Arise with

Mathematics
Students’ Book 3

Johns J. Mwale
Numeri Chimalizeni

i
CLAIM Limited
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First Published 2014

ISBN : 978-99960-35-69-2

ii
 Contents

Unit 1 Quadratic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Unit 2 Irrational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Unit 3 Circle geometry (chord properties) . . . . . . 43
Unit 4 Algebraic fractions with linear or quadratic
denominators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Unit 5 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Unit 6 Mapping and functions . . . . . . . . . . 105
Unit 7 Circle geometry (angle properties) . . . . . . . 125
Unit 8 Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Unit 9 Change of subject of aformula. . . . . . . . . . 185
Unit 10 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations . . . . 194
Unit 11 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Unit 12  Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Unit 13 Coordinate Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Unit 14  Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Unit 15 Graphs of quadratic Functions. . .
Unit 16 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Unit 17 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

iii
Dedication
This book is dedicated to Benjamin Chimalizeni and Clever Mwale who are the
last born to Mr Chiamilzeni and Mr Mwale respectively. May you be inspired
by this work as you journey in this life. God be with you and your brothers and
sisters and not forgetting your mothers.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank God for protecting and keeping us of good health and
seeing us through the entire period of writing this book.
Thanks also go to Mrs Janet Mwale and Mrs Gladys Chimalizeni for their
support and encouragement during the time the book was being written. We
know, our time was dedicated to this work rather than you but you were patient
with us. May God bless you all.
We would also like to thank Mr Chisamba, Mr Yohane, Mr Muphuwa , Mr Bob
Tsapa and other members of CLAIM for their encouragement and support.
We were about to give up but you came forward and encouraged us. May the
Almighty God bless you.
We also extend our thanks to Mr Emmanuel Chikaonda, Mr Thokozani Mkwate
for their wonderful work and making the book look like this.
Our gratitudes also go to the Head teachers and staff of Robert Blake, Madisi,
and Mwansambo secondary schools for their moral support and encouragement.
We are proud of you.
May we also thank all those we consulted and assisted in the development of
this book and not forgetting Pastor Benjamin Makoto of Dowa for his guidance.
May God bless you. We hope all those who use the book will find it useful.

iv
 Unit Definition: Quadratic
equation
1 Factorising quadratic
expressions

A quadratic expression is any

expression in mathematics which
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
takes the form ax2 + bx + c where
a, b and c are real numbers and
a ≠ 0 .You will learn more about
expressions of this form in this unit.

Activity 1:

Identifying quadratic
In your JCE Mathematics you expressions
learnt about quadratic expressions.
You learnt how to factorise and Which of the following expressions are
expand such expressions. Recall that quadratic expressions?
expanding and factorising of quadratic
a) x2 + 2x + 1
expressions are opposite operations.
In this unit you will learn about b) x3 + 3x + 2
quadratic equations and you will apply
c) 2x2 + 1
the skills you acquired in your JCE
Mathematics. Specifically you will d) x2 – 1
solve quadratic equations by making e) x + xy + 2
use of a number of methods such as
factorisation, completing squares, and f) x4 + 3x + 2
using a quadratic formula. You will
finally apply quadratic equations to
solving everyday problems.

1
Understanding factorisation
Definition: Factorisation

In Mathematics, factorisation is the decomposing of a number or

an expression into a product of other numbers or factors, which
when multiplied together will you give the original number or
expression.

For example, the number 20 can be factorised as 4 x 5 or 2 x10.

And the expression x2- 4 can be factorised as
(x + 2) (x – 2). In both of these examples, a product of simpler
numbers or expressions is obtained.

Have you ever asked yourself why you need to learn

factorisation? Or have you wondered why you should bother
yourself factorising an expression at all?

The aim of factoring or factorisation is usually to reduce an

expression to some simple expressions.

Before you learn how to factorise, it is important for you to know

different types of quadratic expressions. Remember that in a
quadratic expression, the highest power of the letters is a 2.

Types of quadratic expressions

Quadratic expressions are classified basing on how many terms
are in the expression:
a) Quadratic Monomial Expression
A monomial is an expression in algebra which contains
one term. A quadratic monomial expression has one term
only. Examples of quadratic monomials include x2, 2x2, ½ x2,
5x2, and many others. Think about five more examples of
quadratic monomials.
a) Quadratic Binomial Expressions

A binomial is an expression in algebra which contains two

terms. `bi` means `2`. A quadratic monomial expression has
two terms in it. Examples of quadratic monomials include

2
 x2 + 2x, 2x2+3, 5x2 + 7 and many others. Think about five
more examples of quadratic binomial expressions.
b) Quadratic Trinomial Expressions

A trinomial is an algebraic expression with three terms.

`Tri` means `3`. A quadratic trinomial has three terms in
it. The following expressions are examples of trinomials:

i) d2+7d + 10

ii) x2 + 11x + 10

iii) c2 + 8c + 15

iv) x2 + 5x + 6

v) f2 + 7f + 6

vi) g2 + 10g – 24

vii) x2 + 2x 24

Factorising quadratic expressions

Factoring trinomials of the type x² + bx + c

The standard format for a trinomial is ax ² + bx + c. In this

section, you will factorise trinomials where the coefficient of the
x2 term is 1, (a = 1).

When we factor trinomials of the form x ² + bx + c you are finding

2 binomials that will multiply out to give this initial polynomial.
Use the following steps to factor out this type of trinomials:

1) Draw two sets of parentheses for the 2 binomials you are

looking for: x2+6x+3+5= ( )( )

2) P
 ut an x on the first terms of the two binomials:
x2+2xy-15y2 = (x-3y) (x+5y).

3) F
 ind 2 integers whose product is c and whose sum is b. It
helps to list all the possible factors of c and check to see
which set of factors sum up to.

4) Put these integers on the last terms of the two binomials.

3
 You can read the steps above, over and over again until you
fully understand what we are saying about factorising quadratic
trinomials.

Examples:

Factorising quadratic trinomials

Factorise the following quadratic trinomials:

a) x ² + 6x + 5 b) a 2 9a 20
c) m 2 + 4m − 21 d) t2 – 15 – 2t

e) x 2 + 2xy − 15 y2 f) 2a2 – 16a + 32

Answers:

a) x2 + 6x +5 = ( )( )
= ( x )( x )
=

Factoring Trinomials in the form ax² + bx + c

In this section, you will factor out trinomials where the coefficient of the
x 2 term is a number other than 1(a ≠ 1).

When you factor trinomials of the form ax ² + bx + c you are also finding 2
binomials that will multiply out to give the initial polynomial. There are 2
methods that you can use to factor this type of trinomials.

1. Factor with FOIL (Trial and Error)

2. Factor by Grouping – also called the Master Product Method or the

“AC” Method

Definitions

Monomial is an algebraic expression containing one term. eg 2x2

4
 Binomial is an algebraic expression containing two terms, for
example 5x2 + 2.

Trinomial is an algebraic expression containing three terms, for

example x2 + 5x + 6.

Factorising quadratic expressions

Example 1:

Factorisation

Factorise the following;

(a) x2 + 7x + 12

Solution;

Start by writing (x ) (x )

Find numbers which multiply to give +12 and which add to

give + 7

Which numbers are these?

∴ x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3) (x + 4)

The process of finding the numbers will not be very easy for
a start but with more practice, you will find it not too hard.

(b) x2 + 4x – 12

Solution;

Here the two numbers must multiply to give –12, this

means one number is positive and the other negative. The
same two numbers should add to give +4. The two numbers
are +6 and –2.

∴ x2 + 4x – 12 = (x + 6) (x – 2)

(c) x2 – 11x –12

5
 Solution:

Here the two numbers should multiply to give -12 and again
one of the numbers is positive and the other negative. Since
the two numbers add to -11, the smaller is positive and the
larger is negative. The numbers are +1 and –12
∴ x2 –11x –12 = (x + 1) (x – 12)

(d) h2 –8h +12

Solution

Here the two numbers should multiply to give +12 and

add to give –8, this means the two numbers must both be
negative the numbers are –2 and –6

∴h2 –8h + 12 = (h – 2) (h – 6)

Exercise 1a

Factorise the following quadratic expressions.

1. d2+7d + 10
2. x2 +11x + 10
3. c2+ 8c + 15
4. x2 + 5x + 6
5. f2 + 7f + 6
6. g2 + 10g –24
7. x2 + 2x – 24
8. b2 + 5b – 24
9. x2 + 23x – 24
10. m2–23m–-24
11. v2+12v + 36
12. x2 – 2x – 24
13. y2 –10y – 24
14. m2–m–30
15. g2 –6g – 40

6
The expressions you have looked at so far have a co-efficient of
1 on the square term. Sometimes the co-efficient is more than
1.

Activity 2:

Coefficients

a. W
 hat is the difference between the coefficient of x2 in these
two expressions

(i) x2 – 37x + 36 and

(ii) 2x2 – 17x – 10

a. Factorise 6x2 –17x – 10

Compare your work with friend and the examples given

below.

Example 2:

Factorisation

Factorise the following:

(a) 2x2 + 11x + 12

Solution

To make 2x2 we require one bracket to contain 2x and the

other x i.e.

(2x ) (x ). We should look for two numbers which

multiply to give +12 and when put in the two brackets, they
should multiply with 2x and x and their sum simply to give
11x, by inspection the first number is 3 and the second is 4.

i.e. 2x2 + 11x + 12 = (2x + 3 ) (x + 4)

(b) 4x2 +12x +9

Trying (4x ) (x ) does not work and we have to split the

4.

7
 i.e. (2x ) (2x )

And the numbers are +3 and +3

∴ 4x2 + 12x + 9 = (2x + 3) (2x + 3)

= (2x + 3)2

Exercise 1b

Factorise the following expressions

1. 2b2 + 3b + 1
2. 2t2 +7t + 6
3. 3q2 + 8q + 4
4. 3x2 + 13x + 4
5. 2d2 + d – 6
6. 3x2 +11x – 4
7. 9y2 –6y + 1
8. 5x2 – 13x – 6
9. 4w2+ 17w – 15
10. 6x2 –17x – 10
11. a2b2 + 7ab + 10
12. 2u2v2 + uv − 6
13. 3t2 +5st + 2s2
14. m2n2 + 4mn − 21
15. 35 – 2u – u2
16. 35 + 30d −5d2
17. x2 − 2xy − 15y2
18. x2y2 – xy – 30
19. 10p2 – 43p + 45
20. x2 + 16xy − 36y2

8
 Now look at these two expressions;

9x2 – 6x + 1 and 9x2 – 6x + 1 = 0,

How do they differ?

Now you will go further solving such expressions.

Solving Quadratic Equations

Activity 3

a. Describe a quadratic equation.

b. Write an example of a quadratic equation.
c. Solve the equation you came up with.

Report your work to the class.

Definition;

Quadratic equations are equations of the form ax2 + bx +c = 0.

There are different methods for solving quadratic equations.

Can you mention them? You are going to look at some of them.

a. The factor method.

How do you factorise these quadratic expressions? Now look

at these examples.

Example 3

Solve the following;

(a) x2 + x – 6 = 0

Solution;

Factorise the left-hand side as before

9
 i.e. x2 + x – 6 = (x + 3)(x – 2) …. These are the factors

∴ (x + 3) (x – 2) =0

either x + 3 = 0 or x – 2 = 0

∴x = –3 or x = 2

(b) 3x2 – 11x (– 20) = 0

Solution;

Multiply 3x2 x(–20) = –60x2

Find two factors of –60x2

Adding give –11x and multiplying them give –60x2

These are –15x and 4x

3x2 – 15x + 4x – 20 = 0

3x(x – 5) +4x(x – 5) = 0 .................... factorise

(3x + 4) (x – 5) = 0 ............................. factor out (x – 5)

either 3x + 4 = 0 or x – 5 = 0

∴ x = –4/3 or x = 5

Exercise 1c

Solve the following quadratic equations by factorisation

1. f2 + 3f + 2 = 0

2. s2 +11s + 18 = 0

3. x2 +7x + 6 = 0

4. r2 + 16r + 15 = 0

5. x2 - 8x + 12 = 0

6. t2 + 3t – 10 = 0

10
7. p2 –2p – 15 = 0

8. x2 – 3x – 54 = 0

9. t2 + 12t + 27 = 0

10. m2 – 3m – 10 = 0

11. x2 + 4x – 32 = 0

12. 2x2 –5x + 2 = 0

13. 2n2 − 10n + 12 = 0

14. 3d2 + 5d – 12 = 0

15. 35 + 30d −5d2

You will then turn to the other method.

b. Completing the square of a quadratic expression

Activity 4

1. What do you call an expression such as (x + 1)2?

2. M
 ake x2 + 8x + 16 in the form as above and hence solve
(x+4)2 =0

3. Brainstorm on other quadratic expressions which can be

solved in the same way.

Dicuss your finding to the class.

The following are examples of the square terms: x2, (2x)2,

(x – 2)2,(x + 3)2 etc.

Recall also that x 2 =16

x = ± 16
x = ±4

So ( x − 3) 2 = 25 ∴ x − 3 = ± 25

x = 3± 5
x = 8 or x = − 2

11
 An expression x2 – 4x + 4 can be factorised as (x – 2) (x – 2) =
(x – 2)2, a square.

Not all quadratic expressions can factorise into squares.

Expressions such as (x – 2)2, (x + 3)2 are called Perfect

squares

You are going to learn a method of Completing the square of

any quadratic expression.

Example 4:

Completing squares

Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the

square.

a) x2 + 6x + 8 = 0

Divide the co-efficient of x by 2, add to x and square the

result.

i.e. (x + 3)2, if we expand this we get x2 + 6x + 9, we must

take away 1

i.e. x 2 + 6x + 8 = ( x + 3) 2 − 1 = 0

∴ ( x + 3) 2 = 1

∴ x + 3 = ± 1

x + 3 = ±1

∴ x = −2 or x = −4

b) 2x2 –10x + 9 = 0

The first step is to divide through by the co-efficient of x2, in

this case 2 i.e. x2 – 5x + 4½ = 0

then x2 –5x = –4½ (taking – 4½ the other side)

x2 –5x + (2.5)2 = − 3.5+ (2.5)2 (completing the square)

i.e (x − 2.5)2 = − 4.5+ (2.5)2

12
 = − 4.5 + 6.25

∴ x − 2.5 = ± 1.75 (Removing the root)

x = 2.5 + 1.75 or
x = 2.5− 1.75 (Simplifying the RHS)

To get the value of 1.75 quickly, you need to use a calculator.

Some of the questions in the exercise below require the use of a

calculator.

Oral exercise

What must be added to the following expressions to make them

into a perfect square? Factorise the results
a. u2 −u
b. d2 – 6d
c. x2 +10xy
d. a2 – 6ad
e. y2 – 3y

Exercise 1d

Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the

square. In cases where answers cannot be given in exact form,
give your answer correct to 2 d.p.
1. b2 + 4b + 3 = 0
2. c2 – 2c + 1 = 0
3. t2 – 14t + 48 = 0
4. e2 – 6e – 16 = 0
5. x2 – x – 6 =0
6. n2 – n – 13 = 0

13
 7. r2 – 4r – 11 = 0
8. v2 +v – 18 = 0
9. x2 + 2x – 7 = 0
10. 2h2 – 3h – 4 = 0
11. 3x2 – 4x –2 = 0
12. 4z2 + 2z – 5 = 0
13. –2u2 – 5u +2 = 0
14. 5t2 – 8t–1 = 0
15. –7x2 –x +15 = 0

Having solved those above, can you also solve x2 – x – 5 = 0,

what do you notice? How can such equations be solved? Do the
Activity 5 below.

The Quadratic formula

Activity 5:

A general quadratic equation is of formax2 + bx + c = 0, discuss

with a friend and solve for x just like example 4b ie
2x2 –10x +9 = 0 above.

Compare with one given below.

Deriving quadratic formula

ax2 + bx + c = 0 then ax2 + bx = –c (taking c the other side)

bx c
x2 + = − (dividing by a on both sides)
a a

(add both sides)

−c b2
= +
a 4a2

14
 2
 b  b2 −c
x +  = +
2 4 2
 a  a a
2
b − 4ac
2
 b 
x+  =
 2a 4a 2 (Simplifying the RHS)
b b 2 − 4ac
x+ =±
2a 4a (Taking the square root on both
sides)
b b 2 − 4ac
x =− ±
2a 4a 2

b b 2 − 4ac
x=− ±
2a 2a

−b± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

This is called the quadratic formula and it is used to solve

quadratic equations.

Note, b2 – 4ac under the root is called a discriminant. It

indicates the number of solutions the quadratic expression has.

Example 5

Solve the following quadratic equation using the quadratic

formula.

x2 + 2x – 15 = 0

Here a = 1, b = 2 and c = –15

∴ Using the quadratic formula

22 − 4 × 1× ( −15)
x = − 2±
2×1

4 + 60
x = − 2±
2

64
x = − 2±
2

15
 − 2± 8
x=
2

x = 3 or x = –5

Exercise 1e

Solve the following quadratic equations using quadratic formula.

In some cases, you need to use a calculator or log tables. Give
your answers to 2 d.p.

1. a2 + 7a + 12 = 0

2. x2 – 2x – 24 = 0 8. t2 – 2t – 2 = 0
3. p2 + 6p – 40 = 0 9. x2–x – 5 = 0
4. y2 – y –6= 0 10.x2 + 2x – 7 = 0
5. x2 + 2x – 8 = 0 11.5c2–8c +1 = 0
6. e2 + e – 9 = 0 12 3z2–4z –2 =0
7. x2 – 3x – 3 = 0 13. x2–6 = 0

14. x2–8 = 0

16
Formulating quadratic equations when roots are given
Activity 6a:

A car at times needs to reverse, so too in quadratic equations.

If a quadratic equation has roots x = 3 and x = −5, come up with

its equation. Share your work with neighbour. Did you solve as
those given below?

Example 6:

Formulating quadratic equations

Formulate the equation whose roots are:

a) x = 2 and x = –3

b) x = 5 and x = ½

a) If x = 2 then x – 2 was factor and

If x= –3 then x + 3 was factor

∴ the equation is (x – 2) (x + 3) = 0

i.e. x2 + x – 6 = 0

b) x – 5 and x – ½ were the factor so (x – 5) (x – ½) = 0 is the

equation

x2 – 5½x + 5/2 = 0 …multiply by 2 throughout to get rid of the

fractions

2x2–11x + 5 = 0

Exercise 1f

Find the quadratic equation whose roots are:

1. x = 3 and x = 1

2. x = –7 and x = 2

17
 3. f = –3 and f = –2

4. x = 0 and x = 4

5. x = –3 and x = 1

Is it possible to have everyday life situation expressed as

quadratic expression and solve it? Do the activity below.

Formulating quadratic equations from Practical problems

Activity 6b:

a. Get a piece of paper or card board which is rectangular.

b. Using a piece of paper or string equal to the width (y) of the
rectangular paper.
c. Place the piece of paper or string along the length of the
rectangle and mark where it ends.
d. U
 sing a ruler, measure the remaining part of the length of
rectangle and record its reading.
e. Derive an expression for finding the area of the rectangle.

In most cases, you have to formulate quadratic equations from

everydaylife situations and solve them to find the values of the
unknown like the one above.

Example 7:

Formulating quadratic equations

a.  enjamin is x years old and his sister Susan is 5 years
B
younger. If the product of their ages is 36, form an equation
in x and solve it to find Benjamin’s and Susan’s age.

Benjamin is x years old Susan is (x – 5) years old and

x(x – 5) = 36 is the product of their ages

18
 x2 – 5x = 36

∴ x2 – 5x – 36 = 0

Factorising we have (x – 9) (x + 4) = 0

∴ x = 9 or x = –4

–4 years does not make sense therefore x = 9

So Benjamin is 9 years old and Susan is 4 years old

b. W
 hen a number x is added to its square, the total is 12. Find
two possible values of x.

Let the number be x, the other is x2

The equation is x + x2 = 12

x2 + x –12 = 0 collecting the terms to one side two factors of

12 when added give +1 and multiplied give –12, 4 and –3 (x
+ 4) (x – 3) factorising

∴ x = –4 or x = 3.

Exercise 1g

In the following questions, formulate equations from the

information given and then solve to find the unknown.

1. If the area of the rectangle above is 28cm2, calculate the

value of x and hence find the length of the rectangle.

2. A rectangle is 5cm longer than it is wide. If its width is x

cm and its area is 66cm2 form an equation in x and solve it.
Hence, find the dimensions of the rectangle.

3. A right - angled triangle has a length of x cm and a height of

(x – 1)cm. If its area is 15cm2 calculate the base length and
height.

4. The square of a number x is 16 more than six times the

number. Form an equation in x and solve it.

19
 5.  hen five times a number x is subtracted from the square of
W
the same number, the answer is 14. Form an equation in x
and solve it.

6. I think of a number x, if I square it and add to it the number

I first thought of, the total is 56. Find the number I first
thought of.

7. Grace has x2 marbles. Duncan has x marbles. The sum of

their marbles is 90. Find the number of marbles each one
has.

8.  ercy is x years old and her sister is 5 years older. If the

M
product of their ages is 104, form an equation in x and solve
it to find Mercy’s age.

9. A right-angled triangle ABC has <B = 90°, AB = x cm, BC =

2 cm longer than AB and AC is 4cm longer than AB.

a) Illustrate this information on a diagram.

b) Using this information show that x2– 4x – 12 = 0

c) Solve the above equation and find the length of each of the
three sides.

Unit summary
•  uadratic equation is the expressions of the form
Q
ax2 + x + c. These fall under monomial, binomial and
trinomial. The unit factorisation of quadratic has looked at
expressions, solving quadratic equations by factorisation,
completing square as well using quadratic formula. The unit
has also looked at formulating quadratic equations from
real life problems. The next unit looks at circle geometry.

Unit review exercise

1. Factorise the following quadratic expressions:
a. n2 – 12n + 36
b. x2 –15x + 36

20
 c. h2 – 5h – 24
d. x2 – 20x + 36
e. b2 – 5b – 36
2. Solve the following quadratic equations
a. y2 – 4 = 0
b. x2 – 144 = 0
c. 16r2 – 25 = 0
d. 4p2 – 81 = 0
e. e2 – 2e –63 = 0
1. In order to deal with problems of climate change, a certain
village established a rectangular forest whose diagonal was
120m. If the width is 16m less than length, find the length
of the forest.
2.  uring the 2014 tripartite elections for Member of
D
Parliament Mr Chimuzu got 90 votes extra than Mr
Chitsinde. The winner Mrs Masamba got 3600 votes which
was the product of the votes of the first two. Find the total
votes for Mr Chimuzu.
3.  he number of HIV/AIDS patients in two consecutive years
T
increased by 5. If the product of the number of patients in
the two years was 50, find the number of HIV/AIDS patient
in the first year.
4. The oversized television at the left has a 60-inch diagonal.
The screen is 12 inches wider than it is high. Find the
dimensions of the screen.

Glossary
Quadratic expression: is an algebraic expression of the form
ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants and a ≠ 0

Monomial: is an algebraic expression containing one term eg

2x2.

Binomial is an expression containing two terms, for example

5x2 + 2x.

21
 Trinomial is an algebraic expression containing three terms,
eg 2x2 + 6x + 7

Perfect square is an algebraic expression of the form (a + b)2

References
Chanon J. B. & etl, New General Mathematics 3, a Modern Course
for Zimbabwe London: Longman.

Hau S. and Saiti F. (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:

Longman Malawi.

22
 Irrational numbers are important
as they assist in being exact with

Unit certain measurements. For example,

irrational numbers are used in
expressing angles in trigonometry,
finding length, areas, and volumes of
2 objects.

Recognising rational and

irrational numbers
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS Numbers which can be expressed
exactly as fractions are known as
rational numbers. For example:

1 = 0.5, 3 = 0.75
4,
2 4
However, there are certain numbers
which cannot be expressed as exact
fractions such as: 3 = 1.73205 ...and
In your JCE Mathematics you 7 = 2.645751311…. Pi or π.
learnt about numbers. You learnt Decimals, in these examples, extend
about types of numbers such as forever and are non- recurring
natural numbers, whole numbers, or repetitive. Most of these are
and integers. In this unit you will expressed as roots. They are also
learn about irrational numbers. known as surds.
You will learn how to recognise
irrational numbers from a given From the statements above, you
set of numbers. You will also learn can see that some numbers, which
about a special type of irrational contain a root sign, can be evaluated
numbers called surds and how you exactly while others cannot.
can simplify them.
Now you are going to look at
irrational numbers in details.

Activity1:

Recognising rational and irrational

numbers.

23
 1. Define rational and irrational numbers?

2. Give examples of irrational numbers.

3. Which of the following are irrational numbers?

(a) 3.142857…

(b) 0.75

(c) 5

(d) 5.252525…

Report your answers to the class.

Compare your work with the statements given below.

Rational and irrational numbers

•  ational numbers are numbers that that can be expressed
R
as ratio of two integers. For example ¾ = 0.75, and 5.2525...
are rational numbers.
• I rrational numbers are numbers that cannot be expressed
as a ratio of two integers.

In the activity above (a) 3.142857 and (c) √5 = 2.23606..are

irrational numbers. These numbers extend forever without
repetition or recurring.

Exercise 2a
1.  hich of the following are rational and which are
W
irrational?

(a) 7, (b) √16, (c) 0.824, (d) 0.7, (e) √3, (f) √17 (g) √8, (h) √99,
(i) √121
2.  raw aright triangle ABC with angle ABC = 900 and
D
AB = BC =1cm . Find AC in surd form. Is the AC rational or
irrational number?

24
Surds
Many roots are irrational, for example; √3 = 1.732050… √21 =
4.5825... Irrational numbers of this kind are called surds. Thus
if the root of a number is irrational, then it is called a surds. In
other words; a surd is a root of irrational number.

Rules for surds

Activity 2:

Deriving the rules for surd;

In groups do this activity

By putting N = 16 and M = 9, find which of the following pairs of

expressions are equal:

a. M N and M × N

b. N M and N × M

c. M × M and M2

M
M
d. N and
N
e. M N and M 2N

From your results, what rules can you come up about surds?

Report your finding to class.

You should have noted that each of the pairs is equal. Therefore
in general, here are the rules of surds.
a. MN = M × N
M M
b. N = N

c. M N = M N
2

d. M = M =M
2
M ×

25
 c. M N + P N = (M+P) N
d. M N − P N = (M − P) N

Simplifying surds
In simplification of surds, numbers under the square root sign
are reduced as much as possible. This is done by expressing the
numbers under the square root sign as a product of two numbers
in which one of them is a perfect square.

Activity 3:

Simplifying surds

In pairs, apply knowledge from activity above.

Simplify each of the following as far as possible by applying the

rules above.

(a) 12

(b) 20

(c) 32

Check your answers against your friends’ work.

Now look at the following examples and compare them with your
work above.

Example 1:

Simplifying surds

Simplify each of the following as far as possible.

(a) 162

(b) 63
3

Solutions

In each case, you must look for two factors for a given

26
 number of which one should be a perfect square. I.e. √80 =
√16 × √5 and 16 is a perfect square.

(a) Solution;

162 = 81×2 ........ simplify 162 = 81 × 2

= 81 × 2 ...........… surd rule

=9× 2 …................. find root of 81

=9 2

(b) Solution;
63 9×7
=
3 3

= 9× 7 ................... Surd rule

3× 7
=
3 ........................ Cancel out 3

= 7

Now do the following exercise.

