographie data on the Muchik.

Huaca Prieta subsistence relied heavily on manne resources from the

rocky and sandy shoreline biotopes. The manne spscies, which included

mollusks, crustaceans, echinodems, and Csh, were adapted to the cdd

conditions of the Penivian current. One of the main mollusks consumed by the

Huaca Prieta inhabitants was the purple mussel (Chommflilus chonrs),which is

extinct on the North Coast nowadays. To gather these mwsels it was neœssary

to dive 6-12 meten under the sea (M. Peiia: personal communication, 1991).

Exostoses, recordeci by Tattersall (Bird et al 1985:60.64) in signiiicant frequency

and different degrees of the affliction in skulls of the Late Precerarnic, Early and
Middle Formative periods. and in a greater number of males than fernales. was

probably caused by diving for this mussel.

Among the foods identified from human coprolites that were as eady as the

Preceramic at Huaca Prieta were sea urchin, mussel, crab and sea snails mixed

with chilli peppen and fruits (Bird et al 1985). This dish and others which mix chilli

peppen and seafood inside bowl-gourds are favourites among the local

traditional fishing populations still today (C. Elera: personal observations in

Monsefij and Villa de Eten. Lambayeque 1978).

The decorated gourds and textiles from the Preœramic burials at Huaca
Prieta indicate the existence of a fonnalized iconography, which provides further

links to Puémape and the developrnent i f the Cupisnique cornplex. The

decorated gourd containers, mentioned above, have drawn the greatest attention,

from some scholars, most notably Lathrap (Lathrap et al. 1975), who argued for

stylistic connections with œramic skeuomorphs of gourds in the Valdivia cornplex

of Ecuador. There may indeed be some distant stylistic ties, but the dualistic
structure of opposition and complementarity of the Huaca Prieta representations

is distinctive and continues as an organking principle of the iconography of the

North Coast.

A Middle Puémape pytoengraved gourd container exhibits the same

iconography and dual structure as the Preceramic gourds of Huaca Prieta

(Plates 72 and 73) (Elera and Pinilla 1990; Elera 1997). The Puémape
specimen is much smaller, but the shape, relative dimensions, and technology

are the same. The feline representations are more abstract than those of Huaca

Prieta, but they occupy opposing, complementary positions, as on the Preceramic

specimens.

The site of Aito Salaveny, located on a southem bluff overîooking the

Pacific Oœan at the rnouth of the Moche Valley, was discovered by the Chan

Chan-Moche Valley projeet and studied by the Pozonkis (Pozonki and Pozonki

1979 b:337-375), who ~amedout extensive excavations. The site dates to the

Late (or Cotton) Precerarnic p e n d (2500-1800 BC) and consists of domestic and

nondomestic architecture, burials and refuse. The cemetery had been looted,

and only two undisturbed burials were recorded, a flexed adult male and a

young child (Pozorski and Pozorski 1979 b:351-354). Both had extemal reed

mats, wtiich covered tied layen of twined cotton textiles wrapped directiy around

the body. Two boulders had been placed above the burial of a young child

(Pozonki and Pozonki 1979 b:353: Fig.11). The adult male was found mthin a

platforni 4 of structures D of the site, and the young child was found within

midden deposits. Though the sample is small, the Late Preœramic Aito Salaverry

burials utilised the same mortuary treatment as the EPP burials.

The Pozonkis identfied an interesting set of Late Precerarnic architectural

cornponents :
 " ...it was evident that the structures present Vary greatly in layout,
construction, techniques, and function. The layout of nondomestic
structures ranges from a cornplex network of rectiiinear rwms and
platfoms to a simple circular pattern, whereas domestic architecture units
are consistently simple isdated or contiguous rwms. Boulden, cobbles,
and rectangular adobes were used in construction. An evaluation of layout,
construction methods and materials, as well as other evidence such as
position within the site and association with refuse form the bases for
fundional distinctions between domestic and nondomestic architecture.
(1979 b:34 1-442)

The relatively short occupation at Alto Salaveny and a shaltow over-

burden meant that much of the settlement plan was visible on or near the

surface. According to the Pozorskis, there was a clear diffbrentiation among

domestic, semidomestic and nondomestic architectural components.

Some of the Alto Salaveny semi-subtenanean houses were of the same

shape and size as the Huaca Prieta subterranean domestic structures, the only

signifiant variation being that local1y availabie construction materiais were used.

Carefully made circular hearths were found inside some of these structures. The

cleanness and the red clay surrounding the holes of the hearths indicate that they

were not used for cooking. Cooking was done outside the structures with heated

rocks at Alto Salaverry just as in Huaca Prieta and Puemape.

The nondomestic architecture at Alto Saîaverry included a sunken circular

court. It was located close to an oid beach line abng a NUSW axis. This
ceremonial structure antedates the sunken court of the Old temple of Chavin de

Huantar by more than 1O00 years and is one of several sunken circular courts
known from the coastal area during the Late Pteceramic and Early Formative

(Williams:1972). The Alto Salaverry sunken circular court is the most northem

example known to date.

Semidomestic architecture is represented by two rectangular structures.

labelled D and E by the Pozorskis. Both were placed at the edge of the site, with

structure E oriented to the East facing the mountains and structure D to the west

facing the sea. A cluster of flat round cobbles, associated with hematite

processing, found on the floor of a long narrow r o m of structure E, recalls a

similar cache, but without hematite, associated with a domestic setting of EPP-2

and a cluster of rounded stones associated with hematite processing, found on

part of the main œremonial platfon of the Late Puémape Phase.

The Pozorskis have suggested that stnictures D and E attest status

inequality at Alto Salaverry:

The two structures designated as semidomestic architecture provide the

main evidence of elementary social ranking within the site. In the case of
both structures O and El the association of refuse with portions of the
structure confimi a domesüc aspect of the function of each. Additionally,
most of each cornplex is compriseci of rooms and platforrns without refuse
which architecturally emphasises exterior finishing, thereby suggesting a
second public, or nondomestic function. In contrast, the domestic
stmctures are small, simple, and dosely assodateci with the main body of
midden at the site. Such differences between the complexes and the
dornestic structures suggest status inequalities between the inhabitants of
each architectural type (Pozorski and Pouwski 1979 b:373).
 Whether or not this refiects social inequality, may be dwlity was

represented in the placement of a western structure D opposing an eastem

structure E, which were the most complex semidomestic structures, suggests that

there was a dual partition of space and of the activities associated with those

spaces. Dual opposition and complementarity may have been fundamental to the
ideology of the people of the North Coast from very early tirnes onward.

Alto Salaveny subsistence, like that of Puémape and Huaca Pneta, relied

on manne resources from rocky and sandy biotopes. Manne species included

mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, and fish adapted to the cold conditions of

the Peni cuvent. A good quantitative inventory of cultivated edible and industrial

as well as wild plant remains was recorded in Aito Salaveny (Pozorski and

Pozorski 1979 b:362 and 365). As at Huaca Prieta, the edible plants included

squash, "achira", ,1111 pepper, lima h a n , 'pacav" and 'Iucuman. In addition, the

'cansaboca" (green plum) and avocado fniits were recorded. The industrial

plants, cotton and gourds, ocuirred in the highest frequency.

Huaca Negra, an extended mound located dose to the fishing village of

GuaAape, on the littoral of the Vini Valley, was excavateâ by Strong and Evans

(1952) in 1946 at the same time that Bird was excavating Huaca Prieta. Because

of its long chronological sequence, from the Late Preceramic to the Middle

Formative, it is particulariy comparable to Puémape. Huaca Negra faces the open

sandy littoral with a mountainous outcrop called Cerro Negro on the left. Cerro
Prieto, the terni fonnerly used to refer to Cerro Negro. was used by Strong and

Evans to designate the Late Preceramic cornpanent at Huaca Negra.

No hurnan burials were recovered in Strong and Evans excavations of the

Cerro Prieto Phase. Scattered human remains were found rnixed in the domestic

refuse (Strong and Evans 195222). Strong and Evans were doubffil, but

suggesteâ that it was tempting to infer cannibalism. A more likely explanation is

that burials had been disturbed and the bones redeposited by subsequent

intrusions into aie grave. Such disturbanœ is certainly consistent with Puémape

and the other sites considerd here.

Semi-subtemnean houses were found in the Cern Prieto Phase. Sirnilar

in size to those of Huaca Prieta, they, like those of Alto Salaverry, were buiit of

adobe, and some had plastered walls and floon. These differenœs, however,

wn be accounted for by differences in local raw materials

Like the other coastal sites above, Cerro Prieto subsistence was based on

manne species, which induded:

Large deepwater mussels, marine snails, pieure (a sea urchin-like forni),

rock crabs, and various types of fish (partiailady sand sharks or rays)
were well represented in Pit 1. Neither sea lion. bird, nor land mammal
bones were found in our very limited excavations, ahhough the drst of
these are cornmon in similar levels workeâ by Bird. (Strong and Evans
1952:23)
 These manne species again are adapted to the cold Pen3 current. Large

mussels. in particular, are quite sensitive bioindicators of predominantly cold sea

temperatures, and they must have been gathered by Cern Prieto divers. Lenses

of mussels and the same fimracked stones attest the same cooking methods

at Huaca Negra from the Late Preceramic (Cerro Prieto Phase) through the Early

Formative (Early Guafiape) and the Middle Formative (Middle Guaiiape) periods.

with a clear la& of these mussels at the end of the sequence. Other raw

materials found throughout the Huaca Negra sequenœ included crystal rock

fragments and small oval stones called 'chunaitos*, like those common

throughout the Puemape sequenœ. Strong and Evans desaibed them as:

Small, flat, uval, polished pebbles occur in considerable numben from the
lowest level (1 pebble) to level .75-1.O meten (3) with the greatest
concentration (25) in level2.0-2.25 meters. (1952:40)

Condlions of preservation were not as gooâ at Huaca Negra as at Huaca

Prieta; consequently only gourds and cotton were recovered, and no food plants.

A.3 Earlv f onnative: Earlv Puémaoe

The traditional way of life in the settlements associated with these sites did

not change dramatically with the f rst occurrence of pottery in the Early Formative
period, with the exception of Alto Salaverry, which was abandoned during the

Late Pfeceramic pefiod. As we have seen and as will be seen, subsistence and
procurement patterns, the way of cooking, architecture, funerary pattems,

technologies and so on were alrnost identical before and after the apparition of

pottery. New settlements were established in the neighbouring inland coastal and

highland regions. In some cases (al1 in the wastal valleys) the sites associated

with initial pottery had no Preœrarnic cultural substratum. It seerns probable that

this accornpanied a more extended geographical area of social and cultural

interaction because the populations increase.

In the annals of Andean archaeology the apparition of pottery on the North

Coast of Peni in patticular and the coast in general is associated mîh Huaca

Negra de Guaiiape site under the shadow of the 'Coastal Chavin horizon".

'there either developed from (or was superimposed upon) this Cerro
Prieto culture at V-71 a very simple and eariy manifestation of the Coastal
Chavin horizon, here called the GuaAape culture. Third, within the four
meters of refuse deposited by the people of this Guafiape culture at V-71
there is clear stratigraphie evidence that their pottay devdopeâ from a
very simple undecorated ware to one having both incised and modelled
decoraüon, a change which was a b paralleleci by the development and
enrichment of other aspects of üteir culture.. ."(Strong and Evans 1952344-
45).

The above statement suggests that the Early Formative plain and

decorateâ pottery of the Guaiiape Culture was an eariy manifestation of the so-

called 'Coastal Chavin horizon'. Strong and Evans recognised in their excavation

of Huaca Negra a long cultural continuity in the stfatigraphic sequenœ of the site.

I would argue that the same continuity is fcund at the sites of Puémape and
Huaca Prieta. In these sequences there is a clear cultural continuity from the Late

Preceramic to the Middle Formative periods, which ended abniptly as a result of a

natural catastrophe that forced the abandonment of coastal settlernents.

The plain and decorated Early Guafiape œramics were tempered with

coarse sand and consisted of neckless ollas, bowls and jars. Although the Eariy
Guaiiape neckless dlas tend to be namwer than those of EPP-2, the rim shapes

are identical. Additionally, Early Guaiiape and EPP-2 share the same range of
decorative treatment, including Cnger-pressed or incised applique ribs, applique

ribs, appliqué buttons with pundations and rounded bosses with punctation

(Strong and Evans 1952: Appendix 1).

Appliqué ribs and pundated semi-rounded bosses on dosed and open

vessels are common on Early Formative ceamics in the Cajamarca highlands, as

well as in the sites of the littoral and midoNorthCoastal valleys, and these

techniques continue into the Middle Formative pend of the North Coast,

comrnonly known as the Miâdle or Classic Phase of the Cupisnique cornplex.

Several sites on the North Coast and in the neighboring highlands broadly

share the styie of the Eaily Guaiiape œramics during the Early Formative. In the

highlands, these include Pandanche, situated at over 1800 m ml in the highlands

of Cajamarca, and La Bomba, at over 600 rn in the Jequetepeque valley. In the

coastal valleys key sites were Monte Grande, in the Jequetepeque valley, and

Cabello Muerto in the Moche valley. Chauchat (Personal communication 1997)

has recordeci sites of similar style from the Cupisnique gorge, but they have yet to

be reporteci. On the coast, in addition to Puemape , Huaca Prieta and Huaca

Negra was the site of Gramalote on the northern edge of the mouth of Moche

valley. In addition to a cornmon ceramic style, these sites, with the possible

exception of Pandanche, share other features which link them cuturally.

The burials at La Bomba (Seki 1997) have parallels in the burials at

PuBmape, and Monte Grande. Burials Tm4 1 and Tm-13, in particular, are similar

in the disposition of the body (flexed), the grave goods (pointed bone arüfads,

sculptured bottles, purple mussels, rounded anthracite jet mirror, spindle whorl,

crisoccob beads) to the MPP burial 1.

Monte Grande is a large site mai daborate ceremonial architecture,

including platfoms interconnected by stairways, large buildings, and a sunken

quadrangular plaza with 4 symmetncally placed niches in each wall (See

Tellenbach 1986 for a detailed description of the architedure) . The cefernonial

architecture of Monte Grande anticipates the architedural plans of the important

Middle Formative sites of the Limoncarro and Kuntur Wasi, in the lower and

upper Jequetepeque valley, respactively. Many objects and materials also

anticipate Iater developments at Puérnape. Arnong remains movered from

hearths in what were buildings of the dite at Monte Granûe, were spherical
beads, anthracite, purpie mwsel shetls, crystal rock and 'chunauito$ (small

ovoid and spherical stones) (Elera 1993:233-234), al1 of which occur in MPP and
LPP ritual oontexts. Also found at Monte Grande were carved, cylindrical,

anthracite bowls which anticipate the sometimes tichly decorated cylindrical

steatite and anthracite receptacles of the North Coast Middle and Late Fomative.

An anthropomorphic head from Monte Grande, carved in basalt, exhibits a

longitudinal incision, a characteristic associated with later Classic Cupisnique

figurines and anthropornorphic representations on stimp-spout boffles

A brief overview of the Early and Middle Formative periods at Huaca Prieta

(Bird et al. 1985:46-50) reports on test pits 4, 5. and 6 which were excavated

north of the mound. The subtemnean house from these excavations exhibit the

same fornial characteristics as Preceramic houses, and, again some of thern

were used as tombs. The housetomb shapes, measuternents, cobble stones,

and in some cases wood roof barns were the same, but associ'atd with

cadaven were atifacts typical of the Initial Ceramic or Early Formative pend. In

addition to cobblestones vertical cylindrical adobes and small biscuit-like adobes,

stacked in piles and filled in with mud were used in the masonry (Bird 194859).

In addition to ceramics, which were in the style of Eariy Guaiiape,

Puemape and Monte Grande, were anthracite m i m . The burials are not

describeci in detail, but, nevertheless, there are cultural patterns from the Late

Preceramic respectmg gender, pathologies, possible traditional occupations and

social statue that carry over to the Eariy Fomative.

 The content of the house-tomb (No.1) from HP-4 is described as follows:

A number of human skeletons(burials nos. 872-879) were found in a

stone-enclosed house-tomb (no. 1) Mth roof barns. A number of matting
and textile fragments were associated with those burials. Burial 873's
gravegouds included 150 shark's teeth (41.2/4706), bone weaving tools
(4124700 to 4704), a pottery stamp of a bird (41.2/4699), and a jet mimr
(41.2/4698). Burial874 was assodateci with a lump of r d paint
(41.214709). An incomplete, seated human, pottery figurine (41.2/4712)
was with burial 878. Burial 879 was associated with a soft stone roller
stamp (4 l.2/4713) (Bird et al. l985:48)

Eight individuals were buned in this tomb of which five were analysed

(Bird et al 1985: 60-64). Four were young adult females and 1 immature individual

of unidentifiable sex. One of the female young adults, No. 875, showed slight

exostoses in both ean. In this communal burial, as in the Preceramic house tomb

(House 1, Zone 7) rnentioned above, there was a pmponderance of women, with

8 individuals in each tomb. in the Cate Preceramic burial there were 3 rniddle

aged and 3 aged women, one middle aged man, and one immature individual of

unidentifiable sex (Bird et al 1985:61-Table 3). Two of the individuals, the aged

female (Burial No. 882) and the middle age male (Burial No. 887 had slight

exotoses in the left ears.

This funerary context marks the first appearance of pottery stamps on the

coast of Peni The naturalistic bird representation incisad on the stamp strongly
resembles the bird pyroengraved on the lid of the Huaca Prieta Late Preceramic

decorated gourd No. 41.2/2555 of burial 903 (Bird et al. 1985:71 Fig.43). The
weaving tools and the anthracite jet mirror are also similar to the funerary goods

associated with the young woman of Puérnape buMl LVlll belonging to the MPP.

The second and third house-tombs also constitute an important corpus of data:

A second house, oval, with walls of cobbles in ash rnortar contained a

complete, ceramic, seated, human figurine with raised knees and a
humped back (41214717).
A third house, oval, with walls of cobbles in ash mortar contained a burial
(no. 880) and numerous artifacts inciuding: a string of 106 tubular bird
bone beads 4 m long (41-2/4724),a broken jet mirror (4 1.2/4718), a sea
turtle pendant (41.2/4723), a whalebone snufF tablet (41.2/4721), a bone
snuff tube (41.2/4722), and traces of fabrics (Bird et al. l985:48)

The figurine from the second house is sirnilar in style to anthropomorphic

figurines from the Early Formative period of Anah, on the littoral of the Central

Coast of Perii (Rosas 1970). Although Rosas ascribed A n d n figurines to his

Chavinoid epoch IIand III in fact the ceramics associated are typical of the initial

pottery period of the Penivian Central Coast.

The solitary individual in the third house-tomb (burial 880) was an aged

male with moderate exostoses in both ears suggesting he was a diver. The

artifads associated with him, partiailady the whalebone snuff tablet and bone

snufftube suggest that he was e shaman, as well. In addition, the brdren

anthracite jet mimr compares with the anthracite mirror and snuff paraphemalia

in a loop bag associated with an aged male also idenüned as a shaman and

buried in the Late Cupisnique œmetery of Morro de Eten (Ebra 1986;l994:22-

51). 1 will take up the association of diving and shamanisrn later in a final

discussion of the development of political and religious leadership.

Pampa Grarnalote (Pozorski and Pozonki 1979 a) situated on the low

bluffs facing the Pacific Oœan at the mouth of the Moche Valley is dose to the

present day Cshing village of Hwnchaquito, which was completely destroyed by

catastrophic flooding of the El Ni60 that occurred this year (1998). With a few

minor variations the ceramics of Pampa Grarnalote are identical in style to those

of the Early Formative sites of the North Coast.

Three burials were recordeci from Pampa Gramalote.

Two burials were encountered during excavation of the architecture, and

both were in poor condition. The first was a secondary burial of an adult
whose long bones and vertebrae were wrapped in several layen of twined
cotton textile, fomiing a bundle ca. 20 cm. x 40 cm.The bundle was buned
40 cm. deep in an irregular pit dug into refuse within a rwm. Several large
cobbies and blocks of colonial pdychaete w o m secretion had b e n piaced
around and on top of the bundle. The second buriai within the architecture
was the tightly flexed body of an infant lying on its back with its head
toward the north. It had been wrappeâ in three layes of cotton textiles: the
inner wrapping was a fine twined layer, and the second a plain weave
which was in tum encased in an outer layer of coarse twined material. The
burial pit was dug about 40 cm. into refuse, and large cobbles and a single
block of colonial polychaete w o n secretion cornpletely surrounded the
bundle containing the body.
A third burial was encountered in the earliest stratum of the midden
in Cut 2 at a depth of 1.66 m. The p l was dug into the eariiest stratum
while the deposition of the second stratum was in process. The body
occupied an oval pit within the refuse ca. 1.O m. x 0.65 m. x 0.25 m. deep.
The individual was male, 30 to 45 years of age, and the body lay in a
flexed position facing south with the head toward the west. Sixteen Stones
were located in the northem end of the pit both surrounding and slightly
below the body. The burial was accompanied by few artifads: 2 gourd
 bowls, a jet mirror, matting and textiles. The jet rnirror was m a i l (6 cm. x 5
cm. x 2 cm.), finely polished, and covered with a thick layer of red pigment
(Pozorski and Pozorski 1979 a:4 15-417

The primary burials of Pampa Gramalote shared the same mortuary

treatment as the EPP-2 burials: pits in domestic refuse, use of rocks or 'piedra

@metn over or around the funerary bundle, flexed disposition of the cadaver,

cotton textiles and mat covers, no predictable orientation pattern, and a complete

la& or few associated grave goods. Secondary burials were not recovered at

Puémape. but otherwise the burial followed the same funerary treatment as the

primary burials: bundled and covered and surrounded by rocks.

Pampa Gramalote subsistence relied fundamentally on marine resources.

These manne species, which induded mollusks, crustaceans, echinodems, and

fish biologically, were also adapted to the cold conditions of the Pewvian sea as

in Puémape and Huaca Prieta. A good quantitative inventory of cultivated edible

and industrial, as well as wild plant remains were recovered (Pozorski and

Pozorskt 1979 a:422423 and 426). As in Huaca Prieta and Alto Salaveny within

the edible plants category there were squash, chilli pepper, cornmon bans,

cansaboca (green plum) (Buchonsia ameniaca) and Ificuma (Lucuma abovata).

New botanical finds were peanut (Arachis hipogaee), avocado (Persea

Amencana) and maize (Zea mays).

 There was apparently a greater emphasis on cultivated plants dependent

on artificial irrigation dunng the Early Formative period. The Pozorskis (1979 a)

recognised the growing importance of inland sites such as the Complex of

Caballo Muerto in the Moche Valley, which they argued had strong ties to Pampa

Gramalote dunng the Early Formative until this littoral site was abandoned.

Despite the increasing importance of the valley settlements, there

continued to be an important focus on settlement along the littoral throughout the

Formative. lndeed the site of Huaca La Virgen de Vista Alegre, in the district of

Buenos Aires on the littoral of the city of Trujillo, has a cultural sequence starting

dunng the Late Preceramic period and continuing thrwgh the whole Formative up

to the Chimu and Chimu-Inca occupations (M. Comejo: personal communication

1997). Similar long-term occupations are represented in the sites of Puemape,

Huaca Prieta and Huaca Negra de GuaMpe sequences, though they, as well

developed social and economic relations with settlements in the valley.

In the case of the Moche Valley it has been assumed that this shift

regarding the sudden abandonment of Pampa Gramalote, which was

characterised by the Pozorskis as a provider of manne resources to the inland

sites, occurred when the inland site of Huaca de los Reyes, a major Middle

Formative Ceremnial centre. took the pre-eminent socioeconomic role with the

expansion of irrigation agriculture in the Moche Valley. The available

archaeological data suggest. hawever, that a more stable interaction continued

through time between the littoral and inland settlements from the Late Preceramic

through the Middle Formative in Huaca Negm de Guafiape, Huaca Prieta, and

Puémape.

The aconomic relations, I would suggest, were reinforced by a religious

ideology that was founded on a perception of 'interlocking"environmentç. The

fiora and fauna of the various environments are clearly racognizable in moveble

and immovable artifacts of the North Coast Middle Formative pend. The sacred

perception of the sea, desert, river, valley, and the mountains was ideologically

crucial for understanding the unique Andean coastal nature of the Cupisnique

Cultural Cornplex.