Exercise 2b

Simplify each of the following:

(1) 45 (2) 147

(3) 112 (4) 50
98
(5) 7 (6) 72

(7) 2 28 (8) 200

(9) 90 (10) 8
15
(11) 343 (12) 48

27
 7500 18
(13) (14)
9

Addition and subtraction of surds

You can subtract and add surds just like other ordinary
numbers.

Activity 4:

Addition of surds

Find the solution of the following;

(a) 2b + b

(b) 2√m2 + m

(c) 3 5 + 5

Discuss your findings as a class and compare your answers with

the examples given below:
The knowledge above also applies when adding surds. Check the
following examples.

Example 2:

Simplifying surds

Simplify the following.

(a) 20 + 5 = 4× 5 + 5

= 4× 5+ 5
----------------- find factors of 20 = 4 × 5
= 2 5 + 5 --------------------- this is the same as 2a + a

=3 5

(b) 5 18 + 4 50 = 5 × 9 × 2 + 4 × 25× 2

28
 = 5 × 9 × 2 − 4 × 25× 2 since MN = M × N

= 5 × 3 2 + 4 × 5 2 ............. taking root of 9 and 25.

= 15 2 + 20 2

= 35 2

(a) 3 75 − 12 = 3 × 25× 3 − 4 × 3 .......25 and 4 have roots

= 3 × 25× 3 − 4 × 3 ............separating the roots

= 15 3 − 2 3 ...................subtract just like 15b-2b

= 13 3

Exercise 2c

Simplify each of the following

(1) 63 − 2 28 + 175 (6) 12 + 3 75

(2) 200 + 18 − 2 72 (7) 18 + 3 2 − 2

(3) 18 − 32 + 50 (8) 5 6 − 24 + 294

(4) 11 + 55 − 77 (9) 3 27 + 108 − 48 − 2 75

2 1
(5) 5 18 + 4 50 (10) 2 −5 2

Multiplication of surds
When two or more surds multiply each surd is simplified as
far as possible and then numbers in front of square roots signs
multiply each other and then surds multiply with other surds.

Example 3

Simplify the following.

(a) 12× 18 (b) 3 5× 75

29
Solutions

Where possible look for two factors for a given number

under the root of which one should be a perfect square as
you did above and find its root.

For example: 80 = 16× 5 =4 5 and multiply as you do with

ab × ab.

(a) 12 × 18 = 4× 3 × 9× 2 ..............simplify
= 2× 3 × 3 × 2 ............. find root of 4 and 9

= 3 × 2 3 × 2 .................... rule of surd

= 6 × 3× 2
=6 6
(b) 20 × 27 = 4× 5 × 9× 3...............simplify

= 4 × 5 × 9 × 3 .............surd rule

= 2× 5 × 3× 3 .................find root of 4 and 9

= 2 × 3× 5 × 3
= 6× 15

= 6 15
Proceed as in a and b above

(c) 3 5 × 75 = 3 5 × 25× 3

= 3 5 × 25× 3
= 3 5 × 5× 3
= 3× 5 × 5 × 3
= 15 15

30
Exercise 2d

1. Simplify the following

a) √5 × √10
b) √2 × √6 × √3
c) √30 × √5
d) √12 × √3
e) √32 ×√12
f) √10 × 3√2 × √20
g) √5 × √24 × √30
h) (2√3)3
i) (2√7)2
j) √6 × √8 × √10 × √12

2. Express each of the following as the square root of a single

number, using rule number (c) for surds.

(1) 2 6 (2) 3 7 (3) 2 6

(4) 12 2 (5) 2 10 (6) 7 2

(7) 3 3 (8) 2 51 (9) 6 3

(10) 2 17 (11) 5 3 (12)

2 22

(13) 2 73 (14) 3 15
4 5 (15)

Division of surds
When surds divide, both the numerator and denominator should
be simplified as far as possible and then denominator should be
rationalised.

31
Example 4:

Simplifying surds

Simplify the following.

3
(a) 27

72
(b) 75

Solutions

Find two factors of a number under root as before

3 3
(a) Solution; 27 = 9 × 3 ........... simplify 27 = 9 × 3
3
= 9 × 3 ............. rule of surds
3
= 3 × 3 ….......... find root of 9 which is 3
1
= 3 …..................... cancel out 3

1 3
= 3 × 3 ….............. m
 ultiply numerator and
denominator by √3

3
= 3

72 36 × 2
=
(b) Solution; 75 25 × 3

36 × 2
= 25 × 3 …........….. simplify by surd rule

6 2
= 5 3 ………...…. find root of 36 and 25

32
 6 2 3
×
= 5 3 3 ….......... M
 ultiply numerator and
denominator by √3

6 6
= 15 ……………..divide 6 and 15 by 3

2 6
= 5

Exercise 2e

Simplify the following;

1. 8
32

2. 2 18
3 12

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

33
 12.

Conjugate surds

Activity 5:

Expanding conjugate surds

(a) Factorise (a2− b2)

(b) What term is used to describe a2 − b2?

(c) Expand (x + y) (x − y)

Relate your answers to the explanation given below.

Conjugate surds are surds of the form ( )

8 − 7 and ( )
8− 7 ,
( ) ( )
for example 2 + 5 and 2 − 5 . when multiplying conjugate
surds, they are expanded the same way as you do with factors of
a difference of two squares.

Example 5:
Conjugates

Conjugate and expand the following surds

(a) 5 + 3

(b) 5 + 3

(c) 5 + 3

Solutions

First come up with a conjugate of 5 + 3 in (a) which is

5+ 3

34
 (a) ( 3+ 2 )( )
3 − 2 expand as you do with (a + b) (a – b)

=√2 (√2 – √5) + √5 (√2 – √5) …......… as a(a – b)+ b(a – b)

= 2× 2− 5× 2+ 5× 2− 5× 5
=2+0–5
= –3

(b) ( 3+ 2 )( )
3 − 2 do as above and this leads to

= ( 5) + 2
10 − 10 − 4 , since + 10 − 10 gives zero

=5–2
=3

(c) ( 3+ 2 )( 3− 2 )
= ( 3) 2
− 6 + 6 − 4 , since − 6 + 6 =0

=3–2

=1

Exercise 2f

a. Find the conjugates and expand each of the following surds:

( )
(1) a + b (2) a+ b ( )
(3) ( 8 − 7 ) (4) 5 + 3
(5) (a + b ) (6) ( 11 − 4)
(7) ( 13 + 11 ) (8) (a + b )
(9) 3 + 8 (10) 43 − ( 23 )

35
 b. Simplify the following without using a calculator.
1. (3√2 − √3) (3√2 + √3)

2. (2−√7) 2(2 +√7)

3. 2/√2 + 6/√2

Rationalising surd denominators

When the denominator of a fraction is a surd, it is very
necessary to remove the surd from the denominator. This is
known as rationalizing the denominator i.e. the irrational
denominator is changed to a rational denominator. The process
involves multiplying the number by 1 ie , which takes different
forms depending on the denominator in question.

Activity 6:

Rationalising denominator

Try to rationalise the denominator by multiplying numerator

and denominator by the denominator in each of the following:
2 4 5
(a) 5 (b) 3

Present your work to the whole class or show your friends and
compare with the example given below.

Example 6

Rationalise the denominator of the following;

2
a. 5

In question (a), the 1 to be multiplied is 3 y + 5

4

2 5 = 2 × 5
=
5 5 5

36
 6
×1
3

2 5
=
5

6
b. 3

In question (b), the 1 to be multiplied is 3 y + 5

4

6 6 3
× 1 = ×
3 3 3

7
=
13 − 3

= 18
3

This can be simplified further to give √2, work out!

7
Note: In general, if a fraction is in the form of
, then multiply
5
both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction by 8 .

20
c. 3 5
Solution
3y + 5
Do as in above ,multiply by 4

20 20 3y + 5
×1 = ×
3 5 3 5 4

37
 20 × 5
=
3×5

20 5
=
15

4 5
=
3

1
Sometimes, the fraction is in the form . In this case,
a+ b

you have to multiply both the numerator and denominator by a + b ( )

x z
 3 
Similarly, if the fraction is in the form   , then multiply
 y 

the numerator and denominator by a + b . ( )

2
d.
5 +1

Solution

1
×
2− 3( )
(
2+ 3 ) (
2− 3 ) …...................… from statement above

2− 3
=
4 − 2 3 + 2 3 − 9 ….................... Expanding

2− 3
=
4−3

2
=
5 +1
=2− 8

38
Exercise 2g

Rationalise the denominator of the following

7 7 7
(1) (2) (3)
5 5 5

7 7 7
(4) (5) (6)
5 5 5

7 2 2
(7) (8) (9)
5 5 +1 5 +1

2 2
(10) (11) (12) 3 y + 5
5 +1 5 +1 4

5− 3 13 − 7 (15) 7
(13) (14)
5+ 3 13 + 7 13 − 3

Real life problems of irrational numbers

In most cases real life problems of irrational numbers involve
finding lengths, areas, and volumes of given objects. Most of
such measurements are actually irrational numbers. The use of  
which is irrational number is more common in finding volume
and areas of certain objects.

Exercise 2h

1.  he base length of an isosceles triangular truss of a house is

T
14m. The height is 2m. Find the approximate length of iron
sheets that can be bought assuming that they are equal to
the third side.
2.  he two sides of a right angled triangle are
T 7 −3)and
(3 – 3) cm. Find the length of hypotenuse.
3. Find the perimeter of the a triangle whose sides are 2√48
cm, 3√75 and 4√147 cm. The answer should be in simplified

39
 surd form.
4.  right angled ABC with AB = 5, BC = 7cm. Find the length
A
of hypotenuse side AC in surd form.

Unit summary
• I n this unit you have learnt about rational numbers which
are numbers that can be expressed as exact fractions. You
have also learnt about irrational numbers which cannot
be expressed as exact fractions. Most irrational numbers
are under root and as such are called surds.You have
learnt how you can simplify surds in addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. In the next unit you are going to
learn about circle geometry.

Unit review exercise

1. Without using a calculator, simplify the following
2
( 24– 6)
a 6

b √125 + √5 – √45

c (3√5 – √2)/(2√5 + 3√2)

3 5– 2
d 2 5+3 2

e √99 – √44 – √11

f 3√28 – 5√63 + 4√252

g 2√150 – √96 – 2√24

g (8√2)/(√98 – 3√2)

i 1/√2 – √2/3

j (√2 + √3)(√8 – √12)

2. Given that √2 = 1.414 and root √3 = 1.732 evaluate the

40
 following;

(a) 1/√3

(b) 3/√3

(c) 10/(√2)

(d) 6/(√3)

(e) 2/(√2)

3. Rationalise the denominator of the following

(a) 1/(5 + √2)

(b) 1/(4 – √3)

(c) (5 + √3)/(√7 + √5)

(d) √(3 + 1)/√(3 – 1)

(e) (3 + √5)/(√3 – √2)

Glossary
Rational numbers are numbers which can be expressed as
exact fractions or ratios.

Irrational numbers are numbers which cannot be written as

exact fractions. The decimals extend without end and without
recurring.

Surds are square roots of irrational numbers.

Reference
Hau and Saiti F. (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:
Longman Malawi.
Elaine R., McAdams P, Hiddleson P ., (2013), CHANCO Teach
yourself series, Mathematics, Second Edition, Chancellor
College Publication, Zomba.

41
Hardwood Clarke and Norton F. G. J., (1984) Seventh Edition,
Oxford, Heinman Educational Book Ltd, London

Channon J. B. et al (1997). New General Mathematics 3, A Modern

Course for Zimbabwe.Longman London.

Gunsaru et al, Secondary Mathematics Book 3, Dzuka Publising

Company, Blantyre.

42
 Chord properties of a chord

Unit A circle is an important shape in the

field of geometry. A circle is a shape
with all points the same distance
from its centre. A circle is named by

3 its centre. Before going in detail, do

activity 1 below.

Activity 1:

CIRCLE GEOMETRY (CHORD

Identifying parts of a circle
PROPERTIES)
In pairs,
i. Define radius.
ii.  sing a pair of campus, draw
U
circle with centre O and label
the following parts, diameter,
radius, a chord, an arc,
circumference and segment.
In unit 2 you learnt about irrational
numbers. In this unit, you will look iii. Brainstorm on the labeled
at the chord properties of a circle. parts.
Specifically, you will describe chord
Compare your work with the drawing
properties of a circle and apply
below.
chord properties to solve problems.
Parts of a circle Now look at figure
3.1a below which is showing some
parts of the circle.

Figure 3.1a

43
The distance around a circle is called the circumference of a
circle. Figure 3.1a is a circle with centre O.
A chord is a line segment that joins two points on a circle. Line
EF is a chord.
A diameter is a chord that passes through the centre of the
circle. Line AB is diameter.
A radius is a line segment that has the centre and a point on the
circle as end points. In figure3.1a, AO, OB and OC are radii
Arcs of a circle A secant is a line containing a chord. If a
secant intersects a circle in two distinct points, A, B for example
in the diagram below, then the circle is divided into two sets of
points.
B

B
A

Figure 3.1b

APB is known as the minor arc while AQB is known as the

major arc.

A sector of a circle is a region consisting of the union of an arc,

the radii to the end points of the arc, and the interior points
enclosed by the arc and the radii.

Segment

Sector

Figure 3.1c

44
 An area bounded by chord and an arc is called a segment of a
circle.

There might be major and minor segment. Identify these in the

given circle.

The area bounded by chords and an arc is called a sector.

Chord property of circle

A chord is a straight line that join any two points of the on its
circumference
A chord which passes through the centre of a circle is called a
diameter.
(a) T
 he straight line drawn from the centre of a circle to the
mid – point of a chord is perpendicular to that chord.
Conversely if a line is drawn from the centre of the circle
perpendicular to a chord, it bisects the chord.
(b) I f chords are equal in length then they are the same
distance from the centre of a circle. Conversely if chords are
the same distance from the centre of a circle then they are
equal in length.
(c) If two chords of a circle are parallel, then the perpendicular
bisector of one is also perpendicular bisector of the other.

Chord theorems: In your JCE Mathematics , you learnt about

theorems. How did you define a theorem?

Now look at the following figure

A B
M

Figure 3.2

45
In figure 3.2, AB is a chord of the circle with Centre O. OM is
perpendicular to a chord AB. Measure AM and BM. What do you
notice?

Theorem 1: The line from the centre of the circle perpendicular

to a chord bisects the chord.

You should show the effect of OM being perpendicular to AB.

A M B

Figure 3.3

Given : Circle centre O, AB is a chord, OMAB.

To Prove : AM = MB.

Construction : Join OA, OB

Proof : In OAM and OBM

OA = OB (radii)

∠ OMA = ∠ OMB = 900 (given)

OM is common.

∴ OAM ≅ OBM (RHS)

∴ AM = MB

Conversely, the line from the centre of the circle bisecting the
chord is perpendicular to the chord.

46
 O
•

A M B

Figure 3.4

Given : Circle, centre O, AB a chord AM = MB

To Prove : ∠ OMA = ∠ OMB = 900

Construction : Join OA, OB

Proof : OMA
∆ and ∆ OMB

OA = OB (radii)

AM = BM (given)

OM is common

∴ OMA ≅ OMB (SSS)

∴ ∠ OMA = ∠ OMB

But AMB is straight line

∴ ∠ OMA = OMB = 900 ( ∠ s on a straight line)

47
Equal chords: A circle can have several chords as shown in the
following figure 3.5 below.
B
D
A
C O
E • H

G F

Figure 3.5

In this figure CD, EF and GH are all chords. In a diagram

with equal chords, you want to find out what happens to their
distances from the centre of the circle.

Activity 2:

Identifying distance of equal chords from the centre.

In pairs:

a. Draw a circle with centre O and radius of 5cm.

b. From the centre, draw a line of 3cm to any point E and

another to any point F within the circle in opposite direction
of the first line.

c. Draw a chord from a point A on one side of the circle passing

through E to point B on the other side of the circle.

d. Produce another line from point C on the circle passing

through F to point D on the other side of the circle.

e. Measure the length of the chord AB and CD.

f. What conclusion can you draw?

Report your findings to the whole class.

Now consider the following theorem.

48
Theorem 2: Equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the
circle.

A B
O
•
C D

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.6 is a circle with centre O, and AB is a chord that is

equal to chord CD. You want to show that the shortest distances
(the perpendicular distances) from centre O to the chords, are
equal.

P
A B

O •
C D
Q

Figure 3.7
Given : Circle centre O, AB = CD
To Prove : OP = OQ
Construction : Join OB, OD
Proof : Since OP ⊥ AB

∴ AP = PB (since line from centre bisect the chord as proved

already)

4
i.e. PB = AB
3
And OQ ⊥ CD

49
CQ = QD (as above)

4
i.e. QD = CD
3
But AB = CD (given)

PB = QD.

In OPB and OQD

PB = QD (proved)

∠ OPB = ∠ OQD = 900 (given)

OB = OD (radii)

∴ OPB ≅ OQD (RHS)

OP = OQ. (Corresponding sides)

Conversely, it can be proved that chords that are equidistant

from the centre of the circle are equal.
A
M
B

O•

C D
N

Figure 3.8

Given : Circle centre O, OM = ON

To Prove : AB = CD.

Construction : Join OB, OD

Proof : OMB and OND

OM = ON (given)

∠ OMB = ∠ OND = 900 (given)

50
 OB = OD (radii)

∴ ∆OMB ≅ ∆OND (RHS)

∴ MB = ND

But OM ⊥ AB

4
MB = AB
3

Similarly, ON ⊥ CD

4
∴ ND = CD
3
But MB = ND (proved)

∴ AB = CD

Now do the following exercise

Exercise 3a

1.  iven that a circle with centre O and any two points P and
G
Q on the circumference of the circle such that PQ is not
a diameter, E being the midpoint of PQ, prove that OE is
perpendicular to PQ.
2. Prove that if two chords bisect each other, then the chords
are diameters.

3.  rove that the perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a

P
chord bisects the chord.

For questions 4 and 5, refer to the diagram Figure 3.9

below:

51
 D

C O
B
H
A

Figure 3.9

4.  H, OK are the perpendiculars from the centre O of a circle

O
to two chords AB, CD, if AB = CD, prove that OH = OK.
(i) Explain why AH = CK
(ii) Prove triangle OHA ≡ triangle OKC
5.  H, OK are perpendiculars from the centre O of a circle to
O
two chords AB, CD. If OH = OK, prove that AB = CD.
(i) Prove OHA OKC
(ii) Explain why AB = 2AH and complete the proof.
6. I f the chord AB, length l cm, of a circle, radius r cm, is at a
distance p cm from the centre, find l in terms of r and p
7. A
 B and CD are two equal chords of a circle; M, N are their
mid – points. Prove that MN makes equal angles with AB
and CD.
8. T
 wo chords of a circle bisect each other at K. prove that
K is the centre of the circle. Hint; if possible, join K to the
centre.

Application of chord properties to solve problems

Using the knowledge from above, you can now find radius,
length of the chord and distance from the centre to a chord.

Calculating the length of the chord given radius and

distance from the centre

52
 Activity 3

Calculating the length of the chord given radius and

distance from the centre

In pairs, use the information given;

The figure 3.10 is circle with centre O and radius of 5cm and
OE = 3cm. calculate the length of the chord AB.

A E
B

Figure 3.10

Present your work to class and compare your work with the
given example.

Calculating the distance from the centre given the length of

chord and radius
Example

Two parallel chords of a circle are of length 16cm and 12cm. If

the radius of the circle of the circle is 10cm, what are the two
possible perpendicular distances between the chords?

Solution

Draw the two chord in this circle; let AB = 16cm and CD = 12cm
centre O, radius = 10cm

B
E
A O

D
C F

Figure 3.11

53
 In AOE, using Pythagoras theorem

OE2 = AO2 – AE2

= 102 – 82 since AE = BE as OE bisect chord AB
= 100 – 64
= 36
OE = √36 = 6cm

Similarly in COF

OF2 = OC2 – CF2

= 102 − 62

= 100 – 36

= 64

OF = √64 = 8cm

The distances from the centre are OE = 6cm to chord AB and

OF = 8cm to chord CD.

Calculating the radius given length of a chord and distance

from the centre
Example

A chord 4.2cm long is 2.8cm from the centre of a circle. Calculate

the radius of the circle.

Solution: draw diagram like the one below

N
M P

Figure 3. 12

54
 In triangle OPN in figure 3.12

ON2 = OP2 + PN2

= 4.22 + 2.82

= 17.64 + 7.84

ON = √25.28

ON = 5.048cm

Exercise 3b

1. Use figure3.13 to answer the questions given below.

O
•

M
A B

Figure 3.13

1. Using Pythagoras theorem in figure 3.13, calculate the

following;
a) OM if AB = 10cm and OA = 7cm
b) AM if OM = 3cm and OA = 8cm
c) OA if AB = 12cm and OM = 6cm
2.  wo parallel chords of lengths 6cm and 8cm are drawn in
T
a 5cm radius circle. Calculate the two possible distances
between them.
3.  circle has a radius of 10cm. Use Pythagoras Theorem to
A
find the length of a chord of the circle that is 6 cm from the
centre of the circle. How long is a chord of the same circle
that is 8cm from the centre?

55
 4.  he figure below shows a circle ACB centre O. OM = 3y cm,
T
MC = 2y cm and angle OMB = 900.

A B
M
C

Figure 3.14

Find AB in terms of y
5. Chord is 6cm away from the centre of the circle. If the chord
is 16cm long, calculate the radius of the circle.
6. A chord 20cm long is 20cm from the centre of a circle.
Calculate the length of the chord which is 14cm from the
centre.
7. In a circle of radius 2.5cm the lengths of two parallel chords
are 1.4cm and 3cm. find the distance between the chords;
(a) If they are on opposite sides of the centre
(b) If they are the same side of the centre.
8. A chord of a circle of radius7cm is at a distance of 4cm from
the centre. Calculate the length of the chord.
9. AB, CD are parallel chords of a circle, 3cm apart, on same
side of the centre O; AB = 4cm, CD = 10cm, find OA. Hint;
draw ONM perpendicular to AB to meet AB, CD in M, N;
let ON = x cm.
10. A chord of length 10cm is at a distance of 12cm from the
centre of the circle. Find the radius.

Unit summary
• I n this unit you have learnt about chord properties of a
circle and how to apply them to solving problems. You

56
 have also learnt on how to find radius, length of a chord
and distance from the centre. In the next unit, you will
learn about algebraic fractions with linear or quadratic
denominators.

Unit review exercise

1.  chord 7cm long is drawn in a circle of radius 3.7cm.
A
Calculate the distance of the chord from the centre of the
circle.
2. A chord 6.6cm long is 5.6cm from the centre of the circle.
Find the radius of the circle. Find also the length of a chord
which is 6.3cm from the centre of the circle.

3. Figure 3.15 shows a circle AYBX centre O. XY cuts AB at C

such that angle ACY = 900.

O
X Y
C

Figure 3.15

If OC = 8cm and CY = 9cm, calculate the length of AB.

4.  rove that if two chords of a circle are equal, then they are
P
equidistant from the centre.
5.  wo equal chords intersect inside a circle. Prove that the
T
line joining their point of intersection to the centre of the
circle bisects the angle between the chords.
6.  Y is a diameter of a circle, and XZ is a chord. If O is the
X
centre and OD is the perpendicular from O to XZ, prove
that XY = 2OD.

57
Glossary
A chord is a line segment that joins two points on a circle.

A diameter is a chord that passes through the centre of the

circle.

A secant is a line containing a chord

References
Hau and Saiti F. (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:
Longman Malawi.

Channon J. B. and et al (1997). New General Mathematics 3, A

Modern Course for Zimbabwe. London,Longman.

Durell C. V . Volume 2. (1990) Certificate Mathematics. 2nd

Edition. Bell and Hyman Ltd. London.

Gunsaru et al, Secondary Mathematics Book 3. Dzuka

Publishing Company. Blantyre. Malawi.

58
 Expressing algebraic
fractions to their lowest
Unit terms
An algebraic fraction is a fraction

4 whose numerator and denominator

are algebraic expressions. In other
words it uses variables (unknowns) in
the numerator and denominator

Can you write some examples

ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS of algebraic fractions? Here are
WITH LINEAR examples of algebraic fraction as a
OR QUADRATIC reminder.
DENOMINATORS
a a 2 x 2 − 4 x 2 + 5x + 6
, , , Can you
2 a+2 x+2 x2 − 9
come up with more other example.

The rules for simplifying algebraic

You learnt about algebraic fractions fractions are the same as those for
in your JCE Mathematics with numerical fractions. Now do the
respect to LCM and HCF. In this unit, activity below.
you are going to learn about the four
operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division involving Expressing algebraic
algebraic fractions . You are also going fractions to their lowest
to express fractions in their simplest
form. terms
Before all this, you must know how to
Activity 1:
simplify algebraic fractions.

Algebraic fraction help to stimulate

Reducing algebraic fractions to
critical thinking and reasoning ability
their lowest terms.
as mostly it uses the brain since
some fractions cannot be done by the In pairs, express the following
calculator. Skills acquired assist in algebraic fraction in their simplest
solving algebra and other problems in
form;
mathematics.

59
Simplify the following:

5
3y 8 36 1 2
+3
1. 2. 3. 3
12y 3 4
Present your work to class. Discuss the examples given below.

Example 1:

Expressing into lowest terms

4 2
48
Express the expression to its lowest term, 2 6
18

Solution

Find factors that can go into the denominator and the

numerator and cancel out.

8 48x 4 y 28x 2 and we cannot simplify any further.

=
3 18x y
2 6
3y 4

If you have the same variables on denominator and numerator,

subtract the powers. I.e. x4−2.

Exercise 4a

Simplify the following

1. (a) x 6 (b) y
12

x4 y3
6 5
(c) p (d) m
p m4
2 2 4
2. (a) x 4 y 6 (b) a b c
x2 y2 ab 2c

(c) pq 2 r 2 (d) 4xy

2 3
p p r 2 yz
60
 (e) 15pq 2 (f) 16 m 2 n
5p 24m 2n 2

Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions

When adding or subtracting algebraic fractions, follow the same
procedure as in arithmetic fractions:

Activity 2:

Addition and subtraction

Simplify the following

(a) ⅜+⅛
1 2
+
(b) 2 3
3 1
(c) 4 3
1
(d) 4 8

Compare your work with the other members of the class.

In simplifying these, did you follow the following steps?

(1) Find the LCM of the denominators.

(2) Express each fraction with the common denominator (divide

the LCM by individual denominators and multiply by
respective numerators).

(3) Add or subtract the fractions.

Now look at the following examples.