Stimpspout bottles becarne an important medium for representing ocean

waves, marine species such as the angel shark, sand shark, Spondylus bivalves,

Strwnbus snails and so on. Terrestrial and avian animals from valley, desert and

mountains as the coastal boa, felines, camelids, and birds of prey were

represented. There were also botanical representations from the desert and

and ailtivated edible plant species such as the 'yuca

valley, including both wWld

de caballon,'achiran, 'pe~ino*,
ha1lucinogenic cactuses, and so on. These

representationswere often structured according to a duality. Shamanic scenarios

such as the transfomation from man to felinelprey bird with serpent and marine

attributes (Elera 1986,1993,1997) were symbolically represented.

A.4 Middle Formative: Middle Puémaw Phase

Lam (194l,l94lS,1948) used the native Muchik term 'Cupisnique" to refer

to the florescent period of ceramic making on the North Coast. The evidenœ that

L a m used carne principally from grave lots in the Chicama Valley. I have great

respect for L a m ' s work; however I dimr with hirn in my interpretation of the

stylistic sequence, and as should be evident by now, I argue that the designation

'Cupisniquen shwld be applied to the cultural complex of the North from the

Preceramic through the Formative Periods. It is beyond the scope of this

dissertation, but I would argue that there is evidenœ of a fundamental continuity

in the culture of the North Coast through to histonc times.

In this dissertation I have taken the Puemape cultural sequence as the

axis for understanding the chronological sequence and part of the process of

cultural deveropment of the Cupisnique as a whoie. The cultural continuity

recorded in Puérnape can be easily correlated to numerous Cupisnique œrarnics

and ottrer witural manifestations with or without contexts on the North Coast of

Pen]. In this regard the Early Puemape Phase and culturally related sites mark
the Eariv Cudsniaue Phase. This Eariy Cupisnique Phase as a whole can be

subdivided into Earlv Cu~isniquePhases A and B. Early Cupisnique Phase A is

testncted to the North Coastal Lae Preceramic: the possible EPP-1, the

Precerarnic or Archaic occupations of Huaca Prieta, Alto Salaveny and the Cern

Pneto Phase of the Huaca Negra de Guafiape. Eariy Cupisnique Phase B is

restricted to the initial ceramic period of the EPP-2, Monte Grande. La Bomba.

Huaca Prieta, Pampa Gramalote and the Early ceramic phase of the Huaca

Negra de Guaiiape. Despite some comrnon stylistic patterns between the EPP-2

œramics and the initial ceramics of Pandanche A, I prekr to be cautious, given

the lale information fmm the highland site, in suggesting Pandanche A as part of

the Early Cupisnique Phase B.

The MPP burials and associated cerarnics mark regionally the Middle or

Classic Cu~isniouePhase. The terni 'classic" has been used because of the

florescenœ that occurred in the manufacture and decoration of ceramics. The

fine ceramics, found in burials and associated with ceremmial structures, are

sirnply unequalled in the Fomative period for their high artistic quality, and the

variety of representations of naturalistic, geometric, and mythical images.

At Huaca Prieta the Classic Cupisnique Phase was recorded in iayers A

and B of Test Pit 5 as:

'. ..red and black neckless pots with thickened rims and, often, incised
lines. Bowi fragments, grey to black polished sheds, r o n d punctation,
fine line incision, modelling. and orange-red ware, present in layer A, were
essentially lacking in B. (Bird et al. 198350)

The earliest evidence of maize ai Huaca Prieta occurs during the Classic

Cupisnique Phase. Subterranean Huaca Prieta houses were still buiît in the

tfad'ional plan, with the addition of amical adobes as a new construction material
(Bird et al. 198549 Fig. 31). A radiocarbon date from the 'aloarrobowwood beam

of this house gave a range or midpoint of 880-900 BC (Bird et al. 1985:53 Tables

1 and 2). The conical adobe is one of the most diagnostic architectural elements

associated with burials, domestic architecture and œremonial monumental

architecture in the Cupisnique heartland.

A Classic Cupisnique burial (No. 867) marked the end of the Cupisnique

occupation at Huaca Pneta and the abandonment of the site (Bird et al. 1985: 17-

18). The burial contained the remains of an aged male (Bird et al. 1985:61 Table

3) with exostoses, probably a diver, buried with a bone bearing a carved

anthropomorphic image in Classic Cupisnique style. ShorHy after the interment,

dated 800-990 BC, the site was sWck by a powerful tidal wave that partially

disturbed the buriel and destroyed a significant part of the settlement.

Before continuing, it is necessary to consider the possible source of vessel

foms of Classic Cupisnique. Stimpspout bottles, 'cancherosn or 'tostadores'

(toasten) and the cylindrical vessels first occur in Classic Cupisnique and

continue thereafter as typicai vessels of the North Coast. Antecedents of these

foms can be identifid, I believe, in the modified gourds, h g s , and basketry

containers of the Late Preceramic (Cupisnique A). The Early Cupisnique Phase 8
single-necked bottles, neckless ollas, bowls, composite bowls, and jars with

cortical necks strongly resernbk rnodified gourd and basket shapes. For example,

bowis with straight sidas resernble munded baskets with straight sides (Bird et al.
1985:93 Fig. 56). Pottery stamps may have been inspired by the engraved lids of

gourds, such as those associated with the burial 903 of Huaca Prieta. The yam-

whipped Range of the gourd lids, which fit inside the container opening, strongly

suggests the conical projection for hanging the pottery stamps. Finally, as

rnentioned earlier, the designs of some gourd lids anticipate the decoraiion of the

pottery stamps.

The greater technical skill of the Classic Cupisnique potters may have

allowed them to experirnent wiai ceramic imitations of cylindrical bags and

handled-pyroengmvedgourds. Cylindrical vessels imitate the shape of a large

looped open-ended cylindrical canying bag (Bird et al. 198WOO Fig. 144).

Large loop cylindncal bags and cotton woven cylindrical bags continue

through the Middle Formative, as attested by a rnagnificent anthropomorphic

Classic Cupisnique stimipspout bottle ( L a m 194 1:41 Fig. 55; 129: Fig. 193),

which depids a solemn-faced man wiai a large cylindrical bag on his back. Aiso
in M o m de Eten the shamanic paraphemalia associated with an aged male of

the Late Cupisnique Phase (Elera 1986:277) were kept inside cylindrical bags.

Gourds similar to the handled, pymngraved gourd adated with burial

903 of Hwca Pneta (the lady of the gourds) (Bird et al. 1985: 73 Fig. 4 4 , may

have been the inspiration for the stimp-spout botüe. The gourd facing itself and

its handle resemble the shape of the body and sümp of a typical stimpspout

bottle. Also the bodies of these handlebpymengraved gourds were a principal

medium of cornplex iconography as were the Classic Cupisnique stimip-spout

bottles.

Monochrome stimipspout bottles wiVi slightly trapezoid shaped s t i m p

and spouts with concave sides are key diagnostics of Classic Cupisnique. Such

vessels have been recovered in situ at Puémape and by Larco (1941, 1945) in

cemeteries locateâ in inland sites of the Chiama Valley. Stimp-spout boffles of

various shapes were recordeci by Lamin Chicama from the same gravelots. The

Chicama burials exhibited the same funerary program in ternis of type, shape,
and depth of the grave, variable orientations, rocks, covers, disposition of the

cadavers, red painting, and other cerarnic and non-ceramic grave goods as the

Classic Cupisnique Phase bunals at Puémape. Of the cerarnic vessels, only the

stimip-spout bottles showed signifiant variation.

The stimips of Classic Cupisnique stimpspout botties Vary in shape h m

trapezoidal to slightly trapezoidal to round. Sorne schohrs (Kaulicke 1994) have

equated these differences to different cultural differenœs and othen ( L a m 1941)

have used them as a basis for establishing a chronological serietion. In the

burials reporteci by Lam in Chicama and in the Puémape sûata the different

sürrupspout shapes are found in direct association. There was, then, a

coexistence of different shapes and decoraüve treatrnents sinœ the earliest

evidence of stimip-spout bottles. Monochrome slightly ûapezoidal and trapezoidal

stimipspout bottfes are predorninant, but bichrome stimipspout bottles occut in

association. Graphite paint is more frequently found on stirnip spouts from the

inland sites than in the sample from Puémape. At Puernape vessels fired in

reducing and oxidizing atmospheres am contemporary. The thickness of the

spout side walls and the breadth of the stimp, however, increase through time,

based on cornpansons between the MPP and LPP assemblages.

In construction phases I and II of Huaca de los Reyes (Moche Valley)

(Pozorski 1983: 25 Fig. 14) stimipspout bottles are identical to the stimip-spout

bottles hom the MPP bufials. At Huaca de los Reyes, however there is a higher

frequency of graphite painting on the slightly trapezoidal stimip-spout bottles.

Taking again a regional perspective, many elements in addition to œrarnic

continue to define the Cupisnique cornplex. The Puémape Classic Cu~isniaue

-
Phase funerary patterns continued the funerary patterns of Early Cupisnique

Phase A and Phase B. The boot-shaped pit of the MPP burial i was similar in

shape to one recorded from the Late Preœramic occupation of Huaca Prieta

(Early Cupisnique A) and to an Early Cupisnique Phase B tomb from La Bomba.

The grave offerings and the disposition of the cadaver were also similar to the La

Bomba burial.

Domestic settings continue to be preferred bufial sites, a wstom first

evident at Huaca Prieta, but also a pan-Andean custom that c m be seen not only

at Huaca Prieta but in sites such as La Paloma (Quilter 1989) on the Central
Coast.
 During Classic Cupisnique and through Late Cupisnique, elaborately

decorated abjects such as stirrup-spout M e s were used to signify status and

role differences among the dead.

In Huaca Negra d e Guaiiape the Middle Guaiiape Phase ceramics (Strong

and Evans 1952: 209) share the sarne characteristics as the Classic Cupisnique

from Puémape and Chicama, and anthracite mimors were assodated as well. The
frequency of occurrence of anthracite objects at sites on the littoral and the

valleys during Classic Cupisnique may be due to the establishment of settlements

near the anthracite quames in Chicama and Cupisnique, and development of

craft specialists who made the mirrors, which were then redistributed to other

comrnunities.

During the final occupation of Huaca Negra de Guaiiape the Temple of the

Llamas was constructed. Strong and Evans (1952) describe it as a megalithic

redangular structure with llamas associateci as possible offerings. The Tempk of

the Llamas is similar but not identical to the Late Pu6mape ceremonial structure.

A.5 Middle Formative: late Puémam Phase. catastm~he.site abandonment

Huaca Negra and the Temple of the Uamas were abandoned suddenly

during the Middle Guaiiape Phase. Regarding this point the investigaton

observed the lacl<of mussel shell, a clear manne bioindicator, which had been in

great demand by the Cupisnique Guafiape divers:

 The first four levels of Strata Cut I down to 1.O meter contained a large
amount of brown earth mixed with black ash, tightly packed in thin
laminations almost indistinguishable as refuse layen. These upper levels
were the only ones that did not have a large amount of large mussel
shells mixed with the refuse. However, small clam shells and other shell
fragments were evenly distributed throughout, as if they had been
pulverised or broken before being discarded. The present local inhabitants
of Guafiape daim that the large mussels(found in abundance in the lower
levels) do not exist dong the coast today. (Strong and Evans 1952:23).

The evidence of catastrophe such as a Tsunami is less clear cut than at

Puémape and Huaca Prieta; however, the apparent elirnination of the mussel

beds of Chommytilus chonrs is consistent with the consequences of a Tsunami or

Mega El Niiio event.

From the Late Preceramic through the Middle Formative species

associated with the cold Pen2 current were exploited by the coastal populations.

This is evident, not only at the sites already mentioned but also at sites in the

Moche Valley (Pozorski 1976). The same charaderistics as mentioned have been

reporteci in early sites belonging to the Las Aidas, located between the Casma

and Huaney Valleys (Fung 1972; Matsuzawa, 1978), and at Aspero on the

littoral of the Supe Valley (Feldman 1983). The bioindicators include not only

Mollusks but fish, birds, and sea marnmals. The disappearanœ of some of these

species is one of the dues that attests to the occurrence of an environmental

catastrophe.
 The destruction of the Late Puémape cefernonial stnidure and
abandonment of the site was caused by a powerful wave, probably a Tsunami.

Anoaier possible cause of such waves was an El Nifio event. An El Nino as

destructive as the catastrophic El Nifio this year (1997-1998) could easily have

effected such destruction. One of the consequences of this natural disaster was

the almost complete dimination of mollusks adapted to the typical cou Penwian

waters. Wth the occupation of Puemape during Salinar times, domestic and

funerary conte& contained marine species predominantly from wam waters

(Elera et al. 1992). As Robert Bird (1987) has pointed out the disaster apparently

had a long-lasting impact on the North and Central coasts of P e i . At Huaca

Prieta the event is dated to 850-900 BC. The abandonment of several Formative

sites, as suggested by Onuki (1993), coincides with the so-called 'crisis of the

coast" around the year 800 BC.

In the case of the Late Pudrnape ceremonial structure some of its heavy

rocks were moved from their original place. The wave (s) d8stroyeô much of the

floor and disturbed Classic Cupisnique burials aSSOCjated with slightly trapezoidal

stirrupspout battles with decoration comparable to the styk of the iconography

carved in the bone of the burial of the Classic Cupisnique ageâ diver from Huaca

Prieta (Bird et al. 1985:61). This generalued catastrophe occuned over

Cupisnique settlements located on the littoral and inland coastal terrttories forcing

the movement of different Cupisnique communities to the highlands or the South

Coast (Elera 1997). Possibly the coastal Cupisnique polities had established

close ties with highland polities, which provided them with aid and shelter

following the disaster. However, given the available archaeological data, there

was a sudden presence of Late Cupisnique occupation in aie site of Kuntur Wasi,

in the uppei Jequetepeque Valley (Onuki 1993, 1995; Seki 1997). The same

occurred at Pacopampa in the Chotano basin (Rosasand Shady 1970, 1974).

In order to begin to understand the consequences of such disaster, it is

necessary to first have sorne understandingof the social and political structure of

the Cupisnique polities. I tum, then, to a brief review of the evidenœ of increasing

socio-political inequality on the North Coast from the Precerarnic through the

Middle Formative and to speculations of what this may have meant in political and

religious ternis.

I suggest that during the earîy development of the Cupisnique society

(Phases A and 8) the populations surrounding the cefernonial centers,-such as

Monte Grande and other contemporaneous Early Cupisnique B sitesgrobably

consisted of independent political units. There is no evidence that there was a

pre-eminent central site that served as the seat of religious and political power.

The North Coast, then, cornprised a number of small polities. These polities were

under the possible control of an incipient elite, which was supported by control

over some resources, a limited bbor force and a body of esoteric knowledge. The

elite lacked, however, insignias of power, which are evident in the subûequent
phases. The aged diver of Huaca Prieta provides some insight. On the one hand,

he participatecl in the risky economic activity of gathering big mussels from the

depths of the coM Penivian sea. On the other hand. his association with titual

paraphemalia connected hirn to supernatural realms that gave hirn access to

esotenc knowledge. Economic specialization and restricted access to esateric

knowledge seem to have b e n the main basis for leadership duting this period of

time and continued to be important in the subsequent phases too.

Evidence of social inequality and an emerging elite during the Early

Cupisnique Phase B can be seen also in Monte Gmde. The residential dite

architecture was built with stone and clay, associated with fine ceramic ware, and

burials were positioned dose to the main œremonial centre of the site. In

contrast, the common domestic area was in the periphery of the site,far from the

main religious buildings, with small dwellings built of perishable material

(Tellenbach 1986).

Durhg the Classic Cupisnique Phase, important ntual activiües were

carrieci out in impressive ceremonial centers of difkrent scales. Moche Valley
Huaca de los Reyes was the pre-eminent great œremonial center. This site
appears to have been one of the main intefiregional centers or the main œnter

in the Cupisnique hearüand. It seems probabîe Vlat this represented an initial

centralkation of Classic Cupisnique cuitun under a religious hierarchy or

authonty. Maybe this pattern was common also in the neighboring valleys. The
Classic Cupisnique elite may have increased their prestige and power when they

had more intense access to exotic resources, such as the Spbndyhs sp.

seashells and the great Stmmbus galeetus gastropod, irnported from the shores

of Ecuador and used in magical-religious rites. These sacred mollusks were

frequently modeled in stirmp-spout bottles fwnd in burials of the Cupisnique

heartbnd. If the Classic Cupisnique diverslshamans traveled to the distant and

exotic equatonal source of these mollusks, they would have acquired knowledge
of new lands and people, and more importantly under the Cupisnique symbolic

values, the pristine habitat of the sacred mollusks would reinforce not only the

value of the raw matefial iaelf but also the possible sociaVsacred prestige won by

the diverlshamans within the Cupisnique sodety. The importance of divers

getting equatorial mollusks is underestimated or little mentioned in the

archeological Merature of the Centmi Andes. For example, in the later Chimu

kingdom which had deep cutural mots in the Cupisnique past, divers getüng the

Spondylus sp are represented on fine textiles and sumptuary objects made in

gold and silver. These provide indirect proof of Chimu divers visiting the

equatorial sea to coUect the sacred mollusks. 11 is quite possibie that these long

distance joumeys to the equatorial littoral began during the Classic Cupisnique

Phase. These would have been divers of high social rank who not only knew the

cold Pehlvian sea but also the distant wanner equatorial waters.
 From the traditional anthracite there arose more extensive access and

control of semiprecious stones such as amethyst, tuquoise, tapis lazuli, and rock

vystal during Classic Cupisnique. These stones, along with the Spondyius sp.

seashells, were carved for incorporation into rnagnificent omaments only

accessible ?O the Classic Cupisnique elite. In this regard, Larco (1941) recorded

in burial 19 of Barbacoa A, an adult individual of apparent high status. Tomb 19

was a hot-shaped chamber sealed with conical adobes and rocks. The contents

of the burial were ridi in omaments, a magnifiant sculptured vessel, and a

stirrup-spout bottle with religious iconography. Plain and decorated bone snuff

tubes were indudeci as well, two of which were of modified human bone, one a

tibia and the other a femur of an adolescent, and both inscribed with religious

iconography. These plain and decorated human bone snuff tubes are the direct

antecedents of the gold, gold/siiver snuff tubes associateci with the Late

Cupisnique elite.

One of the most interesting finds in burial No. 19 was 1.480 Kg. of

unworked turquoise, together with unworked anthracite and limestone (Larco

1941:194-195). Some pointed artifacts were also associated. These seem to be

the tools and raw material of a lapidary. Again vue can see evidence of a

specialized adivity associateci with shamanic paraphemalia during the Classic

Cupisnique Phase: a lapiâaryfsharnan.

 Funerary customs dunng Classic Cupisnique indicate that social status

was ascribed at birth. Examples of high status child burials are fwnd in the

Cupisnique cemeteries of Puemape and Chicama. Sumptuous goods, elaborate

ornaments, and stimp-spout bottles with cornplex religious symbols were

associated with çorne child burials. In conttast, other child burials in the same

sites were without any grave goods.

Classic Cupisnique insignias of leadership were eanpools and pendants

carved in bone and shell, as well as bone snuff tubes.

The Late Cupisnique Phase was defined initially from the stylistic unit

recorded in the central cernetery and adjacent ceremmial architecture of Mono

de Eten. This stylistic unit is quite distinct in its mortuary practices, architecture,

plain and fine wares (Elera 1986). Spondylus and Strombus, and semipracious

stones were associated with prestige objects made in gold, silver and copper.

Extraordinarily opulent Late Cupisnique tombs are known from various sites of

the Cupisnique heartland, particularly in the Lambayeque,tafia and

Jequetepeque Valleys.

In Late Cupisnique metallurgy sudden appears. The sophisticated metallic

omaments and insignias of leadership -in some cases using gold and silver on

one piece- shows already a possible specialkation diredly under the

requirements and control of the Late Cupisnique elite. Mom de Eten and

Chongoyape on the littoral and the middle Lambayeque Valley respectiiely had
platinum traces in the gold ornaments (Elera 1986; Lothrop 1941). It may be that

the rnetal used was from the same provenience. At Morro de Eten a gold mine

related to the ceremonial architecture of this site was found close to the sea. In

addition, crabs, snails and shelifish made in gold were part of the burials in the

inland Chongoyape site (Lothrop 1941).

During Late Cupisnique. gold insignias of leadership that embody political,

social and religious authority appeared for the first time in the Andes. These

included elaborate crowns, earspools, pendants, snuff tubes, pectorals, bracelets,

and rings. richly-omamented with motifs of jaguars, volutes simulating the waves

of the sea, and fantastic anthropo-feline divinitii. possibly matenal

representations of shamanic experienœs. The goldomarnents seem to have

been the locus of Late Cupisnique iconogmphy that camed the deepest esoteflc

meaning.

The traditional stimpspout bottles of late Cupisnique were highly

baroque in some cases, and rich also in religious symbolisrn. A typical Late

Cupisnique ceramic shape was the bell-shapeâ vessel. Together with the

traditional Late Cupisnique graylblack highly polished ceramics were bichrorne

and polychrome vessels.

As with the Classic Cupisnique Phase there does not seem to have been a

pre-eminent central site along with an al&powerful elite. Given the diffsrent

locaüons of Late Cupisnique sites with elite burial grounds, t would seem that
there were small, powerful, rich polities -chiefdoms rather than an incipient

centralized Andean state- on the nom uiast of Peni during the Middle Formative

period.

A catastrophic natural disaster, such as a Mega El Nino event, would

have had a decisive impact on these polities, forcing the partial abandonment of

Late Cupisnique settlements and displacing populations to the highbnds. The

sudden abandonment of Puemape during the Late Cupisnique Phase was clearly

related to a massive wave or series of massive waves very likely associatecl with

an El Nifio (ENSO) event. Evidence conceming the strong ENSO event, dunng

the Late Cupisnique Phase, was first observed in the Mom de Eten site by Aian

K. Craig (Elera 1986).

At first I thought that the date of 500 BC, proposed by Niels and cdleagues

(1979 a and b) for a generalized catastrophic ENS0 event, was the date of the

destruction and subsequent abandon of Late Cupisnique sites(Elera 1993). R.

Bird (1987) and Onuki (1993) independently, however, have argued persuasively

800 BC as the date of the sudden abandonment of the Middle Formative

settfernents not only on the North Coast but alsa on the Centrai Coast. It is also

the date when the site of Kuntur Wasi was poûsibly invaded by people belonging

to the Late Cupisnique Phase.

On the top of the redangular temple at Kuntur Wasi were high status

burials of the Late Cupisnique elite. One of the main funerary charaderistic was
the use of standardized sealed boot-shaped chambers for each high status

individual. The first five elite burials were found in the summit of the Kuntur Wasi

temple associated with nch ornaments and insignias of leadership induding gold

mwns, earspools. pendants, pectorals and marine mollusk shells. The

iconography of these insignias are Late Cupisnique symbds of religious and

political leadership. These same symbols are found on the insignias of leadership

on high status Classic Cupisnique grave goods and on the friezes and painting in

the temples of the traditional Cupisnique heartland as Casa Grande (Kosok

1965: 109, figs 31-32;Elera 1997: 187).

Burial 2 had the deepest boot-shaped chamber and the individual was an

aged male mth exostoses, probably a diver. In association was a single handled

open pot with a geometric pattern of waves over the black suff&cecovered with

hematite. The sarne convention oaxfn on a stimipspout M e frorn Puemape.

Another tie to the coast is represented on a Kuntur Wasi stone sculpture

richly decorated with religious iccns. One is a dual tepresentation of an

anthropdfeline deity crowned with pointed volutes simulating the waves of the

sea. At the œnter of the waves is the beak of a bird of prey emerging fm the

surface. The body of the bird of prey is intertuvinad ingeniously in the furbus facial

expression of the divinW. Metaphorically this appears to teptesent an osprey

ernerging from the depth of the sea.

 Cupisnique traditions seem also to have influenced the plan of the

cerernonial architecture during the Kuntur Wasi Phase. Metaphodcally speaking,

the elite burial ground of the summit was located at the œnter of the temple. To

the west was a sunken cimlar plara. To the east were quadrangulat sunken

plazas. These are the traditional architedural features found earlier on the

western littoral. The highland inland ragions may be fdlowing the traditional dual

mligious ideology behind the architectural and geographic organization of space

that developeâ in the Cupisnique region.