Example 2:

Simplifying fractions

61
Simplify

3y 8
(a)
12y 3
Here, the denominators are x + 1 and x − 3 and their LCM is
(x + 2) (x − 3)

∴ (x(x − 3) − {(x + 2)(x − 2)} Divide LCM each denominator

(x + 2)(x − 3)
then multiply

(x2 − 3x − {x2 − 4})

= expand by removing the denominator
(x + 2) (x − 3)

(x2 − 3x − x2 + 4
=
(x + 2) (x − 3)

4 − 3x
=
(x + 2) (x − 3 −)

(b) 3x − 5 + 2x − 3
3 5

The LCM of 3 and 5 is 15

3 x − 5 2x − 3
∴ +
3 5
5(3x − 5) + 3(2x − 3)
= 15 ...… divide LCM by 3 and 5

15x − 25 + 6x − 9
= ……... expand and add like terms together.
15

= 21x − 34
15

(c) 3 2
+
x +1 x − 2
The LCM of x + 1 and x − 2 is (x + 1) (x −2)

62
 ∴ 3 2
+
x +1 x − 2

= 3(x − 2) + 2(x +1) ……. Divide the LCM with denominators

(x +1) (x − 2)
= 3x − 6 + 2x + 2
(x +1)(x − 2) ……… expand and add like terms together
5x − 4
= (x +1)(x − 2)

Sometimes, there is need for factorising in order to find the LCM

of the denominators.

(c) 3 5
−
x −4 x−2
2

x2 − 4 is not as simple as x-2, it factorises to (x + 2) (x − 2)

∴ 3 5 = 3 5
− −
x 2 − 4 x − 2 (x + 2)(x − 2) x − 2
The LCM is (x + 2) (x − 2)

∴ 3 5 3− 5(x + 2)
− =
x − 4 x − 2 (x + 2)(x − 2)
2

= 3− 5x −10
(x + 2)(x − 2)
= − 5x − 7
(x + 2)(x − 2)
Now do the exercise given below.

63
Exerxise 4b

Simplify the following algebraic fractions.

1. (a) a a (b) x x
+ −
4 5 3 4

(c) x + x + x (d) 5 p − 7a
4 5 6 8 12

(e) 3x x x y z
− + −
4 6 (f) 2 3 4

2. (a) 3 2 (b) 3 5 4
− − +
5 p 3p y 3y 5 y

(c) 3 5 3r 2r 5r
+ 2 (d) + −
x 2x 7s 14s 21s

(e) 3m 4n 11n
+ −
15p 5 p 30p

3. (a) 3x + 2 2x + 1 (b) 3a + 5b a − 3b
+ −
3 4 4 2

(c) x − 2 2 (d) x − 3 x − 7
+ −
4 5 3 6

(e) 3m − 5n 3m + 7n
−
6 2

(2a + 1) + (3b − 2 ) − 2
(f) a b

4. (a) 2 3 (b) 5 − 3
+
x + 4 x + 3 p+3 p−5

(c) 3 2 (d) 3 2
+ −
y +2 y+3 m −1 m + 3
(e) 5 7
−
3x − 2 5x + 2

64
 5. (a) 3 2 (b) 4 2
+ − 2
x + 3 2x − 6 x −1 x −1

(c) 3x 4x (d) 2 + 3
+
x −4
2
x−2 y − 9 y + x − 12
2 2

3x + 4
(e) 2x − 3
− 2
x + 9x + 20 x + 2x − 15
2

+1 +1
(f) +3 2

Multiplication of algebraic fractions

The simplification involves multiplying two algebraic fractions.
As with ordinary arithmetic fractions, numerators can be
multiplied together as can denominators, in order to form a
single fraction. Remember the following laws of indices
1. amx an = am+n
2. am÷ an = am−n
3. (am)n = amn

Activity 3:

Simplifying algebraic fractions

a b
2
×6
1 ×
Individually, simplify (a) 3 (b) 2 3

Discuss your answer with a friend. Compare the way of solving

with the examples below;

Example 3:

Simplifying fractions

Simplify the following; 3y × 8 p

6 3

4 p2 9y2

65
 Factors, which are common to both numerator and denominator,
may be cancelled. It is important to realise that this cancelling
means dividing the numerator and denominator by the same
quantity.

.i.e. 3y 6 8 p 3 2 py 4
× =
4 p2 9y2 3

Exercise 4c

1. (a) x y (b) 2 q
× ×
4 3 p 3

(c) p q (d) xy s
× ×
q r r xy

(e) 8 x
×
x 16

2. (a) x 2 y 4 py (b) 3 p 2 5q
× ×
3 py x 2q 3 p

(c) 6a b (d) 6ab ad 8cd 2

× × ×
b 2 3a 2 c 2b 4bc

(e) 2z y × 6a × 10c
2 2 3

3ac 2 5zy 2 3y 2

Division of algebraic fractions

Division and multiplication of algebraic fraction goes hand in
with multiplication

Activity 4:

Dividing of algebraic fractions

In groups, simplify the following;

66
 1 1
a. 12
÷4

2
4x ÷
b. 3

Present your answers to class. Discuss the example given below.

Example 4:

Expressing to lowest terms

Express to its lowest term 5x y ÷ 10x y

2 3 3

8 pq 3 12p 2q

Solution:

Invert the fraction on the right hand side and put

multiplication sign and then proceed in multiplicaion.

5x 2 y 3 10x 3 y = 5 x 2 y 3 12 p 2q = 3 py 2
÷ ×
8 pq 3 12p 2q 8 pq 3 10x 3 y 4q 2 x

Now do the exercise below.

Exercise 4d

Simplify the following;

(b) 6ab ÷ 4a
2 2 2
(a) ab ÷ a
bc 2 bc 2 5cd 7bd

(c) 3 pq p 2 (d) 5x y ÷ 10xy

2
÷
5rs 15s 2 8ab 4a 2b

(e) 6 pq 4 p 2
÷
5rs 7qs

67
Simplification of algebraic fractions involving factorisation
Some simplification involves factorisation as the case is in (d)

Example 5:

Simplifying algebraic fractions

(a) x + 2x
2

3x

Factorising the numerator, see that x is common and can be

cancelled out.

i.e. x + 2x = x(x + 2) = x + 2
2

3x 3x 3

(b) x + 2
x2 − 4
Here you factorise the denominator i.e. the difference of two
squares.
x+2 x+2 x+2 1
= = =
x − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2) (x + 2)(x − 2) x − 2
2

(c) x 2 −16
x 2 + x −12
Here factorise both the numerator and the denominator and
cancel out common factor.

x 2 −16 = (x + 4)(x − 4) = x − 4
x 2 + x −12 (x + 4)(x − 3) x − 3

Exercise 4e

Simplify the following;

68
 1. (a) 3x + 6 (b) x(x − 3)
x+2 (x − 2)(x − 3)
2 1
(c) x(x + 5) (d) 1)( +1)
(x − 5)(x + 5)

(e) 3 p (2 p − 3)
(2 p + 3)(2 p − 3)
2. (a) x 2 − 3x (b) x (x + 4)
(x + 3)(x − 3) x 2 + 5x + 4

(c) x 2 + 2x 2
(d) x − x
x 2 + 5x + 6 x 2 −1
x 2 + 4x (f) x − 7x
2
(e)
x 2 + x −12 x 2 − 49
Now you will look at some equations

Equations Involving Algebraic Equations

In this section you will learn how to solve linear equations in
our JCE mathematics and how to solve quadratic equations in
unit one of this book. In this section, you will learn how to solve
equations which involve algebraic fractions.

Activity 5:

Solving algebraic equation

Solve x + x = 10
2 3 3
Report your findings to class. Now look at the examples given
below.

Example 6:

69
Solving equations involving fractions

Solve the following equations

(a) x + x = 5
2 3 6
The first step in solving such equations is to get rid of the
denominators by multiplying each term by the LCM of the
denominators. The resulting equation can then be solved by
the methods learnt previously.

Now the LCM of the denominator of 2, 3 and 6 is 12

∴ x x 5 = 6x + 4x = 10
+ =
2 3 6 12

You can ignore the LCM after this step

i.e. 6x + 4x = 10

10x = 10

x=1

(b) x + 3 = x − 3
2 3

The LCM of 2 and 3 is 6 and we have

x + 3 x − 3 3(x + 3) = 2(x − 3)
= =
2 3 6

3x + 9 = 2x – 6 (ignoring the denominator)

3x − 2x = − 6 – 9

x = −15

70
Exercise 4f

Solve the following equations

1. (a) 2x x 1
= +
5 8 2

(b) 3x + 3 = 2 + 3x
8 3

(c) 3x 1 x 5 (d) 5x 2 3 x
+ = + − = −
4 3 2 8 7 3 7 3

(e) 1 1 3
+ =
2x 3x 5

2. (a) x + 3 x − 3 (b) 3x + 2 − x − 2 = 11
=
2 3 2 2 4

(c) x + 2 3x − 2 m−7
− = 2 (d) =3
5 4 5

(e) 3x − 5 9 − 2x x − 3
− =
4 3 2

Real life problem of algebraic fractions

Sometimes, the equations are given in words and you are
required to write the equation and then solve it for the
unknown.

The following procedure will help you to construct linear

equations.

1) R
 epresent the quantity to be found by a symbol (x is usually
used).

2) M
 ake up the equation, which conforms to the given
information.

3) M
 ake sure that both sides of the equation are in the same
units.

71
Activity 6:

Solving algebraic fraction involving word problems

In groups, do the activity;

I think of a number, take 1 of it and then add 4. The result is 7.

3
Find the number I first thought of.

Let one member from your group go and see the work of other
groups and see what they have done and report to the rest of the
members in the group.

Did you it in this way?

Let the number be x

Then 1 of x + 4 = 7
3
i.e. x + 4 = 7
3
This is the equation and you can solve it using methods
learnt

i.e. x = 3
3
x = 3 × 3 = 9

x = 9

Did you get this? Now look at the example below.

Example 7:

Word problems involving algebraic fractions

Mary uses 1 of her salary to pay her bills, gives 1 to her

12 15
parents and she is left with K 6000.00. What is her salary?

Let her salary be x

72
 ∴ x − x − x = 6000
12 15
Then proceed as follows;

x x x 6000
− − =
1 12 15 1

Note that the denominator of x and 6000 is 1

The LCM of 1, 12 and 15 is 60

i.e. x − x − x = 6000
1 12 15 1

60x − 5x − 4x = 360000
60

51x = 360000

x = 7058.82

Can you now practice formulating algebraic equations from the

exercise given below?

Exercise 4g

Construct equations from the following cases and solve them to

find the value of the unknown.

(a) I think of a number, divide it by 4, add 5 and the result is 9.

What is the number that I first thought of?
a) I think of a number, divide it by 3, subtract 4 and the result is
29. What is the number that I first thought of?

b) I think of a number. When 3 is subtracted from 3 of the

7 4
c) number the result is 1. Find the number.

73
 d) When 1 is subtracted from 2 of a number the result is 4.
2 3
e) Find the number.
1
d) I think of a number. When 15 of this number is subtracted from
2 of the number the answer is 5. What number did I
5 9
e) first think of?
f) Find the number which, when added to the numerator and

denominator of the fraction 3, gives a new fraction which is

5
4
equal to .
5

Unit summary
In this unit, you have looked at algebraic fractions, simplifying
these by adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. The unit
has extended by expressing algebraic fractions to their lowest
term and simplifying algebraic fractions. In the next unit, you
will look at sets.

Unit review exercise

Evaluate and simplify if possible the following:
1 1
+
1 a. 2

4 3
b. 2 2
2 3
+
c.
4 2 5
+
d. 3

74
 4 5 1
e. 3 7 g. 2 +
5 +6 3
1 1 1
h.
f. 1)
+1 1
–
2 2 2 4 ( 1) +1
× × i.
2. a. 3 5
2 +5 3 +2
2 4 +
× × j. 3 6
b. 3 5
2+ 5
3 k. 3 6
÷
c. 2
5 3
÷
d. 6 2 5
8 +12
2 27t 2
e. 12

Glossary
An algebraic fraction is a fraction whose numerator and
denominator are algebraic expressions.

75
References
Chikwakwa, e t al (2002), Senior Secondary Mathematics
Student′s Book 3. Blantyre: Macmillan Malawi.

Hau S and Saiti F (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:

Longman Malawi.

G D Buckwell and B N Githua, KCSE Golden Medal

mathematics, Macmillan, London.

Gunsaru, et al, Secondary Mathematics Book 3, Dzuka

Publishing Company, Blantyre Malawi.

76
 Describing elements of a set

Unit A set is a collection of objects. The

things or objects that make up a set
are called members or elements
of the set. It is possible to have a set

5 which contains objects that do not

have anything in common. What
does mathematical instruments box
contain? You may find objects such as
a compass, divider, ruler, protractor
and set square. Whether the objects
SETS are related in some way or not, as
long as they form a collection, they
comprise a set. Now do the activity
below.

Activity 1:

Describing set builder notation

In pairs
In form 1, you learnt that a set
is a collection of objects. In this 1.Identify objects or things in a set in
unit, you will learn more about your class
sets . By the end of this unit you 2.Write set of objects in set language.
must be able to describe elements
3.Write down the symbol for the
of a set and representsets in Venn following:
diagrams. The idea of sets is used
in many fields like manufacturing Universal set
and other fields. Not a member of
In everyday life we buy things in A union B
sets. A intersection B
Share your work with your friends
and discuss your findings. Now look
these in detail.

There are various symbols that are

used in set language. Now look at the
followings is a member of, ∉; is not
a member of or { }; the empty set or
null set;

77
B ⊂ C; B is a proper set of C
A ⊆ B; A is a subset of B
A ⊇ B; A contains B
⊄9; the negation of ⊂, ⊆ and ⊇
A ∪ B; union of A and B
A ∩ B; intersection of A and B
n(A); number elements in set A
A΄; complement of set A

Set builder notation is another way of representing sets.

Inside the set, unknown or variable is used to represent the
elements of a set in general. This is followed by a vertical line
or a colon which means “such that”. The vertical line or colon is
followed by a description of the elements. Look at the examples
below.

Example 1:
Set builder notation
Write the elements of the set given in set builder notation.
a. T = {t│t is all teachers at your school} or T = {t: t is all
teachers at your school}.
A = {Chimtengo, Chitedze, Chinthuzi, Chimwemwe,
Getrude}
b.  = {y : y < 10, y is a whole number} or B = {y │ y < 10, y is
B
a whole number}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
c. X = {z │−5< z < 4, z is an integer} or X = {z : −5< z < 4, z is
an integer}
X = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 2, 3}.
Hence the elements in set X are integers greater than −5
and less than 4. Sets A, B, C are all finite sets. Now do the
following exercise.

78
 Now do the exercise below.

Exercise 5a

1. I f A = {integers}, list the members of the following sets

using… where appropriate.
(a) {x : x 9}
(b) {y │ y}
(c) {a : a ≥ −3}
(d) {x : x 0}
(e) {y : y – 5 = 0}
(f) {x : 2x + 4 = 16}
(g) {y : − 7 ≤ y 5}
(h) {x : − 8 x − 1}
(i) {x : x 0 and has no remainder}
2. List the elements of the following sets:
a. D = {d: d is public holiday days in Malawi}
b. E = {e│e is even numbers less than 20}
c. G = {g : g ≤ 18, g is an odd number}
d. Y = {x : x is counting numbers less than 10}
e. H = {d │d is district along the lake Malawi}
3. If D = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; …20}, list the members of the following
sets.
a. {a : a is a square number, a D
b. {b│ b +2 15 , b D}
c. {x : x is a factor of 36, x D}
4. Give that {a, c, e, h, I, l, m, s, t, w} is a universal set and
Y = {a, c, e, h, i, m, s}, find n(Y’).

79
Definitions

Equal sets are sets that contain exactly the same members,
regardless of the order in which the members are presented.

If A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {b, c, e, d, a} then A and B are equal

sets.

Equivalent sets have the same number of elements.

If H = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and G = {a, d, e, f, g}, how many elements has

G and H? These two sets are equivalent.

A subset contains wholly or part of the elements in a universal

set.

If M = {a: a is whole number less than 10} and N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

then N is a subset of set M.

A set is said to be proper subset if it has few element than

those given in the universal set or if it is not exact subset of
itself. From the above statement N is a proper subset of M

An improper subset is a subset which has all the elements in

the original set. It is equal to the original set.

A set is said to be finite if the elements in there can be counted

for example;

M = {a, c, b, g}, M has four elements while infinite set the

elements in that particular set cannot be counted for example;

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6…}; a set of natural numbers,

P = {1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,.}; a set of prime numbers,

Z = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3…}; a set of integers.

The dots show that the elements continue.

The number of elements in a set is called the cardinal number

of the set.

Empty or null set is a set that has no members. For example;

80
 let B be all boys in class, G all girls in class and H neither a girl
nor a boy. This can be also shown in this way;

B G

H is an empty set since you can hardly find a person who has
both sex. B and G are disjoint sets.

Oral exercise

Given the following sets; A = {2, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2}, C = {5, 2, 4},
D = {a, c,} and E = {x: x is a number greater than 1}
Identify sets that are equal, equivalent, finite and infinite.
From exercise 5a above, you are able to come up with subsets
from the main set. What do you call the main set? You are going
to look at that now.

Universal set
The universal set is the set which contains all the possible
elements. If
A = {y: y is a letters the alphabet} and B is a set of vowels of the
alphabet then A = {a, e, i, o, u}, therefore A is the universal set
and B is a subset of A.
A teacher, boys and girls in a class form a universal set of people
present in a classroom. In this girls only or, boys only could be a
subset of this set. Universal set is denoted ξ. Diagrammatically
sets A and B could be represented as follows:

81
 A
B

A= {a, b, c… z} and B = {a, e, i, o, u}

B is a proper subset of A or B ⊂ A.
Can you now come up with your own universal set?

Complement of a set
The complement of a set is the set containing all elements in a
universal set but are not members of this given set.
In other words, the complement of B is the set which contains
all those elements that are in a universal set, U but do not
belong to set B. The complement of a set B is denoted B.

The shaded region represents the complements of set B denoted

B´

Example 2:
Complement of a set
a. U= {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} and A = {2,4,6,8}. What set is
represented by A?
Solution:

82
 A consists of all elements in which are not in set A.

∴ A′ = {1, 3, 5, 7}

Show this diagrammatically as demonstrated above.

b. If = {all triangles} and Q = {equal sided triangles}. What

set is represented by Q′?
Solution:

= {Scalene, Equilateral, Isosceles s}

Q = {Equilateral s}
∴ Q′ = {Scalene, Isosceles}
Note: A universal set, is the background set i.e. it contains all
the possible elements. If a certain set Q, for example, contains
some elements of the universal set, then Q is said to be a subset
of . But when it comes to Q, this means a set containing
elements of the universal set which are not however contained
in set Q.
Now do the exercise given below.

Exercise 5b

1. L
 et U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 2, 5, 7, 9}.
What set is represented by A′?
2. Let U = {all quadrilaterals} and B = {quadrilaterals with
all 4 sides equal}. What set is represented by B′? Give 2
examples of elements of B and give 3 examples of elements
of B.
3. If U = {m, a, t, h, s} and C = {a, h, s}, what set is
represented by C’?
4. If U = {1; 2; 3; 4; …10}, A = {1; 2; 5; 7}, B = {1; 3; 6; 7}, write
down the sets A’ and B’.
5. G
 iven that the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9},
sets N and M of U such that N = {even numbers} and M =
{perfect square}, find;

83
 (a) N΄
(b) M΄
(c) n(N΄)

Union of sets
The union of two or three sets is everything which belongs to
either, both or all the three sets and represented by the symbol
.

Activity 2:
Identifying elements of a union of two or three sets
In pairs,
(a) Get three mathematical boxes or sets of playing cards.
(b) Label them as set A, B and C.
(c) List the elements in each set.
(d) Write all elements in the three sets as a new set.
(e) Express the new set in terms of A, B and C.
(f) List A.
Present your work to the class. Look at the case below.

Consider A to be a set of all vowels of the alphabet. Let A = {a, e,

i, o u} and B to be a set of whole numbers from 1 to 5. Then
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Now write all the elements that are in A and B. You obtain the
following set {a, e, i, o u, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. This is a set of all elements
of A and B. Therefore, this is known as Union of Sets A and B.
In short A ∪B = {a, e, i, o u, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Example 3:
Union of sets

84
 a. Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {a, 1, d}. What is AB?
Solution:
A ∪ B = {a, 1, b, c, d}
Note: a and d are not written twice since they are same
elements.
b. Let C = {Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe}
D = {Zomba, Thomas, Hanna}. What is CD?
Solution:
C ∪ D = {Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Zomba, Thomas,
Hanna}

Exercise 5c

1.  et = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, X = {a, d, e}, Y = {a, b, e} and Z = {a,

L
b, f}. List the elements of the following sets.
(a) X ∪Y
(b) X∪Y∪Z
(c) Y∪Z
(d) X∪Z
(e) X΄ ∪ Z΄
2. If = {a; b; c; d; e}, A = {a; c; e} and B = {a; e}, list the
members of the following sets.
(a) A∪B
(b) A΄ ∪ B
(c) A΄ ∪ B΄
(d) n(A ∪ B)
(e) (A ∪ B)΄

85
 3. If = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, N = {1, 3} and M = {3, 4}. Find
U
(a) N΄
(b) M΄
(c) (N ∪ M)
4. Given that the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9}, sets A
and B of U such that A = {even numbers} and B = {perfect
square}, find;
(a) A
(b) B
(c) n(A ∪ B΄)
(d) A΄ ∪ B΄
(e) n(A΄ ∪B΄)
Having looked at union of sets you will now look at intersection
of sets.

Intersection of sets
Intersecting sets are those sets which have some common
elements in them. These sets can be two or more.

Activity 3:

Identifying elements of in an intersection of two or three

sets
In pairs,
(a) Get three mathematical boxes or a set of cards of numbers.
(b) Label them as set A, B and C
(c) List the elements in each set
(d) Write elements common in the three sets, A, B and C.
(e) Express the new set in terms of A, B and C.

86
Present your work to the class. Look at the case below.

Consider set C = {first four letters of alphabet} and set D = {c, m,

x, d}.
These sets are not equal.
The symbol ∈ means “belongs to” or “a member of” e.g. Zomba ∈
D, means Zomba belongs to D.
Set C = {a, b, c, d,}.
You see that a ∈ C, b ∈ C, c ∈ C and d ∈ C, also c ∈ D, m ∈ D, x ∈ D
and d ∈ D.
Thus there are elements which are common to both sets. As
already stated these are intersecting sets and symbol for
intersection of sets is ∩.
Therefore C ∩ D = {c, d}. These are the only two elements, which
are found in both sets C and D.

Example 4:
Intersection of sets
Let A = {a, b, c, d, 2, 3}
B = {1, 2, 3}
C = {p, q, r, t}
Find (a) A ∩ B
(b) A ∩ C
Solution:
(a) A ∩ B = {2, 3}
Since 3 ∈ A, 3 ∈ B, 2 ∈ A and 2 ∈ B.
(b) A ∩ C = Ø, (Ø is the symbol for an empty set. In other
words, there is nothing in the given set).
Since A and C do not have any common element
Let P = {all positive whole numbers from 5 to 10}

87
 Q = {even numbers between 2 and 16}
R = {natural odd numbers}
Find (a) P ∩ Q
(b) Q ∩ R
(c) P ∩ R
Solution:
(a) P = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Q = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
R = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15,…}
∴ P ∩ Q = {6, 8, 10}

(b) P ∩ R = {5, 7, 9}
(c) Q ∩ R = Ø since there are no even numbers which are odd
numbers and there are no odd numbers which are even.

Exercise 5d

1.  et ξ = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, X = {a, d, e}, Y = {a, b, e} and Z = {a, b,

L
f}. List the elements of the following sets.
(a) X ∪ (Y ∩ Z)
(b) X∩Y∩Z
(c) (X ∪ Z) ∩ Y
(d) X ∩ Z΄
2. Let P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17}. List the elements of the
following sets:
(a) P∪Ø
(b) P∩Ø
3. If ξ = {a; b; c; d; e} and A = {a; c; e} and B = {b; e}, list the
members of the following sets.

88
 (a) A΄ ∩ B
(b) B΄ ∩ B
(c) (A ∩ B)΄
(d) A΄ ∩ B΄
(e) (A ∪ B)΄
(f) A΄ ∪ A
4. If ξ = {days of the week}, S = { words which contain the
letters s} and N = {words which contain six letters}.
(a) List the members of the sets S, N, S΄, N΄;
(b) List the members of the set,
(i) (S ∪ N)΄
(ii) (S ∩ N)΄
(c)  ence, without further working, list the members of
H
the sets
(i) S΄ ∩ N΄
(ii) S΄ ∪ N΄
5. If ξ = {c; h; I; d, k; e; n}, P = {n; i; c; e}and Q = {h; e; n}, list
the elements of the following;
(a) P∩Q
(b) P∪Q
(c) (P ∪ Q)΄
(d) (P ∩ Q)΄
(e) P΄ ∩ Q
(f) P ∪ Q΄

89
Number of elements in a set
In pairs discuss
If set A = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9} and set B = {2, 3, 4, 6}. List the
following;
(a) A ∪ B
(b) A ∩ B
(c) n (A)
(d) n (B)
(e) n (A ∪ B)
(f) n (A ∩ B)
Show that n (A) + n (B) = n (A ∪ B) + n (A ∩ B).

From this activity, you might have seen the following;

n (A) = 7; number of elements in set A
n (B) = 4; number of elements in set B
n (A ∪ B) = 8; total number of elements in A and B
n (A ∩ B) = 3; number of elements common in both A and B.
Substituting; n (A) + n (B) = n (A ∪ B) + n (A ∪ B)
This gives 7 + 4 = 8 + 3 = 11
Therefore for given sets A and B; n(A) + n(B) = n(A ∪ B) +
n(A ∩ B) usually written as n(A ∪B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

Venn diagrams
Venn diagrams are the principal way of showing sets
diagrammatically. The method involves mainly entering the
elements of a set into a circle or circles. You can use Venn
diagrams for both union and intersection of sets.

90
 Activity 4:

Illustrating elements of sets in a Venn diagram.

In pairs discuss; If B = {0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10}, C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}
and
D = {0, 1, 2, 8, 10, 13, 15}. Write the elements in the appropriate
set in the Venn diagram below;

B
C

Write the set language for the listed elements above as follows;
(a) Elements found in B and C only
(b) Elements common in B, C and D
(c) Elements found B and D only
(d) Elements found in B only
(e) Elements found in C only
(f) Elements found in D only
Present your work to the whole class. Now you will look at this
in detail.

Intersection of Sets
Consider the sets, A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3, d, e,x}.

91
 A
a e

b c

All the elements of set A are inside the circle. Now look at the
following sets:
A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3, d, e, x}.
These sets can be represented as follows:

A B
a
1
d
b 2
e 3
c x

In this diagram, it can be seen that those elements which belong

to both sets are placed in the region of the two circles. This
overlapping shows that the two sets intersect i.e.
A ∩ B = {d, e}.
What happens to two sets A and B whose intersection is empty
i.e.
A ∩ B = Ø? The Venn diagram looks like this:

92
 A B

The two circles do not intersect. This shows that the two circles
have no element which is common to both of them.

Example 5:
Venn diagrams
In a form 3 class of 108 students, 60 students like football, 53
like volleyball and 10 like neither. Calculate the number of
students who like football but not volleyball.
Solution:
Let the Venn diagram be like this:

F W

60 – x x 53 – x
10

Let the number of students who like both volleyball and football
be x.

∴ Students liking football only is 60 − x and those liking


volleyball only is 53 − x.
See the diagram above

∴ 60 − x + x + 53 − x = 98

−x = 98 −60 −53

93
 −x = 98 −113

∴ x = 15 divide both sides by −1

∴ Students likes football but not volleyball = 53 − 15 = 38

Exercise 5e

1. I f A = {prime numbers less than 20} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4,..10}

draw a Venn diagram illustrate the relation between A and
B.
2. If M = {all integers from 2 to 15} and N = {Prime numbers
less than 20}
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the information
above
(b) List the elements of the set M N.
3. P = {1, 4, 7, 11, 15, 17}
Q = {5, 10, 15}
R = {1, 4, 9}
Represent this information on a Venn diagram.
4. Let A = {months of a year}, B = {months starting with M}
and C = {months starting with N}
(a) List elements of A, B and C
(b) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate
(i) A∩ B
(ii) A∩C
(iii) B∩ C
5. Given that the universal set ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9}, sets A
and B of ξ such that A = {even numbers} and B = {perfect
square}, find;
Find the following;

94
 (a) n(A ∩ B)΄
(b) Show that n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)
6. The number of elements in each region of the Venn diagram
in the figure below are given as shown.

M N P

4
2 y 11
6

If n (ξ) = 36, find

(a) y
(b) n(N)
(c) n(M ∩ P)
(d) n(N΄ ∩ P΄)
7. Given that P and Q are sets such that n(P) = 9 and
n(Q) = 13 and n(P ∩ Q) = y, find n(P΄ ∪ Q΄) in terms of y. If
the total number of elements in P and Q is 15, find the value
of y.
8. In the Venn diagram below, the numbers of elements are
shown.

A B
4+a 15 a
9
C
14

If the n( U ) = 9a, find

(a) a (b) n(A) (c) n(A ∪ B)
(d) n(A ∩ B΄)

95
Union of Sets
Union of sets can also be presented in Venn diagram. Firstly do
the activity below. Venn diagram is also used in Union of sets.

Activity 5:

Illustrating union of sets in the Venn diagram

In pair, discuss;
If A = {d, e} and B = {a, b, c, d, e}, illustrate the given set in the
Venn diagram;
Report your work to class.
Do more solving problems involving Venn diagram

Solving problems involving sets using Venn diagram

Venn diagrams in mathematics are also used to solve problems
which might be more difficult to solve without the use of Venn
diagrams. See the example given below.

Example 6:
Using Venn diagrams
In a group of 20 college students, 12 are taking Mathematics, 10
Physics and 14 Chemistry. 6 take Mathematics and Physics, 4
Chemistry and Physics and 8 Mathematics and Chemistry. Each
student is taking at least one of these subjects. How many of the
students are taking all the three subjects?
Solution
Let M = {students taking mathematics},
P = {students taking Physics}
C= {students taking Chemistry}
Illustrating as a Venn diagram;
The universal is ξ = M ∪ P ∪ C.

96
 M P

y
6-y
y-2

y 4-y
8− y
y+2 C

n (M ∩ P) = 6– y; students taking Mathematics and Physics

only.
n (P ∩ C) = 4 − y; students taking Physics and Chemistry.
n(C ∩ M) = 8−y; students taking Mathematics and Chemistry.
n(M ∩ P ∩ C) = y; students taking all the three subjects.
n (M) = 12; students taking Mathematics, n (M ∩ P΄ ∩ C΄);
Students taking Mathematics only
= 12 – (6 – y) – y – (8 – y)
= 12 – 6 + y – y – 8 + y
y–2
=
n (P) = 10; students taking Physics
n(P) = P ∩ M΄ ∩ C΄ = Students taking Physics only
= 10 – (6 – y) – y – (4 – y)
= 10 – 6 + y –y – 4 + y
=y
n( C ) = 14; students taking Chemistry
n(C ∩P΄∩ M΄); Students taking Chemistry only
= 14 – (8 – y) – y – (4 – y)
= 14 – 8 + y – y – 4 + y
=y+2

97
 But n(M ∪ P ∪ C) = 20; the total number of students
(y – 2) + (6 – y) + y + (8 – y) + y + (4 – y) + y + 2 = 20
9 +y = 20
y = 20 −18
y=2
n (M ∩ P ∩ C) = 2; students taking all the subjects.
Now do the following exercise.

Exercise 5f

1. Use the Venn diagram to answer the questions below.

(a) ξ A B
5 1
6
2 8
4

List the elements of the following

(a) ξ
(b) A
(c) A∩B
(d) A ∪B
(e) (A ∪ B)΄
(f) (A ∩ B)΄
2. In a group of 100 students, 55 likes netball, 63 likes rugby
and 15 likes neither, calculate the number of students who
like only netball.
3. In a class of 30 students 20 takes History, 15 French and 2

98
 takes neither. How many take;
(a) both History and French?
(b) History only?
(c) French only?
4. Let B = {all boys in your class} and G = {all girls in your
class}. Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate B ∩ G.
5. Consider the figure below:

2
A B
16 10
1 18
14 20
5 7
3
11

List the elements of

(a) ξ (b) A
(c) B (d) A ∩B
(e) (A ∩ B)΄ (f) A΄
(g) B΄ (h) A∪B
6. The figure below shows a Venn diagram.

N V

2x 2x+1 x

10

In the Venn diagram, ξ = {girls in form three}

N = {girls that play netball}
V = {girls that play volleyball}

99
 Given that there are 21 girls in the class, find how many
girls play both netball and volleyball.
7.  iven that universal set ξ = {11,14,15,17, 18, 20, 23, 26},
G
and set X = {11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20} and set Y = {15, 17, 18,
20, 23, 26}, find X΄ ∪ Y΄
8.  iven that the universal set ξ = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,
G
18, 19}, Set B = {number greater than 16}, and set
C = {multiples of 3}.
Find the elements of:
(a) Set B
(b) Set C
(c) Set (B ∪ C)΄

Unit summary
•  set is a collection of objects. The things or objects that
A
make up a set are called members or elements of the set. It
is possible to have a set which contains objects that do not
have anything in common. Whether the objects are related
in some way or not, as long as they form a collection, they
comprise a set.

• Sets are denoted by a capital letters. There are various

symbols that are used in set language. In the next unit, you
will look at mapping and functions.

Unit review exercise

1.  class of 50 students wrote tests in mathematics, biology
A
and physical science. The results of the tests were as
follows; 12 passed mathematics and physical science, 19
passed mathematics and biology; 17; passed Biology and
physical science; 2 passed physical science only, 5 passed
mathematics only and 6passed Biology only. If 5 students
failed all the three subjects and y passed all the subjects,
use Venn diagram to calculate the value of y.

100
2. Given that A = {11, 12, 15,17}, B = {11, 15, 17, 19, 20} and
C = {11, 17, 21}.
(a) Show the three sets on a Venn diagram
(b) Find n(A).
3. Given that X = {a, e}; Y = {b, c, d, e} and Z = {c, d, e, f},
find {X ∪ Y ∪ Z}
4. The figure below is a Venn diagram showing the number of
elements in sets M, N and universal set ξ.

M
N

4x 4−x 16

2x

If n(M ∪ N) = 29, calculate the value of x.

5. At Chimwemwe secondary school, 72 students like watching
football, 64 like watching basketball and 62 like watching
netball, 18 like watching football and basketball, 24
like watching football and netball and 20 like watching
basketball and netball, 8 students like watching all the
three games and 56 don’t like watching any game.
(i) Draw a Venn diagram representing this information.
(ii) From the Venn diagram, calculate the number of
students at the school.
6.  church congregation has a youth group and a music
A
group. There are 400 people in the congregation out of
which 40 people belong to both the youth group and music
group. There 60 members who belong to the youth group
only, while 220 belong to neither the youth group nor the
music group.
(i) Draw a Venn diagram illustrating this information.
(ii) Calculate the number of people who belong to the
music group only.
7. In a family, six members eat meat; five members eat fish

101
 while two members eat both. Calculate the number of
members in the family.
8. I n form 3 class, students learn French, Latin and History.
20 students learn French, 55 learn Latin and 37 learn
History. 7 students learn French and Latin only, 5 learn
Latin and History only, 2 learn French and History only, 10
do not learn any of these subjects while x students learn all
the three subjects. If there are 100 students in the class,
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
(b) Use your Venn diagram to calculate the number of
students who learn Latin only.
9. The figure given below shows a Venn diagram of sets A, B
and C.

A B
3
5 12
2
4
7

9
C

Find A’ (B C).
(i) Draw a venn diagram and shade the region
representing A΄ ∩ B΄ ∩ C.
(ii) Find n(A΄ ∩ B΄ ∩ C), if n(A ∪ B) = 8 and
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 12
10. In a class of 50 students, each of the students ate at least
one of the following types of fruits: Banana, mango, and
orange. It was found that: (x + 1) students ate all the three
types of fruits, 9 students ate mangoes and oranges only, 8
ate bananas and mangoes only, 5 ate banana and oranges
only, x students ate bananas only, (x − 1) students ate
mangoes only and (x + 4) students ate oranges only.
(i) Illustrate the information using a venn diagram.

102
 (ii) Find the number of students who ate mangoes.
 uring National Examinations, 37 students sat for an
11. D
examination in Mathematics, 48 Physical science and 45 sat
for Biology. 15 students sat for Mathematics and Physical
science. 13 sat for Physical science and Biology, 7 sat for
Mathematics and Biology and 5 students sat for all three.
Draw Venn diagram to represent this information and
hence find the total number of candidates.

Glossary
A set is a collection of objects.
Empty or null set is set that has no elements.
Universal set is the main set that contains all the elements in
it.
A Subset is a set that contains wholly or part of the elements in
a universal set.
Equal sets are sets that contain exactly the same members,
regardless of the order in which the members are presented.
A proper subset is a set that has few elements than those
given in the universal set or if it is not exact subset of itself.
Finite set is a set with countable number of elements in it.
Infinite set is set whose elements are not countable
Union of set is the set of all elements that are of either.
Intersection of set is set that has elements that are common
in all the given sets.
The complement of a set is the set containing all elements in
a universal set but are not members of this given set.

References
Chikwakwa, e t al (2002), Senior Secondary Mathematics
Student′s Book 3. Blantyre: Macmillan Malawi.

103
Hau S and Saiti F (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:
Longman Malawi.
J B Channon et al, New general Mathematics 3, A modern
Course for Zimbabwe, Longman group Ltd (1996), UK.
Elaine Ryder et al, CHANCO Teach yourself series, Mathematics
Questions and Model answers, second Edition (2013), Chancellor
College Publications, Zomba, Malawi

104
 Defining mapping and
functions
Unit Before defining mapping and
function, you will first of all do the
activity.

6 Activity 1:

Identifying relations
a) Make two groups ,A and B of
seven students each.
MAPPING AND FUNCTIONS
b)  ach student in A should carry
E
a card with a name of one
student in group B.
c) Using a rope match a name in
B with every person in A.
(i)  o how many persons is
T
the rope being assigned?
(ii)  hat do you call such
W
In the last unit you looked sets. linking?
In this unit you are going to look
From the above activity, you might
at functions. A function is a value
have seen that every person of group
which depends on and varies with
A has a unique corresponding name
another value. You are going to
in set B. Such a correspondence is
represent functions in different
called a relation.
forms and also find the range and
domain of functions. Such kind of a correspondence also
happens with numbers.
Functions are the central object
of investigation in most fields of For example, if set A is all real
modern mathematics. numbers and set B is twice the
number in A then this defines a
The ideas of functions are used
relation between elements set of A
on daily basis knowingly or
and those of B. In this case;
unknowingly. Functions will help
to promote your thinking. 1 corresponds to 2,
3 corresponds to 6,
4 corresponds to 8,
6 corresponds to 12

105
 Notice that every number in set A corresponds to a unique (only
one) number in set B in other words; each element in A maps
onto one element in B.

Can you list the ordered pairs from the example above and come
with own ordered pairs.

Thus a relation is a set of ordered pairs such as (1, 2), (3, 6),
(4, 8) and (6, 12) from above.

The set of ordered pair has input and output values. The set
of inputs is called domain and the set of output is called the
range also referred to as image.

Relation
There are of four types relations namely;
1. One - to - one relation
One member in a domain relates or maps onto one member
of the range. e.g. Square the input to get output.
A B
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16

2. One – to – many relation

A member of the domain A relates to more than one member

of range B. Students who belong to more than one club at
school.
A B

Maths
John
Debate
Mary CAPSO
SCOM

3. Many – to – one relation

For one element in the range, there is more than one

106
 element of the domain that relate to it. This is also called
multi-valued functions. For example, a number of students
may obtain the same grade in a particular subject in an
examination.

Debora
James 1
Harry
Meda 2
Rabecca

4. Many – to – many relation

For one element of the domain, there is more than one
member of the range that relates to it and one element in
the range, there is more than one element of the domain
relating to it. Students are members of more than one club
society and a club society a club society has more than one
student.

Dziko Science
Kafa Debate
Dala YCS

Example 1:

Identifying relations

Which of these arrow diagrams are relations?

A B A B
a d a d
b e b e
(a) c f (b) c f

107
 A B

0
1 2
2 3
8
(c)

In diagrams (a), (c) represent functions, why? This is because

every element in A has a unique element in B. Diagram (b) does
not represent a relation. Why?

In these diagrams, the elements in set A are called the inputs

and in set B are called the outputs.The set of inputs is called
domain and the set of output is called the range also referred
to as image

Exercise 6a

In the following diagrams, say whether the arrow diagrams

represent relation and if not explain why not?
a p
1 3
b q
2 5
c r
3 9
d s
(a) (b)

usipa

2 3 utaka
3 7 chambo
fish mcheni
9 17
5 24 mcheni
(c) (d)

108
 2 3
1
3 2
1 1 3
9 2
2 9
5 1
4 3
(e) (f)

Mapping
A mapping is a special relation in which each element in one
set is related to one element of the other set or pairing of input
values with output values. Which of the four types of relation is
a mapping? Certain statements are used in mapping such as,
Y
If y is the operation “the square of”, written as A B. In this
statement, elements in A are squared to get elements in set B.

Now look at the example below.

Example 2:

Elements of a relation

Let a be the operation of “add 3 to” A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. What are

the members of the new set?

Solution

Let the image which is the new set be B

B = {4, 3, 8, 10, 12}; add 3 to input to get an output.

Exercise 6b

1. What type of relation is presented by the diagrams?

109
 a 6
1 3 b 4
2 5 c 2
3 9 d
(a) (b)

Chitipa
Malawi Nsanje
Mchinji
Mangochi
(c )

2. B is the operation “multiply by 2, add 1”, G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5}

B
and G H. list the members of H.
3. X is the operation “square and add 2” A = {2, 3, 4, 5}. What
are the members onto which A is mapped?
4. V is the operation “cubed” and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. What are
the members of S, the set onto which the V is mapped?
5. Let S be the operation “the squaring of ˮ and T = {1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6}. What is the image of T’?

Identifying functions
In mathematics a function is a relation between a set of
permissible outputs with property that each input is related to
exactly one output or

a rule which maps a single number to another single number.

An example is the function that relates each real number x to its
square x2. Can you generate this function?

Which of the four types of relations are functions?

Only one – to – one mapping and many – to − one mapping

represent function.

110
Oral exercise

Which of the following are functions? Give reason for your

answer.

domain range
domain range a p
3 9 b q
5 25 c r
7 49 d s
(a) (b)

domain range

2 1
domain range
1
3 2
Chitipa 1
Malawi Nsanje 9 3
Mchinji
Salima 5 1
4
(c) (d)

If a mapping is a function, it must satisfy these conditions;

(a) Each element of the domain has a unique image.
(b) The domain and the range have one – to – one
correspondence or have many – to – one correspondence.

Function notation
There are several ways of describing a function. They are by
means of;
(a) A mapping diagram like what you have done so far.
(b) an algebraic equation such as y = 5x−4
(c) A graph. y = x2

111
 y

(d) a set of ordered pairs like {(0,1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}
(e) as a table of values

x 0 1 2 3 5
y 0 3 6 9 15

The algebraic functions notation can take three different forms

and these are;

(a) y = 5x − 4

(b) f ( x) = 5x − 4 read as the function f of x = 5x − 4.

f : x → 5x − 4. which is read as the function f such that x
(c) 
maps onto 5x – 4.

All the three expressions mean that y is a function of g ( x), h( x)

are also used to double functions.

A function f takes an input x, and returns an output f(x). x is the

value taken by the function when you evaluate f(x) at a point.
f(x) is commonly used.

One metaphor describes the function as a "machine" or as

"black box" that for each input returns a corresponding output.
Each element of the domain is said to be mapped onto the
element of the second set (output) that corresponds to it.

You put the value of x into machine to get the output value. See
the illustration.

112
 Input x

Output, f(x)

Input and Output machine

Activity 2:

Finding the range given the domain

In pair, find the range given that f(x) = 5x – 4 if domain is

{0, 1,2 ,3}

Present your work to class.

Now look at the example below.

Worked Examples 3:

Range and domain

a.  onsider the function f ( x) = 3x + 5 with domain {5, 8, 11, 14,
C
17}. The range is found by substituting each number of the
domain into 3x + 5.Thus when
x=0 f (0) = 3(0) + 5 = 5
x =1 f (1) = 3(1) + 5 = 8
x=2 f (2) = 3(2) + 5 = 11
x=3 f (3) = 3(3) + 5 = 14
x=4 f (4) = 3(4) + 5 = 17

Hence the range is the set 5, 8, 11, 14, 17

In this example, 0 is mapped onto 5, then 5 is said to be the

image of 2, and 0 is a pre – image of 5

a) For the function f: x → x2 −3

Evaluate:

113
 (i) f (1)

(ii) f (5)

(iii) f (–4)

(iv) f (0)

Solution

Substitute x by the given x- value.

f (1) = (1)2 –3 = −2

f (5) = (5)2 –3 = 22

f (−4) = (−4)2 –3 = 13

f (0) = 62 −3 = −3

Exercise 6c

1. If f (1) = 2x + 3, evaluate:

a) f (1) b) f (3)

c) f (7) d) f (10)

e) f (40)

2. If f (x ) = 4x − 3, evaluate:

a) f (0) b) f (2)

c) f (5) d) f(−1)

e) f(a)

3. If g (x ) = x2 + 6, calculate:

a) g(2) b) g(4)

c) g(−3) d) g(1)

114
 e) g(−1)

4. If g (x ) = 2x2 −5 calculate:

a) g(0) b) g(1)

c) g (1/ 2) d) g (− 1/ 4)
e) g(−3/2)

If h(x ) = 3x − 4 , calculate:
5.
2
a) h(0) b) h(4)

c) h(6) d) f (10)

e) h(−2/3)

3x + 2, calculate:
f (x ) =
6. 4
a) f (− 6) b) f (2.5)

c) f (− 0.5) d) f (0)

e) f (− 1.6)

− 6x + 8
7. If h : x → , calculate:
4
a) h(i ) b) h(0)

c) h(4) d) h(1.5)

e) h(− 22)

If x → (x + 2)(x − 4), calculate

8.
−x
a) g(1) b) g(4)

c) g(0) d) g(− 2)

e) g(− 8)

115
 For the function f : x → − x − 2. Evaluate
9.
3
a) f (4) b) f (10)

c) f (− 8) d) f (0)

e) f (1)

10. If f (x ) = 3x2 − 5x − 8, write down the value of

a) f (− 2) b) f (1)
c) f (0) d) f (2)
e) f (4)
11. Copy and complete figure 6.1 if the relation is
a) x → 3x − 2

b) x → x2

1
1
2
3
4
5

Figure 6.1

12. With {1, 3, 4, 5, 6} as domain draw mapping diagrams for

f : x → 3x + 2 and f : x → 3x2 − 2

Finding the domain given the range

Sometimes you know the range and you are asked to find the
domain. To do this you solve the equation for x.

Activity 3:

Finding the element in the domain

In pairs do the following, If f(x) = 1 find the value of x in the

function f : x → 3x2 − 2

116
 Present your work to class.
Now look at the given example below, compare your way of
working.

Example 3:

a) If f (x ) = 2x − 3 find x if f (x ) = 5 this means

5 = 2x − 3
8 = 2x
4= x
b) G
 iven g(x) = 3x +2 find the domain given the range is {2, 11,
−1, −13} Solve equations, equating g(x) = 2, 11, −1, −13 in
turns.
2 = 3x + 2
0 = 3x
0= x
11 = 3x + 2
3x = 9
x=3
�
3x + 2 = −1
3x = −3
x = −1
�

Therefore the range is {0, 3, −1, − 5}

Exercise 6d

1. If f (x ) = 5x + 1, find x if

a) f (x ) = 11 b) f (x ) = 6

c) f (x ) = 21 d) f (x ) = −14

e) f (x ) = −49.

117
2. If g (x ) = 7x − 3, find x if

a) g (x ) = 11 b) g (x ) = −3

c) g (x ) = 137 d) g (x ) = −17

e) g (x ) = −73

4x − 2
3. If h(x ) = , find x if
5
a) h(x) = 2
b) h(x) = − 2
c) h(x) = 7
d) h(x) = 10

4 If f(x) = x2 +2x – 3, find x if

a) f(x) = 21
b) f(x) = −3
c) f(x) = 0

5 If g: x → x2 – 1, find x if
a) g(x) = 3
b) g(x) = 8
c) g(x) = 1.25

6. If h(x) = x + 3, find x if
a) h(x) = 5
b) h(x) = 0
c) h(x) = 4.5

118
Solving real life involving functions
In everyday life you unknowingly or knowing use relations in
business and other areas.

Activity 4:

Identifying real life functions

In groups discuss; which of the following could be functions.

State your reason.
(a) Petrol used by a car and distance travelled.
(b) Number of days and food used in the boarding school.
(c) Number of people and food used.
(d) Radius of a circle and area of the circle.
(e) Number of days spent in the boarding school and food left.
(f) Distance travelled and time taken in hours.
(g) Body mass and height of the person.

Report your answers to class in a plenary session and now look

at the example below.

Example 4:

Functions in real life

If an orange costs K10, how many oranges will one buy with
K30, K50, K80, and K100?

Solution

To get the number of oranges, divide the given amount by

the cost.

Let the function be f(x) = x/10, the domain is {30, 50, 80,
100}

Then f(30), f(50), f(80), f(100)

119
 In table form, you have;

x 30 50 80 100
f(x) 3 5 8 10

Exercise 6e

1. I n order to mitigate the impact of climate change, a village

raised tree seedlings of which only half planted became fully
grown. Let x represent the number of seedlings planted and
y represent the number that become full grown trees.
(a) Write an equation that shows the relationship described
above.
(b) F
 ind four solutions of the equations. Write the solutions as
ordered pair.
(c) Why does negative value not make sense?

2. The table below shows the tax rates provided by the MRA
on salary earned.

Taxable income on monthly Rate of tax

income(MK)
First 20,000 0%
Next 5,000 15%
Excess of 25,000 30%

Three people gets the following; K15, 000, K22, 000 and
K24, 000 as their monthly incomes.
Find how much will each pay to MRA. Give your answer as
an ordered pair.
3. Grace is saving money to be used to buy school bag for
K2200. She already has K1500 in her savings account. She
plans to add K80 each day from the money she earns for
selling freezes. The equation f(x) =1500 + 80x describes total
Grace’s total savings f(x) after x weeks.
After how many weeks will she have enough money to
purchase the bag?

120
 4. The temperature in degrees of the mine varies with depth.
The temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, y is estimated by
y = 18x + 66.5 where x is the depth in kilometres.
(a) C
 reate a table of five ordered pairs of values that relate the
depth of mine and the temperature of its walls.
 hat would be the temperature of walls be if the mine is
(b) W
3.6km deep.
5.  he formula for finding the perimeter of a square with s
T
units long is P = 4s. Find five ordered pairs of values that
satisfy this condition.

Unit summary
• I n this unit you have looked at functions. A function is rule
of correspondence between two sets such that exactly one
element in the second set corresponds to each element in
the first set. The set of values in the domain is called the
input and a range of values is called a output. The next unit
looks at circle geometry where you will look at the angle
properties.

Unit review exercise

1. Let g(x) = √x and h(x) = 7 +2x
a) g(9)
b) h(9)
c) g(1)
d) h(1)

2. If f(x) = x2−2x, find

a) f(1),
b) f(2),
c) f(4)

121
 3
,
3. If f(x) = 24 5 find
a) f(3)
b) f(−8)
c) f(−5)

4. For the function f: x → x2 − 3, find x if

a) f (x) = −2
b) f (x) = 22

c) f (x) = 13

d) f (x) = −3

5. Given that f(x) = 9x, calculate f(32)

6.  he figure below an arrow diagram for the function
T
f(x) = 4x − 2.

x f f(x)

3 9
5 q
p 6

Find the values of values of p and q.

3
,
7. Given that f(x) = 8 find f (-b) in its simplest form.
3
8. Given that g(x) = +1, calculate the value of x when g(x) = 2.
2 1 1
9. T
 he function g(x) = is defined on the domain {−1, 2, 1}.
Draw the arrow diagram to represent this function.
10. Given that f(x) = ax − 6 and f (6) = 18, find a.
11. T
 ranslate the sentence to equation and find four solutions
as ordered pair. Some number is 4 more than the second

122
 number.
12. Linda buys drinks for a morning meeting. She knows that
the staff prefers fanta over coke. If she buys at least twice
as many fanta as cocoa, write a relation to show different
possibilities.
 he table below shows the distance covered by a motorist
13. T
from from Lilongwe to Blantyre.

t(h) 0 1 3 5 6
d (km) 0 50 150 250 300

What type of relation is this?

Draw distance time graph. Find the time travelled in 4hours
time.
14. The table below shows approximate populations of certain
local towns.

Town A B C D E
Population 1600 3000 5000 10000 12000

If HIV prevalence rate in Malawi as of 2014 is at 10.5%.


If f(x) = 0.105x, calculate the number of people who are
infected in each town, assuming that the prevalence rate is
the same in the entire town. Give your answer as an ordered
pair.
15. A
 s a thunderstorm approaches, you see lighting as it occurs,
but you hear the accompanying sound of thunder a short
time afterwards. The distance y in miles that sound travels
in x seconds is given by the equation y = 0.21x.
(a) C
 reate a table of five ordered pairs of values that relate
the time it takes to hear thunder and the distance from the
lighting.
(b) How far away is lighting when the thunder is heard 2.5s
after the light is seen?

123
Summary
The unit has looked at functions. A function is rule of
correspondence between two sets such that exactly one element
in the second set corresponds to each element in the first set.
The next unit looks at circle geometry where you will look at the
angle properties.

Glossary
Function (or mapping) is rule of correspondence between two
sets such that exactly one element in the second set corresponds
to each element in the first set.

Domain is the first set of inputs of a function.

Range is the set of images of all the elements in the domain of a

function.

References
Fawdry J. B. (1994), Additional Mathematics a course of students,
Mathematics Association of Malawi.

Hau S. and Saiti F. (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:

Longman Malawi.

Elaine R. et al, CHANCO Teach yourself series, Mathematics

Questions and Model answers, Second Edition (2013), Chancellor
College Publications, Zomba, Malawi

Thomo F. et al (2011). Excel and Succeed secondary

Mathematics for 3. Nairobi: Longhorn Publishers.

124
 Describing angle
properties of a circle
Unit You will begin the unit by first
establishing the relationship between

7 the angle at the centre and that at

the circumference.