B. Discussion: Cu~isniaueand Chavin

Among the most challenging goals of Andean scholars has been the
definition of the main conventions of the Chavin style and understanding their

origin and dispersal. There has been a tendency to ascribe evefything sirnilar or

identical to the Chavin de Huantar iconographie corpus as bebnging to the

'Chavin style'. As mentiorid earlier, the typical 'Chavin' conventions are: the

dimination and substitution of motifs, visual metaphors, anatropic

representations, modular wiâth and bilateral syrnmetfy. I should also add the dual

principle pattern of opposition and complementanty. However, as seen from the

North and Central coasts of PenS another picture emerges about the origins

during the early stage of the Middle Formative.

 All of the Chavin conventions are quite present in the esotenc iconography

of ritual paraphemalia, symbols of power, friezes and paintings of monumental

religious architecture on the North Coast from the beginnings of the

MiddlelClassic Cupisnique through the Late Cupisnique Phases. For example,

under the elimination and substitution rule there is substitution of a snake for the

tails of some of the complete carved felines at Chavin de Huantar (Tello

1960;Rowe 1973; Burger 1992 ) and the exact same convention is found on the

fnezes of the Classic Cupisnique ceremonial center of Huaca de los Reyes

such as the fanged agnathic
(Pozorski 1975226 Figs. 3 and 4). Visual meta~hon

mouth, which is one of the rnost cornmon conventions in the esoteric art of

Chavin de Huantar (Burger 1992). was inscribed on the human tibialsnuff tube

associated with the Classic Cupisnique burial 19 of the Barbacoa A cemetery of

Chicarna ( L a m 1941:104-105 Figs. 159 and 160, 193-203). Agnathic mouths

were present also in beautifid 'arved shell pendants found in the Classic

Cupisnique burial 47 of Barbacoa A (Larco l941:234 Figs.311 and 312; 1945:17

Fig. Bottom-left). In the frîezes of Huaca de Io Reyes front and profile agnathic

mouths can be seen (Pozorki 1975239 Figs. 28 and 29; 243 Figs. 33, 34, 35,

and 36). Anatrooic re~resentations

were done in Classic Cupisnique anthracite
objects such as a composeci head h a l felinelbird ( L a m 1941: 99 Figs. 147 and
148). The same anatropic principle can be seen in Classic Cupisnique bottles

such as the farnous stimp-spout bottle from Salamanca, with a representation of

the shamanic humanlfeline transformation complex (Larco 1941:154-155 Figs.

212, 213 and 214). Some serpent head projections from the nose of the

Salamanca's bottle figure resemble a carved stone tenoned head at Chavin de

Huantar (Lumbreras 1989). The projection of the serpent from the nose of the

Salamanca's bottle was, perhaps, a kind of metaphoric representation of mucous

possibly associated with the intoxication produced from hallucinogenic snuff.

Modular width is evident in the proportional measurements of many

Classic and late Cupisnique anthropomorphic and mythical representations in

different media. Bilateral svmmetrv is very clear in the organisation of the

architectural spaoes and in the religious friezes at Huaca de los Reyes. Finally,

the dual ~ r i n c i ~pattern

le of o~rmsitionand wm~lementantvappeared also in the

shamanic paraphemalia of the above mentioned Classic Cupisnique burial 19

(Larco 1941:IO5 Figs. 161 and 162), which included a beautiful and baroque
carved human femur probably of an adolescent, which was the cornplernent of

the cawed tibia. 60th were used as snuff tubes.

A great deal more work needs to be done both with respect to defining the

Cupisnique style and in wmpanng it with the Chavin de Huantar iconagraphy.

Grave goods from the inland sites of Palenque, Barbacoa and Sausal in the

middle Chicama Valley (Larco 1Ml),the associated objects of Talarnbo in the

lower Jequetepeque Valley and other North Coastal objects without context (Aiva

1986 b) should be analyzed, despite their lad< of precise provenience.

 There is strong evidence for defining an An& style, for the Central Coast

and clear evidence of contact with the Classic Cupisnique Phase. The Casma-

Supe valleys on the north Central Coast have impressive Early and Middle

Formative monurnentat architecture too.

The Anch religious conventions share the same materialized ideological

religious principles as Cupisnique but represented in a difFerent style. It may be

that the Northern (Cupisnique) and north-Central and Central Andean coasts

(Supe-Casma and Ancon) ccnstitute the prima1cultural setting for understanding

the emergence of the Chavin de Huantar site and its associated iconography.

Cupisnique cultural patterns and technology c m be identifid in the Gallery

of the Offerings of Chavin de Huantar which was connected to the chamber of

the earliest derty of Chavin: El Lanzon. The coiling methods and the Raku style

firing of the stimip-spout bottles found in the gallery are the same as those used

in making the stimp-spout bottles of Classic and Late Cupisnique.

The finds in the Gallery of the Offerings (Lumbreras 7993:419445, Plates

1-98), including 'chunauitos' (small rounded stones), Chondrichthves vertebras

made into conical beads, Spondylus beads with cortex, cylindrical omamented

vessels with hematite painting, modifieci pointad bones, are technologically and
stylistically the sarne as those of the Cupisnique burials from Puemape, Mom de

Eten and the cemeteries of Chicama. f he ceramics from the gallery, basides the
stimpspot bottles, shared iconography with Cupisnique or had designs which
were exclusive to the Anc6n and CasmaSupe cuitural styles. The nonceramic

artifacts of the Gallery of the Offerings, however, were ovennihelrningly of

Cupisnique cultural affiliation.

Many other conventions comrnonly associated with Chavin seem to have

occurred first in the Cupisnique heartland of the North Coast andlor on the

Central or notth-Central Coast.

Decapitation, amputation, and the modification of human bones ta

represent iconography found in Chavin de Huantar, have antecedents on the

North Coast. Conical adobes were an earlier time marker in the construction of

domestic and ceremonial structures in the Cupbnique heartland. Cylindrical

colurnns buitt with conical adobes, cornmon in North Coast Middle Formative

ceremonial structures, are represented as two carved stone columns in the New

Temple ai Chavin. Furthemore on wlumns at the Cupisnique site of Casa

Grande in the Chicama Valley an anthropo-felinieavian motif similar to those on

the Chavin columns is depicted in a polychrome mosaic.

The parallel between the vdutes m i n g the LanzOn and the volute

crowning the carved stone being at Kuntur Wasi. in whidi an osprey emerging

from the waves can be distinguished, wggests that the Lanzon may have had a

connedion to the sea. Along this same line. Lurnbreras et al. (1976) noted that a

channel beside the Lanzon would have emitted a sound similar to crashing waves

as watet flowed through it. A hypothesis to be explored further in the future is

that Chavin de Huantar, in the minds of the builden, was thought to symbolically

contrast the western sea with the eastern rainy Andean-Amazon setting.

C. Condusion

The Puémape culural sequence has provided new insights into the nature

of the Cupisnique Cornplex. The sequence provides empirical support for a

chronological sequence that I inlially proposecl for Cupisnique frwn the Mom de

Eten data (Elera 1986). The great advantage of Puémape was that the different

stages of the Cupisnique Cultural Cornplex were stratigraphicaliy superposecl.

The Puemape Phases are not 'rigid' stages of cultural development but must be

refined through Mure research. Seen from Pu6mapel Cupisnique was as an

indigenous coastal cultural development. Mortuaiy pradices, subsistenœ habits,

ocwpaüonal pathologies, procurement technologies, vessels, icunography,

domesüc and œremonial architecture are rwted in the Late Preceramic period of

the Cupisnique hearttand. With that in rnind, I have refetred to the Precerarnic

cultural foundatiin of Cupisnique as Early Cupisnique Phase A The initial

pottery making, the introduction of maize, and caMng of anthracite, mark the

beginning of Early Cupisnique Phase B. The initial ceramic shapes and those of

later Phases, I have argued, are skeuomorphs of nonceramic containers, such as

gourds and baskets.

 Dynamic cultural interaction among Cupisnique settlements situated on the

littoral, and in the middle and upper valleys and deserts of the North Coast lead to

the development of a distinctive culture on the Formative period.

Religious icons, represented in ceramics and other cultural media

represented a deep farniliarity with the coast, a coastal perception of the

landscape, and its murces. The artifacts with the more elaborate iconography

were associated rnainly with the highest status memben of Cupisnique soàety.

This complex iconography has been confused as a derivation from the 'Chavin

stylen.Seen from the North Coast it is a traditional iconographic language, which

developed on the North Coast in the cuntext of the Cupisnique style, and which in

part constituted the iconographic corpus of the Chavin de Huantar site. The

symbolic role of the sea in the past and the present has been underestimated in

the studies of the Andean religion. The sea rnetaphoncally called 'Casa Grande'

(big house) by the traditional shamans of the Muchik ethnicity in Lambayeque had

played an important role in the Cupisnique religious belief system. The tradiüonal

Muchik shamans, who also are dedicated to agricultural and fishing activities,

conceive the sea as a vast house, the waves k i n g the chosen spots for hiding

during symbdic battles among sharnans for power cornpetition. In short. the tidal

lin8 of the sea is perceived as a symbolic battleground by the traditional Muchik

shamans. The s a c d perception of inland mountainoustemitory was quite

important in the Cupisnique thought too. It was the natural habitat of the
hallucinogenic San Pedro and giganton cactuses along with terrestrial mails with

the same psychotropic e W s . Although San Pedro cactus can be grown dose to

the sea. In addition, the inland territory was the reproductive habitat of the felines.

Regarding the rise of a stratified Cupisnique society, it is dear throughout

the mortuary sequence that access to exotic raw materials and elaborate grave

goods was limited to a few memben of the society. A quite notable conservatism

existed between certain economic occupations and sharnanism. This almost

'symbiotic" relationship between occupation and sharnanic practices must be

taken into acaiunt in understanding the rise of the Cupisnique leadership.

Hopefully this modest contribution will be the starting point for a long-terni

planned study of the rise of cornplex society in the Central Andes. Despite the

richness of the availabte information few Andean scholars have undertaken this

kind of research, and it is urgently neeâed.

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 APPENDIX 1

The 'vuca de caballonnlant (Proboscidea altheaefolia):a bnef description

by Carlos Elera, Franco L e h , José Pinilla and Eloy Lope2 Medina

Under the Puemape Archaeological Projed a botanical species, locally

called 'yuca de cabailon(manioc of the horse) (Proboscidea a/theaefolia)was

discovered in the desertic Cupisnique region which was unknown for the area in

the botanical literature of the North Coast of Peni. During the survey in the

Cupisnique region we registered this enigmatic plant in the sandy soils around

&y outcrops located in the rnouth of the Cupisnique Gorge. The bordering

location where these plants grow is in between the open Cupisnique desertic area

to the west and the narrow Cupisnique Gorge to the east. The ideological

importance of the plant in the past is related in the representetion of the rmt

along with religious iconography fonning the bodies of prestigious stimp-spout

bottles of the Classic Cupisnique Phase. Cornparisons between the ceramic

representations and the tuberous -on of the plant show strong similarities.

The modeleci mot shape could have been inspired by the root of the 'yuca de

caballonplant (Proboscidea altheaefoia) of the MARMNlACEAE family.

This plant develops its aeriausurface section only for e short period of

time at the end of the Andean Summer and beginning of the Fall. This may be the
reason it has gone unnoticed by botanical surveys on the surface. However, the

dormant big mots of the plant are underground. In situ studies as well as follow

up explorations in the area throughout the yean and analysis in the laboratory

are crucial to understand the cydical phenomenon of the stems, leaves, flowen

and fruits, which appear in a short period of time around the Andean Fall equinox

(20-21 March) of this plant. The general shape of the mot is a radial ramification

system with folds and circumvolutions detennined by the forced development of

the m t over the bedrock or isolated rocks in the sand. The sub-cortical

parenquima (darkest rings, some mm under the cortex) have the same

characteristic as those of the cut mots modeled in ceramic.

Analysis done at the National University of Trujillo by biologist Eloy Lopez

Medina dernonstrated the total absence of alkaloids or toxic chernical etements.

Additionaily, the analysis of the roots showed an absence of starch. This root is to

be consumed like sugar cane, extrading the juice and eliminating the waste pulp.

Nowadays this w
dli food appears to be mstricted to quines and cattle. Equines

use the nose to identify the locaüon of the tubers, excavate them with the feet

from depths in the sand between 20-50 cm. The mots are an available source of

fresh liquid in the arid landscape. Among modem humans nawadays it is a

marginal botanical resource, like the mots of the 'achiran (Cana edulis); however,

in the p s t they were highly appreciated. Remains of the 'vuca de c a b a l l ~ ~

root
were found in the Salinar domestic occupation recorded in the Excavation Unit 6

in Puérnape.

Related to the 'uuca de caballonis the 'cuemos del diablo" (homs of the

evil) (Ibicella lutea) (Manocca 1957), which also belongs to the MARTYNIACEAE

family. The popular Spanish name was taken from the pointed shape of the seed

known also as 'ufias del diablon(nails of the evil).The 'cuemos del diablongrows

in Argentina, k i n g classified in ternis of its economic importance as simple

underbrush. In some cases they can be invaden in cultivated plots. According to

Marzocca the tender fruits of this plant are prepared as a sort of pickles, and its

seeds are sweet and oily. Finally, cornparhg the fruits, flowers and leaves

between the 'yuca de caballonand the 'cuemos del diablonare alrnost identical.
APPENDIX 2

FAUNA
 TABLE 4

VERTEBRATE:FISH TAXONOMY

Sandy beach provenience

Phylum: CHORDATA
S u ~ e Clasq:
r Pisces
Class, Family, Genus and Specie 1 Native common name 1 Spanish common ( English common
I t name 1 name
CIass : CHONDRICHTHYES
Family: CARCHARWlNlDAE
Prionace glam#a 1 ? 1 "Tollol Tiburbn 1 Blue shark
azul"
(hrcharhit~rr.~
rernrhs 3 "Tollo O tiburbn Shsrk
I 1 mantequerol* I
Famify : TRIAKiDAE
M J I S ~.ip~ ~ J ~ S 'i "Tollo" Sandshark
Mt/stelw spp. ? "Tollo" Sandshark
Family : SQUATINIDAE
&wlitra armnta 1 ? 1 "A n ~ e ltoe" 1 Angelfish
Family: RHINOBATIDAE
Rhittobatosplat~iceps 1 ? 1 "Guitarra" 1 ?
Family: RAJlDAE
MyIiobutis p r t viams
~ 1 ? 1 "Raya negra*'. "Raya 1 Siing ray
I I Aguila" I
Family: UROLOPHiDAE
U'OI~~J p e n ~ a r s 1 2 1 "Tapaderas" 1 ? .
Continued. . .
 Continuation...TABLE 4

VERTEBRATE:FlSH TAXONOMY
Sandy bcach provenience

r Clasg: Pisces
Class. Funily. Genus and Specie 1 Native c o m o n 1 Spanish cornmon 1 English common
I name I name I name
Claq: OSTEICHTHYES
Family: CLüPElDAE
h d i t m x ~(1ga.r
scltgm 1 ? 1 "Sardina" 1 Sardine
Family: ARlIDAE
Galeichthyspent viatnu 1 ? 1 "Ba~re" 1 Caifish
Family: MUGILDAE
Mugi1 cephalus 1 Lisa? 1 "Lisab' 1 Mullet
Family: BOTHIDAE
Paralchthys sp 1 ? 1 "Lenguado" 1 Sole
Family: MERLUCCliDAE
Merluccitîs guyi 1 7 1 "Merluza" 1 Hake
Familv: CARANGiDAE
? "Jurel" Saurel
?Lachirr~us ? bbPampano" A ?
Family: CENTROLOPHIDAE
Soriofeh'aviol'acea I 3 I "Cojinova" I ?
Family: SCIAENIDAE
Micropogm~aItipi?~r#is 1 ? 1 "Corvina 1 Gilthead
dotada"
Parulonckurtts q. Suc0 "Roncador" Croack
-
Continued...
 Continuation...TABLE 4

VERTEBRATE:FlSH TAXONOMY
Sandy beach provenience

1 Phvlum: CHORDATA
per Class: Pisces
Claq F d l y . Genus and Specie 1 Native common ( Spanish common ( English conunon

"Ayanque" "Ayanque"
Scimm Jeliciosa "Loma" "Loma" ?
Scioeri~giIber~i ? "Corvina8' Sea bass

C
Scomberomorus mactda~ussierra 3 "Sierra" Sawfish
Sarda chiliermi clriliensis ? "Bonito" Bonito
 TABLE 5

VERTEBRATE:FlSH TAXONOMY
Rocky beach provenience

Phvlum: CHORDATA
S ~ e iClaae:
- Pisces
Class, Famity, Genus and Specie Native common Spanish common English common
name name name
Farnily: CHERODACTY IJDAE
i~huiludaciyl~~s .y 1 ? 1 "Pintadilla" 1 ?
Family: BLENNllDAE
Scarrichthvs ginas 1 7 1 "Borracho" 1 ?
Famify: CLINIDAE
Labrisumw p. ? "Trambollo" ?
A~ti~wtremtrs scayrrlaris "Chit a" "Chita" ?
Farnily: MURAENIDAE
Mirruerua le~~ïigimsa 1 ? 1 "Morena" 1 Moray
P

Family: GOBIESOCIDAE
Sicpases ~ ( ~ ~ g u i r r e t r s 1 ? 1 "Peje sapo" 1 Angler
Farnily: SERRANIDAE
Acarrthis/itrsyicti~s 1 "CherIo" 1 "Cher Io" 1 ?
 TABLE 6
VERTEBRATE: BIROS TAXONOMY

Littoral of Puémspe

w:CHORDATA
w:Birds 3

Class, Order, Farnily, Genus and Native cornmon Spanish common English common
Specie name name name
m:BlRDS
MN: FALCONIFORMES
Family: PANDIONIDAE
Pa~tdiot~haliaetus cm1irrer1si.s "Nampai" "Aguila marina" Osprey
"Aguila pescadora"
Order: CHADRADlFORMES
Family: LARiDAE
Larus sp. 1 7 1 "Gaviota" 1 Sea ~ l l
Family: CHARADRIIDAE
Charadrius p. 1 7 1 "Chorlo" 1 ?
Family: SCOLOPACIDAE
Culicfris w, 1 ? 1 "Playero" 1 ?
Order: PELECANIFORMES -l

Family: PHALACROCORACIDAE
Phalacrocorax sy. 1 "Guanay" 1 "CormorAn*'. 1 Cormorant
I 1 "Patiiio** t
Family: SULIDAE
Sda sp. 1 ? 1 "Piquera" 1 Booby
.
Family: PELECANfDAE
Peleca~~us
.p. "Jok" "Pelicano*', Pelican
"Alcatraz"
 TABLE 7

VERTEBRATE: TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS TAXONOMY

Littoral of Puérnape

Phvluq: CHORDATA
ÇIass: Mammalian
Class, Order, Family, Genus and Native cornmon Spanish common English cornmon
Specie name name name
w:MAMMALIA
Orda: RODENTIA
Farnily: CRICETIDAEL
Sigmodot~sp. 1 ? 1 "Raton de campo" ( Field mouse
Order: FlSlPEDOS
Family : CANIDAE
Canis ."'I "Fanu" "Perro sin pelo Penivian hairless
peruano", "Perro do8
chino"
Orda: PiNNlPEDOS
Family: OTARIIDAE
Otaria sp. 1 "Tumi" 1 "Lob marino" 1 Sea lion
 TABLE 9

INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

Phvium: MOLLUSK
ln or out of
Clasa, Genus, and Specie Native common Spanish English habitai. Relative
name cornmon name cornmon abundance
name A B C
m:
POLYPLACOPHORA
Family: CHITONIDAE
Aca)~t~leeirra
echiirtuta 7 "Barbon*' 3 2
nrmhgsii
Chito?~ "Recacha" "Barquillo", Chiton 2
"Chitbn"
Chitong r a m w "Rececha" "Barquillo", Chiton 2
"Chiibn"
I?i~Iochito~~
nip ? "Barquillo" Chiton 2
m:GASTROPODA

Familv: ACMAEIDAE
CoIli~I/u cecilima ? ? 7 2
CoI/isel/uorbignyi 3 3 7 2
Continued...

Leaend:
A = Puémape Rocky Littaral
B = Pudrnape Sandy Littoral
C = Puhape ninning aground sea shore
 Continuation... TABLE 9

INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

P h ~ t m MOLLUSK
:
In or out of
Class, Genus, and Specie Native cornmon Spanish Englishcornrnon h&itat.Relative
name cornon name name abundance
A B C
Sciirria yarasi/ica ? ? ? 2
Skurria viridirla 7 7 7 2
Family: TROCHIDAE
Ïegr~Iaatm ? "Caracol negro" 7 2
T@a ei~ryomphaIi~s ? "Caracol negro" ? 1
Famiiy: TlJRBINIDAE
Urisqgas~er rriger 7 "CaracolitO 7 2
nejqro"
Family: LtTTORINlDAE
I,ltIwi~wU~MICWM ? "Caracoiillo" ? 2
Llllori~nayen~viaria 7 "Caracolillo" 'I 3
Littmirirr yoyter~sis ? - "Caracolillo" 7 2
Familv: CERITHlIDAE

cerithith m~zatianica I 7 I 7 I 3 I I 1 2
Farnily: CALYPTRAEIDAE
Ca&ptrwu trtxhiJonnis 1 ? 1 ? 1 ? 1 1 1 2
Continued. ..

A = Puémspe Rocky Littoral 1 . Less fiequent

B = Puémape Sandy Littoral 2. Frequent
C = Puémpe mnning aground sea shore 3. Abundant
 Continuation... TABLE 9
INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY
Phvlum: MOLLUSK
In or out of
Class, Genus, and Specie Native common Spanish English common habitat. Relative
name cornmon narne name abundance
A R C
C'repid~~la excavala ? ? ? 1
Crepidrrla irtcima ? "Pique" 7 1
C r e y i ~ t e l l adilatata ? "Pique" ? 1
Crmibtrlrrm Iigrwitrm ? "Pique*' ? I
C'nrcibirlwnmon~icitlirs ? "Pique" ? 1
Cnrcibrrlumspi~~ost~m ? "Pique" ? I
Family: NATIClDAE
Pofir~icestrber ? "Caracol ? 2
blanco"
Simm cymba ? "Orejbn" ? 2
Family: TRIVDAE
Trivia so101nùi 1 ? 1 7 1 7 1 1 1 1
Family : CYMATIIDAE
Cymulitrrm wieparrrri 1 ? 1 ? 1 ? 1 1 1 1
Family: BURSIDAE
Bursa r i a n a ? ? ? I
Bursa ve~~tricosw ? "Caraco1 ? I
rosado"
Family: MURICIDAE
Cor~choleylw.
c011cholepas "Chanque" "Pata de burro" Abalone? 1
Humalocutitha multicrispata ? "Caracol" ? 2
Continued...
LeRend:
A = PuCmape Rocky Lit total 1 . Less frequent
B = Pubmape Sandy Littoral 2. Frquent
C = Putmape niming aground sea shore 3. Abundsnt
 Continuation... TABLE 9

INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

Phylum: MOLLUSK
In or out of
Class, Genus, and Specie Native common Spanish English comnion habitat. Relative
name wmmon name name abundance
A B C
Farnily: THAlDlDAE Y

7 h i s ca1Iaw~si.r ? "Caracol" ? I
Thnis biserialis ? "Caracol" 7 1
7 h i s chCEL'o/ata 7 "Caraco1 ? 2
comun"
Ihais rllelesser~ia~~a 3 "Caracol" 7 I
33iais haemasfoma 7 "Caracol" 7 2
v
Purpura pmua ? ? ? 1
Xanthochorus bwea ? ? ? 2
Crassilabnrmcrassilabr~~rn ? ? ? 2
Family: BUCCINIDAE
Ca111honrse1e~:atcs ? ? ? 1
Sofenosf~~irafis4formis - ? ? ? 2
, Famiiy: COLUMBELLIDAE

Colrrmbellafi~scata ? ? ? 1
Columbeliapayfemiv .
? pp ? ? - -- 1
Miîrella buccimides ? ? 7 1
Continueâ...