Activity 1:

CIRCLE GEOMETRY Establishing that the angle at the

ANGLE PROPERTIES centre is twice the angle at the
circumference

In pairs Draw a circle of a reasonable

radius with centre O as shown below.
(a) Draw angle AOC with A and C
on the circumference.
(b)  raw another angle ABC
D
In unit 3, you learnt about circle with B at any point on the
geometry in relation to parts circumference.
of the circle, and properties of a
(c)  easure angle AOB and angle
M
chord. In this unit, you will learn
ABC
about angle property in which
you will learn about the properties (d) What conclusion can you draw
of a circle and prove theorems on angle AOB and angle ABC?
involving angles. You will
describe the properties of cyclic Present your work to class.
quadrilateral and apply properties
of a cyclic quadrilateral to solve B
problems.

The knowledge of circles is used in

different fields such as production O
of wheels and tires, dinner plate
and coins in industries.
A C

Figure 7.1

125
You might have noted that the angle at the centre is twice the angle at the
circumference. I.e. angle AOB = 2angle ABC.

Can you try to show this by proving using the diagram above? Now compare
your work the with the proof shown below.

Theorem:

Angle which an arc of a circle subtends at the centre is twice the

angle which it subtends at any point on the remaining part of
the circumference.

Using the drawings shown below

O
E
A B P
H
A B
(a) E (b) H

O
A
H
B Figure 7.2
(c) E

Given: a minor arc AHB of the circle, centre O, and a point P on

the remaining part of the circumference

To proof: ∠AOB = 2∠APB

Construction: join PO and produce it to any point E

Proof: AO = OP (radii)

126
 ∠OAP = ∠OPA (base ∠s of isos.)

But ∠EOA is an exterior angle of AOP,

∠EOA = ∠OAP + ∠OPA (2 opp. int. ∠s of equal to

ext. ∠)

∠EOA = 2∠OPA

Similarly, ∠EOB = 2 ∠OPB

But ∠APB = ∠OPA + ∠OPA

And also ∠AOB = ∠EOA + ∠EOB

= 2∠OPA + 2∠OPA

∠AOB = 2APB

In pairs, using figure 7.3 below show that ∠APB = ∠AOB

consider the reflex ∠AOB.

P
A

O B

Figure 7.3
H

Now you will look at the angle in a semicircle.

Activity 2:

Establishing that the angle in a semicircle is a right angle

In pairs:Using a pair of compass and ruler, construct a circle of

reasonable radius with centre O.
(a) Draw a diameter AB
(b) M
 ark point C at any point on the circumference on opposite
side of the diameter
(c) Draw angle ACB and measure its size.

127
(d) W
 hat do you notice? Find out from your friends what they
have come up with. Well, you might have found out that an
angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
How can you prove that? Discuss with a friend if you can also
show the proof.

Theorem: The angle in a semi - circle is a right angle.

Given: a circle with centre O and a diameter AB subtending

∠ACB at the circumference.
C

A B
O

Figure 7.4

To prove: ∠ACB = 90

Proof: ∠AOB = 2∠ACB (∠ at the centre twice the ∠

at the circumference)

But ∠AOB = 1800 (∠ on a straight line)

2 ∠ACB = 1800

∠ACB = 900 (divide both sides of by 2)

Thus angle in a semicircle is a right angle.

What is the relationship between the angles are in the same

segment which are subtended by the same arc or chord.

Activity 3:

Proving that angles subtended by the same arc/chord are

equal.

In groups discuss using the figure 7.5 below, show that a = b

128
Figure 7.5
P
M
a P M
b

O
A B
O
A B
(a) (b)

Present your work to the class.

Now look at the theorem.

Theorem: angles subtended by the same arc / chord are equal

or angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

P
M

O
A B Figure 7.6

Given: a circle with centre O and ∠APB and ∠AMB on

the circumference

To prove: ∠APB = ∠AMB

Construction: In (a) join AO and BO

Proof: ∠AOB = 2∠APB (∠ at centre twice ∠

at circ.)

Also ∠AOB = 2∠AMB (as above)

∠APB = ∠AMB

Similarly in (b) both angles are angles in a semicircle.

You will have to apply these theorems to solve some problems.

Here are some examples.

Example 1

In figure below, O is the centre of circle ABCD.

129
 A
O 34
0

D B
C

If ∠BAD = 340, find ∠BOD and ∠Bbncgn CD

Solution;

∠BOD = 2∠BAD = 2 x 340 = 680 ( ∠ at the centre = twice ∠

at the circum.)

Reflex ∠BOD = 3600 − 680 = 2920 (∠at the point)

∠BCD = ½∠BOD = ½(2920) = 1460 ( ∠ at the centre

= twice ∠ at the
circum.)

In figure 7.7, RT is a diameter of circle RSTV, centre O.

Figure 7.7
S
0
65

V T

If ∠RTV = 650, find ∠TVS.

Solution;

In ∆TRS

∠RST = 900 (∠ in a semicircle)

∠TRS = 1800 – (900 + 650) (∠ sum of)

= 250

But ∠TRS = ∠TVS ( ∠s subtended by the same

chord TS)

130
 ∠TVS = 250

Now do the exercise below.

Exercise 7a

1. Find the lettered angles in the given circles.

1190

O y
32
x y

v
(a) (b)

36
0 x

O O
y
y
x 400
(c) (d)

x 470
O x
1400 y
v
(e) (f)

Cyclic quadrilaterals
Properties of a cyclic quadrilateral

Now you will look at cyclic quadrilateral. Can you define a cyclic
quadrilateral?

A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral in which all the four

131
vertices lie on the circumference.

Activity 4:

Describing properties of a cyclic quadrilateral

In pairs;
(a) Draw a circle with centre O with reasonable radius as like
the one below.
(b) In the circle draw a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
(c) U
 sing a protractor, measure all the angles of the cyclic
quadrilateral ABCD.

What can you say about the opposite angles of a cyclic

quadrilateral?

A C
O

Figure 7.8
D

Now using the diagram above and your previous knowledge,

show that ∠A + ∠D = 1800.

Report your findings to the class.

Did you note that the opposite sides are supplementary? The
sum of supplementary angle is 1800. Now look at this theorem.

Theorem: the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral

are supplementary or angles in opposite segments are
supplementary

Given: a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD

To prove: ∠BAD + ∠BCD = 1800

132
 A
x B

2y
D
2x

y Figure 7.9

Join: Join OB and OD

Proof: with letters in the figure above

∠BOD = 2y (∠ at the centre = twice ∠ at the circum.)

Reflex ∠BOD = 2x (as above)

2x + 2y = 3600 (∠s at a point)

x + y = 1800 divide by 2 both sides

Hence ∠BAD + ∠BCD = 1800

Having looked at that, now you will look at the interior and
exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral

Activity 5:

The interior and external angle of a cyclic quadrilateral

In groups

Study the figure below.

133
 B C

A D Figure 7.10

(a) Draw a similar figure and measure ∠ABC and ∠CDE.

(b) What do you notice?
(c) What is the relationship between these two angles?
(d) Identify the interior angle and exterior angle between ∠ABC
and ∠CDE.
(e) Discuss and show theoretically that ∠ABC = ∠CDE.
(f) Present your work to the class.

You might have noted in the figure above that ∠ABC = ∠CDE.

Now look at the theorem below.

Theorem: The exterior angle of cyclic quadrilateral is equal to

the interior opposite angle.

Given: a cyclic quadrilateral PQRS with PS extended

to T

To prove: ∠PQR = ∠RST

Proof: with letters in the figure

y + x = 1800 (opp. ∠s of cyclic quad,)

y + v = 1800 (∠s on str. line)

x = v (= 1800 – y)

∠PQR = ∠RST

Now you can apply the knowledge acquired and solve some
problems. Look at the example below.

134
Example 2

In the figure A, B, C, D are points on a circle centre O. BA is

produced to E. If ∠DAE = 760 and ∠ADO = 690, find ∠ABO.

A
76
0
D
69
B
o
O

Figure 7.11

Solution;

∠BCD = 760 (= ext. ∠ of cycl. quad.)

∠BOD = 1520

∠BAD = 1800 − 760 (∠s on str. line)

1040
=

Now in quadrilateral. ABCD

∠ABO = 3600 −1520 – 1040 −690 (∠ sum of quad.)

= 350

∠ABO = 350

In the figure 7.12 below, CE is a diameter of a circle ABCDE. If

∠ABC = 1260, find ∠ACE.

135
 B
1260

C
A

O
E

D Figure 7.12

Solution;

∠ADC = 180 − 1260 (opp. ∠ of cycl. quad.)

= 540

∠EDC = 900 (∠ in semicircle)

∠ADE = 900 – 540 = 360

But ∠ADE = ∠ACE (∠s in the same segment)

∠ACE = 360

Now do the following exercise.

Exercise 7b

1. Find the value of the variables

1020
y0 1000
0
85
e
700 x0
320
(a) (b)

136
 470
(c)

a0 b0 c0
980
710

(d)

y0 1150
x0 g0

820
z0
0
1100 f0 105
(e) (f)

2.In the figure 7.13 below, if DC is a diameter and O is the centre

of the circle, calculate angles BDC and DAB.

A
B

D C
O

Figure 7.13
Now you will look at concyclic points.

Concyclic points and cyclic quadrilaterals

What do you understand by concyclic points? In last two
theorems, you were looking at cyclic quadrilaterals. Do
remember how you defined cyclic quadrilateral? Deduce the

137
 meaning of concyclic points from there.

Concyclic points are points which lie on the circumference of a

circle.

Showing that points are concyclic

If the four points A, B, C, and D lie on a circle, then they are

said to be concyclic

Activity 6:

Showing that points are concyclic

In groups;
(a) What are the properties of angles in cyclic quadrilaterals?
(b) D
 iscuss three ways on how you can show that points are
concyclic.
(c) Present your work to the class.

Now to show that points are concyclic points, you look at the
converse of the theorems you looked earlier in this unit.

The following holds true for concyclic points

1.If the angles subtended by the same line are equal for example,
angles APB, AQB, ARB are equal and subtended by AB.

Q
P R

A B Figure 7.13

Which points are concyclic? Here ∠ APB = ∠AQB = ∠ARB and

A, P, Q, R and B are concyclic points.

If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then

138
 the quadrilateral is cyclic.

C
B
x1

y x2
A D

2. If x1 + y = 1800, then this shows that ABCD is a cyclic

quadrilateral and that A, B, C, D are concyclic points.
3. If the exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to the interior
opposite angle, then the quadrilateral is a cyclic.
From the figure above if x1 = x2 then ABCD is a cyclic
quadrilateral and A, B, C, D are concyclic points.
Now look at the example below.

Example 3
If ABCD is a quadrilateral in which ∠ABC = 950, ∠BAC = 530,
∠ADB = 320.Prove that ABCD is a quadrilateral.
Solution;
Sketch the quadrilateral

B C

950

530
320
A D

In ∆ ABC
∠ACB = 1800 – 950 – 530 (∠ sum in )
= 320
But ∠ACB =∠ADB = 320 (as shown)

139
 Also ∠ACB and ∠ADB are subtended the line AB
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.

Exercise 7c

1.  BC is an equilateral triangle and ACD is an isosceles

A
triangle drawn outside ∠ABC such that DA = DC and ∠DCB
is a right angle. Prove that A, B, C, D are concyclic.
2. PQRS is a trapezium having PQ parallel to SR and ∠PSR =
∠QRS = 730. Prove that PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral.

3.In the figure below, O is the centre of the circle ABP, MO is

perpendicular to AB, and BPM is a straight line.

L
O M

P
B

Prove that
(a) A, O, P, M are concyclic points.
(b) Angle OPA = angle OMB

4. In the figure below, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral and O is the

centre of the circle. AB is parallel to DC and BC produced meets
AD produced at M.

140
 B

A O

Prove that;
(a) MCD is isosceles triangle
(b) ODMB is a cyclic quadrilateral
5. M
 NYX is a circle centre O in which NM = YX. When MN and
XY are produced, they meet at P. the mid – points of NM and
YX are E and F respectively.
Prove that;
(a) Triangles OEP and OFP are congruent
(b) Points O, E, P, F are concyclic.

Unit summary
•  he unit has so far covered work on properties of a cyclic
T
quadrilateral where a number of theorems have been
discussed and illustrated.

•  he unit has finalized by looking at concyclic points. It has

T
exercises for practice. The next unit looks at transformation.

141
Unit review exercise
1.  he figure is a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD where AD = AB.
T
The diagonal BD = BC.

A
B

D 520

If ∠BDC = 520, find ∠ABC.

2.  BCD is a circle and the chords AC, BD cut at X. P and Q
A
are points on XC, XD respectively such that PQ is parallel to
CD. Prove that ABPQ is a cyclic quadrilateral.

3. Show that the figure ABCD below is a cyclic quadrilateral.

A C

400

750

650

B D

4. ABC is an equilateral triangle. A line from A meets BC at R,

another line from B meets CA at S such that BR = CS. The
two lines BS and AR, intersect at Q. Prove that;
(a) Triangles ABR and BCS are congruent.
(b) Quadrilateral RCSQ is cyclic.

142
 5. The figure ABCD below is a circle, centre O. AOC is a
straight line and AB = BD.

C
A O
D

If angle ABD = 700, calculate angle BAC.

6. A, B, C and D are points on a circle below with BOC a

diameter, AD = CD and ∠DBC = 400.

A
d B
a 400
D
b
O
c

Find the values of the angles marked a, b, and c.

Glossary
A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral in which all the four
vertices lie on the circumference.

Concyclic points are points which lie on the circumference of a

circle.

References
Geoff Buck well.(1997) Mastering Mathematics. Macmillan.
London.

Channon J. B. et al. New General Mathematics 3. A modern

Course for Zimbabwe. Longman. London.

143
Ric Pimentel and Terry Wall.(2011) IGCSE Mathematics 2nd
Edition.John Murray. UK

Elaine Ryder et al.(2013) CHANCO MSCE Mathematics

Questions and Model Solutions. Chancellor College. Zomba.

Gunsaru et al. Secondary Mathematics Book 3. Dzuka

Publishing Company. Blantyre. Malawi.

144
 Names and labels in
transformation
Unit Throughout this unit you will
use the words object to mean the
original figure before transformation

8 and image to mean the figure after a

transformation. All corresponding or
matching points on the object and the
image will have to be named using
the same letter or same numbers.
Where letters are used, those on the
TRANSFORMATION image should have a prime ´ on them.
Where numbers are used, they should
appear as subscripts.

Rotating a plane figure

about a given point
A rotation is a turn. In a rotation
an object turns about a fixed point
called centre of rotation. A rotation
Recall that in your JCE course,
transformation was defined as the can be clockwise or anticlockwise.
change in shape or position of an object. When the rotation is clockwise it is
You studied reflections and rotations negative while if it is anticlockwise,
as examples of transformation. In this it is positive. The rotation is given
unit you will learn about more types as a fraction of a turn or an angle in
of transformation: translation and
degrees.
enlargement. You will learn how
to rotate a simple plane figure about
a given point through a given angle Activity 1:
clockwise or anticlockwise. You will also
learn to translate a simple plane figure Drawing rotations
in a column vector. Finally, you will
learn to enlarge a simple plane figure
In groups
by a scale factor and a given a centre of 1.  raw a grid of square boxes
D
enlargement. (10 boxes by 10boxes) on a
The knowledge of transformations is paper. You can also use a
used in artistic designs to make objects squared paper if you have it.
more appealing. People like, doctors and 2.  sing a cardboard paper or
U
surveyors use enlargement in their day
any other hard paper, cut out a
to day work.
right angled triangle and fix a
stick to one corner as shown on
following page:

145
3. P
 ivot one end of the stick at one point on the drawn square
grid as shown below:

Pivot here

4. N
 ow rotate the triangle through angles 300 and 450
clockwise, each time drawing the image of the triangle.
Measure the angles that each vertex rotates through at the
pivot centre.
5. Now draw square grids of your choice. Using different plane
shapes e.g rectangles, trapeziums and your own choices of
angles and directions, draw rotations of the plane shapes on
the square grids. Again measure the angles that the vertices
of your diagrams go through at the pivot centre.
6. Comment on your findings.

In a rotation, all points on the object move by the same

146
 measurement. To draw a rotation you must be given the
centre of rotation, the angle of rotation and the direction of
rotation. Here are two ways of drawing rotations:

Using a protractor and a ruler:

The assumption is that the initial position of the plane shape is
given or the figure is drawn on the grid or squared paper.
• Join each vertex of the plane shape to the given centre of
rotation.
•  hoose any one vertex and using a protractor, draw the new
C
position of this line by measuring the angle of rotation.
•  easure the distance of the vertex from the centre of
M
rotation and use this distance to locate the new position of
the vertex on the new position of the line. Do the same with
other vertices.
•  oin the new positions of the vertices on the new lines to
J
obtain the image of the plane shape.

Using tracing transparent paper

• Join one point on the figure to the centre of rotation.
•  lace the tracing paper on the squared paper on which the
P
figure is drawn.
•  race the shape, the line drawn in the first step above and
T
the centre of rotation on the tracing paper.
•  easure the given angle from the line drawn in the first
M
step.
•  lace a sharp point say a pencil or pen or compasses on the
P
traced centre and actual centre.
•  urn the traced figure through the given angle until the line
T
drawn in the first step coincides with the line or mark you
made when you measured the angle in step 4.
•  inally, trace the figure to obtain the new position of the
F
object.

147
Exercise 8a

1. Use the above information and the grid below to draw the
image of drawn triangle
a) after a rotation of 900 clockwise about (0,0)
b) after a rotation of 450 anticlockwise about the origin.
c) after a rotation of -1800 anticlockwise about (0,0)
d) after a rotation of -2700 clockwise about (0,0)

= == = = =

= =
= =
= =
= = = ñ=
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =

2. On a grid draw rectangle with vertices at (-2,1),(-6,1) (-6,3)

and ( -2,3). Draw the image of the rectangle after a rotation
of 450 about (0, 0).

3. Draw and number x- and y- axes from -8 to +8. Show

the position of a point Q (4,3) after each of the following
rotations. In each case state the coordinates of the new
point.
a. 1800 about (0,0)
b. +90 about (1,4)
c. +900 about (-6,5)
d. -900 about (-3,0)

4. Trace the shape below. Find the image of the shape after a
rotation +1200 about X.

148
 X

Activity 2:

Describing a rotation

To describe a rotation you must give the angle of rotation, the

centre of rotation and the angle of rotation whether clockwise or
anticlockwise.

Your teacher will provide you with a figure and its image on a
squared grid. The centre of rotation will also be given. In groups,
1. Join one vertex on the object to the centre of rotation.
2. Join the corresponding vertex on the image to the centre of
rotation.
 sing a protractor, measure the angle between the lines
3. U
joining the vertices to the centre of rotation.
4. Describe the rotation.

Sometimes you may not be given the centre of rotation. When

this happens, you will have to proceed in the following way:
1. J
 oin two pairs of matching points on the object and the
image.
2. U
 sing a pair of compasses, draw the perpendicular bisectors
of the two lines joining the points.
3. E
 xtend the lines until they intersect at a point. This point
gives the centre of rotation.
 o find the angle of rotation, join any one pair of matching
4. T
points on the object and the image to the centre of rotation.
Measure this angle using a protractor.

149
Example 1:

Describing rotation

(a) Describe the rotation mapping triangle A onto B in each of

the following diagram. C is the centre of rotation and the
shaded triangle is the object.
_ =

=
=
^ =
=
=
=
=
=
=
C =
=
=
=

Solution

The rotation is 900 clockwise about centre C or you may say that
the rotation is 2700 anticlockwise about centre C. If you want to
use – or + you can write –900about C or +2700 about C.

150
 (b) Describe the rotation that maps arrow A onto A´
y
=

2
A′ = =

N=

=M==================== x
-3 JO=====================
JN====================
===========O===
==N============
= = ñ==

-1
^

= JO=====================
=
= =
= =

Solution

Join the matching points on the two arrows and construct the
perpendicular bisectors of the lines.

151
 y
=

2
A’ = =

N=

=M==================== ñ==
x
-3 JO=====================
JN====================
===========O===
==N============
= =

-1
^

= JO=====================
=
= =
= =

Lines joining matching points to the

centre of rotation. The angle between
them is the angle of rotation.

(Dashed lines are perpendicular bisectors of lines joining

matching points on the object and the image)

From the diagram, the rotation is 900 clockwise about (1,-2).

Exercise 8b:

1. The vertices of a triangle ABC are (3, 3), (1,-1) and (3,-2).
The vertices of the image of triangle ABC are (-3, 3), (1, 1)
and (2, 3) respectively. Graph the two triangles on a squared
paper and describe the rotation mapping triangle ABC onto
its image.

2. The vertices of a triangle ABC are (-1,1), (-2,1) and (-2.5,2) .

152
 The vertices of the image of triangle ABC are (5,1), (6,1) and
(-5.5,0) respectively. Graph the two triangles on a squared
paper and describe the rotation mapping triangle ABC onto
its image.

3.
4

P 2

1Q
C
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1

In the above diagram, P is rotated anticlockwise about C to

obtain imge Q. Describe the rotation.

4. A quadrilateral WXYZ has coordinates (-4,0),(-3,1),(-2,0)

and ((-2,0). The Image of the quadrilateral WXYZ are (0,-
2),(-1,-3),(-2,-3) and (-2,-2). Draw the two quadrilaterals on
a squared paper or grid and find the centre and angle of
rotation.

5. Triangle ABC and PQR are congruent in that order.

Triangle ABC has Vertices (-4, 3), (-3.8, 0) and (-2.5, 1).
Triangle PQR has vertices (0.1,-2.5), (1.9, 0) and (0.2, 0.1).
By drawing grids or by using a squared paper, describe the
rotation that maps triangle ABC onto triangle PQR.

Translation
A translation sometimes called a slide or a shift moves the
shape in a straight line. The shape of the object does not change
and every point on the object moves by the same amount and in
the same direction.

An example of a translation is shown below:

153
Object

Image

Activity 3:

Describing translation

Your teacher will provide you with a graph paper. In your

groups,
1. Using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on both axes, draw
a triangle PQR such that the vertices are (-3, 3), (-2, 5) and
(-5, 0) respectively.
2. O
 n the same axes draw the image of triangle PQR such that
the vertices are (0,-1), (1, 1) and (-2,-4) respectively.
3. Use your drawings to describe the translation mapping
triangle PQR onto P΄Q΄R΄.

To describe a translation you must give the distance and the

direction an object has moved from its old position to its new
position. The movement is given in two parts: horizontal and
vertical. You start by giving the movement in the horizontal
direction followed by the movement in the vertical direction.

Example 2:

Translation

154
 y
5

A 4
A
3

2
-6 -5 -4-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
1

-1 B B
-2

Describe the translation that maps rectangle A onto rectangle B

in the grid above.

Solution:

As all points move by the same amount in a translation, you

choose any one point on the object and trace the units the point
moves to the corresponding point on the image. For example if
you choose the top left corner, you will see that the rectangle
moved 10 units horizontally to the right and then 8 units
vertically downwards.

155
Exercise 8c

A F

B H
C
D
K
G J
L
M
N P

1. Using the above grid, describe the translation that moves

the following points: Each box is 1 unit by 1 unit long. For
parts k to 0, give a single translation.
a. A to B
b. C to F
c. D to Q
d. N to K
e. H to G
f. J to E
g. L to M
h. A to Q
i. F to K
j. E to M
k. C to N.
l. B to C to H
m. Q to J to D

156
2.

A B

C�

B� A�

In the above grid each grid is 1 unit by 1 unit .Describe the

translation that maps each figure onto its image.

Activity 4:

Drawing a translation

To draw a translation, you must be given the amount of

movement of the object both horizontally and vertically. You
must also be given the position of the figure to be translated.

Your teacher will show you a chart on which different plane

shapes are drawn. In pairs, draw the grid and copy the figures.
Translate the figures and draw the image of each figure as
follows:
1. Translate A, 3units right 4units down to A1.
2. Translate B, 5units left 2units up to B1
3. Translate C, 4 units down to C1.

Exchange your work with your partners and mark each others’
work. Let your teacher check your work.

157
Exercise 8d

Draw the image of each of the above plane shapes after the
following translations:
1. Shape A:
(a) 4 units to the right and 2 units downwards.
(b) 10 units to the right.

2. Shape B:

5 units down.

3. Shape C:

(a) 6 units to the right.

(b) 3 units downwards.

4. Shape D:

7units to the left and 9 units upwards.

Translation and column vectors

In Form 2, you learnt that vectors represent movements. In
pairs discuss the meanings, in terms of movement, of the

158
following: , , , . These are known as translation
vectors. The translation vector shows how much the image has
been moved in relation to the object. It is written in the form
, where x and y are real numbers. x represents the units in x
axis, and y in y axis. When x is negative, movement is to the left
while if it is positive, movement is to the right. Similarly, when
y is negative, movement is downwards while if it is positive,
movement is upwards.

Activity 5:

Writing down the coordinates of a translation in column

vectors

In pairs, discuss how you can write the following coordinates of

translation in column vectors basing on the paragraph above:
a. a movement of 2 units to the left followed by a movement of
1 unit upwards.
b. a movement of 3 units downwards.
c. a movement of 4 units to the right followed by a movement
of 5 units downwards.

Present your work to class.

Example 3:

Writing coordinates

Write the following coordinates of translation in column vectors:

(a) A movement of 1 unit to the left followed by a movement of

2 units downwards.

(b) A movement of 5units upwards.

Solutions

(a)

(b)

159
Exercise 8e

Write the following coordinates of translation in column vectors:

A movement of
1. 2 units to the left followed 5 units down
2. 5 units to the right followed by 2 units up.
3. 5 units to the left.
4. 6 units to the right followed by 1 unit down.
5. 1 unit up.
6. 8 units down.
7. 4 units to the right.
8. 2 units to the right followed by 8 units down.
9. 5 units to the right followed by 4 units down.
10. 7 units to the left followed by 7 units up.

Activity 6:

Translating shapes using column vectors

In pairs,
1. On a squared paper or on a grid, draw x- and y- axes and
number them from −5 to +5.
2. D
 raw triangle ABC such that A, B , C are points (-5,5),
( -2, -4) and ( 3,3) respectively.
3. D
 raw the image of triangle of triangle ABC after a
translation .
4. W
 rite down the coordinates of the vertices of image of the
triangle.
5. W
 hat is the relationship between the coordinates of the object,
the coordinates of the image and the translation vector?

160
 6. Compare your work with other groups.

To translate a plane shape using a column vector, you need to

first describe the vector itself. To describe the vector means
to say what the vector means in terms of movement both
horizontally and vertically. Once the vector has been described,
the object can be moved by moving each vertex according to the
translation vector. When all the vertices have been moved, the
image can then be completed by joining the moved vertices.

You should also have seen from activity 6 that if the coordinates
of the vertices are written as vectors, the coordinates of the
object, the coordinates of the image and the translation vector
are related as follows:

Vectors from the coordinates of object vertices + translation

vector = Vectors of the coordinates of the image vertices.

Example 4:

Drawing images after translation

4
m
3

2
o n
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1

-2

-3

-4

Draw the image of triangle PQR after a translation of

161
 Solution

The vector means the object is moved 6 units to the right

and then 4 units downwards. The image is shown below. Dotted
lines have been included to show the movement of the object.
y
m
4

2
o n
1
m´
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1

-2 o´ n´

-3

-4

Example 5:

Finding coordinates

A point R (3,-7) is translated to R´ by a translation vector T

Find the coordinates of R´.

Solution

Vectors from the object vertices + translation vector → Vectors

of the image vertices.

+ →

The coordinates of R´ are (-2,-11)

162
Exercise 8f

1. In questions 1 to 3, copy the diagram and draw the image of

the object under the translation given by the column vector.

M N O P Q R S T U

The vector is

163
2.

JP JO JN M N O P Q R

The vector is

3.

JQ JP J O JN M N O P Q
JN
JO

JP

164
 The vector is

4. A vector T translates a quadrilateral ABCD onto

quadrilateral A´B´C´D´.
(a) If A and B are points ( 1,3) and ( 3,4) , find the coordinates of

A´ and B´.
(b) G
 iven that the coordinates of C´ and D´ are (9,-3) and ( 7, -4)
find the coordinates of C and D.

5. A translation vector T translates point A onto point A´. The

coordinates of A and A´ are (4, -2) and (7, 5). Find T.

6. A = and B = are translation vectors. Find

the coordinates of a point P (3,2) after the Following
translations:

(a) A+B

(b) 2A – B

Enlargement
All the transformations you have studied so far (reflections,
rotations and translations) have moved the object or turned
it over to produce the image, but its shape and size have not
changed. In each case, the image and the object are congruent.
In this section you shall learn about a transformation that
keeps the shape of the object but alters its size – enlargement.
Enlargement covers both making the image larger than the
object and making the object smaller than the object.

Finding the scale factor of an enlargement

In unit 12 of this book you dealt with scale factor. In that unit,
scale factor was defined as “ a number showing how many times
an object has been enlarged”. You also learnt that scale factor is
found by the formula

165
 Length of the image
Corresponding length of the image
Scale factor =

Example 6:

Finding a scale factor

B C

B C

Find the scale factor used in enlarging triangle ABC onto

triangle A´B´C´ in the above grid.

Solution

By counting the grids, AB = BC = 1 unit long and A´B´ = B´C´ =

4 units long. The scale factor can be found by dividing A´B´ by AB
or B´C´ by BC. You can also count the squares diagonally to find
AC = 1 diagonal and A´C´ = 4 diagonals and then divide A´C´ by
AC.
4
Hence Scale factor = 1

=4

Sometimes you may have to form right angled triangles and use
them to find the scale factor as in example 7 below:

166
Example 7:

Finding scale factor

m´

o´

m
n´

o
n

Find the scale factor used to enlarge triangle MNO to produce

triangle M´N´O´.

Solution

Choose any two corresponding vertices and draw lines

horizontally and vertically to produce right angled triangles as
follows (dashed lines have been used so that you can clearly see
how the triangles have been produced):

167
 m´

o´

m
n´

n o

You can then divide the corresponding bases or heights of the

formed triangles to find the scale factor.
4
Hence using bases, scale factor = 2 = 2

Example 8:

Finding a scale factor

The coordinates of A and B are (2, 4) and (-3, 6) respectively. The

coordinates of A´ and B´ are (2.5, 5) and (-5, 8). Find the scale
factor used to enlarge AB to A´ B´.

Solution

You can use distance formula as follows:

( 5 2.5)2 + (8 5)2
Scale factor =
( 3 2)2 + (6 4)2
65 25
= 29
1.5 (from the calculator)
=

168
Exercise 8g

Find the scale factor of enlargement in each of the diagrams

below( Questions 1 to 3).The shaded shape is the object.

1.

4
2. 2

169
3.

4. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle XYZ are (2, 3),

(4, 7) and (-1, -4).

The coordinates of the vertices of the image X´Y´Z´ of

triangle XYZ are (0.5, 4.5), (5.5, 14.5) and (-7,-13). Find the
enlargement scale factor.
1
5. A scale factor of 2 is used to enlarge a line segment with
end points P( -1, -5) and Q( 4,4). If the coordinates of Q´ are
(2, 2) and of P´ are ( x, -2.5), find the negative value of x.

6. A rectangle 20 cm long and 15cm wide is enlarged by a scale

factor of 2. Find the length of the new rectangle.

7. A´B´C´ is the image of triangle ABC after an enlargement.

AB = 7cm, AC = 8cm, A´B´ = 14cm and B´C´ = 18cm.

(a) Find the scale factor of the enlargement.

(b) Find BC and A´C´

8. Two places are 4.25km apart and are presented on the map
by a distance of 18.5cm. Find the scale factor used.

170
Finding centre of enlargement
The centre of enlargement is found by drawing straight lines
through matching points on the object and image. These lines
are then extended until they meet. The point at which they meet
is the centre of enlargement. Always draw three lines through
matching points. Two points give the point you want but the
third one acts as a check. See the diagram below.

O is the centre of enlargement

Exercise 8h

Find the centre of enlargement in each of the following diagrams

(questions 1- 4).

171
1. y
10

0
0 5 10 15 x

2.

-5 0 5
x

-5

3.

172
 y

0 5 10 x

4.
y
====== == === =
====== == === =
====== == === =
====== == === =
====== == === =
====== == === =
====== == === =
= =
== = = == == === =
====== == === =

(Each box is 1 unit long)

Drawing enlargement
In this section, you will learn to draw enlargement when given
a positive whole or negative scale factor. You will do this in two
ways:

(a) Drawing enlargement on a squared paper or grid when the

object and scale factor are given.

(b) Drawing enlargement on a squared paper or grid when the

object scale factor and centre of enlargement are given.

173
Activity 7:

Drawing enlargement on a squared paper or grid when

the scale factor is given

In your groups and using grids of 1 unit long,

1. Draw a rectangle ABCD in which the length = 4 units and
the width = 2units.(Draw the rectangle parallel to the axes)
2. I f you enlarge the rectangle by a scale factor of 2, how many
units would be the lengths and the width?

3. If you enlarge the rectangle by a scale factor of , how many

units would be the lengths and the width?
4. D
 raw the images in 2 and 3 above on the same grid as the
rectangle ABCD above.
5. How do the images compare with the rectangle?
6. I f the rectangle were drawn at an angle to the axes, discuss
how you would enlarge the rectangle.

When the lines forming the object run along the lines of the
grids, the lengths of image are found by just multiplying the
lengths of the object by the scale factor. If the lines are at an
angle to the lines of the grids, you need to find the number of
grids “across” and “up or down” each line forming the object.
Multiply the number of the grids by the scale factor to find the
lengths of the lines in the image.

In activity 7 you should also have seen that a positive whole

number scale factor makes the object larger than the original
object while a fractional scale factor reduces the size of the
object.

174
Example 9

Enlarge triangle ABC above by the following scale factors

(a) 3
1
(b) 2

Solution

(a) For line AB there are 3 grids across and 4 grids up. A´B´ will
therefore be (3 × 3) = 9 grids across and (4 × 3) = 12 grids
up. Similarly, line B´C´ will be (4 × 3) = 12 grids across and
(2 × 3) = 6 grids up and line A´C´ will be (1 × 3) = 3 grids
across and (2 × 3) = 6 grids down.

(b) Multiplying the number of grids across and up each line by

1
2 as in (a) above, A´B´ will have 1.5 grids across and 2 grids up,
B´C´ will have 2 grids across and I grid up while A´C´ will have
0.5 grid across and 1 grid down.

175
Activity 8:

Drawing enlargement on a squared paper or grid when

the scale factor and centre of enlargement are given

In groups you are to enlarge a triangle ABC by a scale factor of

3.
1. O
 n a square paper or grid draw triangle ABC with vertices
in the corners of the grids. The triangle shouldn’t be too big.
2. C
 hoose one point O and from that point, draw and extend a
straight line through each vertex of the triangle.
3. U
 sing a pair of compasses or a ruler, measure the distance
from O to vertex A.
4. M
 ultiply the distance in 3 by the given scale factor and from
O, mark off the new distance along the line OA and call the
marked point A´.
5. Repeat 2,3,4, for all the vertices and join A´,B´ and C´.
6. M
 easure the lengths of new triangle and compare them to
the matching lengths on the object. How do they compare?
7. Report your findings.

176
To draw an enlargement, you follow the following steps:
1. F
 rom the centre of enlargement, draw and extend straight
line through each vertex of the object.
2. Using a pair of compass or a ruler, measure the distance
from the centre of enlargement to each vertex of the object.
3. M
 ultiply the distance in 2 by the given scale factor and from
the centre of enlargement, mark off the new distance along
each line.
4. Join the last marks to obtain the image.

Example 10

The vertices of a triangle are A(4,2) , (6,4) and (3,6). Draw the
triangle on a grid of at least 17 by 17 boxes. On the same grid
draw the image of triangle using scale factor 3 and centre of
enlargement O (1,2). State the coordinates of the image.

Solution:

The coordinates of the image are (10,2) , (16,8) and ( 7,14)

177
Exercise 8i

Copy the following diagrams and enlarge the objects by the scale
factor given and from the centre of enlargement shown. Grids
larger than those may be needed.

1.

Enlarge triangle ABC above using scale factor 3 and (0,0) as

centre of enlargement. What are the coordinates of the image?

178
2.

Draw the enlargement of the quadrilateral above using centre

(6,7) and scale factor of 4. State the coordinates of the image.

3.

Draw the enlargement of triangle PQR using (4,2) as centre

179
of enlargement and scale factor 2. Sate the coordinates of the
image.

4.
y

10

0000 0

o 0 5 10 x

-5

Enlarge the quadrilateral above by the scale factor using (8,5)

as centre of enlargement. State the coordinates of the image.

180
 5.

Draw the enlargement of the quadrilateral above using (0,0)

as centre of enlargement and scale factor 2. What are the
coordinates of the image?

Unit summary
• In this topic you have learnt drawing rotations on a
squared paper, describing rotations using directions and
angles, describing and drawing translations, writing down
coordinates of a translation in column vectors, translating
shapes using column vectors, defining enlargement, finding
the scale factor and centre of enlargement and enlarging
shapes by a positive whole number scale factor and fractional
scale factor.

181
Unit review exercise
1. Draw, on a squared paper, a rectangle ABCD with
vertices at (-3,2),(-1,2), (-1,1) and (-3,1). Draw a rotation
of the triangle 900 clockwise about O (0,0). What are the
coordinates of the image of the image of the triangle?

2. T´(0,2) is the image of T(-1,-3) after a rotation about a fixed

point C. Describe the rotation.

3. 
y
X´(2,3)

X(-3,-2)

Describe the translation mapping point X onto X´ in the above

diagram.

4. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle ABC are (3,1),

(1,2) and (1,5). Draw the image of the triangle after a

translation of . What are the coordinates of the vertices

of the image?

5. A trapezium is moved 5 units to the left and 6 units down

from a point T. Write this translation as a column vector.

6. On a squared paper, draw triangle ABC with vertices

(3,5),(3,3) and (6,3) and the image of triangle ABC with
vertices (1,7), (1,1) and (10,1). Use the two drawings to find
the centre and scale factor of enlargement.

182
 Draw the enlargement of the body of a toy car shown above
using the black dot as the centre of enlargement and scale factor
2.

Glossary
Rotation: Transformation in which a figure changes the way it
is put.
Centre of rotation: A point about which a figure rotates .
Translation: Transformation in which a figure changes its
position.
Enlargement.: A transformation in which the figure changes
in size.
Centre of enlargement: A point about from which a figure is
enlarged.
Scale factor: The ratio of corresponding lengths of the image
and the object.

183
References:
Ralge Chikwakwa et al, Senior Secondary Mathematics Book3
(2002), Mamillan, Malawi.

Duncan and Christine Graham, Mainstream Mathematics for

GSCE(1996), Macmillan, London.

Suzanne et al, Middle Grades Math Course 3(1999), Prentice

Hall, United States of America.

184
 Changing the subject of
literal equations
Unit In most cases banks and other money
lending institution charge interest
on money lent to people and as they

9 such use formulae. Write down the

formula for calculating interest.
The formula for finding interest
is; I= PTR Can you come up with
100
other formulae? Now do the activity
below.
CHANGE OF SUBJECT OF A
FORMULA
Activity 1:

Identifying the subject of the

formula.

In pairs discuss the following:

1. Define a formula.
In your JCE Mathematics , you
2 W
 rite the formula for finding the
learnt about linear equations.
following;
You learnt about some basic
problems involving change of a. Perimeter of a rectangle
subject of formula. In this unit, b. Volume of cylinder.
you are going to learn more about
c. I n these two formulae above,
changing the formula of literal
which one is the subject.
equations and those involving
powers. Most often, formulae d.  ow can you find the length of
H
can be used to solve any other the rectangle
unknown in the formula provided
Present your answers to the class.
enough information is given.
A formula is an equation that
The knowledge of change of
shows a relationship between
formula will help you to solve a
two or more variables. Changing
particular problem. For example
or transposing the subject of a
you can find velocity of a car or
formula is the same as solving for
find distance travelled given some
an unknown or expressing the given
variables.
letter in terms of other letters. This
involves simple formula involving
literal equations and also others that
contain powers or roots.
185
Example 1:

Change of subject of formula

Make x the subject of the formula

(a) 3y = 4x − 5

Solution

Add 5 to both sides

3y + 5 = 4x − 5 + 5 … like terms together

3y + 5 = 4x

Divide both sides by 4

(a × )
3 3

3y + 5
∴x=
4

(b) Make y subject of the formula x = 2(y + z)

Solution;

Divide both sides by 2

d
=y+z
t2
Subtract z from both sides

d
−z=y+z−z
t2

d
∴ −z=y
t2

d
∴y= −z
t2

186
 (c) Y = kxa
k
Example 2: (d) x = b + d
d
Change of subject (e) a = bd + f
of formula b
Make R the subject of 4
the formula (f) A = (a + b)h
3 h
PTR
I = (g) V = π r2h
100
Multiply both h
sides by 100 Q
P-Q =
I × 100 = PTR (h) tr
Q
Divide both sides
by PT (i)
S = (2n − 4 )× 90° n
I × 100 PTR
= All the examples
PT PT above involve literal
100 I equations. These are
∴R = easy to express in
PT
terms of any given
Now do the exercise. letter. However others
involve powers and
roots.
Exercise 9a

Formula involving powers

Make the letter
written in bold a Some formula will
subject of the formula. involve powers. From
exercise 9a you can
identify formulae that
4
(a) A = bh have a power in it.
3 b

1 1 1
+ =
(b)
u

187
 Activity 2.

Identifying the subject of the formula.

Discuss with a friend the following;

(a) What is the formula for finding area of a circle? Identify the
subject of the formula.

(b) Write the formula for finding the radius of the circle.

Now look at the following examples.

Example 3:

Change of subject of formula

Make A the subject of the formula Y = A2 + BD

Y = A2 + BD

Subtract BD from both sides

Y − BD = A 2
∴ A 2 = Y - BD

Find the square root of both sides

A2 = Y - BD
∴ A = ± Y - BD

Note: At Y − BD = A2, we cannot divide both sides by A

since both sides will have an A. When we make a
certain letter the subject of a formula, then that letter
should only be found on one side of the formula, and
not both sides.

Working with exponential and logarithmic equation

You will look at more example of that involve powers.

Example 4:

188
 Given that A = h r 3 + 1

(a) Make r the subject of the formula

(b) Find the value of r when A = 10 and h = 4

Solution

(a) A = h r + 1
3

Divide both sides by h

2
A
  = r +1
3

h
Square both sides

2
A
  = r +1
3

h
Subtract 1 from both sides

2
A
  -1 = r
3

h
Find the cube root of both sides

A2
r= −1 3
h2
For part b substitute the given values in the formula and
find the value of r.

Subject of formula that involve exponential and logarithmic

functions
Some equation cannot be easily solved and such may require the
use of logarithm. See the example below.

Example 5
a. Make n the subject of the formula y = kxn

189
 Working out:

Introduce log on both sides

logy = logk + logxn

Take logk to other side

logy – logk = logxn

changing n from an exponent

nlogx = logy – logk

divide throughout by logx

therefore n =

Exercise 9b
In questions 1 − 18, a formula is given. A letter is printed in
bold after it. Make that letter the subject of the formula.
1. P = b + mN 2 N
2. b = 2ac c
3. V2 = u 2 - 2as s

x
m =π
4. y y

5. A = πr h 2 − r 3 h

M- m
x= m
6. Mn + mp

p + qr
v = d
7. d
n
S = [a + (n - 1)d ] a
8. 2

190
 s a
s b
9. x = s

b2 + c2 − a2
A = a
10. 2bc

m
P= 5 m
11. m−n

 2 
V = π r h + r h
12.  3 

2 2
13. q = p a − q
2
( ) q

b 2 + rt
K = r
14. b−r
2
15. A = 4π r r
4
V= π r3
16. 3 r

17. Y = kxa a

18. T = 2 l

Real life application of formula

Some of the problems solved in this unit involve real life
situation. Can you identify some of them from those given in
exercise above? Examples include;
Velocity, V = u + at
Volume of cylinder, V = π r2h
Area of a triangle; A = ½bh
There many more formulae that are used in everyday life.

191
Unit summary
You have learnt how to identify the subject of formula. You
also changed subject of formula of literal equations and those
involving powers.

In the next unit, you will learn about exponential and logarithm
equations.

Unit review exercise

1. Make y the subject of the formula in x = 2 (y + z)
2. Make p the subject of formula in the equation, logy = logxp +
log k
3. Make x the subject of the formula ax = b
4. Given that the area A of a triangle with base b and of height

h is equal to A = 1 bh.
2
Make h the subject of the formula.

5. Given that A = P1 + R  T, make T the subject of the

formula.  100 

6. Given that R = a + bv 2 make v the subject of the formula

7. The formula for finding velocity is v = u +at, make time (t)
the subject of the formula.

Tv 3
W=
8. In the formula, gx make x the subject of the formula.

9. In the formula y = x –z2, make z the subject of the formula.

c 1
= x+1
10. In the formula make c the subject of the formula.

Glossary

192
 A formula is an equation that shows a relationship between
two or more variables

Literal equations are equations with several variables or un-

knowns that represent a value, for example V = u+ at.

Transpose refers to “change or rearrange” in this case, the sub-

ject of the formula.

References
Chikwakwa, et al (2002), Senior Secondary Mathematics
Student′s Book 3. Blantyre: Macmillan Malawi.

Hau S and Saiti F (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:

Longman Malawi.

John Fawdry (1994). Additional Mathematics a Course for

students. Mathematics Association of Malawi
Mathteacher, subject of formula, www.mathteacher.com.au/.../
trans.html retrieved on 24/06/2014

193
 Exponential equations

Unit You have learnt about equations

before. Can you define the word
equation and give some examples of
equations.

10 The expression such as f(x) = 2x is an

equation. This can also be written as
y = 2x . What do you call
such equation? This is known
exponential equation.
EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS Definition
The word ‘exponential’ is an adjective
from the word exponent, which means
power or index. An exponential
equation is one which takes the form
y = xn, where x is the base and n is
power (an exponent).
In general:
In unit 6you learnt about
functions. In this unti you are Exponential equations are
going to solve exponential and equations in which the exponent
logarithmic equations. is the variable.
Exponential and logarithm
equations are used in many Activity1:
fields like electrical engineering,
metrology, communication and
many fields of production. Expressing numbers as powers of
given base by modelling.
Find the value of each box by
completing table (b) below given on
the right hand side.

194
 Base Index Base Index
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 20 21 22 23 24 25 2 1 2 4 32
3 30 31 32 33 34 35 3 81
4 40 41 42 43 44 45 4 16
5 50 51 52 53 54 55 5

To evaluate 53, using calculator; follow these steps.

• Enter 5 on the calculator which is the base.
• Then punch the button with the symbol “xy”.
• Then punch 3 which is the power.
• You should be able to get 125.
Note Calculators differ as such you are supposed to follow its
manual. The one above is for CASIO fx- 83ES
You will now learn the reverse process.

Expressing numbers as powers of given base

You can now do the reverse process of changing a given number
to given base. First do the activity below.

Activity 2:

Expressing numbers as powers of a given base.

Express the given numbers to a given base
a. 32 to base 2
b. 27 to base 3
Share your work with your friends.
In form 1 you learned how to change a number from one base to
another. Do you remember how you were doing that?

195
 To change a given c. 125 to base 5
number to particular
base you repeatedly d. 16 to base 2
divide the number by
the base. Here is an e. 625 to base 5
example. f. 1296 to base 6
Example1: g. 343 to base 7
Change of base
h. 1024 to base 4
Change to 32 to base 2
Divide 32 by 2 i. to base 2
continuously and find
how many times you Now you look at
do so to get 1. exponential equations.

2 32
2 16
Solving exponential
2 8
equation
2 4
2 2 You learned about
equations in the
2 2 past. Can you
1 write down some
equations? Recall
that an equation
You have divided 32 is an algebraic
by 2 five times to get expression with the
1. left hand side equal
to the right hand
Hence 32 =25 side. On the other
Now do the following hand an exponential
exercise. equation is an
equation in which the
exponent (index) is
the unknown. Hence
Exercise 10a solving exponential
equations implies
finding the value of
Express the following the exponent.
to the given base
Do the following
a. 81 to base 3 activity.

b. 243 to base 3

196
Activity 3:

Solving exponential equation

In pairs, find the value of x in the following:
(a) 2x = 8
(b) 2x = 32
Discuss your findings as a class. Now see how these can be done
by going through these examples below.

Example 2:
Solving exponential equations
Solve the following exponential equations.
(a) 32x = 27
Solutions:
To solve exponential equations, firstly you need to express the
left and right hand sides of the equations to the same base and
then equate the indices.
(a) 27 = 33 …..................... change 27 to base 3.

∴ 32x = 33 ............... Equate the indices

3
∴ 2x = 3 ∴x =
2
(b) 2x = 0.0625

625
0.0625 =
10000 …. Expressing as a proper fraction
1
= 4
= 2−4 ….. Simplify the fraction and change to
2
base 2

∴ 2x = 2−4 x = −4 … express to 2 and equate the bases

(c) 4x+2 = 642x-1

197
 Solving;

In this case, both 4 and 64 must be expressed to base 2

22(x +2) = 26(2x-1) … expressing 4 and 64 to base 2

Then 2(x+2) = 6(2x - 1) ….equate the powers

2x+4 = 12x - 6 …..Remove the brackets

12x – 2x = 6 +4 …. Arranging like terms together and

swapping

10x =10 …… subtracting and adding like terms

∴ x = 1 ……. divide both sides by 10

Now do the following exercise.

Exerise 10b:

Solving exponential equation.

1. Solve the following exponential equations
(a) 2x = 64
(b) 9x = 81
(c) 10x = 1000 000
(d) 5x = 125

(e) 2x = 128
1
(f) 3x =
81

(g) 5x = 1
25
(h) 4x = 2
(i) 64x = 4
(J) 10x = 0.001

198
 (k) 8x = 64
(l) (-2) = - 8

2. Solve the following;

(a) 52n – 6 × 5n + 5 = 0
(b) 32t – 1 = 192
(c) 9p + 1 = 27p
(d) 72y – 5 = 343
(e) 22x – 5(2x) + 4 = 0
(f) 12 + 2b = 22b
(g) 82y – 2)= 42y + 1
(h) 27r – 4 = 812r + 2
(i) 22x – 6 × 2x +9 = 0

In exercise 10b above, the equations are exponential equations.

Now you will solve logarithmic equations.

Logarithm equations
Let a and x be the positive numbers, a ≠ 1. The logarithm of x
with base a is denoted by loga x and is defined as follows; loga x
= y if and if ay = x.
The expression logax is read as “log base a of x”. Thus
logarithm is another word for “power”.
We know that 102 = 100.
In this case “the logarithm to base 10, of 100 is 2”
How can you write this as a logarithm equation?

Activity 4:

Expressing exponential equation as logarithm equations

199
 In pairs, express the following as logarithm equation
a. 102 = 100
b. 23 = 8
Share your work with colleague in the classroom.

Look at the following example.

Example 3:
Expressing logarithm equations
Express as logarithm equation;
a. 104 = 10000
Solution:
log10 10000 = 4
This is read as; ‘the logarithm of 10000 to base 10 is 4.
b. 64 = 43

Solution:
log4 64 = 3
In general;
If am = P then logaP = m.
Now do the following exercises;

Exercise 10c

1. Rewrite as a logarithm equations.

(a) 103 = 1000 (b) 106 = 1 000 000
(c) 25 = 32 (d) 52 = 25

200
(e) 43 = 64 (f) 34 = 81

(g) 44 = 256 (h) 71 = 7

4
(i) 80 = 1 (j) 3−2 =
3
2. Express the following from logarithm to exponential.
(a) Log10 100 000 = 5
(b) Log2 16 = 4
(c) Log4 16 = 2

4
(d) Log9 3 =
3
(e) Log5 0.2 = − 1

(f) Log10 10 = 1

(g) Log31 = 0

(h) Log10 0.1 = -1

(i) Log2 6 ≈ 2.585

Activity 5:

Finding the value of a given logarithm

Discuss in pairs;
Find the value of log28.
Share your work with your friends in the class room.
Now look at the examples below if it is in line with what you
have just done.

Example 4:
Finding logarithms
Find the value of

201
 (a) log2 64
(b) log10 100000
(c) Log4 0.25
(d) Loga (a3)

Solution:
Here find the number of times the base can multiply itself to get
the number you want find its log.

Since 26 = 64 ∴ log2 64 = 6. i. e multiplying 2 six times gives 64.

(b) log10 100000
Solution
Let log10 100000 = a
10 0000 = 10a changing to exponential
But 100000 = 105
Then 10a = 105

∴ log10 100000 = 5

4
We know that 0.25 = = 4−1 ∴ log4 0.25 = −1
3
In general, if an = am then n = m

Do the following exercise.

Exercise 10d

Find the value of

(a) log3 81 (e) log12 12

(b) Log3 243 (f) log2 0.25

(c) log7 343 (g) log10 10

(d) log5 25 (h) loga (a8)

202
 (i) log 1 16
2

1
(j) log 4  
3 8

(k) log51

Rules of logarithm
When a logarithmic equation involves more than one term
containing the unknown, you need to learn how to simplify such
logarithmic expressions. To this end, you will look at the laws of
logarithms which are similar to the laws of indices.

Multiplication rule

The first law states that ‘the logarithm of a product of two

numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of each of the
numbers.’

Prove that loga pq = loga p + loga q

Let m = logap. then p = am….. Changing to exponential equation

Let n = loga q then q = an. ……changing to exponential equation

pq = am × an……… substitute am for p and an for q

= am + n …. Law of indices, same base, powers add

Then loga pq = m + n = loga p + loga q

∴ loga pq = loga p + loga q

You should use the multiplication rule to simplify logarithm. Do

the activity 6 below.

Activity 6:

Simplifying logarithm of numbers to a given base

203
Express the following as single logarithms using multiplication
rule
Log10 4 + Log10 25
Discuss your findings as a class.
Now look at the following examples;

Example 5:
Express the following as single logarithms
(a) log3 6 + log3 7
Solution

log3 (6 × 7) Using the multiplication law

= log3 42.
(b) log66 +log62+ log63
Solution;
log6(6 × 2 × 3) = log636
Using multiplication law.