A = Puémape Rocky Littoral 1 . Less frequent

B = Pudmape Sandy Littoral 2. Frequent
C = PuCrnape running aground sea shore 3. Abundant
 Continuation. .. TABLE 9

INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

Phvliim: MOLLUSK
In or out of
Class, Genus, and Specie Naiive common Spanish common English common habitat. Relative
name name name abundance
A B C
w:PELECYPODA
Family: MCIDAE
A t W a tirburcdosa ? "Concha negra" ? 1
A~uzhrarwx ? "Concha de ? 1
esteros"
Amdaru emnrgimta ? ? ? I
Family: GLYCY MElllDlDAE
G1)cymerris ovata 1 ? 1 "Mejillon*' 1 ? 1 1 1 2
Famity: MY TLlDAE
Aulacmipz atur "Choro" "Choro cornuif' Mussel 2
Brachirlb~ttesylaycieer,sis ? ? ? 1
Chor0my;iItt.v choms ? "Choro Purple musse1
zapato" 1
,"mirnytilirs al'osl~s ? "Chorito
playetci" ? 2
Lifkqdqgaperwiarra ? 7 ? - 3
Continued.. .

u:
A = Puémape Rocky Littoral 1. Less frequent
B = Puémape Sandy Littoral 2. Frequent
C = Pudmape mnning aground sea shore 3. Abundant
 Coiitinuation... TABLE 9

INVERI'EBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

Phvlum: MOLLUSK
In or out of
Spanish English cornman habitat. Relative
1 1 m e 1 common name 1 name ( abundance
I I I ( A B c
Family: PECTINIDAE
Argoyecten circrrlaris 1 7 1 "Concha de 1 Scallop 1 1 1 2

1 hgty)t!cfet#purpwafus 1 1 "Concha de 1 I I I
1 7 1 abanico" 1 Scallop 1 1 1 2
Family: SPONDYLIDM
&o~rrjll~.s
priweps "Mullu" "Conchs de Thorny oyster 1
huaca", "Concha
I 1 espinosa" I I I I
Famlv:ANOMIIDAE

Pseudoclrama c m g a t a 3 "Ostibn" Large oyster 1

Whycurdiumprucernr 7 - "Piconudo" ? 2
Family: VENERiDAE
2PI& hiam I 7 7 3 I
alrior
Iphiget~iîa 7 ? ? 1
h i ~ ~du~~keri
i a 3 "Pioiosa" 3 1

Leriend:

-
A = Pubmape Rocky Littoral
B Puémape Sandy Littoral
C = Puémape ninning aground sca shore
1. Less fiequent
2. Frequent
3. Abundant
 Continuation... TABLE 9

INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

m:MOLLUSK
I In or out of
Native Spanish common
wrnrnon name name abundance
1

? 1 "Concha ravada"
"Concha tabaco" 7 1
Pam Pain Clam I
2
Clam I I I
Ostreu m e g h i ? 1 "Ostre" Oyster 1
Ostreaaqgefica 7 "Ostra" Oyster 2
Farnily: PETïüCOLlDAE
Petricota m g w I 7 I 3 I 7 I 1 I i
Family: M A C T ' A E
Mwtm w&~a ? ? 3 1
&Isulu adamsi ? "AJmejita" ? 2
F d y : MESODESMATIDAE
Mesûdesma do~wiiirn 1 "Macha" 1 "Macha" 1 7 1 1 1 1
Continud. .

I=!aWd:
A = Pudmape Rocky Littoral 1. Less frequent
B = Puhmape Sanày Littoral 2. Frequent
C = Puémape mnning aground sea shore 3. Abundant
 Continuation... TABLE 9

INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

Phvlum: MOLLUSK
1 I In or out of
Class, Genus, and Specie

I common name
Native I Spanish common
narne abundance
A B

130t~xO ~ S I I ~ U S 1 ? 1 "Conchita"
Family: SOLECURTIDAE
? 1 "Pico de ~ato"
l
Tagelusyem viattus 7 1 "Pico de pato"
Family: SEMELIDAE
Semele corr~~gata ? "Almeja"
Semele solida ? "IUmeja"
Family: PHOLADIDAE
Phi' chiioet& 1 7 1 "Alas de b ~ e l "
m: CEPHALOPODA
Octopus 1 2 1 I 1
u:
A = Puémape Rocky Littoral 1 . Less fiequent
B = Pubmape Sandy Littoral 2. Frequent
C = Putmape mnning aground sea shore 3. Abundant
 TABLE 10

WVERTEBRATE: CRUSTACEANS TAXONOMY

1 m:ARTHROPODA
w:crustacean I1
Habitat:
Class, Genus and Specie Native common Spanish common English
name name cornmonname A B
m:ClRRIPEDlA
Familv: LEPDAE
&par: q. 1 1 1 "Percebes" 1 Goose barnacle 1 i/

Fami1y:BALANlDAE
&IQI:IISsp. 1 ? 1 "Pico de loro" 1 Rock bamde 1 3
m:CRUSTACEA
Family: HiPPïDAE
Emeri& mnaIogo 1 "Muy Muy 1 "Muy Muf 1 ? 1 i/

Family: ALBUNEIDAE
Blepharipmb occidetttalis "Muy Muy" "Muy Muy chino" ? r/

CalliatuwiaislaprrAv ? "Marucha", ?
"Lanfloatha** ri

Pagrms e h r d s i i ? "Cangrejo Hennit crab rl

ermitaiio" - - - - -- - -

Continued. ..

kgend: A= Rocky beacb; B= Sandy beach

 Continuation...TABLE 10

INVERTBBRATE: CRUSTACEANS I'AXONOMY

Phylum: ARTHROPODA
Clas@:Crustacean
Habitat:
Class, Genus and Specie Native cornrnon Spanish common English
name name common name A B
Mm~iriagroculiyes 1 "Camaroncito ? i~
rojo"
Pmhyckles crir~imarrrrrs
? ? ? *,

Pefrolisthes sp. , ? "Cangrejito" ? J

Heparus chiljetr.sis ? "Cangrejo de Craô 4

arena"
Mursia guuâichaudii ? "Cangrejo" Crab g

C a t ~ em
r eri ? "Cangrejo" Crab J

C'arcerp o I ~ o ~ ? "Cangrejo Crab i~ 1

peludo"
SeMapi- ? 7 ? r/

C u l I i ~ ~ cw
~ae rsc t ~ ~ s 7 "Jaiva" 7 @

Arermus mexicmt~~s ? "Cangrejo plano" ? J

C'oxanf~s
sexdecimcfet~tatus 7 "CangrejitO*' ? r)

Eriyhia squatnata ? "Pangora" ? J

~faiyxw~fh~rsorbignyi 1 "Canpejo Purpie crab g

viot8ceo"
Parmmthus h b i g e r ? "Canpjo" ? J

& y N e gm~dickudii
? "Carretero" ? J

Grqm~s
gr4ps11s ? "Cangrejode las ? J

mas*'
A ~ ~ n ~ i wperjwrii
u~ix May May "Cangrejo araiia'* _ ? r,

Legend: A= Rocky beuch; B= Sandy beach

 TABLE I I

INVERTEBRATE: EQUINODERM TAXONOMY

Phvlum: ECHlNODERMATA
Habitat:
Class, Genus and Specie Native common Spanish English common
name 1 cornmon name 1 name [ A 6
w:ASTEROrnEA
Family : HELIASTERIDAE
Heliaster heliarrths ? "Estrella de Starfish 3

mat'
m:ECHINOiDEA
Family: ARBACt IDAE
Tetrqygm~iigvr ? "Erizo Black sea urchin @ '
gallinazo O

1
A r m a spwt~di~era 1 3 1 "Erizorojo" 1 Red sea urchin r,
w:HOLOTHUROlDE A
Family: HOLOTHüRi D A E
PhyfIobon~spen~viattus 1 "Ancoco" 1 "Ancoco" 1 Sea-cucumber 1 3

Legend: A= Rocky beach; B= Sandy beach

 TABLE 13

VERTEBRATE:FISH TAXONOMY

Del Barco Layoon

m:CHORDATA
Super Class: Pisces
Class, Family, Genus and Specie Nativecornmon ' Spanish common English common
- name name neme
ÇIrrss: OSTElCWTHYES
Family:MUGILIDAE
- MI@ ceyhalt~s 1 Lisa? 1 "Lisa" 1 Mullet
 TABLE 14
VERTEBRAE:BlRD TAXONOMY
Del Barco lagoon

1 Phvlum: CHORDATA 1
Çlass: Birds
Genus and Specie Native common Spanish cornmon En&h common
name name name
l'arrdi'ot~haliaehr.r carolit~e~~sis "Aguila marina1'
"$Jampal" "Amila pesadora" Osprey
IAIIISsp. ? "Gaviota" Sea pl1
Ckadriirs y. "Chorlo"? "ChorIo1' ?
HaIItts r n ~ ~ i ~ ~ o I e t ~ t u s ? "Gallareta mediana*' Eutopean coot
~ h r n e r d i ua. ~
h s 3 "Gara bianca White big heron
grande''
(,'haradLr,croci/erus pentvia~ti~s ? "Chortito de dos 7
collares"
Piyloccles r e s ~ ~ l u t ~ e t ~ s "Lique Lique*' J "Lique Lique" ?
 TABLE 15

VERTEBRAE:BIRD TAXONOMY

The El Jaguey forest and the Plain (La Pampa)

1 Phvlum: CHORDATA 1
Clas$: Birds
Genus and Specie 1 Native common 1 Spanish common 1 English common
name name name
, Zernaidu astatica melolkr "Cucull" "Cuculi" ?
Euplia cmziatrn ? "Tortotito peniano" ?
Lort~gypsalralrrs "Chonto" "Gallinam de cabeza Black head turkey
negra" buzzard
Cathartes aura jota "Chonto" "Gallinazo de cabeza Red head turkey

Falco yntnvritrs p n t v i a w s ?
"Cernicalo" Sparrow hawk
A l k w cu~~ic~&ria ? "Lechuai de los Barn owl
arenales"
' Chordeifes~ c u t i ~ ~ t tetx~i ihs ? "Chotacabra" ?
 TABLE 16

VERTEBRATE: TERRESTWAL MAMMAL TAXONOMY

The El Jaguey forest and the Plain (La Pampa)

phvlum: CHORDATA
w: Mammalian
Genus and Specie Native comrnon Spanish common English uimmon
name name name
Scitrnrssîramir~eus 7 "Ardilla de los Squirrel
algarrobales"
Mus muscdus ? "Ratbn doméstico" Domestic mouse
Sjgmodon9. 1 "Rai6n de campo" Fidd mouse
ilhcoilutcs v i etiams ? "Venado de cola White tale deer
blanca"
LycaItpx ,wcir~~rae 3 "Zorro de la costa" Coastal fox
Felis sp. ? "Gato montés" Witd cat
FefhCOIKOIO~ "Pumaa1 "Puma" Cougar
 TABLE 17

VERTEBRATE:'TERRESTRIAL REPTlLlA TAXONOMY

The El Jaguey forest and the Plain (La Pampa)

Phylum: CHORDATA
w:Reptilian
I I I
Genus and Specie Native common Spanish common English cornmon
name name mime
Boa consirictur wtmi "Macanche" "Boa cost&a3' Coastal boa
Mlcrirrtrs murtemi ? "Chaquira" ?
Borhroyspicus ? "Sancartancal' ?
Yhyll&ty111s sy. ? "Saltojol' ?
Tropidurusoccipiîals kwpcùeonm "Chucos" "Chucos" ?
Ameiw eriTaemt~h ? "Lagartija corredora" Runner lizard
'
T r @ d ~ ~ r ~ ~ s p m v i o i ~ ~ ~ r l ~ v i (?~ n ~ s "Lwartija de la costa" Coasial lizard
CaI/~islesflmipu~)c:tahrs. ? "Lagarto" 3
i l i c r d m holmbergi "Callan" "Caiian" ?
 TABLE 18

INVERTEBRATE: MOLLUSK TAXONOMY

The Cupisnique and Pajarobobal Gorges

Phvlum: MOLLUSK
1 1 1
t

Class. Fami&. Genus and Speèie Native common Spanish common English common
l I name I name I name
Class: GASTROPODA
Family: BULIMULIDAE
Smrairrs sy. 7 "Caracol de cerro O Land mail
terrestre"
 TABLE 19

VERTEBRAE: BlRD TAXONOMY

The Cupisnique and Pajarabobal Gorges

1 Phvlum: CHORDATA
Class: Birds
1
1 1 1
1

Genus and Specie Native common Spanish cornmon English cornmon

name name name
Zemida asiatica m e l d "Cuculi" "Cuculi" ?
Eupelia cn~zimm ? "Tortolito peruano" ?
Iklco spwriurs pertiviams ?
"Cernicalo" Sparrow hewk
Bwhirrtrs .nryerciliaris "Huerequeque" "Huerequeque*' ?
 TABLE 20

VERTEBRATE:TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL TAXONOMY

The Cupisnique and Pajarobobal Gorges

clam: Mamrnalian
Genus and Specie 1 Native m m o n 1 Spanish common 1 English common
name name name
m i s CONCOIW "Puma"
1 lrenmrcrtcs o m a ~ s
1
"Puma"

"Unid
1 "Oso de anteojos*' 1 Cougar
Spectacles bear
I
, Lagidirrrn s Vizcacha? "Vizcacha" 7
Scirrrirs stramirrerrs ? "Ardilla de los Squirrel
alnarrobdes"
M ~ niuscirlrcs
M 7 "Raton doméstico" Domestic mouse
Sigmdo11sp. ? "Raton de campo" Field mouse
CMocoillerrs virghiarriis 1 "Venado de cola White tale deer
blanca*'
Lymiopex sechwae ? "Zorro de ta costa" Coastal fox
Felis sp. ? "Gato mont6s" Wild cat
 TABLE 2 1

VERTEBHAI'E: TERRESTRIAL REPTlLlA TAXONOMY

The Cupisnique and Pajarobobal G o r ~ e s

1 m: CHORDATA
Class: Repiilian
1
Genus and Speçies 1 Native common 1 Spanish common 1 English oornrnon
F
name name name l
Bm coy~trictormtotti "Macanche" "Boa costena" Coastai boa
Micnms rnerte~~si ? "Chsquira" ?
BotIKop pictils ? "Sancerranca" ?
Phyllalaçtylus W. 7 "SRItojo" ?
Tropidrms occipitatiskpckeomn~ "Chucos" "Chucos" ?
Ameiw e d r 4 ~ 4 d w ? . "Lapartija corredora" . Runner lizard
? Coastal liard 1

"Aî~robera"
Dicrodorrr heterolepis heteroIepis L 3 "Borre~bn" ?
 APPENDIX 3

TABLES OF THE EARLY PUEMAPE BURlALS

 TABLE 23

EARLY PUEMAFE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Burial number: XXXlXXXlIXXXIIIXXMVXXXV

Spatial provenience:
Sector B-5 B-5 B-5 B-5 B-5
Exavation Unit 11 11 11 11 11
Subunits 56 33-34 45-46 45-46 57-58
69-70
Burial stratification
inctusive Iayer rv IV N IV
Recadent layer m m m m
Intnisive laya IV IV IV TV
Context: D-2 1.S. I.S. I.S.
C i v e tvw:Pit
Rounded - - -
Oval ir d r, J

Square -
-gular -
Trianguiar - -
mouth cover
d r, J J

Grave onentanon
ûvaI pit NE/SW SEMW SWtNE NE/SW
hifwmmm
LeWh 0.65 m 1.05 m 0.90 m 1.O0 m
Wdth ? 0.80 rn 0.60 m 0.70 m
DFTSTTFMM* ? 0.40m 0.38 rn 0.40m
Depth of tbe FM** 0.45 rn 0.55 rn 0.58 m 0.59 m 0.55 m

I.S.: in situ
D-1: Disturkd in the same period.
D-2:Disturbed in modem timcs.
* Dcpth fiom the surfirce to the fiinerary rnatrix mwth.
* * F ~ n e ~ ama
~&y
 TABLE 24
EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Spatial pmvenience;
Sector B-5 B-5 B-5 B-5
Excavation Unit 11 11 11 11
Sub-units 16-17 64-65 54-55 22

Inclusive iayer N IV IV IV
M e n t laycr m m m m
intmsivt layer IV IV IV IV
Comext: I.S. I.S. I.S. 1.S.
Grave me:Fit
Rounded - - -
OvaI J d r/ J

Depth of the FM** 0.45 rn 0.37m 0.50 m 0.85 m

I.S.: insitu
D..1: Disturbed in the same period.
D-2: Disturbed in modem times.

Depth h m tbe sudue to the fûnnary rnatrix mouth.

**Funerafy niatrix.
 TABLE 25

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Spatial provenience:
Sector B-5 B-5 B-5 B-5
Excavation Unit 11 11 11 11
Sub-units 20 18-19 6
Burial stratification
inclusive layer N IV IV IV
~recedmtl a y ~ ~n III rn III
Intrusive iayer N IV-V IV-V IV
Context: 1.S. I.S. D-1 I.S.
Grave type: Pit
Roundcd -
Oval J .
I J r)

Gravernouth cover
Sandyfclay fiil (( @ i) i,

Grave orientation
Oval pit WSW W/SE SE/W SWINE
Measurernen~
kgth 0.95 m 0.72 m ? 1.15 m
Width 0.50 m 0.45 m ? 0.75 m
DFTSTTFMM* ? 0.70 m 1.03 m 0.86 rn
Dcpth of the FM** ? 0.60 m 0.40m 0.28 m

I.S.: in situ
D-1:Disturbed in the sanie @od.
D-2: Distwbed in modern times.

Dcpth from the surhœ to tbe ttnerary matrix mouth.

'*Funtrary matrix.
 TABLE 26

EARLY PUEMAPE MORniARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Burial number: LXXXVUl LXaIX XCII

Spatial provenience:
Sector B-5 B-5 B-5
Excavation Unit 11 II 11
Sub-unit s 8 30
Burial stratification
Inclusive layer IV IV IV
Precedent layer III m III
Inûusive layer IV IV TV
Context: I.S. I.S. I.S.
Grave me:Pit
Rouuded -
Oval J iI i)

Square -
Rectangular
Trianguiar
wve-mouth cover
i) J J

Grave orientation
Oval pit NE ISW swm Elw
Measuremen~
1.10 m 1 .O5 m 1.10 rn
0.60 rn 0.55 m 0.58 m
0.39rn 0.23 m ?
Depth of the FM** 0.84 m 0.60m ?

I.S.: m sizu
D-1: Disturùcd in the same pcriod.
D-2: Disturbed in modern times.

* Depth fkom the sufàce to the herary rnatrix mouth.

**Funeraty matrix.
 TABLE 27

EARL.Y PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Burial number: X C ~ XCIV XCWI XCVII

Spatial prodence:
Sector B-5 B-5 B-5 B-5
Excavation Unit 11 11 11 i1

Inchsivc layer N IV IV IV
Precedent laytr III m III UI
htnisive layer N IV IV IV
Context: D-1 ITl I.S. I.S.
Grave type: pq
-
J d d ii
-
-
mve-mouth cover
# J d J

Grave oncntation
Oval pit ? N/S SEMW NE /SW
Measuremtnts
? ? 1.00 m 0.85 rn
? ? 0.50 m 0.50 rn
? ? 0.30 m 0.62 m
Depth of the FM** ? ? 0.50 m 0.50 m

I.S.: insiru
D-1 : Disturbed in the same period.
D-2: Difturbed in modern times.
 TABLE 28

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Burial number: CX CM C m CXV

Spatial provenience:
Sector B-5 B-5 B-5 B-5
Excavation Unit 11 t1 11 Il
Subunits 65-73 6-N 9-10
Burial stratification
Inclusive layer IV w IV
Precederrt iayer rn rn m
inmisive layer IV TV IV
Context: D-1 D-1 I.S.
Gravc m e : prt
- -
* d 9

-
0

Grave-mouth wver
ir i) d

Grave orientation
Oval pit NUSW NW/SE N/S
Measuremen~
Len!3th 1.20 m ? 1.15rn 0.75m
Width 0.65 rn ? 0.60 m 0.50 m
DFTSTTFMM* 0.55 m 0.63rn 0.50 rn 0.55 m
Depth of the FM** ? ? 0.30 m 0.50 m

LS.: insiîu
D-1: Duturbed in the samc period.
D-2: Disnirbed in modern thes.

*Depth h m the sur$ce to the fùnerary matrix mou&

**FUncfary matrix.
 TABLE 29

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over the extemal reed mat cover

Buriai Number: X X X I x x X n x x X r n ~ x x x V
Context: D-2 I.S. I.S. 1.S. I.S.
First C a t w
Rocks 3 1
- s
Gourds - -
-

-
Ceramic
Total: * 3 I -

Burial Number: XXXVI IWWIl XLIV LXXXLI

Conta: I.S. I.S. I.S. I.S.

Rocks - - - -
Second Cat-
Gourds . O - -
Third Catcaory
Ceramic -
Total: O -

I.S.. iris&
D-1: Disturbed in the same periad.
D-2: Disnirbed in modern times
 TABLE 30

EARLY PUEMAPE MûRTüARY PUCTICES:

GMVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objccts found over the extemal reed mat =ver

Burial Nurnber: ~ L X X X V L X ? O C V I L X X X V I I
Context: 1,s. I.S. D-l I.S.
Fi'rst C a t w
Rocks - -
Second C a t w
Gourds -
fhird Catenory
Ceramic -
Tom!: - -

Burial Numbcr: LXXXMII LXXMX XCII

Context: I.S. I.S. I.S.
F i Cateum
Rocks 4 - I
Second C a t w
Gourds - -
Third C a t w
Ceramic -

Lepend:
I.S.: in sint
DI:Disturbed in the same peciod.
D-2: Dishubed in modem thes.
 TABLE 3 1

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE W D S SEQüENCE

Objects found over the actemai reed mat cover

Burial Number: XClII XCIV XCVII XCVm

Context: D-1 D-1 I.S. I.S.
First Caîcqqfy -.
Rocks - "

Second C a t w
Gourds - * - -
Third Catcaory
Ceramic 1 -
Total: 1 - -

Burial Number: CX CM C m CXV

Context: D-i D-2 LS. I.S.
First C a t w
Rocks - 2
Second Catenory
Gourds
mrd Cateaory
Ceramic -

kfaBad:
I.S.: in siru
D-1:Distirrbed in the same period.
D-2: Disturbcd in modern times.
 TABLE 32

EARLY PüEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

ûùjects in contact with the cadaver found

within the cotton textile prirnary cover

Coutext: I.S. I.S.

FirsrmgQ!y
Gourds 1
Second Care~ory
Textife hairdms - 1
Textile painted 1
ThVd Cateaog
Painting (hemtite) - i~

Lime i,

Totai: 2 1

Lenend:
I.S.: in situ
D-2 : Disturbed in the same penod.
D-2: Disturbed in modern timcs.
 TABLE 33

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Number: XXXIXXXUxicxmxxxrV XXXV

Sex U F M (F> F
Age C OA YA YA YA
between thorax and lower tirnbs
Cadaver ~ 0 ~ i t i o Relationshi~
n:
Exmded - - -
Semi-flexed i/ -
F k ~ d J J .I

ûimsition ofthe uppcr lintbs: R: Ri L:Le& B: Both CR, and

b e r the head
Over the face
Over the cheek
Touching the chin
Over the chest
To the sides
Over the abdomen
Over the pelvis
Under the pelvis
Bawecn the legs
Flexed
Crossed
Figers clenched
Fingers extmded

Cubit-dorsid
Cubit-ventrai
Right-laterai
L&-lateral

Lepen&

SEX AGE

N Neonate
1 Infànt (< l yoa)
C Chiid (< 12 yoa)
A Adolescent (< 1%yoa)
YA Young Adult (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Mid& Adult (3 5 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult (>50 yoa)
u:wnknown (s)
 TABLE 34

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Sex F U M U
Age OA C MA C
Cadaver ~osition:Relafionshi~between thorax and lower limbs
Extended - - -
Semi-flexed -
Flexed J 3 d i)

Dismsition of the umer fimbs: R:Ri&. L:Lefi. B:Both CR and

L.UPDW limbs)
Over the head L -
Over the fice R B
ûver the check - O

Touching the chin - R -

Ovw the chat B -
To the sides - -
Over the abdomen -
ûvcr the pelvis
Under the pelvis - a O

Between the f egs - L -

Flexed B R B
Crossd - B
Fingers cienched - -
Fmgers exteaded B B. . B
Bodv disuosition
Cubitdorsal - 3 -
Cubit-ventral - -
Right-lateral - i~ i)

Lefi-lateral J -
- -
O

Seated -

SEX AGE

N Neonate
M: Male 1 Infint (< 1 yoa)
F: Female C Child (< 12 yoa)
(sex m brackets is quivomi) A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Aduh (20 to 35 y-)
MA Middle Adult (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult (>50 yoa)
u:U h w n (s)
 TABLE 35

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Buid Number: LlOCXm LXXXV L m LXXXVll

Sex F U U U
Age YA U C C
Cadaver bosition: Reiationshib between thorax and lower limbs
Eaended - -
Semi-flexed - -
Flexcd rf i/ .r
Disposition of the umct limbs: R:Ri#. L:LAR B: Both R. and
C. UDD- Lm@
ûver the head - O

Over the fàce B B B

Over the cfieek -
.
O

Over the chin -

Over the chest -
To the sides -
ûver the abdomen -
Over the pelvis
Unda the pelvis - -
Betwan the legs - -
Flexed B B B
C r d O - -
Fimgers clenched - -
Figers extended - . .. -
B Q ~dY1SDOSJtlOQ
-
Cubitdorsal - -
C~bit~ventral - - -
Ri@-lateral ir - +
Laft-lateral *
-
r O

Stated -

SEX AGE

N Neonate
M:Male 1 Iirfant (< 1 yoa)
F:Female C Chiid (< 12 yoa)
(sex in brackets is equivacai) A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Ad& (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Middie Mdt (35 to 50 yoa)
OA OId A M t (>50 yoa)
v: Unhowtl (s)
 TABLE 36

EiARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREA7'MElNTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF LftIE DEAD

Burial Number: LXXXVIIl L?WaX XCII

Sex F M M
Age YA MA OA
Çadaver bosition: ~ ~ ! a î i ~ between
n ~ h i ~thorax and 1.ower limbs
Extendecl -
Scmi-flexed -
Fiexed i/ d J

Disposition of the limbs: R:Ri& L:Le& B:Both IR. and

L.u ~ m xlirnbsl
Over the head *

Cher the hce B R

Over the cheek -
Over the chin - R
Over the chest B
To the sidcs -
ûver the abdomen - -
ûver the pelvis -
Under the pelvis -
h e m the legs - L L
Flexcd B B B
Crod -
Fimgers clenched - -
Fimgers extendeci B . .. n B
Bodv
Cubit-dorsal - -
Cubit-ventrai -
Ri&-lateral 3 J
Lefblateral - e -
LssQd:
SEX AGE

N Neonate
M: Maie 1 Infant (< I yoa)
F: F d e C Child (c12 yoa)
(sex in brackets is cquivocal) A Adolescent (< 1%yoa)
YA Young AduIt (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Middle Aduh (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult (>50 yoa)
 TABLE 37

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Number: XCUI XCN XCW XCW

Sex U F U U
Age C A YA C
Cadaver bosition: RelationShi!, between thorax and lower limbs
Extended
Semi-flexed - J
Fîexed i, -
Dmsition of the umer lirnbs: R:Ri&. L: Left. B: Both
and L.un- limba
ûver the head - -
Cher the fia - - -
Ovu the check - - -
Cher the chin - - L
Over the ch- -
To the sides - -
Over the abdomen - R
ûver the pelvis - -
Under the pdvis - -
Bctween tbe legs - -
Flexed - B
Crosscd - -
Figers clenchcd - -
Fingen cxtended - - -
Bodv gisbosition
Cubitdorsal - -
Cubir-vd
Right-lataal - r, -
LcAlkeral - i~

SEX AGE
N Neonate
1 lnfaat (C l yoa)
C Chüd (< 12 yoa)
A Adolcsceut (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Addi (20 to 35 yoa)
M A Middle Addt (35 t o 50 yoa)
OA Old AGult (>50 yoa)
U: Unknoyn (s)
 TABLE 38

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAI, OF THE DEAD

Buriai Number: CX CM CXIII CXV

Sex F U M F

Extendeci - -
Semi-flexed -
Flexed J ir J

Di'sposition of the u~perIllnbs: R:Ri& L: Left. B: 00th (R.

L.uppcr timbs)
Overtttehead - - B
ûverthefàce . B -
Over the cheek - - -
Cher îhe chin - -
Over the chest -
To the sides - . -
ûver the abdomen -
ûvcr the pelvis - -
Under the pelvis - -
Berween the legs - -
Flexed - B B
Crossed - - - -
Fiers clencheci - - -
Fingers extended B B
. ..
v dlsgosûon
Cubitdorsai - - -
Cubit-ventral -
Right-laseral J - J

LeA-laterai - - #

AGE

N Ntonate
1 Int'ant (< l yoa)
C Child (< 12 yoa)
A Addescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Adult (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Middle Adult (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old M t ( M O yoa)
u:Unlanown (s)
 TABLE 39

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORLENTAïION AND CULTURAL MODIFICATIONS

Buriai Nurnber: Xxxr Iocxn Xxxm XXXIV XxxvXXXv

FTB (GBTVC) N S S N N NE
ROTH (GBTFO) W W
Facing UP - -
Facing d o m - -
Cuitwal m d i c a t i o ~
Decapitation
Amputation - -
Cotton in îbe mouth -
Bmed
Painting (hesnatite)

FTB (GBWC):From the thorax (given by the vertebrai cofumn)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (given by the fàce orientation)
 TABLE 40

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AM) CULTURAL MODLFICATIONS

Buriai Number: XXXVI XXXVII XLIV L)(XXII

FTB (GBTVC) S N/E E SIE
ROTH (GBTFO) W E N NE
Facing up -
Facing down - -
Cultural modificatiom
Decapitation - -
Amputation - - -
Cotton in the mouth - -
Bmed - - -
Painting (hematite) - -

FTB (GBTVC):Front the thorax (given by the vertebrat colunin)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head @ken by the &ce orientation)
 TABLE 41

EARLY PüEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AND CULTURAL MODlFICATIONS

Bwial Number: LxXxnI L m L m LXXXVU

FTB (GBTVC) E N/W S N
ROTH (GBTFO) N/W E S/E
Facing up
Facing dom
Cultural modifications
Decapitation - - -
Amputation - - -
Cotton in the mouth - - - -
Burned - -
Painting (hemabte) -

FTB (GBTVC): From the thorax (given by the vertebral column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (givm by the fiice orientation)
 TABLE 42

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AND CULTURAL MODIFICATIONS

%
Buriai Number: LXXXVm LXXXIX XCII
FTB (GBTVC) NIE W E
ROTH (GBTFO) NMr N
Facing up - r/ -
Facing down - -
Cultural modifications
Decapitation -
Arnputation - -
Conon in the mouth - -
Bumed - - -
Painting (hematite) - -

FTB (GBTVC): From the thorax Cgiven by the vmebral column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (given by the face orientation)
 TABLE 43

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATlON AND CULTURAL MODIFICATiONS

Burial Number: X C ~ XCN XCVII xcw

m (GBTVC) N/W NE
ROTH (GBTFO) W SE

coion in the mouth O - -

Bmed - - -
Painting (hcmatite) -

FTB (GBTVC):From tbe thorax (Qivm by the vertebral column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation ofthe hezid @en by the face orie~ation)
 TABLE 44

EARLY PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AND CULTURAL MODIFICATIONS

Burial Number: CX CXI CXUi CXV

FTB (GBWC) NIE NE N E
ROTH (GBTFO) - - N/W W

Decapitation
Amputation -
Cotton in the mouth - -
Burned
Painting (hematite] - (I

FTB (GBTVC): From the thorax (siven by the vertebrai wlumn)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation ofthe head @ven by the fàce orientation)
 APPENDIX 4

TABLES OF THE MIDDLE PUEMAPE BURIALS

 TABLE 45

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PUCTICES: GRAVES

Buriai number: 1 17
Spatial provenience:
Sector F-4 F-5
Excavation Unit 1 2
Subunits
-
Burial stratification:
Inciusive Iayer
Precedcnt layer
Lntnisive layer
QmzL
Grave tvw:
Pit
Ch
S M tomb
Grave shape:
Rounded
Oval
Square
Rectangular
Trianguhr
Boot
Grave-mouth cover,
Sandy/clay fUl
Grave orientation:
Pit
Cist
ShaA tomb
Measurcments:
Lnigth
Wldtb
DFTSTTF'MM*
Depth of the FM** 0.78 m

1s.: in*
D-1: Disturbed in the same period.
D-2: Disnirbad in modem times.

Depth eorn the surfice to the berary ma& mouth.

**Funcr€Uymatrix.
 TABLE 46
MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Burial nurnber: LXXV XCV XCIX-C CXMI C m

Spatial provenience:
Sector D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5
Excavation Unit 6 6 6 6 6
Sub-units 571-572 494-473 470445 420-395 471-446

-
-
471-446
. -
421-396
Burial stratification
Inclusive layer VI VI VI
Recedent layer w-v- * w-v* IV-v*+
intrusive lay& VI VI
Context: D-1 Dl

Pit J J

Cist -
Shaft tomb -
Grave s
m
Rounded
Oval J J

Square
Rectanguiar - -
Trianguiar
Bwt -
e m u t h cover
.) 3

Grave orjemation
Pit E/W WSW SEW
Cist -
Shaft tomb - -
Measunments
kgth 0.90 m ? 1.50 rn
Wtdth 0.35 m ? 1.50 m
D F T S W * 2.30 m 2.40 m
Depth of the FM** ? 1.00 m

I.S.: in situ
D-1: DisturM in the same pcriod.
D-2: Disturbed in modem tirnes.
* Depth fiom the sdhcc to the funerary matrix mouth.
** Funerary matrix
*** TV-V: Monumentai architecture, destructionremains and washing d o m sand.
 TABLE 47

MiDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PUCTICES: GRAVES

Buria wnber: XX X M X X I I X X I I l X X N
Spatial provenience:
Sector D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5
Excavation Unit 9 9 9 9 9
Stlb-~nits 181 85-69 6061 71-72 69-70
70 76-77 55-56 85-86
Burial stratification
inciusive layer rn m III
Recederit laye II n n
uitnisivc layer IV IV rv
Context: I.S. I.S. I.S.

Pit .r
Cist
Shaft tomb

Rounded
aval J

Square
m an g
u f
ar
Trian*
Boot
3

Grave orientation
Pit NW/SE NIS NIS WISE
Cin
S M tomb -
Measumrntg
bgh 0.55 m 0.85 m 0.92111 0.95 rn
Width 0.40 m 0.80 m 0.66 m 0.50 m
DFTSTTFMM* 1.20m 1.30m 1.40m 1.42 rn
De@ of tbe FM** ? 0.80 m ? 3 0.80 rn

I.S.: in siru
D-1:D i in the same penod.
D-2: Disnirbcd in modern tïmcs.

* Dtptii corn the surface to the hefllly matrix mouth

**Funeriuy rnatrix
 TABLE 48

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Bwial number: XXV XïNIXXVnXXVmxxrX

Spatial provenience:
Sector D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5
Excavation Unit 9 9 9 9 9
Sub- nits 7-8 18-19 18-12 5-19 194178
34-35 19-3
Burial stratification
inciusive hyer III
Recedent layer n
Inmisive layer v
Contact: I.S.

Pit 9

Cist -
Shaft tomb

Rounded
Oval i,

Square
Rectangular -
Trianguiar -
Boot -
Grave-mouth covu
Saady/clay till ? ir i)
J

Grave onen-
Pit N/S N/S NW/SE N/S
Cist - - -
Shaft tomb - - -
Measuremerits
Laah 0.80 m 0.80 m 0.50 m 0.80 m
Width 0.80 m 0.40 rn 0.25 m 0.70 m
DFïSTTFMM* 1.70m 1.70m 1.72m 2.53 m

I.S.: in siru
D-1:Disturbedinthe sameperiod.
D-2: Distwbcd in modern timcs.
 TABLE 49

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Spatial provenience:
Sector D-5 0-5 D-5 D-5 D-5
Excamion Unit 9 9 9 9 9
Subunits 178-162 161-148 100 83 131

inclusive iayer III m III Ifl ru

Precadent layer II Ll U II II
Intrusive layer V IV-V IV-V IV-V N-V
Context: I.S. LS. D-2 D-2 0.2

Pit
Cist
S M tomb
Grave sham
- - -
i/ rr J i* 3
Square
-R
Trianguiar
Boot

Measumms
bSth 0.60m 0.98m ? ? ?
Wldtb 0.54 m 0.75 m ? ? ?
DFTSTTFMM* 2.52 m 2.50 rn 2.00 m ? ?
Depth of the FMS* 0.20 m 0.85 m ? ? ?

LS.: m m
Pl:DWturbed in the same p u i d
D-2: Disturbaî in modem times.
 TABLE 50

MiDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Buriai number: LXII CXVI CXXI CXXII

Spatial provenience:
Sector D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5
Excavation Unit 9 9 9 9
Sub-units 97 148-149 102-103 20-21
118-1 19 3637
Burial stratification
Inclusive layer III UI
Recedent layer II II
Intrusive layer IV-v IV-v
Contexf: D-2 D-1
GmmuE
Pit J 3

Cist
Shafl tomb -
Gmdws
Rounded
Oval J

Square
Rectangular J -
Trimguiar -
Boot -
Grave-mouth cover
+ *
Grave orientation
Pit ? W/SE
Cist -
Shaft tomb -
-mra
1 ?
? ?
2.00 m 2.62 m
-D& of the FM** ? 0.97 m ?

I.S.: insitu
D-I : Disturbed in the same p e n d .
D-2: Dishybedin modern times.

* Depth fmm the s d k e to the ficnerary matrix mouth

**Funerary mtrix.
 TABLE 5 1
MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Buria1 n u m k : XC XCI CI
Spatial provenience:
Sector D-5 D-5 D-5
Excavation Unit 9-W 9-W 9-W
Subunits 832-796 820-784 65 1-
821-785 687
Burial stratification
inclusive layer m m
Precedent layer n LI
Intrusive layer IV N
Context: I.S. I.S.

Pit J J

Cist -
Shaft tomb -
Grave shabe
RouaCieci - iI

Ova) J J

Square -
R-gular
Trian* - -
Boot -
Grave-mouth cuver
r) 4 J

Grave orimtatioq
Pit NW/SE E/W NWISE
Cist
Shaft tomb -
0.85 m
0.50 m
0.60 m
Dcpth of the FM** 0.40 m ? 0.50 rn

1s.: m m
D-1: Disturbed in the same period.
D-2: Di- in modem times.
 TABLE 52

MIDDLE PUEUAPE MORWARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Spatial provenience:
Sector D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5
Excavation Unit 9-w 9-w 9-W 9-W 9-W
Sub-unit s 649-650 854-855 749-785 723-724 856-857
684-685 890-89 1
Burial stratification
inclusive layer m rn rn m ILI
Precedent layer II II n II n
intrusive layer IV N IV IV rV
Context: I.S. I.S. 1.S. B2 I.S.

Pit
Cist
Shaft tomb
Grave shaw
- -
J 3 J d J

Gravemouth covc
Sandykiay fil J .
I J J d
Grave onentatia
Pit SIEMW SWME W/SE ? ENV
Cisî - - - -
Shaft tomb - - -
Measwtnieats
0.60 rn t .20 m 0.90 m t .20m 0.90 m
Width 0.50 m 0.80 m 0.60 rn 0.50 rn 0.80 m
DFT'STTFMM* 1-50m 1.0om 1.1om 1.50m o.aom
Depth of the FM** 0.30 m 0.30m 0.30m 0.80 m 0.25 m

LS.: insiru
D-1: Disturbed in tbe same period.
D-2: Distrifbad in modem times.

* Oepth fiom the surface to the fimerary matrix mouth.

* *Funerary matrix
 TABLE 53
MIDDLE PüEMAPE MORTUARY FRACTICES: GRAVES

Burial numbef: CMI CVm CIX CMI

Spatial pmvniience:
Sector D-5 D-5 D-5 D-5
Excavation Unit 9-W 9-W 9-W 9-W
Sub~nits 614- 89 1 - 857- 683-

inclusive layer UI III m

Precedent layer II II II
Intrusive layer IV-v IV IV-v
Context: D-2 D-2 LS.
Grave
Pit J J r)

Cist
Shaft tomb -
r)

Gtave-mouth cover
3 i, J

Fit E/W
Cist
S M tomb

1.00 rn
0.60 m
1.20 m
Depth oftbe FM** 0.35 m 0.30 m 0.4ûm 0.30 m

Depth h m the w f k e to the fiinerary matrix mouth.

**Funeraxy matrix.
 TABLE 54

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORWARY PRACTICES: GRAVES

Buriai Number: LxxVm rxxIx LXXX CXX

Spatial provenience:
Smor D-5 D-5 D-5 0-5
Excavation Unit IO 10 1O 10
Sub-units
Burial stratification
IncIusive layez IV rv
Redent iayer m IU
Intnisive iayer N IV
Coritex!: D-1 D-1
GmmYIE
Pit J

Cist rr -
Sh& tomb
Grave shme
Roundcd L

Oval - i)

Square -
Rectangular ir

Triangular -
Boot
Grave-niout h cover
i) 3

Grave orientation
Pit - EN
CY* N/S O

Shaft tomb
B!kwEmm
0.80 m 0.80 m
0.50m 0.40m
2.40 in 2.40
Dcpth of the FM** ? ?

I.S.: insita
D-1:Disturbed m the same period.
D-2: Disnirbed in moderu timcs.
 TABLE 55

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORWARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS S E Q m C E

Bundled animaldObjectsfound over a third extenial reed mat cover

Context : I.S.
First C a t w
Dog funerary bundle 1
Cuy fùnerary bundle 1
Second Cateaory
Modifiecl gourds 1
Total: 3

XM*
It w s found ody this bwial-case regarding the disposition of bunded mimals and
objects over a third extenial reed mat cover.
 TABLE 56

MlDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second cxtemai reed rnat cover

Coatext: I.S. e2
F hC a t w
Rocks
Rock with hematite
Second Cataory
Modifiai gourds
Thid Cate~orv
Fish remains
Mussel valves
Mussel v. with hematite
Plant remains
Fourth C a t e w
Stimpspour bottle
Bottle
Jar
Neckiess pot
Pot
Bowls
Clay disk
Total: 1

LeCrend:
LS.: insitu
D-1: Disturbed in the same penod.
D-2: Disturûed in modern times.
 TABLE 57

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORNARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second external reed mat cover

Buriai Number: L W XCV XCtX-C CXVlI CXVm

Rocks
Rock with hematite

Modified gourds

Fish remains
Mussei valves
Mussel v. with hematitc
Plm rcmains

Stirn~p-spoutbottle
Bottle
Jar
Neckless pot
Pot
Bowls
Clay disk

u:
I.S.: insitu
D-i :Diau- in the same period.
D-2 : Disturbad in modern times.
 TABLE 58

MIDDLE PüEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second extenial reed mat cover

Buriai N u m k X X X X I X M I X X m x x n ï
Conta: 1.S. I.S. I.S. I.S. D-1
Rocks
Rock with hematite
Second Cataory
M&ed gourds 1 2

Fish remaias
Mussel valves
Mussei v. with hcmatite
Plant remains

Sthp-spout bottle
Bonle
Jar
Neckiess pot
Pot
Bowls
Clay di&
Total: 5 3 3 9 1

w:
I.S.: in siîu
D-1:Disturûed in the same period.
D-2: Disturbed in modem times.
 TABLE 59

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objeas found over or around the second extemal reed mat cover

Context: D-2 I.S. I.S. D-1 I.S.

First Cateoory
Rocks - - - 2
Rock with hcmatite 1 -
Second Ca-
Modifiecl gourds - 2 2

Musscl vah.cs - -
-
O

Musse1 v. with hematite - - -

Plant remaios œ O -
Fourth Catepory
Stimipspout bonle - - œ -
Bottle 1 - -
- - -
œ

Jar 1
Neckitss pot - - - - 1
Pot - - -
Bowls - -
Clay disk - -
Total : - 4 3 4

La?&:
1 3 : insiru
D-1: Disturbed in the same period.
D-2: Disnirbed in modern tirncs.
 TABLE 60

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTXCES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second extemai reed mat cover

Burial Number: XXX LVIII LIX LX L X

Context: I.S. I.S. D-2 D-2 D-2

Rocks
Rock with hematite
Second Cateog~y
Modifiai gourds 2

Fish remains
Mussel valves
M d v, with hematite
Ptant remains

S h p - s p o u t boîtie
Botde
Jar
Neckless pot
Pot
Bowts
Clay disk
Total:

Lenend:
1,s.: insitu
D-i : Disturbed in the same period.
D-2: Disnirbed in modern Mics.
 TABLE 61

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objecrs fond over or around the second extenial r d mat cover

Context: D-2 D-1 D-2 D-2

First Cateaory
Rocks - -
Rock with hematite - - -
Second Cateeory
Modified gourds - O

Third Cateporv
Fish remains* - -
Mu& valves
J
- -
- -
O

Mussel v. with hematite -

Plant rcmains* - - -
Fourth C a t w
Stirnipspout bottie - 1 1
Bonle - -
Jar
NeckIess pot
Pot
Bowis
Clay disk
oca!im

Lepend:
1.S.: insi&
D-1: Distiirbed in the same period..
D-2: Disturbcd in modem times.
Fish * and plant rcmains ** to be ideniified
 TABLE 62

MIDDLE PüEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second e x t d reed mat cover

Conta: I.S. I.S. I.S.

F i a Car-
Rocks -
Rock with hernatite
Sccond C a t w
Modified gourds
Third Cam=
Fish remains* -
Musse1 valves
Mussel v. with hematite -
Plant remains**
Fourth Cate~ory
Stirrup-spout bottie -
Bonle
Jar -
Neckless pot
Pot
Bowls
Clay disk -
Total: - 1 7

klsd:
[S.: in situ
D-1:Disturbed in the same period.
D-2:Disturbed in modem times.
Fih and plant runains * O to be identiflad.
 TABLE 63

MIDDLE PüEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second extemai r d mat cover

Context: I.S. 1.S. I.S. D-2 I.S.