2. Division rule

The second law states that ‘the logarithm of a quotient is

equal to the logarithm of the dividend minus the logarithm
of the divisor’

4
Prove that loga = loga p − loga q.
3
Let m = logap. Then p = am ….. Changing to exponential
equation

Let n = loga q then q = an …… changing to exponential

equation

4 am
= n ……. Substitute am for p and an for q
3 a

= am – n … division rule of indices

204
 4
Then loga = m − n = loga p − loga q. …. substitution
3

4
∴ loga = loga p − loga q.
3
Look at the given examples below.

Example 6:

Expressing as single Logarithms

Express the following as single logarithms

(a) log2 15 − log2 5

Solution:

log2 (15 ÷ 5) Using the division law

= log2 3
(b) log10175 – log1025

Solution:

log10 (175 ÷ 25)

= log10 7

Powers
Prove that logapn = n logaP.
Let m = logap . Then p = am ….. C
 hanging to exponential
equation
Pn = (am)n ….............................. Since p is raised to n
= amn ….................................. law of indices
Then loga Pn = mn = n logaP. …... Substitute

∴ loapn = n logaP.

205
 Example 7

Express the following as single logarithms

(a) 2 log5 3 + 3 log5 2
Solution
2 log10 3 = log10 2 = log5 9
3 log5 2 = log5 23 = log5 8

∴ 2 log5 3 + 3 log5 = log5 9 + log5 8

= log5 (9 × 8) Using the multiplication law

= log5 72

(b) Log10 3 − 2 log10( 14 )

Solution

Log10 3 − 2 log10( 14 )2 ..................log rule

4
3
= log10 3 − log10 1
16

= log10 (3 ÷ 1 ) ......Using the division law.

16
= log10 48.

The base and number the same

Prove that loga a = 1
Let loga a = n then a = an to exponential equation

∴ a1 = an

n = 1 since the bases are the same

∴ loga a = 1

Example 8:

206
 Example 8
Express as single logarithms

log10150 - log1015

Solution

log10(15 ÷ 15)

log1010 = 1
Note. The logarithm of numbers of the same base is always 1.
The log of 1
Prove that loga 1 = 0
Let loga 1 = m
1 = am But a0 = 1.

∴ am = a0

∴ m=o
Hence loga 1= 0.
Note The logarithm of 1 is always 0.

Exercise 10e

. Write as a single logarithm

(a) log3 6 + log3 4
(b) log2 48 − log2 6
(c) 3log5 2 + log5 10
(d) 2log6 8 − 4log6 3
1
(e) Log10 5 + log10 6 − log10  
4
(f) log20 – log 2 18
(g) log214 – log2 7
(h) 2loga3 + 3loga2 –log4
(i) log3 8.1 + log3 10
(i) log 25
log5

207
 Sometimes, you may require to perform the reverse process.

Example 9:
Expressing logarithms
1. Write the following in terms of logax, loga y, and loga z
(a) logax3 y2 z4

 x3 z 
(b) loga  2 
 y 
Solution
(a) l oga x3 y2 z4 = loga x3 + loga y2 + loga z4 using the
multiplication law.
= 3logax +2loga y + 4loga z using the power law.

 x3 z 
(b) loga  2  = loga x3 + loga 8 − loga y2 using the
 y  multiplication and
Division laws

4
= 3logax + logaz − 2loga y s ince √z = z1/2
3 using the power
law.

2. Given that log102 = 0.431 and log10 3 = 0.683, find the value
log 18
Solution:
Log10 18 = log 10 23 + log 10 3
= 3log102 + log 10 3
= 3(0.431) + 0. 683
=1.976

208
Exercise 10f

1. Write in terms of loga x, loga y and loga z

(a) loga (xy 3 z 5 )

x y
(e) loga  
 z 
 
 x 
(b) loga  
 x−4   x 
(f) loga  
 x−4 
x z
(c) Log  3   x
 y  (g) loga  5 
a 
(
(d) loga a 3 ×3 )

2. Given that log5 2 = 0.431 and log5 3 = 0.683, find the value of
(a) log5 6 (b) log5 1.5
(c) log5 8 (d) log5 12

(e) log5 1
18
Having studied the laws of logarithms, you can now solve
logarithmic equations with the unknown in more than one term.

Activity 7:

Solving log equation

(a) In pairs, solve the following
(i) x = log2 8
(ii)log2 x = −3
(iii)logx 25 = 2
Present your work to others members in the classroom.

209
In this activity, you change from logarithm equation to
exponential equation and then solve.

Example 10:
Solving logarithmic equations
Solve the equations below
(a) log5 x = 1 + log (x − 4)
(b) 2log3 x = log3 (x + 6)
(c) log2 x = −3
Solution
(a) Since there is one term on each side, we can take the
antilogarithm on both sides

∴ antilog (log3 x) = antilog (log3 (2x − 6).


∴ x = 2x – 6. Arrange like terms together
∴x=6
(b) Collect the logarithm terms to one side
i.e. log5 x − log5 (x − 4) = 1

 x 
∴ log5   = 1
 x − 4 

 x 
∴ log5   = log5 5 (since log5 5 = 1)
 x−4 

then take antilogarithm on both sides

∴
−b =5
2a
∴ x = 5 (x − 4) … multiply (x- 4) both sides

∴ x = 5x − 20

∴ 4x = 20 …… like terms together and divide both sides by

∴x=5

210
 (c) log3 x2 = log3 (x + 6)
 ∴ x2 = x + 6 …….take antilog both sides
∴ x2 − x − 6 = 0…. arrange like terms together
∴ (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0…. Factorise LHS and solve for x
∴x = 3 x = − 2
∴ x = 3 as it is not possible to take log (−2)

Exercise 10g

Solve the following logarithmic equations.

(a) x = log3 27 (b) x = log5 625
(c) logx 125 = 3 (d) logx 81 = 2

(e) x = log2  1  (f) x = log169 13

8
(g) log31 = x (h) log2x 36 = 2
(i) log4 (x − 2) = 3
(j) logx − 1 8 = 3.
(k) log2 256 = x

Real life problems of exponential and logarithm equations

As earlier pointed out, exponential equations are used for even
more contexts, including population and bacterial growth,
radioactive decay, compound interest, cooling of objects, and
growth of phenomena such as virus infections, Internet usage
and many others.

Example 11
Populations
a. A tree frog population doubles every three weeks.  Suppose
that currently, there are 10 tree frogs in your back yard. 
How many tree frogs will there be in 6 months, assuming
that there are four weeks each month?

211
b. How long will it take this population to be 10,240?
Solutions
a.  irst figure out how many times this population will double
F
in 4 months.  Each month 4 weeks, then six months 6x4= 24
weeks. 
Since the population doubles every three weeks, then
24/3 =8 times in 24 weeks. Look at the table below:

Number of Doubling population

weeks period
O 0 10
3 1 20 =10 x 2or 10 x 21
6 2 40 = 10 x 2 x 2 or 10 x 22
9 3 80 = 10 x 2 x 2 x2 or 10 x 23
After 24 weeks, the population will be 10 x 28 = 2560 tree
frogs!
If you look at the table above, you will notice that you
could let n be the number of weeks.  How would you get the
number of doubling periods from n? 
Solution:
After n weeks, the population would be P = 10 x 2(n/3).
So you need to solve the equation
10,240 = 10 x 2(n/3). 
1024 = 2(n/3)… divide both sides by 10,
But 1024 = 210….expressing to base
210 = 2(n/3).  … equate the bases.
10 = n/3,
∴ n = 30. 
That means that after 30 weeks, the population will be
10,240.

212
Unit summary
• In this unit so far, you have looked at exponential and
logarithm equations. You have learned how to express
a number as a power of a given base. You also modelled
exponential equations and solved them. Furthermore, you
looked at rules of logarithm and also solved logarithm
equations. In the next unit you will learn about triangles in
trigonometry.

Unit review exercise

1. Solve the following equations.
(a) 2 log7 x = log7 (x + 2)
(b) log5 x = 1− log5 (x − 4)
(c) log3 (x + 3) = 2 log3 (x + 1)
(d) log7 2x = log7 (x + 2)
(e) log42 − log4 x = log42/3.
(f) log2 (x + 1) = 1
(g) log3 6 = log33 +log3 x
(h) 8x-1 = 16
(i) 32y- 4(3y) + 3 = 0
(j) 22x – 4(2x) + 3 = 0
(k) 252b ÷5b = 56
2. Currently, 80,000 bacteria are present in a culture. When
an antibiotic is added to the culture, the number of bacteria
is reduced by half every 3 hours.
(a) How many bacteria are left after a day?
(b) When will fewer than 1000 bacteria be present?
3 write as a single number and simplify if possible;
log 16+log 4
(a) log 16 log 4
log 3+log 27
(b) log 9 log 3
213
Glossary
Base is a number that is being raised to a power
Exponent is a number that has been raised as a power known
also as power or indice
Logarithm equation is an expression of the form loga x = y
which is read as “log base a of x equals y”
Exponential equations is an equation in which the exponent
is the variable.

References
Hau S and Saiti F (2010). Strides in Mathematics 3. Blantyre:
Longman Malawi.
Elaine Ryder, Paul McAdams, Pat Huddleston, (2013), CHANCO
Teach yourself series, Mathematics, Second Edition, Chancellor
College Publication, Zomba.
Hardwood Clarke and Norton F G J, (1984) Seventh Edition,
Heinemann Educational Book Ltd, Oxford, London

214
 Activity 1:

Unit Identifying the sides of a right

angled triangle
You are familiar with the side of the
triangle called the hypotenuse. You

11 will now be introduced to the names

of two other sides in relation to the
angles of the triangle.
In groups, study the definitions
below which relate to a right angled
triangle:
TRIGONOMETRY
•  n adjacent side to an angle is
A
the side which together with
the hypotenuse forms that
angle.
•  n opposite side to an angle
A
is a side which together with
the adjacent side forms a right
angle of the triangle.

In your JCE course you learnt Basing on these two definitions,

about calculating sides of a right identify the adjacent side and the
angled triangle using Pythagoras opposite side to angle A in the
theorem. In this unit you will drawing below:
A
learn how to calculate sides and
angles of a right angled triangle
using trigonometry. You will also
learn how to derive trigonometric
ratios of 300, 450, 600, 900 Zand
solve practical problems involving
trigonometry.
B C

The knowledge gained in learning Which side is the hypotenuse in the

this will be used in solving real above triangle?
life situations such as finding the Come up with your own right angled
height of a mountain. triangles labeling them with letters
of your choices and identify the
hypotenuse, the opposite sides, and
the adjacent sides in relation to the
angles of the triangles. Let your
teacher check your answers.

215
Trigonometric ratios
In activity 1 you learnt to identify the sides of a triangle in
relation to the given angles. Any two of these sides can be
divided and the result is called the trigonometric ratio. You will
now learn to define three of these ratios, sine ratio, cosine ratio
and tangent ratio.

Activity 2:

Deriving sine ratio

In your groups,
1. Draw the following right angled triangles: 4cm by 3 cm by
5cm; 8cm by 6cm by 10cm; 12cm by 9cm by 15cm.
2. L
 abel the angle opposite the shortest side in each triangle
as θ (theta).
3. Now in relation to angle θ, find the ratio of the opposite side
to the hypotenuse by dividing the side opposite angle θ by
the hypotenuse in each of the three triangles simplifying
the fractions to their lowest terms (or give the answer as
decimal fractions to 4 decimal places). What do you find?
4. Report your findings.
5. D
 raw your own right angled triangles and practice getting
sine ratio and in your group draw one triangle on a chart
paper and hang the chart on the wall of your classroom.

The ratio you found above is called the sine ratio and as you
have seen, it doesn’t depend on the size of the triangle. From
this, can you try to define what the sine of an angle is?

Because you found this ratio using angle θ you specifically call it
sine of angle θ or in short Sin θ.

Activity 3:

Deriving cosine ratio

1. Go back to the triangles you drew in activity 2. Repeat

216
 step 3 but now divide the side adjacent angle θ by the
hypotenuse. Again simplify the fraction to their lowest
terms.
2. Report your findings.

The ratio you found is called the Cosine ratio and because you
found this ratio using angle θ you specifically call it Cosine of
angle θ or in short Cos θ. Again, it doesn’t depend on the size of
the triangle. As you did in activity 2, can you try to define the
cosine of an angle?

Activity 4:

Deriving tangent ratio

1. Again go back to the triangles you drew in activity 2. Repeat
step 3 but now divide the side opposite angle θ by side
adjacent angle ө simplifying the fraction to its lowest term.
2. Report your findings.

The ratio you found is called the tangent ratio. As in sine and
cosine ratios, it doesn’t depend on the size of the triangle.

The three trigonometric ratios above can easily be remembered

by the word SOHCAHTOA. Discuss with a friend to see how this
word has been formed. Ask your teacher to help you if you have
problems.

Exercise 11a

1. In each of the following triangles find the sine of angle A

(Sin A): Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places:

217
 A
(a) (b)
C A

12.1 cm 7.5m
14.1cm 10.9m

B 7.3cm C B

2. In each of the following triangles find the cosine of angle

(Cos X): Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.
X
(a)

12cm 6cm

Y Z

Z
(b)

8.7cm

X 3.4cm Y

3. Find the tangent of angle PQR in each of the following

diagrams. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.

218
 Q 8cm P P
(a) (b)

13cm 9cm

R
R Q
7cm
P 5cm R

(c)
4cm

4. Given that in a right angled triangle ABC, the cosine of

angle A = 0.8, angle B = 900 find

(a) Sine of angle A

(b) Cosine of angle C

(c) Tangent of angle C

5. Draw your own triangles and write down sine, cosine and
tangent of angles of your choices. Get a friend or your
teacher to check your work.

Using a scientific calculator to work out problems involving

trigonometry
You will quite often use a calculator to work out problems
involving trigonometry in the sections that follow. You will use
it especially in finding the tangent, sine and cosine of angles and
finding angles whose ratios are given. The aim of this section
therefore is to help you acquire the skills in using the calculator
in these areas.

219
 Activity 5:

Using a scientific calculator to find tangent, sine and

cosine of angles

Before starting to work with your calculator, ensure that the

calculator is in degree mode. Ask your teacher to help you set
your calculator in this mode.

In pairs,
1. S
 tudy the keys on your scientific calculator. How are sine,
cosine and tangent represented on the calculator?
2. N
 ow press the “on” key and press “Cos” key followed by 53.
What does your calculator display?
3. N
 ow press the “=” key and write down the display. You can
correct this display to four decimal places. This result is the
cosine of 530.
4. N
 ow using your calculator, find the following: tan 600, tan
400, sin 300, sin 900.

5. Choose your own angles and find their sines, cosines and
tangents using the calculator.

Exercise 11b

Use a scientific calculator to find, correct to four decimal places

1. Tan 300

2. Cos 470

3. Sin 350

4. Tan 800

5. Sin 750

6. Cos 760

7. Sin 330

220
 8. Tan 240

9. Cos 230

10. Sin 480

Activity 6:

Using a scientific calculator to find angles whose

trigonometric ratios are given

Again in pairs, identify the key on the scientific calculator

labeled “2nd” or standing against “shift”. You are to use this key
together with other keys to find angles whose trigonometric
ratios are given.
1. P
 ress the key identified above and then press Cos. Write
down what your calculator displays.
2. R
 epeat this step but now use Tan and Sin instead of Cos.
Again write down what the calculator displays.
3. D
 iscuss what the displays mean. Ask your teacher to help
you if you cannot come up with the meaning.
4. I n activity 5, you found Cos 530 as 0.6018 to four decimal
places. Now press the 2nd function key on your calculator
followed by Cos followed by 0.6018 followed by “ = ” key.
Write down what the calculator displays to the nearest
degree.
5. Discuss the order of pressing the keys if you were to find the
angle whose tangent or sine is given.
6. Repeat step 4 but now using the ratios you found in step 4
of activity 4. Did you manage to get the angles you started
with?
7. In your own words write down the statement for finding
angles whose trigonometric ratios are given.

Exercise 11c
Use a scientific calculator to find to the nearest degree the angle

221
 whose
1. Cosine is 0.5411
2. Cosine is 0.0089
3. Tangent is 2.3412
4. Sine is 0.7698
5. Tangent is 1.2300
6. Sine is 0.1543
7. Tangent is 0.4567
8. cosine is 0.7899
9. Sine is 0.9765
10. Tangent is 0.8354

Calculating sides and angles of a right angled triangle using

trigonometry
In Form 2, you learnt how to calculate sides of a right angled
triangle using Pythagoras Theorem. Remember that to use
Pythagoras theorem you must be given two sides. However you
may sometimes be given an angle or angles and a side and you
may still be required to calculate the sides of a right angled
triangle. This is when you can use trigonometry. In the activities
that follow you will learn how to calculate sides and angles of a
right angled triangle using trigonometry.

Activity 7:

Calculating sides of right angled triangles using

trigonometric ratios

You learnt how to draw triangles in your JCE course using a

ruler, a protractor and a pair of compasses. In groups,
1. C
 onstruct triangle PQR in which QR = 4cm, angle R =
900 and angle P = 320.Each one must draw his or her own

222
 triangle.
2. Measure and record the lengths of PQ and AR.
3. Compare your work.
4. Report your findings.

You could also use scientific calculators to work out the lengths
of PQ and AR. Again in your pairs,
1. D
 raw triangle PQR again. Just draw the triangle without
using a compass or a protractor.
2. Using the triangle write down the relationship between 320
and the two sides you are to find.
3. Using the words hypotenuse, adjacent and opposite ,
complete the following:
Tan 320 =
Cos 320 =
4. Discuss how you could solve the two equations to get the
unknown sides using a calculator.
5. U
 sing the calculator, find the unknown lengths. Compare
your answers to the answers you obtained in step 2 in the
triangle you constructed. Comment on your results.

To find the lengths of a triangle using trigonometry you need

to first see the relationship between the given angle(s) and the
given side and the side you are to find. This helps you to come
up with the more direct trigonometric ratio to use. For example
if the relationship is adjacent and hypotenuse, then you use
Cosine ratio because it is the one which uses these sides. You
then proceed as in the s that follows:

Example 1:

Calculating sides of a triangle

223
A

740
C B
2.4 cm

In the above triangle, find the length of AB.

Solution:

The relationship between 740 and 2.4cm and AB is adjacent and

hypotenuse so you use Cosine ratio as follows:

Cos 740 = 2.4cm

AB
--------- from the definition of Cosine of an angle.

AB Cos 740 = 2.4 --------- multiply both sides by AB

2.4cm
AB = cos 740 ------------------------ divide by Cos 740both sides

AB = 8.71 cm approximately

Challenge

Discuss other ways in which the above question could have been
solved.

Example 2

W X
0
33

9.8cm

224
Calculate the length of WX in the above figure correct your
answer to one decimal place.

Solution:

The relationship between 330 and 9.8cm and WY is opposite

and hypotenuse so you use sine ratio as follows:
WY
Sin 330 = 9.8cm ------------From the definition of sine of an angle

WY = 9.8 Sin 330 cm------Multiply by 9.8cm both sides and

rearrange.

WY = 5.3 cm.

Example 3

A straight pole is rested against a wall with its one end 2.3m
from the foot of the pole. The other end rests on top of the wall
and the pole makes an angle of 650 with the wall. Calculate the
length of the pole to the nearest metre.

Solution

You first need to make a sketch of the information. Straight

lines are used to represent the wall and the ground on which the
wall is standing. The assumption is that the wall and the ground
are perpendicular.

650

Wall Pole

2.3m

2.3m
Sin 650 = Lenght of the pole
------------------------ From the definition of
sine of an angle

225
 Length of the pole(Sin 650) = 2.3 m--------- Multiply by length of
the pole both sides

Length of the pole = ---------------------------- Divide by Sin 650

2.3
65 0
both sides

Length of the pole = 3m (to the nearest metre) ----- From the
calculator.

Exercise 11d

1. Calculate, correcting your answers to 1 decimal place, the

unknown sides in each of the triangles below:
R

7.5cm

= =
35° =
(a) S T
P

49° =

11.2cm

(b) Q

2 A straight pole 10.5m long is leaning against a

perpendicular wall. If the pole makes an angle of 650 with
the top of the wall ,calculate the height of the wall.

3 A rectangle is 10m wide. One of the diagonals of the

226
 rectangle makes an angle of 360 with the shorter side of the
rectangle. Calculate the length of the rectangle.

4. Two wires are tied to the top of a pole which is standing

perpendicular to the ground. They are then straight fixed
to the ground along the same line so that the shorter
wire makes an angle of 650with the ground and the angle
between the two wires is 100. Given that the shorter wire is
8.5m long, calculate the distance between the two wires on
the ground.

5. A rectangular room is 10.2m long. The diagonals of the floor

of the room each make an angle of 220 with the length of
the room.

Calculate

(a) the length of the width of the room.

(b) if the diagonal from the top of the corner to the
bottom opposite corner of the room makes an angle of
600 with the height of the room, calculate the height
of the room.

Activity 8:

Calculating angles of a right angled triangle using

trigonometry

In the previous activities, you found sides of a right angled

triangle by measurement and by using a calculator.

In this activity you will learn how to find angles of a right angled
triangle using a calculator.
1. Draw triangle XYZ in which XY = 3cm, YZ = 4.8 cm, XZ =
5.6 cm and angle Y = 900
2. Write down the ratios for sin X and tan Z.
3.  iscuss how you could use a calculator to find the values of
D
angle X and angle Z. If you find problems go back to activity
5 of this topic.

227
 Example 4:

Calculating angles
Y 5.2cm X

4.5 cm

Z
Find the value of angle XYZ in the triangle.
Solution:
There are more than one ways of solving this problem. Here is
one of them:
4.5cm
Tan angle XYZ = 5.2cm
Tan XYZ = 0.8653 (correct to 4 decimal places)
Angle XYZ= tan-1 0.8653
Angle XYZ = 300 approximately (from a calculator)
Challenge: Find other methods of solving this problem and let
your teacher check the methods.

Exercise 11e

1. 13.5cm

19cm

228
 Calculate to the nearest degree, the value of angle marked θ
(theta) in the above triangle.
2. In a right angled triangle PQR, PQ = 6 cm, PR = 15 cm
and angle PQR = 900. Without using Pythagoras theorem,
calculate the other two angles of the triangle giving your
answers correct to the nearest degree.
3.  pole is resting in the corner of the room 4m by 5m. The
A
top of the pole is 6.8m above the floor and the bottom is
2.5m from each wall. Calculate the angle that the pole
makes with the floor.
4. A wheelchair ramp is to be built over steps up to a college
entrance. Each step has a vertical rise of 12cm and a
horizontal tread of 45cm. Calculate , to 1 decimal place, the
angle that the ramp makes with the horizontal.
5. Madalitso tries to row straight across a river which is 46m
wide. The current carries her downstream at an angle of 720
to the bank. How far downstream from the point she was
trying to reach does she actually land?

Trigonometric ratios of special angles

Special angles are angles whose trigonometric ratios can be
expressed as surds or as simple fractions. These angles are
300,450,600 and 900. The trigonometric ratios of these angles help
us to solve problems involving trigonometry without having to
use a calculator. In the activities that follow, you will learn how
to derive the trigonometric ratios of these angles.

Activity 9:

Deriving fractional trigonometric ratios of 300 and 600

In groups,
1. Draw and label any one equilateral triangle.
2. From any one vertex in each triangle draw a perpendicular
bisector of the side opposite that vertex.
3. What is the value of each angle in each triangle?

229
4.  ork out the following ratios: sin 300,cos 300, sin600 and
W
cos600. Leave your answers as simplified surds or as
simplified fractions.
5. Summarise the information in the table below by filling the
trigonometric ratios you found in step 4 above:

Sin 300 Cos 300 Tan 300 Sin 600 Cos 600 Tan 600

You must have discovered that despite the groups drawing their
own equilateral triangles, all the trigonometric ratios reduce to
the same results. However the amount of working varies from
one triangle to another. If you draw an equilateral triangle
whose length is an odd number you would work more than it
was if the length was an even number. Furthermore, if you want
to reduce the amount of working even further, it is advisable to
use the smallest equilateral triangle of even numbered length of
2 units.

Activity 10:

Deriving trigonometric ratios for 450

In groups, draw any three isosceles right angled triangles.

1. U
 se Pythagoras theorem to calculate the lengths of the
hypotenuse in each of the triangles, leaving them in
simplified surd form.
2. W
 ork out the following ratios for all the three triangles:
tan 450, cos 450 and sin 450. Simplify your answers to their
simplest forms.
3. Summarise the information in the table below:

Tan 450 Cos 450 Sin 450

As in activity 9, you must have discovered that for any right

angled isosceles triangle the fractional trigonometric ratios are
the same.

230
 Activity 11:

Deriving trigonometric ratios for 900

1. Working in groups, draw the y and x axes on a square sheet
of Cardboard of not less than 40cm by 40cm.
2. Get two straight sticks each 30cm long, and pivot the two
ends of the sticks.
Ensure that the two sticks can move freely on the pivot. Bring
the two sticks onto the cardboard and pivot one end of the two
sticks at the origin as shown below:

y-axis T

30cm pivot centre

30cm
Square cardboard

O x-axis
S
R

3. N
 ow pin the cardboard on to a wall so that TR is
perpendicular to the x axis. Note that OS is the
perpendicular distance of TR from the y axis.
4. N
 ow write down the following ratios of acute angle O in
terms of OT and OS: Cos angle TOS, Sin angle TOS and
Tan angle TOS.
5. S
 lowly, rotate OT anticlockwise about O. What is happening
to the size of acute angle O? What about the distance OS?
 ontinue rotating OT anticlockwise until R , S and O
6. C
coincide. What will be the size of the acute angle O at this
moment? What will be the length of OS?
7. Using your findings in step 6, make appropriate
231
 substitutions into the ratios you found in step 4, simplify
the results and give a summary in a table form.

Challenge

In deriving trigonometric ratios for 900, you used sticks of length

30cm. Do you think you would obtain different results if sticks
of other lengths say 10cm and 10cm, 20cm and 20cm e.t.c were
used?

The trigonometric ratios of special angles are useful in solving

some right angled triangles without having to use a calculator.

Example 5:

Solving for triangles

x cm

M
SM=

3cm

Find the value of x without using a calculator or tables.

Solution

3cm
Cos 600 =
x
x cos 600 = 3cm ---------- multiply both sides by x

3cm
x = ------ divide both sides by cos 600
Cos 60 0

232
 3cm
x = 1 -------- substitute cos 600 for (activity 9)
2
x = 6cm

Exercise 11f

1.
P

450 600
Q S R

In the triangle above, PS is the height of the triangle PQR and

QS = 40 cm.Without using a calculator, calculate, leaving your
answer in surd form, the length of PR.

2. Calculate the lengths of the labeled sides in the triangles

below leaving your answers in surd form:

x x
5cm
10cm
600
300
(a) (b)

233
 y

3 2 cm
450
(c)

3.
Q

8cm

600 450
T R
S

In the above figure, calculate, leaving your answers in surd

forms, the lengths of TQ, RQ and RS.

Angles of elevation and depression

An angle of elevation is the angle between a horizontal line and
a straight line drawn above the horizontal line.

An angle of depression is the angle between a horizontal line

and a straight line drawn below the horizontal line.