First Cateaory
-
Rocks
Rock with hematite -
Modified gourds 1

Fish remains*
Mussel valves
Mussel v. with hematite
Plam remains**
Founh C a t m o ~
Stimrp-spout bottle -
Bonle -
Neckless pot
Pot
Bowts
Clay disk
Total: 1 1

L d :
I.S.: in siru
D-1 : Dishubed in the same period.
P Z : D i s t u M in modern times.
Fish and plant remains ** to be identified.
 TABLE 64

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRGVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second external reed mat cover

Burial Number: CVU C V m CIX CXa

C~mtext: D-2 D-2 I.S. D-2
Fust Cateaory
-
. -

Rocks
Rock with hernatite -
Second Catepory
Modifiecl gourds -
Third Cateizory
Fish ternains -
Mussel valves -
Mussel v. with hematite -
Piant remains -
Fourth Cateaory
Stimp-spout bonle
Bottle
Jar -
NecNess pot 1
Pot
Bowls
Clay disk
Totai: 1

w:
I.S.: in siru
D-1: Disturùed in the same period.
D-2:Dishirbed in modern tirnes.
 TABLE 65

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTXCES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found over or around the second extenial reed mat cover

Burial Number: LXXVm WOCIX LXXX CXX

Context: Pl D-1 D-1 BI
First Caten~s!
Rocks
Rock with hel~tatite
Second C a t w
Moâified gourds

Fish remains
Mussel valves
Musset v. with hernatite
Plant remlins

Stimip-spout bonle
Bottte
Jar
Neckless pot
Pot
Bowls
Clay disk

u:
1,s.: insiru
D-1: D h r b e d in the same period.
D-2: DimrW in modern times.
 TABLE 66

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:

GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects found in h e e n the second exteruai reed mat and

the primary conon textile covers

Burial Nwnbet: Xxar, Xxvr LVnr

Context : I.S. I.S. I.S.
F i Catepory
Rush basket - 1
Second Catenggy
Gourds 2
%rd Cate~ory
Ovoid ch& stone 1
Fourth C a t w
Amhracite minor 1
Fah Catemw
Epidote pendants 2

!=!wzd:
1.5: inn'hr
D-1: Disturhd in the samc period.
D-2: Distwkd in modern times.
 TABLE 67
MIDDLE PEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:
GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the cadaver fouad

within the cotton textile primary cover

Burid Number: 1 1 l
First Caîeassy
Lapis laaili beads
Epidote beads
Opai beads
Sepiolita beads
Sepiolita pendant
Stone beads to be identifieci
Sp0nciyIu.s sheii beads
Sea snail beads
Skll beads to be idemificd
Mother of pearl beads
Mother of pearl pendants
Mussei ornaments
Bird bow bead
Bone beads to be identifiecl
Second C a t e w
Sepiolite spindle whods
Bundle with spine cactus
Bone n d e
Conon skcins
Pointed bow implernents
ïhird Cat-ON
Mussel valves
Musse1 v. with hematite
Bundle with coca ieaves
chdi pcpper
Sticks
hmumm!
Bowls
F i C-qUu
Q u a r t z ~ ~ ~ t
Talcum
Total: 5

b e n d : C: beads btlonging to a c o h , N: beads belonging to a necklace; B: beads belonging to a

bdet
 TABLE 68

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the cadaver found

within the cotton textile primary cover

Burial Number: L W XCV XCK-C CXVLI CXVm

Lapis Laarli beads

Epidota beads
Opal beads
. Sepiohta beads
Sepiolita pendant
Stone beads to bc idcntined
Spom@Ius sheii beads
Sea wiail beads
Sheii beads to be identifieci
Mother of peart bcads
Mother of pearl pendants
Mussel omantmts
Bird bone bead
Bone W s to be iden?Sed

Sepioiite spindie whods

Bwidle with spine cactus
Bone ncede
Conon skeins
Pointed bcme implcmcnts

Musscl vaives
Mussel v. with h&e
Bunde with coca leavcs
Chilipepper
Sticks

Total: - 6
LssmL
C: beads bclongiog to a U&K. 6'Mu& vaives aver an extended textile.
N: W s belonging to a necklace. Both cadavcfs w a e unwrapped.
B: beads belonging to a bracelet.
 TABLE 69
MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES:GRAVEGOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the cadaver found

within thc Cotton t d e prirmy cover

Burial Number: XXXMXXlIXXUlxxn/

Fust Category
Lapis l a d i beads - -
~ s d o t beaâs
e
Opal beads

Stone beads to be identifieci

-lus sheU beads
Sea snail beads
SheU beads to be identifid
Mother of pari beads

Bird bone bead

Bone beads to be idemificd

&me n d e 1

Bundk with coca kaves - -

Chili peppcr
Sticks

Bowls

Total: 10 6 1 21 -
Ltacnd,
C: beads belongiagto a collar. H. Headdress
N: beads belonging to a necklace.
B: beads belooging to a bracelet.
 TABLE 70

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACTICES: GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the &ver found

withiri the conon texale primary cover

Lapis lanili beads

Epidote beads
OpaI w s
Sepioh beads
Sepiob pendant
Stone beads to be identified
SpndyIus shd beads
Sea snail beads* -
SheU beads to be identificd -
Mother of pearI beads
M o h of pearl pendants -
Mussel oniaments -
Bird h e bead
Bone beads to be i d d e d
s=Nmmmi
-
Sepiolite spindle whorls
Bundle with spine cactus
Bone needle -
Cotton skeins
Third Cat-
Mussel vaives
Mussel v. with hcmatite
Bundle with coca leavcs
Chili pepper
Sticks
Fourth Ç & g w ~
-
Fifth Ga-
Quartzrock fhpmt -
Talcum -

Sea snail beeds (Polinices ubar)

 TABLE 71

MIDDE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRAC'IICES:GRAVEGOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the cadavn found

w i t h the Cotton textile primary cover

Lapis l a d i beads
Epidote beads
Opd beads
Sepioiita beads
Sepiolita pendant
Stone k d s to be identifid
S ' I u s shell beads
Sea snaii beadss
S h d beads to be identifiai
M o k of pearl beads
Mohcr of peari pendants
Mussej ornamans
Bird bone bead
Bone beads to be identified

Sepiolite spinde whorls

Bundle witb spine cactus
Bone nedie
Cotton skeins

Mussti vaives
Mussel v. with hcrnatite
Bundle witb coca leaws
Chili peppcr
Sticks

Total : 6 11 -
a:
C: bcads tdonging to a collar. Sea mail beads (Polinicesuber )
N: beads belmghg to aneckkïcc. B: beads bdongitig to a bracciet.
 TABLE 72

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACT1CES:GRAVEGOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the &ver found

witbin the cotton textile primary cover

Lapis lazuli beads

Epidote beads
Opd beads
Sepiotita beads
Sepiolita pendant
Stone beads to be i d e e d
Spondylus sheU b d s
Sea mail beads*
Shcll beads to be identitled
Mother ofpeari beads
Motfier of peart pendants
Mussel ot118mmts
B i d bone bead
Bone beads to be identilicd

Sepiolite spindle whorls

Bundle witb spine cactus
Bone neede
Cotton skeins

Mussel valves
Mussel v. whh hematite
Bundlc w h h coca leaves
Chili pepper
Sticks

!eG#nd:
C : beads belon& to a coilar.
N: beads belonging to a mcklace.
B: beads belon& to a brada.
 TABLE 73

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY PRACT1CES:GRAVEGOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the cadaver found

within the cotton textile primary cover

First C ~ ç s m !
Lapis lazuii beads
Epidote beads
Opal beads
Sepioiita beads
Sepiolita pendant
Stone berrds to be idemifid
Spondylus shd beads
Sea snail beads*

-
Shell beads to be i d d e d
Mottier of pear1 beads
Mother of pead pendants
Musse1 oniamcms
Bird bone bcad
Bone W s to be identifid

Sepiolite spindle whorls

Bunde with spine cactus
Bone needle
Cotton s k h

Mussel valves

Bundle with coca leatves

Sticks
Foutth Catqgq~l
Bowls
FihC a t a
Quartzrock fragment
Talcum
 TABLE 74

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTU.MY PRACTICES: GRAVE GOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the cadaver found

w i t b the Cotton textile prirnary cover

Lapis lazuli beads

Epidote beads
Opd beads
Sepioiita beads
Sepiolita pendant
Stone beads to ûe i d d e d
~ beads
S p o d y l t ~sheû
suisnailbeads*
Sheii beads to be identiIied
Mother of pear1 b e d s
Mother of pead pendants
Mussei ornaments
Bùd bone bead
Boat beads to be identifid -
Second Categ~ly
Sepiohte spinàle whorls
Bundle with spine cactus
Bont n d e
Cotton skeins

Mwsel valves
Mussel v. with hematite
Bunde with coca leaves
Sticks

Total: 1

Lencnld:
C: bcads beionging to a collar.
N: ka& belonging to a aecklace.
B : begds belonging to a bracelet.
 TABLE 75

MIDDLE P U E MORTUARY PRACT1CES:GRAVEGOODS SEQUENCE

Objects in contact with the &ver found

within the conon textile prirnary cover

Lapis lazuli beaàs

Epidote beads -
Opal beads -
Sepiolira bcads
Sepiohta pendant -
Stone bea& to be idetlafieci -
S&hs shcii beads
Sea mail beads*
S M beads to be identifid
Mother of peari beads
Mother of pearl pendants -
Mussel oniamcnts
Bird bom bead -
Bone beads to be identifid -
Second C q
Sepiolite spindie whorls
B&& Mth spine clctus
Boue nede
Cotton skeins

Mussel valves
Mussel v. with bematite
Black sea-urchin
Little bunâie with coca laves
Chili pepper
Sticks
Fourth m t ~ o r y
Bowis
rJiuaaw
Quartz rock firagment
Talçum
Total: J
Lepend:
C: bcads belonging to a coilar. 8: beads beionging to a braceiet.
N: beads bcionging to a neckiace.
 TABLE 76

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENîS:

SEX AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Numbcr: 1 II
Sex F U
Age YA U
Cadaver wsihon: Reidonshi~between thorax
and lower limb~
Extended
Semi-fiexed -
Flexed iI
Dimsition of the umer limbs: R: Ri& L: Left. B:
Both a.and L.mb~r limbs)
Over the face
Under the cheek
ûver the chest
To the sides
Over the abdomen
Over the peivis
Under the pelvis
Between the legs
Flexed
Crossed
Fmgen clenched
Figcn extendeci
Bo& dis~osition
Cubitdorsal - -
Cubit-ventral - -
Ri@-lâteral
Left-lamal 3 -

SEX AGE

N Neonate
M:Malt 1 Mmt (< 1 yoa)
F: F d e C Child (< 12 yoa)
(sain M e t s is equivocai) A Adolescent (< 1%yoa)
YA Youns Aduh (20 to 35 yoa)
M A Middle Addt (35 to 50 yoa)
OA OM Aduh ( M O yoa)
U:Unknown (s)
 TABLE 77

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TWATMENTS:

SEY AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Number: LMCV XCV XCIX C CXMl C M

Sex F F U F MUS Us
Age MA YA C YA OAC.2A 3A
Cadaver ~osition:Relatioashi~W e e n thorax and !ow« h b ~
Extended J - -
Semi-flexed - 4

Flcxed - - -
Dimosition of the upwr limbs: R:RiPbt. L:M. 0 : Bath (R and L.upm

Over the face

Under the cheek
Over the chest
To the sides
ûver the abdomen
Over tfie pelvis
Under the pelvis
Between the legs
Flexed
Crossed
Fin- clencheci
Fingers mended

&End:
SEX AGE

N Neonate
M: Maie 1 Inhnt (< 1 yoa)
F:Fcmale C Child (< 12 yoa)
f sac in M e t s is quivocal) A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Ad& (20 to 3 5 yoa)
M A Middle Aduh (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult (>50 yoa)
 TABLE 78

MIDDLE PüEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Nwnber: X X X X I X X U ~ X M V
Sex U F U U U
Aue I YA C I U
Çadaver -position:Rebtionshi~between thorax and lower iimbs
Extended d
Semi-flexed rc -
Flexed - J

Dis~ositionofthe umer limbs: R:Riaht. L:LefL B:&th IR. and

ûver the fice

Under the ch&
Over the chest
To the sides
Over the abdomen
Over the pelvis
Undcr the pelvis
Between the legs
EIexed
Crossed
Fmgers dericheci
Figers exîended

Seated

Lsmd:
SEX AGE

N Neonate
1 Infânt (< l yoa)
C Child (< 12 yoa)
A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Adult (20 to 35 yoa)
M A Middle Adult (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult p50 y-)
 TABLE 79

MIDDLE PüEMAPE MORTüARY TREATMENTS:

Sm AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Numkr: M N X X V I ~ X X V m x x n C
Sex F U U U U
OA C N C I
.,
Cadaver Dosmon: Reiationshi~between thorax and lower limb~
Exîended J rr J v
Semi-flexed - -
Fiexed - -
Disposition ofthe u m e r limbs: R: iünht. L:Le& B:Botb (R.and L.u ~ mlimbs)
r
Cher the face
Under the cbeck
Over the chest
To the sides
ûver the aixiomcn
ûver the @vis
Under the petvis
Between the legs
Flexed
Crossed
Fingcrs clenched
Fingers extended B B
Bodv dimsition
Cubitdorsai d rl

Cubit-ventral
Right-lateral
Ldt-latelal

Leoaid:
SEX AGE

N Neonate
M: Male 1 Mant (< 1 yoa)
F:F d e C Child (< 12 yoa)
(sut m brackets is equivocal) A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Yomg Adult (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Middie Mdt (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult (>SO yoa)
U:Unknown (s)
 TABLE 80

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Sex U F U F Lr

Cadaver ~osition:Relationshiu between thorax and lower limb

Extended r/ -
Semi-flexd -
FTexed - J -
Dis~ositionof the u ~ w hr b s : R: Ridt. L:Le& B:Both R and L,
aper liibs)
Over the fice - -
Under the cheek -
Over the c b -
To the sides B R -
ûver the abdomen
Over the pelvis
Unâer the pelvis
Between the legs - -
Flexed - L -
Crossed -
Fingers ciencheû - -
Fingers extended B
Body disposition
Cubitdorsai r, r) -
Cubit-ventral - - -
Ri&-lateral - J -
Lefl-f ared
Scated -

SEX AGE

N Nconate
M:Male I Mint (< l yoa)
F: Female C Child (< 12 yoa)
sex in brackcts is quivocal) A Adolescem (< 1%yoa)
YA Young Aâuit (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Middle Adult (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult (>50 yoa)
u:U ~ o w (s)
n
 TABLE 8 1

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Age Us C Us U
Çadaver ~osition:Relationshi~beween thorax and lower Iimb~
Extendai - -
Semi- flexed - -
Flexed -
Dismsition of the umer limbs: R: Riaht. L:Left. B:Both IR. and L.

Owr the face

Over the right knee
Cher the CM
To the sides
Over the abdomen
Over the pelvis
Under the pelvis
Between the legs
Fiextd
Crossed
Fingcrs clenched
Fingcrs extemded

AGE
N Neonate
1 Mint (< 1 yoa)
C Child ( C 12 yoa)
A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Achh (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Middle Aduit (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Muit (>SO yoa)
U:Unknown (s)
 TABLE 82

h4iDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AG€, GND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Number: XC XCI CI

Sex U Cr U
Age C C 1
Çâdaver msition: Relationshiv b e t w m thorax and lower lirnbs
Extendeci - J
Serni-tiexed - J

Fiexed J
Disbosition of the umer lirnbs: R: Rinht. L: LcR B: Both

Over the fàce

ûvertiierightknee
Over the chest
To the sides
Over the abdomen
Cher the pelvis
Under the peivis
Between the legs
Flexed
Crossed
Fimgers clenched
Fiers extendcd

SEX AGE

N Neonate
M:Male 1 Infant (< 1 yoa)
F:Femaie C CMd (C 12 yoa)
(sex in brackets is equivacai) A Adolescent (< 1%yoa)
YA Young Adult (20 to 35 yoa)
MA Middle Ad& (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Oh3 Aduh (>50 yoa)

U:Unhowu (s)
 TABLE 83

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTüARY TREATMENTS:

SEX,AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Number: CU criu CIV cv CVI

Sex U U U U M
Agc
.. N A MA C U
Cadaver msioon: Relationshir, between thorax and foww Iimbs
Extended - - -
Semi-flexed i/ -
Flexed i~ rf .
I

m s i t i o n of the u wr limbs: R:Ri&. L:Le& B: Both p.and L.

bd
Over the fie B
Over the right lcnee - O

-
L
-
Overthechest
To the sida - O

Over the abdomen - O

Over the pelvis - R -

Undcr the pelvis - - -
Between the legs - -
Rad B B R B
Crossad B -
Fingers clmched -
Figvs extmded B B B
Bodv disoosition
Cubitdorsal - - - -
Cubit-ventral O - O -
Right-lateral J J 3

Left-iatd - - r,

SEX AGE

N Neonate
1 Irlfànt (< 1 yoa)
C Child (< 12 yoa)
A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Mult (20 t o 35 y-)
MA Middle Ad& (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Adult p50 yoa)

U:Unknom (s)
 TABLE 84

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

SEX, AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Number: CVn CVIII CrX Cxll

Sex M U F U
Age U MA MA C
Cadaver msition: Relationship between thorax and lower limbs

ûvcr the fice

Under the cheek
Over the c k t
To the sides
ûver the abdomen
ûvcr the pelvis
Under the pelvis
Betwea the legs
Flexed
Crossed
Fingers clencheci
Fingm extended

Cubitdorsal
Cubit-ventral
Ri&-lateral
m-lateral

SWC AGE
N Neorne
M:Maie 1 Infant (<lyoa)
F:F d e C Chiid (c 12 yoa)
(scx in ùrackcts is quivocal) A Adolescent (< 18 y-)
YA Young Aduit (20 to 35 yoa)
M A Middle Ad& (35 to 50 yoa)
OA Old Muh ( M O yoa)
u:Vnknown (s)
 TABLE 85
MIDDLE PLTEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:
SEX AGE, AND DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

Burial Nurnber: LXXMZI LXXIX LXXX CXX

Sex U *

AGE

N Neonate
M:Mate 1 Infan! (< 1 yoa)
F:Fernale C Child (< 12 yoa)
(sen in brackas is equivocai) A Adolescent (< 18 yoa)
YA Young Ad& (20 to 35 yoa)
M A Middle Mdt (35 to 50 yoa)
OA OId Aduit (>JO yoa)

u:unc
lnown (s)
 TABLE 86

MIDDLE P W E MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORlENTAnON AM) CULTURGL. MODIFICATIONS

Number: i Il
FTB (GBTVC) E/W
ROTH (GBTFO) S N
Facing up
Facing d o m
Cultural mdfication~
Decapitation
Amputation
Textire in the mouth -
Bmed
Painting (hmatite): -
Head -
Face
Neck -
Thorax -
Upper limbs
Pelvis -
Lower limbs -

FTB (GBTVC):From the body (given by the vertebral colurnn)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation ofthe head (given by the fàce orieniation)
 TABLE 87

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AND CULTURAL MODIFICATIONS

Burial Number: LXXV XCV XCE C CXMI CXVIU

F'TB (GBTVC) S N SE - -
ROTH (GBTFO) NE -
Facing up - - - -
Facing down -
Cultural modifications
Decapitation -
Amputation - 3 J

Textiie in the mouth - -

Burned - -
Paiming (hematite): -
Head - -
Face -
Neck - - - -
Thorax - - -
Upper Limbs - - -
Pelvis - - - -
Lower h b s - - - -

FTB (GBTVC): From the body (given by the vertebral column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (Biven by the hce orientation)
 TABLE 88

MIDDLE PüEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AND CULTURAL MODIFICATIONS

Burial Number: XXXXIxXnXXmxxn/

FTB (GBTVC) SE N/W S SIE -
ROTH (GBTFO)
Facing up
Facing
- down

Decapitation
Amputation
Textile in the mouth
Bunied
Painting (hematite):
Head
F&ce
Neck
Thorax
Upper h b s
Pelvis
Lower h b s

FTB (GBTVC):From the body (given by the vertebral column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head @va by the f k e orientation)
 TABLE 89

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORiENïATION AND CULTURAL MODIFICATIONS

Burial Nwnber: M N X X M X X V I l x x V m x x I X
FTB (GBTVC) S NE S
ROTH (GBTFO) - -
Facing up i* ii i)

Fachg down
Çultural modificatiom
Decapitation -
Amputation
Textile in the mouth ir
Bumecl ir
Painting (hematite): -
Head ir

Neck
Thorax
Upper limbs - -
Pelvis - - -
Lower limbs

FTB (GBWC): From the body (given by the vertebral column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (given by the face orientation)
 TABLE 90

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AND CULTURAL MODlF'TCATiONS

Buriai Number: XXX LVllI LIX LX LXI

FTB (GBTVC) SIE N N W
ROTH (GBTFO)
Facing up
Facing down

Decapitation
Amputation
Textile in the mouth
Bmed
Painting (hematite):
Head
Face
Nec&
Thorax
Uppcr iimbs
Pelvis

FTB (GBTVC):From the body (Qiven by the v m & d column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (given by the face orientation)
 TABLE 91

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIEHTATION AM) CULTURAL MODrnCATIONS

Burial Number: LXlI CXVl CXXI CXXU

FTB (GBTVC) - -
ROTH (GBTFO) -
~acingdown
Cuitwal modificatiotq
Decapitation -
Amputation -
Texrile in the mouth -
Painhng (hematite): -
Head - -
Face
Neck -
Thom -
Upper lllnbs - -
Pelvis -
Lower iimbs - - -

FI73 (GBTVC): From the body (siven by the vertebrai column)

ROTH (GBTFO):Rotation of the head (8iven by the face orientation)
 TABLE 92

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AM) CULTURAL MODiFICATIONS

Burial Number: XC XCI CI

FTB (GBTVC) N/W E N/W
ROTH (GBTFO) - -
Facing up J
Facing d o m - J
Cultural modifications
Decapitation
Amputation
Textile in the mouth
Bwned -
Painting (hernatite):
Head -
Face -
Neck
Thorax -
Upper limbs
Pelvis
Lower h b s RF.

FTE3 (GBTVC): From the body (givm by the vertebral colwnn)

ROTH (GBTFO):Rotation of the head (Qiven by the fàce orientation)
RF.: Right foot
 TABLE 93

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATiON AND CULTURAL MODiFICAïiONS

Burial Nurnber: CU cm C~V cv CVI

FTB (GBTVC) NN S N N/W - E
ROTH (GBTFO)
Facing up
Facing d o m

Decapitation - J -
Amputation -
Textile in the mouth - - -
Bmed - -
Painting (hernatite): - - -
Head i~ -
Face -
Neck - - -
Thorax
Upper lhbs - -
Pelvis - -
Lower limbs - -

FTB (GBTVC):From the body (given by the vertetml column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the bead (given by the fisce orientation)
 TABLE 94

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENTS:

ORIENTATION AND CUL'ITURAL MODlFICATIONS

RO* (GBTFO) - NE -
Facing up -
Facing d o m -
Cultural modifications
Decapitation -
Amputation - -
Textile in the mouth
Bumed -
Painting (hematite):
Head - -
Face - -
Neck -
Thorax
Upper ümbs - - -
Pelvis - *

Lower limbs - -

FTB (GBTVC):Frorn the body (Qlven by the vertebral coturnn)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (given by the &ce orientation)
 TABLE 95

MIDDLE PUEMAPE MORTUARY TREATMENïS:

ORIENTATION AM) CULTURAL MODEiCATiONS

Burial Number: LxXVm LXMX LXXX CXX

FT3 (GBTVC)
ROTH (GBTFO)
Facing up
Facing down

Decapitation
Amputation
Textile in the mouth
Bmed
Painting (hematite) :
Head
Face
Neck
Thorax
Upper h b s
Pelvis
Lower limbs

FTB (GBTVC): From the body (gven by the vertebral column)

ROTH (GBTFO): Rotation of the head (given by the hce orientation)
 APPENDIX 5

TABLES OF F L O W AND FAUNA ANALYSIS

 TABLE 97

CIassiflcation of t he mai= specimens from Puémape

Numbet of the Sample Characteristics and Classification

03 Two cobs. Derived fiom Proto-Confite Chavinense (PCC).
Evolutioned Proto-ConfiteChavinense
PCC denved with 10 lines
Unclassified t iny cob fragments
Hybrid of Proto-Kcufli (PKP)by PCM (Proto-Confite Morocho)
Hybrid of PCC by PK.PCM, PK
PCM (Cupisnique disturbed context)
Hybrid PCC
Carbonid, PCC
Hybrid of PCM by PCC, 1 I grains per line
Hybrid of PCC,14 lines, deriveô to Alazan race
145 PCC, 14 lines hybrid; PCM; typical PCC
 TABLE 98

List of cultivated and wild plants identified in layer I V

of the Excavation Unit 9 beloiiging to the Early Puémape domestic settin~s

Family and Speçies Native cornmon Spaiiish coinmon name English cominon nanie
name (s) (Muchik,
Quechua, ot hers)
Family: LAURACEAE
Perseu a r r w r i c a ~ ~ "Palta" "Palta" Avocado
Faniily: GRAMINEAt!
Zea mcrys ? "Maiz8' Corn
Faniily: CUCURBITACEAE
I~lgetrnriasp. ? "Mate" Gourd
Faniily: JUNCACEASEAE
Cyyems sy. ? Junco Rush
Faniily: CAPPARlDACEAE
Capparis macroyhyIa "Zapole" "Zapote" Zapote
Faniily:
UlvaJawiata ? "AIga marina" Seaweed
 TABLE 99

List of cultivated and wild plants identified in layer V

o f the Excavation Unit 9 belonging to the Early Puémape domestic setting

Family and Species Native coniinon Spanisli common name Englisli conimon iiame
name(s) (Muchik,
Quechua, others)
Faniily; SOLAN ACE AE
C'q)sicrrnr .y. "4" "M" Chili pepper
C i q ~ s i c ~ chirterrut!
rn "Aji" "Aji mocheriio" Chili pepper
Family: CAPPARIDACEAE
C q ~ p r iotwlifoiia
s "Cimulo", "Bichayo" "Guayabiio de gentil" ?
Faniily: LEGUMlNOSAE
I'rowpis sp. "Ong" "Algarrobo" Mesquite

A m i a sp. "Faik", "Huarango" "Faique", "Espino" Acacia

Fanuly: CUCURBlTACEAE
l~lgemwiasp. ? "Mate*' Gourd
Faniily: MALVACEAE
Gcwyyirrm barbaJerw ? "Algodon" Cotton
Family: TIFACEAE
Schue~~)pfectrt.r
cal~ortricrrs "Tup" "Totora", "Ana", "Enea" Reed
 TABLE 100

Chemicai composition of marine organisms (adapted from: La Composition de los

Alimentos Peruanos, Ministry of Health, 1975)

Sea food composition: Minerals (me)** Vitamius (in@** +

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 12 13 !4 15
SPECIES: Mollusks
Choroinytilus chorus - - 2.4 202 206 0.2
Mesodesrna donacium - - 1.6 93 180 4.0
Donax obesufus - - 2.2 50 221 1.3
Fissurella sp. - - 2.1 102 31 1.2
Crepipatella dilatata - - 2.4 302 99 1.3
Thais chocolats - - 1.8 158 106 2.0
Coiicholepas - - 1.7 85 130 1.5
concholepas
Crustaceous
Platyxanthus orbinyi - - 2.4 53 192 1.4
-Fish
Mustefus sp. - 1.4 21 229 0.7
Cheilodrrctylus sp. - - 1.3 80 193 1.0
Sciacena deliciosa - - 1.4 57 178 1.9
Anisot remus sp. - - 1.5 22 209 1.3
Trachinotus sp. 106 76.0 19.2 2.7 - - 1.3 126 132 0.3 - 0.14 0.17 3.60 6.6

kgend:
1 . Calories* 4.Fibber* 1 1. Carotene**
2. Water* 7. Ash** 12. Tiamine4*
3.Protein* 8. Calciumw 13. Riboflavin*"
4. Entracteteresl* 9. Phosphorus** 14. Niacin***
5. Carbon* 10. Iran*' 1 5. Ascorbic acid* **
 TABLE 101

Excavation Unit 9: Early Puémape Phase

NMI and percentage of molîusks

Mollusks Layer III Layer N Layer V

MM and percentage MNI Yii MM 940 MM O
/.

Arppwen~ ( ~ w a r t u s
Burga veniricosa
CaIyptrueca trochifonnis
C(u1ceIfmacdecllssc~la
CmelZm'rr urceolara
Cerihicleu mafclthicu
Cerithium stercumuC4nrrn
Chiton grtanosus
Choromytilus c h o w
C o m h o i e p concholepar
Crepi$atel& dihma
Donax obemlus
Enopfochitonniger
Eurhomarea nrfa
F i ~ r e e l l acmssr~
Filffurelh latimCp8jnam
Fisurella limhm
Fissurella q.
Mesordma &mcium
Miira orien~alis
NaSrmus dentifer
OIivapenrM'm
Olivelh coiume~lan's
On'gonm!oma b u l h m
Penmytiufus purpurutus
Petncola tugosu
Polinices intemeram
Polinices uber
Pnmgpmer niger
Protothocc3 h c a
Scurria pasàticu
 Continuation...TABLE 101

Moliusks Layer iIi Layer IV Law v

MNI and percentage MNI % MNI VI MNI A
.
Semele cormgam 1 0.087 1 0.023 1 0.034
 TABLE 102

Names and matigraphic h i u t i o n of crustaceans found per epochs at Puémape

Phyhm: ARTHROrnD
Cl=: Crustaceans
SPECIES: Native name Spanish aame En&h name
Chthamaiuscirratus ? ? '
? %CO de loro" Rock baniacle
? "Carrctero" ?
Pl- orbignyi

CycloxMthops
sexdecimdentatus "Cangrejito" ?
Cancer sp. "Cangrejo" Crab
Hepanis chiliensis "Cangrejo de Crab

LP: Late Puimape

MP: Middle Puimape
EP: EadyPuémape
 TABLE 103

Nanies and strittigraphic distribution of equinoderrns fownd per epoclis ai Puéiiiape

Phylum: ECHINODERMATA
SPECIES: Native name Spanish name English name
Y ~ I ~ ~ J Wt~iger
H 7 "Erizo negro" Black sea urchin
Arbaciu .spattdigeru ? "Erizo rojo" Red sea urchin

Excavation Uniis: No.6 No. 9

Cultural affilialion: Salinar 1 LP 1 MP Salinar 1 EP
Layers: I Il Il-a III IV V VI 1 11 III IV V
Reçorded eauinoderm remains
7èlruyyp1.~
rriger J @ - - - r, J J

LP: Late Puémape

MP: Middle Puémape
EP: Early Puémape
TABLES OF CERAMlC ANALYSIS
 TABLE 109

CERAMC OF THE EARLY PUEMAPE PHASE

Excavation Unit: 9 9 9 9 9 11 9 9
Layer: N V V I V V U I V V
Kind of Context: in situ Domestic Context (a)
Disturbed Burial in the same culhird phase (b)
Type of vesse]: Neckiess oh (NO)and Bowl (B)
Specimen number. 1-a 2-a 3-a 4-a 5-a 6-b 7-a 8-a
NO NO NO NO NO NO B B
Momholotzy ofthe Lip
Conva - J r,
Ogive - -
Half ogive + rl r, J
M o m h o l o ~of~the Body
Convex - -
Conical - i~
Non identifiable J if i/ J i~

Momholo~vof the Ba*

Flat - - -
Rounded J

Non identifiable J 3 3 J if
T ~ ~ D ~ Imaterials
~ I I R usai (visual analysis)
F i e coarse grain sand r, - -
Medium coarse grain sand - i~ J J J
Thick warse grain sand - - i~
Temberinn rnaterids used (~ettolomcanalvsis of chosen sarn~ies)
Qum 80% - 64%
Pla$ociase feidspar 1O ? ! - ISO/u
Calcite
Lithic fragments
-
94 -
- -- IO?!%
100A
Mica type biotite - - - 0.5%
Opaque minaals 1% - - 0.5%
Free hand fonning
Piece building with coi1 J J J J J J
Finishinu: extemal
Evening and smoothing - i~ d J i~ .I
Polishing 3
Burnishhg
d iI d J O

-
-
O

Sfipping J r/ rl
 Continuationof TABLE 109

CERAMIC OF THE EARLY PUEMAPE PHASE

Excavation Unit: 9 9 9 9 9 11 9 9
Layer : IV V V IV V III V V
Kind of Context: in siru Domestic Context (a)
Distuhed Burial in the same cultural phase (b)
Type of vesse1: Neckless oUa (NO)and Bowl (B)
Specimen number: 1-a 2-a 3-a 4-a 5-a 6-b 7-a 8-a

Everiing and smoothing

Polishing
Bumishing
Siipping
Plastic decoration: Im~ression
Punctuate
Bosses

Shiillow incision
Broad-line incised
Brushed

Fillet with separatecl notches

Fillet with notches
Rounded buttons

ûxidized atmosphere
Reâuced atmosphere
Uneven firing
Çolor of the fi&
rl rl
Redforaage J J

-Y
Brown
 TABLE 1 10

FCMERARY CERAMICS FROM THE IN SI7UMIDDLE PUEMAPE BülUALS

Excavation Unit : 1 9 9 9
Buriais oumber: 1 XX XXI XMI
Nurnber of vessels: 1 4 Z 1
No.of Sp. and type of vessei: 5 46 47 48 50 52 57
Single-necked bottle (SNB) J -
Stirrup-spout bottle (SSB) - 4 -
Bowî (B) - 3
Morpholonv of the Lip
Convex 9 3
J J
Ogive
Haif ogive -
Straight -
Flanged 9 * -
Morpitolo~of the stimdp
J

- O

Momholonv of the bo@

Conid J -
Root - d -
Bivalve moilusk -
Convex - J

Evtrtcd oblique -

Quartz - - - O -
Plagioclase feldspiu - -
-
O O

Lithic fiagwnts - -
Calcite - - - O

Opaque minerals O O

Mica type of biotitc - - - O

ConstNCtion t d a u e s
Picœ buüding with c d J - ir i)
J

Modehg in parts and jointd d J O O -

Firrishinn:extmral swtàux
Evening and smoothing - - J
Poiishing d J J d
Buniishing O - - -
 Continuation of TABLE 1 10

Burials numùer: 1 XX XM XXII

Construction techniaues. extemal and inteniai futishing
Specimen number: 5 46 47 48 50 52 57
T ~ ofW vasel: SNB SSB B B B SSB B
Fishinn: intenid su-
Evening and smwthing
Polishing
Bumishg
Slipping
Rough

Circles with dot at the cerner

Bosses
Fine-Line incised
Broad-he inciseci
Brushed
Plain met
Ffflet with sepmted notches
Poimed procuberances

Specimal mimbw
Type of vesel:
ûxidized amiosphere
Reduccd atmospbcrt
Uneven f h g

Redorange
Gray
Brown
 TABLE 1 1 1

Excavation Unit : 9 9 9
Burials number: XMTI XXVl XMX
Number of vesseld Clay disk 4 1 2
Sp. No.and type of clay item 53 54 55 56 26 60 61
Single-necked bottle (SNB)
stiMpspout bonle (SSB)
Bowi (%)
Clay disk (CD)
Neckless oUa (NO)
Jar (JI
Convex
Ogive
Half ogive
Straight
Flanged

Convex sides (facing profile)

Concave sides (facing fiorn)
Straight sides

Concave sides
Slightly inverted sides
Everted oblique sides
hverted sides

Root
Convex
Conid

Rat
Rounded
Concave
Non iden-le
Continued...
 Continuation of TABLE I 1 1

Excavation Unit: 9 9 9
Burials number: XMII XXVI XXIX
Nwiiber of vesseld Clay disk 4 1 2
Sp. No. and type of clay item 53 54 55 56 26 60 61
Temerina materials used (visual analvsis)
- - --

Fine grain sand d J J d J

Medium grain sand - -

Thick grain sand - - -
Construction techniaues ortemai and intenial îkishinq
Type of vesscVClay disk: SSB CD B
Çonstmction techniaues used
Free hand fonning J -
Piece builcihg with coii 3

Modeling in parts and joined J

Finishina: extenial surface

Evening and smoothing -
Polishmg .r J J

Buniishing - -
Slipping -
Ptnishing: intemai surface
Evening and smoothing *

Polishing ri d

Burnishing
Siipping -
Rough i$

Plastic decaration: i r n ~ ~ o n
Punctuatc - -
Bosses - . . ..
Plastic decorahon: urcisioq
J e
- -
- -
Fiiiet with separateci notches
Fïet with notches
Rounded buttons

ûxidizcd atmosphcre
Reduced atmosphere
Uneva firing

Brown
 TABLE 112

Excavation Unit: 9 9-W

Buriais numbers: L W CI
Number of vessels: 3 3
Sp. No. and type of vesse1: 92 103 104 139 105 106
Stimp-spout bonle (SSB) d

Bowl (B)
Neckless oUa (NO) -
Jar (JI

Convex -
Ogive -
Half ogive
Straight s rr
Fianged -
Momholonv of the mut:bottles
Type of bottle: SSB NO 8 SSB
Convex sides ( M g profile) * - r/

Concave sides ( W g fiont) d - J

Straighi sides -
Momholo~vof the s t i m i ~
J - -
Momhology of the neck
Concave sdes - -
Jbfomhol~gy
of the body
Conical
Convex - v
Bivalve mohsk - -
Rectangular-convex J

Evertcd oblique - -
~fthe B w
Hat shape J #

Rounded sbape - -
Non i d d l e - -
Commucd.. .
 Continuation of TABLE 1 12

Excavation Unit: 9 9-W

Burials numbers: LVIII CI
Number of vessels: 3 3
Sp. No. and type ofvesse1: 92 103 104 139 105 106
Temerina materiais used (visual analvsis)
Fine grain sand ~r i) J J 3
Medium Qrain sand
Thick grain sand
Çonstruction techiaues. extmial and i n t d finishinq
Type of vessel: SSB NO B SSB J B
Construction techniaues us4
Picce building with coi1 ., J J J i) i~

Modeling in parts and johed J O i) - -

Evening and smoothing
Polishing
Burnishing
Slipping
Negativc painting

. .
Pfastic decormon: muresson
Circles with dot at the cent« J - - J

Bosses - O - œ

Plastic decoration: incision

Fime-line incised J - 3
-
i) .)

Broad-line incisai J - - -
Brushed - -
Plastic decoration:-a
 TABLE 113

FUNERARY CERAMlCS FROM THE PWSTORICALLY DISTURBED (D-1) MIDDLE

PUÉMAPE BURIALS

Excavation Unit: 9 9 10 1O
Burials number: ?#CiV CXVl LXXVm LXXX
Number of vessels: 1 2 1 1
Sp. No.and type of vessel: 51 91 145 102 153
Stirrupspout bottle (SSB)
Bowl (B)
Jar (0
Momholow of the Lip

Convex
Ogive
Half ogive
strai*
Flanged
Momholow of the smut: b o t t l ~
Type of bottle: SSB SSB SSB
Convex sides (fàcing profiie) 3 J -
Concave sides (Eacing fiont) 3 ii

Siightly straight sides -

Morpholonv of the stinup
Quadransular -
Slightly trapezoidal rr 3

Trapezoidal - -
Rounded -
&f~qholm ofthe neck
- -
Momholonv ofthe body
Conicai -
Convex - -
Root d J

Continued...
 Continuationof TABLE 1 13

Excavation Unit: 9 9 1O 10
Burials number: XXTV CXVI LXXVIXI LXXX
Number of vessds: 1 2 1 1
Sp. No.and type of vesse]: 51 91 145 1 O2 153
Momholoev of the Base

Rounded
Non identifiable
Tmerinn materials used (visual anahsis)
Fine grain sand J J 4 J if

M d u m grain sand - -
Wck grain sand - - -
Consmiction techniaues. extemal and intenial finishinq
Type ofvessel: SSB SSB B J SSB
Constntction techniaues used
Piece building with coi1 - rr J -
Modding in parts and joined J J - J J

- intenial surfixe
Fishim:
Evening and smoothing -
Polishing - J
Buniishing -
Slipping - - -
ROU& J J - * J

Plastic decoration: imuression

Circles with dot at the center - -
Plastic decoration: incision
- ir

Plastic decoration: a ~ ~ l i a u i
Plain fillet
Fiet with separateci notches
Rounded protuberances
 TABLE 1 14

FUNERARY CERGMICS FROM THE MIDDLE PUEMAPE BURIALS DISTURBED M

MODERN TIMES 0-2)

Excavation Unit: 2 9-W 9-W 9 9

Burials numbers: II CV CW CXM CXXlI
Number of vesseis/ocarina: 1 1 1 2 I
Sp. No.and type of vessdocarina: 7 100 107 92 88 76
Stimpspout bottie (SSB) J

Bowl(i3)
Nedctess oila (NO)
Jar (J)
Ocarina (O)
Morpholm ofthe Lip
-
J

Momholonv ofthe w u t : bottles

Type of bottie: SSB J NO SSB
Convex sides (facing profiie) @

Concave sides ( M g front) iI

Straight sides
Momholonv ofthe s t i m
J

Momhology of the ne&

Concave invertcd oblique
Conicai
Convex
Anthropomorphic J

Rtctaaguiaranvcx
Everteû oblique

Flat J

Ftounded
Non i-le
Continueci...
 Continuation of TABLE 1 14

Excavation Unit : 2 9-W 9-W 9 9

Burials numbers: II CV CVII CXXI CXMI
Number of vesseWocarina: 1 1 1 2 1
Sp. No.and type ofvesseVOcarina: 7 1O0 107 92 88 76
materials used (visual andysis)
Fine grain sand J i/ ir J

Medium grain sand -

Thick grain sand -
Constructiontechniaues. extemal and inteniai finishinq
Type of vessel: SSB J NO
Construction techniaues used
Piece building with coi1
Modehg in parts and joined

Evenjng and smoothing

Polishing
Bwnishing
Slipping
Post king painting

Evening and smoothing

Poiishing
Buniishing
Stipping
Rough
Plastic decoration: irn~ression
Circles with dot at the center
Bosses
Plastic decoration:incision
J

J - -
Plain met
Fiet with separateci notches
Roundcd protuberances
Pointed protuberances
 TABLE 2 15

UNASSOCIATED iMIDDLE PUEMAPE FUNERARY CERAMIC FMDS

Decorated and undecorated open vessels

Excavation Unit No. 9

Specimensnumber: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
T m of open vessel
Bowi (B) J J d J i) rr J J i)

Everted vesse1 (EV) - - - - - - - - - J

Momholom of the Iip
Convex J - , J , - , , - - -
Ogive - - - - - - J - - - - *
Half ogive - - - - - - - * - - - -
Morpholow of the body

Modelina techniaue used

Coiling foning: J J J r r i ) J J J J i) 3
Conhnued.. .
 Continuation of TABLE 1 1 5

UNASSOCIATED MIDDLE PUEMAPE FUNERARY CEIUMIC FINDS

Decorateù and undecorated open vessels

Excavation Unit No. 9

Bowl (B)
"Castellatedn bowl
Everted vesse1 (EV)

Evening
Pohshing
Burnishing
Slipping

Evening
Polishirlg
Bumishg
slippmg
Rough

Extemal d a c e
Internai surface
Plastic daration: incision
Fine-linc incised - J - d - - + J d # d J -
Broad-he inciseci
Rougfi incision
Brushed

Plain M e t
Fiet with notches
 Continuation of TABLE 115

UNASSOCIATED MIDDLE PUEMAPE FLTNERARY CERAMlC FTNDS

Decorated and undecorated ciose vessels and clay disk

Excavation Unit No.9

-
specimeasnumber:
- - - -- - . . --
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
T w e ofclosed vesse1 and clav disk
Neckless ola (NO)
Cylindrid vessei(CV)
Pot O=)
Jar with handle (JH)
Jar (JI
Canchero (C)
Clay disk (CD)

Convex
Ogive
Half ogive
Straight
Fianged
Non identifiable

Straight sides
Everted oblique
invertcd oblique
,Mamholonv of the bc&

Concave
Non identifiable
 Continuation of TABLE 1 15

UNASSOCIATED MIDDLE PüEMAPE RTNERARY CERAMlC FINDS

Demrated and undtcorated dose vessels and cfay disk

Excavation Unit No, 9

Specimens number: 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
l&e of closeci vesse1 and c h d i 5
NecW ess dla (NO)
Cyündricai vesd(CV)
pot 0')
Jar with hande (RI)
Jar (JI
Canchero (C)
Clay disk (CD)

Fioe-liwincised
Broad-finc incised
Rough incision
Punctuate
Bnishtd

Plain fillet
Fiet witb notchcs

Rdorange
-Y
Brown
 Continuation of TABLE 1 15

UNASSOCLATED MIDDLE PUEMAPE FUNEURY CERAMlC FINDS

Decurateci and undecorated close vessels

Excavation Unit No,9

Tme of bottie: Stimib-mut bonle
Specimeas number: 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Convex
Ogive
Convex sides (fàcingprofile)
Concave sides (ficing front)

Rounded sides
Saaight sides
Slightly sîraight sides

Eilat
Rounded
Concave
TemPerin_P merials wed (visuai anafysis t m e )
F i e grah and 3 J d J J 3 J J J
Medium grain sand - - - - - - - -
Thick grain sand - - - - - - - - -
Jb¶odctinntecbaue u d
Free hand finning _ _ _ - _- - - -
coihg forming r ) d J J J l J d d
 Continuation ofTABLE 1 15
UNASSOCIATED MIDDLE PUEMAPE FUNEMRY CERAMiC FINDS

Decorated and undecorated close vesseis

Excavation Unit No. 9

Finishina: extemai surface

Evening
Polishing
Bumishing
Siipping
Evening
Poîishiag
Burnishing
Slipping
Rou*

Fie-iine incised
Br&-line incised
Rough incision
Pwictuate
Brushed

Cane impressions

Plain fiflet
Fiiiet with notches

Hematite

RecWorange
*Y
Brown
 TABLE 116

UNASSûCiATED MIDDLE PUEMAPE FUNERARY CERAMIC F M D S

)[)ecorated and undecorated open vessels

Excavation Unit No. 10

T m of own vesscl: bowis
Specimensriumk: 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
"Castellated-rim" bowls
Simple bowis

Convex
Ogive
Haif ogive
Straight
Flanged

Rounded sides
Sttaigbt ides
Siightly straight sides
Momholoav of the base
Flat
Rounded
Concave
Non identifiable

F i grain sand
MediumgrPinsand
Thick grain sand

Free hand fôrming

Coiling forming
Modeihg m parts and joined - - -
Continued...
 Continuation of TABLE 1 16

UNASSOCIATED MIDDLE PflEMAPE FLTNERARY CERAMIC FINDS

Decorated and undecorated open vessels

camion Unit No.10

T m of o m vessei: bowis
Specimens number: 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
"Castellated-rim" bowls
Simple bowls

FiLine incised
Broad-line incised
Rough incision
Rrnctuate
Brushed

Cane impressions

Rdorange
Gray
Brown
 Continuation of TABLE 1 16

UNASSOCXATED MIDDLE PüEMAPE FUNERARY CERAMIC FIM)S

Decorated and undecomed close vessels

Excavation Unit No.10

Tme of close vessels
Spe!cimatsn&: 49 50 51 52 53 54
Neckiess oila (NO) # - - -
Cylindrid vesse1 (CV)
Jar (JI
Stimp-spout bottle (SSB)

Convex
Ogive
Half ogive
straight
Momholom of the s u

Momholop of the stirmg

Momholo~vof the body
Round& sides 3 J -
Straight sides - 3 J

Sligtitfy straight sides - -

Momholow ofthe
Flat - - -
Concave
Non identifiable i, r, J J
Temerinn mataials used (visual anatvsis texture)
Fm grain sand 3 J (I J J J

M d u m grain sand - - - -
Thick grain sand - - - - - -
n techniaues used
Free hand forming - - J i~ J
coihg f o f d g i) iI 3 J J J
ModeLing in parts and joined - i) - J

Continuad. ..
 Continuation of TABLE 1 16

UNASSOCIATED MIDDLE PUEMAPE FUNERARY CERAMIC FINDS

Decorated and undecorated close vessels

Excavation Unit No. 10

T p of close vessels
Specimens number: 49 50 51 52 53 54
lVeckiess oHa
Cylindricai vesse1
Jar
Stimp spout bonle

Evening
Poiishing
Bumishg
slipyins
Evening
Polishing
Bumishing
Slippmg
Rough

Fie-üne inciseci
Broad-he incisai
Rough incision
Rincruate
Smshed

Cane impressions

Plain fiiiet
Filla with notches

hiduad atmosphere
Reduced atmosphere
Uneven firing
 TABLE 1 17

LATE PUEMAPE PHASE CERAMIC F W S

Decorated and undecorated open vessels

Surface cokction: Cerro APiI cemttcrv K A 1 and the Late P u b m e ï e m ~ î eArea cemeterv f ï C )
Tybe of o r m vessel: bowls and vasq
Provenicnce:
Spcchcn numbers: 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
d # + d J 1 ,
- - - - - *
Mornholonv of the i i ~
- - m . - -

- - - - * -

- o o - - -

- - . - - -
d # , 3 # #

Momholw of the body

Rounded sides . J # 3 J -

Straight sides 3 - - - - 3

Evertcd sides - - - - - -
Momholonv of the base
Flat O - . - - -

Rounded , , J J , ,

Concave - - - - - -
Non identifiable - - - - - -
Temuering materials used (visual anaivsis tamue)
F i grain sand J J ~ J J J J ~ I
Medium gain sand - O -

Thick grain sand _ - -

Frec band fonning - 0 . -

Coiling fonning i ~ o r l ~ ~ J r ~ l I i ~
 Continuation of TABLE 1 17

LATE PUEMAPE PHASE CERAMK FINDS

Decoratd and undecorated open vessels

Surface collection:Cerro Anil cemeterv (CA) and the Late Puémape Tem~leArea cemete? (TC)
o f o m vesse]: b w i s and vases
Provenience: TC TC TC CA CA TC TC TC TC TC TC TC TC TC
Specirnennumbers: 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
Bowi (B) J J J d J d J d - - - - -
01 O - - - - - 3 3 d 3 4 d

Finishina: interna1 s d c e
 TABLE 1 18
LATE PUEMAPE PHASE CERAMIC W S
Decorated and undecorated ciosed vessels

Fil1 ofthe ~tatformofthe tem~leEPT) and adiacent

et? (TC)
Provenience: FPT TC TC
Specimen numbers: 69 70 71
Stimp- spout bot& @

Momholoav of the iip

Convex
Ogive
Half ogive
Straight
Flanged
Momholoav of the swut
Convex sides (fâcing protile) -
Concave sides (bcing fiont) -
Slightly straigtit sides -
Moqholom ofthe body
Rounded sides J
Straight sides -
Slightly straight sides
M~mholoiwofthe base
Rat
Rounded
Concave -
Non identifiable -
-na materiais wed (visual analys&
Fie Qrain sand r, g 3
Mediumgrainsand - - -
Thick grain sand - - O

Free hand forming - -

Coiling forming r) - -
Modeling in parts and joined * (I d

Consinueci...
 Continuation of TABLE 1 18

LATE PUEMAPE PHASE C W C FiNDS

Decorated and undecorated closed vessels

FiIl ofthe datform of the temule (PT) and adiacent

cemeterv (TC)
Provenience: FPT TC TC
Specimen numbers: 69 70 71
Stimp -spout botîle J d J
Finishinn: extemai w f k
Evcning
Poli~tied J J
Burnishing
Stipping - -
Fhkhin~: internal surfixe
Evening i/ &

PoCshed J

BurnishVig - -
Slipping O -
Rough - -
Plastic decoration: incision
Fiiine incised J -
Broad-he incised
Rougb incision -
Punctuate -
Brushed . . -
P M c decoranon: unnressroq
Cane impressions - -
'Plasticdecaration: aggiiaué
Plain fila - -
Filla with notches
.- - -
Post-tir in^ Daintinq
Hematite - -
F ~ Methodg
P
Oxidized atmospiiel-e O

Reàuced atmosphere ir ir @

Uneven firing - -
Cotor ofthe 6red
Worange -
J
-
d
-
ir
Gray
Brown - -
ûray/rcd/orange -
 Petroara~hvanalvsis of ceramic sam~lesfrom Puémam

Eng. Raul Pastor

Department of Mines
Pontificia Universidad Catoîica del PerU

Sample: Specimen 1-a

Early Puemape Phase
Neckless olla
EU: 9
Context: Domestic (layer IV)

A thin-section revealed matefial of a clasüc texture mth the grains (25%)

and the matnx (75%) dearly distinguished. The grains are of an almost rinifom

size (0.3to 0.5 mm) and large sub-angular in shape. They are located
preferentially in a band thtough the central section, being gradually tess

perceptible to the intemal and extemal surfaces of the shed.

The grains are composed mainly of quartz, mai plagioclase fsldspar, opaque

minerais, and lithic fragments in bwer proportion.

Plagiadase fddspar is of the Andesina type (An 53%) and has not been

alte-.
 The lithic fragments are f m sandstone and possible granite types. They

are a sub-rounded shape, k i n g of moderately altered.

Opaque rninerals are an equi4imensional sub-angular in shape, k i n g

altered to iron oxides, possibly belonging to pyrite.

The matrix is wmposed of a rnicrogranular material, essentially quartz,

with grain size less than O. 1mm and angular in shape. These micrograins are

sumnded by a very fine paste dark gray in which no minerals were

distinguished. However, the intemal and extemal sections of the shed had fine

textured fired clay of a dark reddish-brown color, and exhibited a notable

redudion in the frequency of hollows, less than 5% of the section, of subroundeâ

shape ranging in size between 0.2 mm to 0.5 mm.

 com~ositionof the arains
A~~roximate

Quartz 80%

Plagioclase feldspar 10%

Lithic fragments 9%

Opaque minerals 7%
Sarnple: Specimen 6-b
Early Puémape Phase
Neckless alla
EU: 11
Context: Close to burial XXXVII

Microsco~icdescription

A thin-section revealed a material of a clastic texture with the grains

(20%) and the matnx (80%) clearly distinguished. The grains are of different

shapes and sizes. The biggest grains (0.3 to 0.5 mm), but less abundant are

located preferentially in a band through the central section. It is wmposed of

quartz, plagioclase feldspar, calcite, opaque minerals, and lithic fragments.

The smallest grains (- 0.1 mm) are located toward the externat and

intemal sections of the sherd. Angular shapes grains are cornposeci mainly of

quaftz,as well as plagiodase feldspar, mica. and opaque minerals.

Sixty % of the grains are of the smallest size and 40 % are of the biggest

size.

The large sized grains of quartz altered to crystobalite, were of a sub-

rounded shape. The small sized grains were sub-angular in shape and of

unaltered quartz.

Plagiodase feldspar is of the Andesina-Labradorita type (An 50%). The

grain size is large and the grains of a sub-angular shape. The largest grains

having been altered to sericite and calcite.

 The lithic fragments are volcanic andesite and sandstone types. They are

sub-rounded in shape and slightly or moderately aitered. Mica and opaque

minerals are scarce.

The fired day matrix is dark brown in the core intemal section and reddish-

brown in extemal section, and consists of fine grained particles with no

distinguishable minerals. There are a number of hollows close to 15% of the

section creating a sort of porosity of rounded shape and a site less of

0.2 mm.
 commsition of the arains
A~~roximate

Quartz 64%

Plagioclase feldspar 15%

Calcite 10%

Llhic fragments 10%

Mica of biotite type O. 5%

Opaque minerals 0.5%

Sample: Specimen 8-a
Early Puémape Phase
Bowl
EU: 9
Context: Domestic (layer V)

A thin-section revealed a matefialof a clastic texture with the grains

(30%) and the matrix (70%) clearly distinguished. The majority of the grains

(7546) are of angubr and sub-rounded shapes, measuring betwveen 0.3 and 0.5

mm. They are located preferentially in a band through the central section and

toward the extemal surface of the sherd. It s composed essenüally of qua-

plagioclase feldspar, lithic fragments, calcite, and in lower proportion, biotite.

The other 25 % of the quartz grains have an angular and sub-rounded

shape, measunng -0.1 mm. The quartz grains were altered to crystobalite.

Plagiodase feldspar is gf the type Uligoclase (An 20%). The grains have a

sub-rounded shape, being aitered to sericite.

The lithic fragments are from volcanic rocks, such as the andesite, and

sandstone. The grains have a sub-rounded shap.

The calcite grains have roundeâ to subrounded shapes and show

evidenœ of re-crystalliration.

The biotite is rare, having of large grains.

 The clay matrix is dark brown in the central section and reddish-brown

toward the intemal and extemal sections. No minerals were disthguished in the

rnatrix. There were a notable number of hotlows (5% of the section) creating a

sort of porosity. The hollows are sub-rounded in shape and disseminated

throughout the matrix.

Amroximate corn~ositionof the arains

Quartz 75%

Plagioclase feldspar 12?40

Lithic fragments 8%

Calcite 4%

Biotite 1%
Sample: Specimen 57
MiddtelClassic Puémape Phase
Bowl
EU: 9
Context: Associated to burial XXll

Microscopie description

A thin-section revealed a material of clastic texture with the grains (45%)

and the matrix (55%) clearly distinguished. The grains are mainly of quartz and

of an almost unifom size (0.3 to 0.4 mm), of sub-angular and sub-rounded

shapes. A srnaller proportion of grains are of plagioclase feldspar, lithic

fragments. calcite, and opaque minerals.

The predominant quartz grains have a sub-angular shape and were

transfonecl into aystobalite.

Plagioclase feldspar is of the Andesina type (An 40%), and of sub-rounded

and equidimensional shapes.

The lithic fragments are from volcanic rocks, such as andesite, a sub-

rounded in shape and show no evidence of alteration.

The calcite grain have subrounded shapes with no evidence of alteration.

The opaque minerals are of sub-angular and equidimensional shapes, having

b e n attered to iron oxide and possibly to pyrite.

The m a t h consists of micrograins of quartz of irregular shape measuring

less than 0.1 mm. No minerals can be distinguished in the very fine paste.
 The paste has a band of dark reddish color toward the intemal section of

the sherd of 0.8 to 1.O mm in width. Toward the centre section a dark gray band

with a green tonality can be seen, measuring 5 to 6 mm in width. Toward the

extemal section of the shed a slight brown-reddish color 1 to 2 mm in width can

be discemed . Sub-rounded hollows, 0.5 mm in size, are rare.

Amroximate composition of the arains

Quartz 75%

Plagioclase feldspar 10%

Lithic fragments 8%

Calcite 4%

Opaque minerals 3%
 APPENDIX 8

Radiocarbon dates and Chronolwical Table 1 19

The radiocarbon ages from Puémape were determined in the Radiocarbon

Laboratory of Teledyne Isotopes, New Jersey, USA. They are listed below being

determined on the samples we submitted for analysis:

ISOTOPES Aae in Years

Sample number Sampk B.P.

1. Puémape 2340+- 90
Sector 0-5
EU: 10
Units: 26-27
36-37
Layer H
Charcoal from a Salinar
hearth. Sample 20.

2. Puérnape 422+-8
Sector 6-5
EU:11
Units:65-73
Layers: Ill-IV
EPP: Burial CX
Mat funerary covering.
Sample 30.
Sarnple number Sample

1-1 7, 029 3.Puémape

Sedot D-5
EU: 9
Unit: 21
layer: V
MPP burial CXXll
Find 58 (in situ cotton fiber within
a box) Sample 14.

4. Puémape 389+-8
Sector 8-5
EU:11
Layer: III
Burial: U00(IX
Mat funerary covering.
Sarnple 38.

All samples were treated for the removal of carbonates. The Libby half-life

of 5568 years was used to calculate the ages.

 Chart No 1
EP: CONTEXT OF THE BURIALS

, O ~nsitu I
1

l
Disturbed in the same Period ,
Disturbed in Modern Times
EP: GRAVE ORIENTATIONS

?
'INEISW 29% 1
SElNW 17%
SWINE 13% I

NWISE 13%
NIS 8%
E"I 8%
1
,

WIE 4%
 Chart No 3
EP: ROCK(S) OVER THE WRAPPED CADAV

I i
1 Basalt Rocks 1
Purnice Stones
WithoutRocks
 Chart NW
EP CADAVERS: DISPOSITION OF THE HANDS

a. Hands over the head

b. Handsovertheface
c. Hands ove?the cheek
dl Hands over the chh
e. Hands over the chest
f. Hands over the abdomen
g. Hands over the pelvis
h. Hands between the legs
 Chart N"
EP CADAVERS: OISPOSITION OF UPPER LIMES

I I I I

a b c d
(UUHands)

a. Upper lirnbs flexed

b. Upper Iimbs crossed
c. Hand fingers clenched
d. Hand fmgers extended
EP: CADAVER POSITIONS

- -

Left-lateral
Unknown
 Chart N O 7
EP: CADAVER O R IENTATIO N Ç
 Chart N"
MP: CONTEXT OF THE BURIALS

1 in situ
1 Disturbed in the same period
Disturbed in modern times
I
 Chart No9
MP: ROCK(S) OVER THE WRAPPED CADAVERS

1 Rock

Without rocks i
 Chart No 10
MP BURIALS: CERAMIC ASSOCIATED

I.S. Buriais with ceriimic

1.S. nurials without ceramics
D-1 Buriais with ceramic
D-1 Buriais without cemmic
0-2 Burials with wrarnic
D-2 Burials without ceramic
 Chart NQ11
9 MP I.S. BURIALS WlTH CERAMIC

Clay disks

Pots

Jars

Neckless ollas

Spout bottles

Bowls

Stirroup-spout bottles
Figure 6
Slratigraphy of one of the sectionot
E.U.: 8 S: 1120
 i , +
PLANTA CORTE 10 1 '2m
Figure 15
Salinar dornenic settins: Larse and reyular jars (Paicas), heanh.
mat, and food remains
E.U: 10.
 I
SOGUILLA
PAICA E DE JUNCO

Figure 16
Profile 20.Detail of paicas E and F.
E.U.: 10 S:1/20
 PLANTA CORTE 6
ZOUA €%CAVADA 0
ZONA 110 EXCAVADA m
=CILU.
11100 UUlW EXCAVACION

Figure 17
Part of the excavated structure.
E. U.: 6.
 Y

2 -.f
mu
Figure 22
Early Puémape Phase cemetery.
Different orientation of the buriais.
Sector: B-5, E.U.: 11
- ----- . -. - -- ...

Figure 23
EPP burial XCVll disturûetd when EPP XCVltl was
placed.
Sectoc 8-5,E.U.: 11
Fium 24
EPP burial CXI d i r b e d wheri EPP buMI CX
was phceâ.
Sectoc 8-5, EU.:11
 XClV

Figure 25
EPP burials CXI and XClV dimiibed rrhm EPP
burial XXXVll was placed.
Sector: B-5, EU.: 11
Figure 26
EPP burial XXXVII.
Sector: 8-5, EU.: 11
figure 28
Modem aiteration of EPP burial XXXI.
Sectot: 8-5, EU.: 11
Figure 29
EPP buriai XXXII.
Sector: 0-5. E.U.: Il
-
 O

Figure 30
EPP burial LXXXV.
Sector: B-5, EU.: 11
 patata
I

Figure 31
EPP bunal XCII
Seclor: 8-5, E.U.: 11
Figure 32
EPP burial CXIII
Sector: 8-5, EU.: i l
-
O a
Figure 33
EPP burial CXV
Secror: 8-5. EU.: 11
EFP bunals XXXlll and XXXIV.
Sectoc 8-5, EU.: Il
Figure 35
EPP burial XLlV
Sector: 8-5, EU.: 11
Figure 36
EPP burial W 11
Sector: B-5, EU.: 1 1
Figure 37
EPP burial UO(XIII
Sector: 8-5. EU.: 1 i
Figure 3 8
EPP burial LXXXVII
Sector: B-5. E L : 1 1
Figure 39
EPP bunal XXXV
S ~ O 8-5,
C EU.: 11
Figure 41
Middle ~uémapePhase cemetery.
Different orientation of the burials.
Sectoc D -5,E.U.: 9-W
Fgure 45
MPP burials XCIX-C and CXVlll
Sector: O -5, EU.: 6
Figure 46
MPP bunal XXX
Sector: O -5, EU.: 9
Figure 47
MPP burial XCI
Sector: D -5. EU.: 9
listurbed MPP burial XXVlll
Sectoc D -5, E.U.: 9
 Figure 49
Distu- MPP burial CVlll
Sector: D -5, EU.: 9

I
Figure 50
MPP burial CI O
Seaor: O -5, E.U.: 9-W
 -
mi-

Figure 51
MPP bunals XXVl and XXVll
Sector: D -5. E.U.: 9
Figure 52
M W bunal XXlI O iLI 30
Sector O -5, E.U.: 9
Figure 53
MPP burial XXlX
Sector: O -5. E.U.: 9
Figure 55
MPP bunai XXlll
Sector O -5, EU.: 9
=igure56
IrlPP Sunal CVI
Sector: D -5, E.U.: 9-W
Figure 57
M W bunal CIX
Sector: O -5. EU.: 9-W
Figure 58 O 23 JO
Disturbed MPP burial LIX - '
Sector: D -5, EU.: 9
I
r l I I I
Figure 61
Salinar cemete- (secrionj intnisi~veto the Late
Puémape Phase monumental architecture.
Sector: D-5. E.U.:6
Figure 62
Salinar human burial XXXlX along with a cenid
burial LIV following the same orientation.
Sector: OIS, EU.: 6
Figure 63
Salinar burial
The head was replaced with a bowl gourd (lapa)
containing purple crabs. Sector. 0-5, EU.: 6
Figure 64
Salinai burial W I I seveiely amputated and
decapitated.
Sectoi: 0-5, EU.: 6
Figure 67
EPP bowls (No. 7 and 8)
Figure 69
Detail of the decoration of the EPP neckless olla
No. 6.
I
Figure 70
MPP single-necked bottfe assooated to bunal I
Figure 77
MPP stimp-spout battle associated to burial
XXlIl
L
Figure 79
Poslenor side of the MPP stimp-spout bonle
--
Q 1

associated to burial XXlll

Figure 83
MPP single-necked bonle associated to bunal
XXV l
Figure 85
MPP jar associated to buriai XXlX
Figure 86
MPP stirnrp-spoul bottle assaciated to bunal LVlll
~ i g h tride profile of the MPP stirrup-spout bottle
associated to burial LVlll
C
Figure 88
Posterior side of the MPP stimip-spout bonle
associated ta bunal LVlll
Figure 92
MPP stirrup-spout bottte associated ta burial CI
Figure 93
MPP stirrup-spout bottle associated to burial CI
seen from the top
Figure 96
MPP stirrup-spout boltle associated to the
disturûed bunal XXlV
!
Figure 98
Right side profile of the MPP stirrup-spout bottle
associaled io the disturbed burial CXVl
-
O t a trm.
I
 O t 2 Jar
I
Figure t 00
MPP stirrup-spout bottle associated to the
aisturbed burial CXVl seen from the top
Figure 102
MPP jar associated to the disturbed burial
UO(V111
I O
4 L sr-.
I
Figure 103
MPP stirrup-spout bottle associated to the
disturbed bunal II
Figure 104
MPP jar associated to the dislurbed bunal CV
 1
fiçure 107
lnciseo mciives over the abdomen and chest of
Ihe MPP stirruo-spout boitle anthropomorphic
representation. Burial CXXl
Figure 100
Ucfnil ol Ihe niolivos iiicisod on Iho riglit atm and
Ilw tell arikte ol the MPP dirrup-spoul boltle
oi~ltiropomorphicrepresentalion.
Figure 1 10
I\PPocarina representing a coiling snake
Figure 111
S - 6)
MPP ~ O W I (1
E.U.: 9
 -
1 8 BW.

Figure 112
S - 8)
MPP ~ O W I(7
EU.: 9
Figure 1 14
MPP ~ O W I S(1 1 - 13)
E.U.: 9
Figure 1 16
MPP neckless olla (15 - 17)
E.U.: 9
Figure 1 17
-
MPP cyiindncal vesse1 ( 18 19)
E.U.:9
 --

Figure 119
MPP jar with handle (21)
EU.: 9
Figure 120
MPP jar (22)
EU.: 9
 O 1

I
Figure 121
MPP jar (23)
EU.: 9
Figure 122
MPP jar (24)
EU.: 9
Figure 123
MPP 'canchero' (loaùer) (25)
EU.: 9
L
Figure 126
-
MPP stimp-spaut bonla sheds (28 30)
E.U.: 9
 1 a n 33
i
Fqure 127
-
MPP stinupspout b o W sheds (31 33)
E.U.: 9
Fgure 128
-
MPP stiwpspout bollls sheds (34 37)
E.U.: 9
1
Figure 132
-
MPP bOAS (43 48)
E.U.: 10
Figure 133
- -
MPP jars (51 52) and body sheds of stirrup-
spout bûttlês (53 54) EU.: 10
Figure 134
MPP neckless olla (49) and cylindrical vesse1 (50)
EU.: IO
Figure 135
-
LPP bowls (55 57)
Figure 136
-
LPP ùowls (58 59)
Figure 140
-B
O I

- - -
2

-- -
s cm.

LPP stinup-spout bottle found in the fil1 of the

Late Pue'mape Phase structure
Figure 14t
-
LPP dimp-spout bottles (70 7 t )
APPENDIX 11

PLATES
 Plate 1
Classic Cupisnique stirrup-spout
bottle from Puémape. Dyadic
Strombus/Spondylus motif.

Plate 2
Mythical motif over the
Strombus
 CERRO P W E

Plate 3
Air photograph of the ~uémapesite 1:20,000 I.G.M.
Plate 4
Classic Cupisnique stirrup-spout bottle from Puémape.
Anthropofelinic motif.
Plate 5
Cerro Puémape outcrop. Western view from the Cupisnique
desertic region.

Plate 6
Eastern view of Cerro Pdmape from the Pacific Ocean and
the Puémape archaeological site.
Plate 8
Traditional ~uémapefishing village. View from the roc@
litoral. The site of Puemape is located over and around
the village.

Plate 9
Puémape rocky litoral. "Mocochon(algae) (Gigarüna chamisoi)
around the rocky hole.
Plate 1O
Puémape sandy litoral. The plant called "Lion
(Sesuvium portulcastrum).
Plate 11
El Jaguey Gorge. View of the "alganobal"(mesquite forest)

Plate 12
"Algarrobon(mesquite) (Prosopis sp.). El Jaguey forest.
Plate 13
El Barco Lagoon.
Plate 14
San Pedro d e Lloc countryside (Jequetepeque Valley). Cerro Puémape
to the West.
Plate 15
One of the rocky outcrops called: "guardians of the mouth of
the Cupisnique Gorgen
Plate 16
Plant Yuca de Caballon(Proboscidea altheaefolia).
Plate 18
East side of the excavation unit 9. Behind the Cerro Puémape.

Plate 19
West side of the excavation unit 9. 8ehind the Pacific Ocean.
Plate 20
Excavation Unit 11.

Plate 21
EPP funerary intrusions in the layers IV-VI of the excavation unit 11.
Plate 22
Storing pit A containing "palta" (avocado) (Persea americana)
and pieces of "anaeIoten(angelfish) (Squatina amata). E.U.: 9.

Plate 23
Storing pit B. Pieces of "lobo marinon(sea lion) Otatia sp.),
"anaeloten(angelfish) (Squaüna annata) and "to~o"(sand shark)
(Mustelus spp.)
Plate 24
Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) containing a folded cotton
textile. E.U.:9

Plate 25
Detail of the foided decorated
cotton textile.
Plate 26
ln situ coiled rope. EU.: 11
Plate 27
Salinar mammiform jars E.U.: 9 Layer: II
Plate 28
A human transporting a mammiform jar in his back. Salinar style bottle found in ~ u e h a p e .
Plate 30
Disposition of large jars (paicas) in the Salinar dornestic setting. EU.: 10

Plate 31
Disposition of pots in the Salinar
domestic setting. E.U.: 10
Plate 32
Megalithic appearance of the walls of the Late Pudmape Phase
structure. An intrusive Salinar burial ( W I I I ) was placed. EU.: 6
Plate 33
Floor of the LPP main platforni of the temple with many
disturbances caused by the later intrusive Salinar burials
E.U.: 6
Plate 34
Bone artifact carved into chain link and pendant from the second link.
All were caived from the same piece. E.U.: 6

Plate 35
Notice the fiexibility of the chained bone artifact.
Plate 36
Rounded stones "chunaos". A sort of mortar and pestle for
grinding hematite over the floor of the main platform of the
temple.
Plate 37
Clean sandy layer IV covering the front steps of the platform and the architectural element
of the big rock block painted on one of its sides with hematite.
Plate 38
Eroded and broken MPP stimp-spout bottles were distributed over the
whole surface of layer IV. E.U.: 6
Plate 39
Flexed skeleton of the EPP burial XLIV. E.U.: 11
Plate 40
Collar found in association to the child cadaver of the MPP
burial XXI. E.U.: 9

Plate 41
Quadrangular-shaped lapis lazuli bead found over the anterior
neck of the child cadaver of the MPP burial XXIX. EU.: 9
Plate 42
Crystal rock bead
assoc2iated with the
MPP burial CXXI. EU.: 9

MPP burial CXXI. E.U.: 9

Ptate 45
Detail of cotton textile folded packet in the mouth
cavity of the female of burial LVIII.
Plate 46
Extended Salinar burial XC intrusive to the floor of the LPP
plafform of the temple. E.U.:6
Plate 47
Single-necked bottle associated to the MPP burial I
Plate 48
X-ray photo showing the singlenecked bottle of burial 1.
Plate 50
X-ray photo showing the bowl associated to the MPP burial XX.
Plate 51
X-ray photo showing the stirrup-spout bottle of the MPP
burial XXI
Plate 53
X-ray photo of the stirrup-spout bottle of the MPP burial XXlll
Plate 55
X-ray photo of the neckless olla associated to the MPP burial XXlll
Plate 56
Single-necked bottle associated to the MPP burial XXVl
Plate 57
X-ray photo of the single-necked bottle associated to the
MPP burial XXVl
Plate 58
Ceramics and the anthracite minor associated to the MPP burial tVI11

Plate 59
The jaguar naturalistic motif. Stirrup-
spout bolle associated to the MPP
burial LVlll
Plate 60
X-ray photo showing the stirrup-spout bottle associated to the MPP
burial LVlll
Plate 62
X-ray photo of the stimip-spout bottle associated to the
MPP burial XXlV
Plate 63
The root of the ÿuca de caballon(Proboscidea altheaefolia) in cornpanson
with a stirrup-spout bottle found in Puemape
Plate 64
ln situ position of the stirrup-spout bottle wlh a folded reed sealing the spout. It was
associated to the MPP burial CXVl
Plate 65
Stirrup-spout bottle associated to the MPP burial CXVl
Plate 66
Stirrup-spout bottle representing a contortionist. It was associated
to the MPP burial CXXl
Plate 67
Ocarina representing a coiling boa. It was associated to the
MPP burial CXXll
Plate 68
X-ray photo of the ocarina
Plate 69
MPP cylindrical vessel. E.U.: 9

+. Plate 70
MPP pot. E.U.:9
Plate 72
Classic Cupisnique decorated gourd from puémape. Pyroengraved
with mythical felines.

Plate 73
The sarne pyroengraved gourd seen upside down.