The two angles are shown below:

234
 Angle of depression

Angle of elevation

Calculating angles of elevation and depression

Basically what happens in calculating angles of elevation and
depression is what you did in activity 8 of this topic.

Example 6

Calculate the angle of elevation to the top of a building 10 m

high from a point 15m away from the foot of the building.

Solution

You need a sketch of the information. The building is assumed

to be perpendicular to the ground.
Top (T)

10m

Point (P)
Foot (F) 15m

You are required to calculate angle TPF.

10m
Tan angle TPF = 15m
Tan angle TPF = 0.6667

Angle TPF = 340 ( to the nearest degree)

235
 Example 7:

Angle of depression

Calculate the angle of depression of a point 25.6 m away from

the top of a tower 15.8m high.

Solution

Horizontal (H) Top (T)

25.6m 15.8m

Point (P) Foot (F) of a towe

You are required to find angle HTP.

Angle HTP = angle TPF

15.8m
Sine angle TPF = 25.6m

Sine angle TPF =0.6172

Angle TPF = 380

The angle of depression is therefore 380

Exercise 11g

Give your answers correct to the nearest degree in all the

questions
1. C
 alculate the angle of elevation of the top of a mountain
300m high from a point 1.5Km from the foot of the
mountain.
 ind the angle of elevation of the tip of an aerial 1.5m high
2. F
standing on a building 5m high from the point X 300m away
from the foot of the building.
3. A point is 150m away from the foot of a tower. It is also

236
 measured that this point is 350m from the top of the tower.
Calculate the angle of depression of this point from the top
of the tower.
4. A
 boy in a fruit tree 5.8m high throws a fruit straight to
his friend who is standing 3m from the foot of the tree. If
the boy on the ground catches the fruit at a height of 0.5m
from the ground, at what angle to the tree did the other boy
throw the fruit?
5. T
 wo wires are tied to the top of a pole 10.5m high and
then pegged straight on the ground. The two wires reach
distances of 1.5m and 2m on the ground respectively.
Calculate the angle between the two wires.
6. I n a penalty shootout, a player shoots a ball straight onto
a goalpost whose crossbar is 1.5 m above the ground. If the
penalty spot is 11m away from the goal line, what is the
maximum angle from which the player can score?
7. A plane flying at an attitude of 1500m is to land at an
airport 10km away. At what minimum angle must the pilot
lower his plane?
8. I n a shoot a target competition, a shooter stands 35m away
from the foot of a pole on which a target is placed. If a gun
is held by the shooter at a height of 0.75m above the ground
at an angle of 200 and if the pole is 12m high, show that the
shooter will miss the target.
9. A rubber bullet is fired at an angle straight on to a
perpendicular wall and hits a point 5.6m high. If the bullet
was fired from the foot level of the wall and rebounds at an
angle of 800to its path onto the wall and at 300 to the wall,
at what angle and distance from the wall was the bullet
elevated?
10. T
 he tip of the roof of a room stands 1.5 m midway above
the last line of the room 6m wide. Calculate the angle of
elevation of the roof.

237
Further problems involving angles of elevation and
depression

Example 8:

Problems involving angles of elevation and depression

A motorist travels a distance of 300m up a hill inclined at an

angle of 100 to the horizontal. If the motorist was originally at
sea level, find the height she is above sea level at the end of
300m.

Solution

It is important to make a sketch of the information. For

purposes of calculations we use straight lines to represent
objects.
C

m
300

10°
A B

sin 100 = 300

300sin 100 = BC --------------------------------- (multiply by 300

both sides).

BC = 52.1m approximately.

Challenge

Discuss some other ways of solving this problem.

Example 9

The base of a tree is 60m away from point x on the ground. If the

238
angle of elevation of the top of the tree from x is 400. Calculate
the height of the tree. Give your answer to the nearest metre.

X 400

60m

Let the height of the tree be h

∴ h = tan 400
60cm
h = 60m × tan 400

= 50 .3m (to 3 significant figures)

Example 10:

Problems involving angles of elevation and deviation

A person on top of a cliff 50m high, observes the angle of

depression of a boy to be 300. If he is in line with the boy,
calculate the distance between the boy and the foot of the cliff
(which may be assumed to be vertical).

Horizontal
300
600

50m

X cm

239
 Let the distance between the boy and the foot of the cliff be x.

The angle between horizontal line and vertical cliff is 900

∴to find the angle for calculating x in the triangle, we subtract
300 from 900

i.e. 900 − 300 = 600

∴ x = tan 600
50
x = 50 × tan 600

x = 86.6 m (to 3 significant figures)

Exercise 11h

1.  rom a point, the angle of elevation of a tower is 300. If the

F
tower is 25m distant from the point, what is the height of
the tower?

2. A woman 1.6m tall observes the angle of elevation of a tree

to be 260. If she is standing 20m from the tree, find the
height of the tree.

3.  boy 1.2m tall is 10m away from a tree 20m high. What is
A
the angle of elevation of the top from his eyes?

4.  and B are two villages. If the horizontal distance between

A
them is 12km and the vertical distance between them is
2km.

Calculate

(i) the shortest distance between the two villages

(ii) The angle of elevation of B from A.

5.  surveyor stands 100m from the base of a tower on which

A
an aerial stands. He measures the angles of elevation to the
top and bottom of the aerial as 580 and 560. Find the height
of the aerial.

6. A man 1.2m tall standing on top of the mountain 1200m

240
 high observes the angle of depression of a steeple is 430.
How far is the steeple from the mountain?

7. X and Y are two towns. If the vertical distance between

them is 10km and the angle of depression of Y from X is 70,

Calculate:

(i) the shortest distance between the two towns

(ii) the horizontal between the two towns.

8. An air plane receives a signal from a point X on the ground.

If the angle of depression of point X from the airplane is 300,
calculate the height at which the plane is flying given that
the plane is 6km from X.

9. A girl sitting on a hill at A, overlooking a lake can see a

small boat at a point B on the lake. If the girl is at height of
50m above B at a horizontal distance of 120m away from B,
calculate:

(i) The angle of depression of the boat from the girl

(ii) The shortest distance between the girl and the boat.

10. A plane is flying at an altitude of 8km directly over the line

AB. It spots two boats A and B, on the sea. If the angles
of depression are 600 and 300 respectively, calculate the
horizontal distance between A and B (two possible answers).

11. Mr Phiri uses 10m planks to offload some items from his
lorry. If the lorry is 1.5m high, calculate the minimum angle
of inclination of the planks.

Bearing

Activity 12:

Using a compass to name directions

In form 1geography, you learnt about how to use a compass.

1. Name the four cardinal points on a compass.

241
2. What is the initial reference line on the compass?
3. D
 iscuss how you name points midway between the cardinal
points. Are these the only points you can show on a
compass?
This method of naming points is used to show direction.
Sometimes the cardinal points will be used together with angles.
Bearing quoted in this way are always measured from N and S
and never from E and W.

Example11:

Naming directions

State the directions of the huts in each of the following diagrams

(a)
N

600
W E

Solution:
N600E
(b)
N

W E
710

S
Solution

S710W

242
 Bearings are also measured from north in a clockwise direction,
the north being taken 00. Three figures are always stated. For
example 0080 is written instead of 80. East will be 0900, South
1800 and West 2700.

Activity 13:

Calculating the bearing of a point relative to a given

point
1. On a piece of paper draw a north-south line.
2. Draw any object on the same piece of paper and join the
object to the north - south line by a straight line. Let the two
lines join at a point say O.
3. Use your compass to find the bearing of the object from O.
4. Your teacher will provide you with diagrams showing
locations of point a point B in relation to another point A.
5. Use your compass to find the bearing of B from A.

Challenge

In the drawings provided by your teacher, how would you find

the bearing of A from B?

Exercise 11i

1. Write each of the following as three-figure bearings

a) N500E

b) N500W

c) S500W

d) S500E

e) S800E

243
 2.  ind the three-figure bearing of Q from P in the sketches
F
below.

N
N

800 0
P 60
P

Q
a) b)

N
Q N

P 450

700
P

Q
c) d)

3. Draw sketches representing the following:-

A is on a bearing of

a) 0200 from B

b) 1250 from B

c) 2200 from B

d) 2700 from B

e) 3100 from B

Calculating the bearing of a point relative to a given point

using trigonometry
Problems involving bearing may be solved by making a scale

244
drawing or by using trigonometry. When using the scale
drawing method, you first choose a suitable scale. Since we have
just studied trigonometry, we will solve the problems below
using the trigonometry method.

Example 12

A boat starts from point A and sails to point B on a bearing of

0300, given that the distance of A to B is 80m, find how far B is
to the east of A.

Solution

You need to sketch the information. Form a right-angled

triangle so that you can use SOHCAHTOA.

80m

300
600
C
A

We are asked to find AC

AC = Cos600
80m
AC = 80m × Cos600

AC = 40m

Example 13

A ship sets out from a point A and sails due north to a point B,
a distance of 120km. It then sails due east to a point C. If the
bearing of C from A is 0370,

Find

a) the distance BC

b) The distance AC.

245
 Solution

Again, you need to sketch what is going on. Join A to C to form

the right-angled triangle ABC.

B C

120km
N

370
A

a) BC =tan370
120
bc = 120km × tan370

= 90.4km. (to 3 significant figures)

b) To find AC you can use the Pythagoras theorem or

trigonometry. Using trigonometry,

120km = cos370
AC

∴AC = 120km (making AC the subject of the formula)

cos 37 0

= 150km (to 3 significant figures)

Exercise 11j

1. A
 ship is on a bearing 0600 from a lighthouse. What is the
bearing of the lighthouse from the ship?

2. A ship is on a bearing 2000 from a lighthouse. What is the

bearing of the lighthouse from the ship?

3. P is the point due west of a harbour H and Q is a point

246
 which is 5km due south of H. If the distance PH is 7km, find
the bearing of Q from P.

4. A boat leaves a harbour H on a bearing of 1200 and it sails

100km on this bearing until it reaches a point B. How far is
B east of A? What distance south of A is B?

5. X is a port due west of a point P. Y is a point due south of P.

If the distances PX and PY are 10km and 15km respectively,
find the bearing of X from Y.

6. A ship sails 35km on a bearing of 0400.

a) How far north has it travelled?

b) How far east has it travelled?

7. A ship sails 200km on a bearing of 2400.

a) How far south has it travelled?

b) How far west has it travelled?

8. An aircraft flies 400km from point O on a bearing of 0250

and then 200Km on a bearing of 0800 to arrive at B.

a) how far north of O is B?

b) how far east of O is B?

c) Find the distance and bearing of b from o.

9. An aircraft flies 500 km on a bearing of 1000 and then

600km on a bearing of 1600. Find the distance and bearing
of the finishing point from the Starting point.

Unit summary
• In this unit you have learnt calculating angles and sides
of right angled triangles using trigonometric ratios. You
have also learnt how to derive fractional trigonometric
ratios of 300, 450, 600 and 900. You also worked out problems
involving bearing and solved practical problems involving
trigonometry.

247
Glossary
Tangent ratio: the ratio of the side opposite to a given angle in
a right angled triangle to the side adjacent that angle.

Sine ratio: the ratio of the side opposite to a given angle in a

right angled triangle to the hypotenuse.

Cosine ratio: the ratio of the side adjacent to a given angle in a

right angled triangle to the hypotenuse.

Special angles: angles whose ratios that can be expressed as

surds or simple fractions.

Unit review exercise

1. In each of the following triangles find the sine of angle P :
Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places:
P

10.1 cm 20.5 cm

(a) Q R
Q P

7.5m
1 0.9m

(b) R

2.

248
 A

350
B
C 10 cm

In the above triangle, find the length of AB.

3. A surveyor stands at the end of the bridge across a river.

The bridge is 20m long. The surveyor looks down at an
angle of 680 to see the bottom of the river on the opposite
side. Calculate the depth of the river to the nearest metre.

4. A 200m tower is to be built for relaying cellular phone

signals. The tower is to be anchored by cables from the top
of the tower that will each form a 650 angle with the ground.
Find how far from the base of the tower each cable will be
anchored.

5. The longest ladder that a City Council fire department has

is 415cm mounted onto the roof a truck. For the safety of
those on the ladder, the fire department does not want to
extend the ladder to an angle greater than 750 with the roof
of the truck. If the roof of the truck is 300cm off the ground,
find the highest point the ladder can reach.

6. Calculate the lengths of the labeled sides in the triangles

below leaving your answers in surd form where possible:

x x
50cm
25cm

300 600
(a) (b)

249
 y

5 2 cm
450
(c)

7. A plane flying at an attitude of 10500m is to land at an

airport 25Km away. At what minimum angle must the pilot
lower his plane?

8. A ship left port X and travelled 70Km on a bearing S400E to

port Y. It then travelled 100Km on a bearing S280W to port
Z. Calculate
a. the shortest distance from X to Z correct to three significant
figures.
b. the bearing of Z from Y to the nearest degee.

9. The bearing of ship H from town X is 1450 36´ and from

town Y is 055034´. Given that XY =10Km and that X is due
north of Y, find the distance from H to Y correct to one
decimal place. = 5.7km

10. An aircraft flies 1300 km on a bearing of 2100 and then

700km on a bearing of 0600. Find the distance and bearing
of the finishing point from the starting point.

References
R. Chikwakwa et al, Senior Secondary Mathematics (2002),
Macmillan, Malawi.

L. Bostock et al, National Curriculum Mathematics(1999),

Stanley Thornes, Cheltenham

Elain Ryder et al, CHANCO Teach yourself Mathematics(2013),

Chancellor College Publications, Malawi.

250
 Ratio of areas of similar figures

Unit Activity 1:

Identifying a scale factor of

12 similar figures
1. I n pairs discuss the meaning of
“scale factor.”
2. Identify the scale factor in
the diagrams below ( A is the
object and B is the image)
SIMILARITY

9cm
3cm

4cm 12cm

3. Write the formula for finding

In unit 9 of book 2, you studied scale factor.
similar figures. Recall that similar Scale factor shows how many times
shapes are an enlargement of an object has been enlarged. It is
each other. This means the length found by the formula scale
of the larger shape are found by Factor =
multiplying the scale factor by the
lengths of the smaller shape.
When the scale faclvtor is greater
In this unit, you will learn to apply than 1, the image is larger than the
the ratio of areas and volumes of object, when it is less than 1, the
similar figures to calculate areas, image is smaller than the object and
sides of similar figures and volumes when it is 1 the image and the object
of similar solids. are equal in size. A negative scale
factor upsides down the image.
Similarity is used in many
situations. It is used in solving
real life problems such as finding Example 1:
lengths, volumes, and areas of
similar objects such as triangles. Scale factor

The height of a triangle ABC is 10cm and

the height of a similar triangle A’B’C’ is
14cm. Calc ulate the scale factor.

251
Solution
14
Scale factor = 10

= 1.4

Exercise 12a:

Calculate the scale factor in each of the following pairs of

figures. A is the object and B is the image:
1.
8cm

2cm A 4cm
1cm B

2.

7cm
A 14cm B

3. T
 he actual length of a line segment is 2.5 m but it is
represented on a scale drawing by a line segment 2.5 cm.
Calculate the scale factor.
4. A
 distance of 1km is represented on a map by a line 2cm
long. find the Scale factor used.
5. T
 he radius of a circle is 14cm. If the circle is enlarged by the
scale factor of ½, find the radius of the corresponding circle.

Activity 2:

Finding area factor of similar figures

252
 Working in pairs, discuss the meaning of area factor. Suggest
how area factor can be found.

The area factor of similar figures is the ratio of areas of similar

figures. It is found by the formula

Area of the image figure

Area factor =
Area of the object

Example 2

The area of a triangle is 24cm2. The area of another triangle an

enlargement of the first triangle is 72 cm2. Find the area factor.

Solution

2
72
Area factor = 2
24
=3

Exercise 12b:

In each of the following, A is the area of the object and B is the

area of the image . Find the area factor for each one of them:
a. A = 32 cm2 and B = 48cm2
b. A = 100 cm2 and B = 50 cm2
c. A = 54 cm2 and B = 90 cm2
d. A = 1.5m2 and B = 1m2
e. A = 100km2 and B = 75km2
f. A = 7.5 m2 and B = 2.5m2

1. Calculate the ratio of areas of the following pairs of solids.

253
 a.

2 cm

2 cm
8 cm

8 cm

b.

9cm
3cm

4cm 12cm

2. A
 rectangular garden 120m by 100m. Another rectangular
garden is150m by 120m. Find the ratio of the area of the
first garden to that of the second garden.
3. The two parallel sides of a trapezium are 10cm and 20cm.
the perpendicular distance between them is 8cm. Another
trapezium has Parallel sides measuring 15cm and 30cm
with a perpendicular distance of 12cm between them. Find
the ratio of area of the second trapezium to the area of the
first trapezium.
 alculate the ratio of area of two circles with radii 7cm and
4. C
21cm respectively

254
 Activity 3:

Calculating areas of similar shapes

In the previous three activities you have learnt how to identify

scale factor, area factor and how to calculate ratios of areas of
similar solids. In this section you will learn how to calculate
areas of similar shapes. But before you calculate areas of these
similar shapes, you need to know the relationship between scale
factor and area factor.

In groupsDraw any three pairs of similar figures of your choice.

Show the dimensions of he figures.

1. For each pair find the scale factor and the area factor and
complete the table like the one below:

Scale factor Area factor

First pair
Second pair
Third pair

2. W
 hat is the relationship between the ratio of the lengths of
three pairs of similar shapes above and the ratio of the areas?
3. Report your findings to class.

You must have found out that the area factors are the squares of
the scale factors or the scale factors are the square roots of the
area factors.

Example 3:

Areas of triangle

The two triangles, ABC and XYZ are similar. Given that area of
ABC is 5 cm2, find the area of ∆ XYZ.

255
 X

B C
4 cm
Y 8 cm Z

Solution
8 2
Scale factor = 4 = 1
2 2

= 1
Relationship between scale factor and area
-------------------------- 

factor
Area of triangle XYZ 4
=
= 5cm 2 1 ------------- S
 ubstitute area of triangle
ABC for 5cm2

Area of triangle XYZ = 20cm2 ---- After cross multiplication

Exercise 12c

In this exercise, a number written inside a figure represents the

area of the shape in cm2. The number on the outside gives linear
dimensions in cm. In question 1 to 10, find the unknown area A.
In each case, the shapes are similar.

1.

256
 6 cm2

3 cm A

9 cm

2.

5 cm2

3 cm A

18 cm

3.

2 cm
10 cm2
6 cm
A

4.

7cm 21cm

A 1386cm2

257
 A
10 cm
2
50 cm
20 cm

72 cm A 2 cm
8 cm

40 cm2

10 cm
A

15 cm

8
8 cm

12 cm

225 cm2

258
9
A

16 cm2

9 cm
L M

B C
18 cm

Find the area of LMCB.

Sometimes, you have the ratio of two similar shapes and you
are required to find the ratio of the lengths. To do this, you must
take the square root.

Example 4

Two similar shapes have area 10cm2 and 40cm2 respectively. If

the length of the smaller shape is 6 cm, find the corresponding
length in the larger shape.

Solution

40 2 4
Area factor = 2
=
10 1
Scale factor
2
4
Hence = 1= 6 ------- Area factor, scale factor relationship
4 2
= 1 = 36 --------- Remove the brackets
x2 = 144 --------- Cross multiply

x = 12cm ------- Take square root of both sides

259
Exercise 12d

In questions 1– 6 find the lengths marked for each pair of

similar shapes.

1.

3 cm2
12 cm2
2 cm

x cm

2.

6 cm 2 54 cm2

x cm
18 cm

3.

100 cm2
400 cm2

x cm

20 cm

4.

20 cm2
45 cm2

x cm

5. P and Q are regular pentagons. Q is an enlargement of P

260
 by a scale factor 3. If the area of pentagon Q is 180 cm2,
calculate the area of P.

6. The rectangular floor plan of a house measures 8 cm by 6

cm. If the scale of the plan is 1:50,

Calculate:

a) the dimension of the actual floor

b) the area of the actual floor in m2.

7. A
 garden has an area of 3025 m2, and is represented on a
plan by an area of 144 m2. Find the actual length of a wall,
which is represented on the plan by a line 8.4 m long.

2. Ratio of volumes of similar solids

Having studied area factor and scale factor in the previous

sections, you will now study the volume scale factor of
similar figures and its application.

Activity 4:

Finding the volume scale factor of similar solids

1. Working in pairs, discuss the meaning of “ volume scale
factor”.
2. Suggest how volume scale factor can be found.
3. F
 ind the volume scale factor of the models and the drawn
figures.

The volume scale factor of similar figures is the ratio of volumes

of similar figures. It is found by the formula

Volume of the image figure

Volume factor =
Volume of the object
You will later on learn in the coming sections the relationship
between scale factor and volume scale factor.

261
 Example 5

The volume of a container A is 300cm3 and the volume of

container B is 150cm3. Given that container B is an enlargement
of container A, find the volume scale factor of the two containers.

Solution

3
150
Volume scale factor = 3
300
1
=
2

Exercise 12e
1. Calculate the volume scale factor for each of the following
pairs of Volumes. A is the volume of the object and B is the
volume of the.
a. A = 250cm3; B = 100cm3
b. A = 240cm3; B = 320cm3
c. A = 64m3; B = 8m3
d. A = 576m3; B = 1728m3
e. A = 244cm3; B = 61cm3
f. A = 17.4m3; B = 11.6m3
g. A = 350m3; B = 1050m3
h. A = 112cm3; B = 28cm3

2. Calculate the ratio of volumes of the following pairs

of similar solids.

The figure to the right is the image

a.

262
 1.4cm 2.8cm

b.

12cm
6cm

6cm 3cm
15cm 7.5cm

Activity 5:

Calculating of volumes of similar figures

In the previous section you have learnt how to find and calculate
the ratios of volumes of similar solids. You will now learn to
calculate volumes of similar solids and to find lengths of sides
of similar solids using the relationship between scale factor
and volume factor. You will first find the relationship between
volume scale factor and scale factor by doing the following
activity:

Working in groups, perform the following activity

1. Find the volume of the cube below:
2cm

2cm

2cm
2. Using other similar cubes, build the solid below:

263
3. What is the length, width and height of the above solid?
4. Deduce the volume of the solid you have built above.
5. B
 uild two more solids by adding one cube along the length,
the width and the height each time to the preceding solid.
Find the volumes of the resulting solids.
6. Now complete the table below:

Length of a side Volume of the solid

Solid 1 2 cm 8 cm3
Solid 2 4 cm 6 4cm3
Solid 3
Solid 4

Table 1
7. N
 ow try dividing the lengths and volumes of any two cubes
as follows:
Solid 1 and solid 2 : Ratio of sides: 2cm = 1
4cm 2
Ratio of volumes: = (8 cm3) =1
(64 cm3) 8

Do the same with Solids 2 and 3 and Solids 3 and 4.

8. Present your work by filling the table below:

264
 Scale factor Volumes factor
Solids 1 and 2
Solids 2 and 3
Solids 3 and 4
Table 2

9. W
 hat is the relationship between the ratio of volume of
similar figures and their sides?

You might have discovered that the volume factor of similar

solids is the cube of the scale factor or you may also say
that the scale factor of similar figures is the cube root of the
volumes factor s.

Example 6

Calculate the ratio of volumes of similar cylinders of diameter 6

cm and 9cm.

Solution
Let the volume of the smaller cylinder = x cm3 and that of a
larger
Cylinder = ycm3
So x cm3: ycm3 = 63 : 93
i.e x:y = 216 : 729
= 8 : 27

Example 7

Two spheres have volumes in the ratio 64:125. What is the ratio
of their surface areas?

Solution:

3
The ratio of corresponding sides of the spheres = 64
125
= 3
√64
3
√125

265
 42
The ratio of their surface areas =
52
= 16:25

Example 8

Two similar cylinders have their radii in the ratio 1 : 2. If the

smaller cylinder has a volume of 21.56m3, calculate the volume
of the larger cylinder.

Solution

Since the volume factor of similar solids is the cube of scale

factor of the similar solids, or since the scale factor of similar
solids is the cube root of the ratio of the volume factor,

1 3 21.56
2 =

13 21.56
= -------Cube both sides of the equation.
23
1 21.56
8 =
x = 172.8m3 (After cross multiplication)

Exercise 12f

1.  alculate the ratio of volumes of similar rectangular tanks

C
with lengths 12cm and 16cm.
2.  wo similar solids have their surface areas as 160cm2 and
T
360cm2. Calculate the ratio of their volumes.
3.  he volume of a tank 5m high is 343m3. Calculate the
T
volume of a similar tank 10m high.
4. Two similar solids have surface areas in the ratio 9 : 25. If
the volume of the smaller solid is 81cm3, what is the volume
of the larger solid?
5. A cylindrical tin 1.5m high is filled with 50m3 of liquid and

266
 the liquid rises to a level of 1m. Calculate how much more
liquid the tank can hold so that it is completely full.

Unit summary
• In this unit you have learnt to calculate the ratios of areas
and volumes of similar figures. You have also learnt to apply
these ratios to calculate areas and sides of similar figures.

Unit review exercise

1.  wo heaps of sand are both in a conical shape. The height
T
of a smaller heap is 70cm and the height of a bigger heap
is 56cm. If the smaller heap contain 128g of sand, calculate
the mass of the bigger heap.
2.  he ratio of the radii of two similar containers is 3:2. The
T
larger container has a capacity of 4.05litres. Calculate the
capacity of the smaller container.
3. The height of a triangle is 6cm and its area is 12cm2.
Calculate base of a similar triangle whose area is 48cm2.
 he areas of two similar parallelograms are in the ratio of
4. T
4:3. The height of the larger parallelogram is 8cm. Find the
height of the smaller parallelogram.
5. I n a scale drawing of a building, a wall 1.5m high is shown
to be 10cm high. Calculate the actual width of the building
which is shown by a width of 5cm on the drawing.
 he volume of a balloon is Vcm3 and its radius is 6cm. When
6. T
the balloon is inflated further its volume increases by 40%.
Find the new radius of he balloon.
 container is partially filled with 200cm3 of water and the
7. A
water rises to a height of 50mm. calculate the volume of
water that must be added to increase the depth by 20mm.
8. The fuel tank of a truck 1m long is in a rectangular form.
When completely full the tank can hold 405litres of fuel.
Calculate the length of similar tank for a small lorry that
has a capacity of of the truck.

267
Glossary
Scale factor: The ratio of the length of a side of an image to the
corresponding side of a similar object.

Area factor: The ratio of the area of the image to the area of
the object.

Volume factor: Ratio of volumes of similar figures.

References
S. Hau and F. Saiti (2002), Strides in Mathematics Book 3,
Longman , Malawi
Larson etal (1998), Heath Algebra an Integrated Approach,
Heath and company, Canada.
G. D. Buckwell and B.N Githua, Gold Medal Mathematics,
Macmillan, London.

268
 In this unit, you are going to learn
how to solve problems involving

Unit straight lines in an x − y plane.

You will learn how to calculate the
distance between two points on a
straight line, how to find the equation
13 of a straight line, and finally you will
learn to describe the condition for two
lines to be parallel and how to find
the midpoint of a line segment.

Coordinate Geometry is applied in

COORDINATE GEOMETRY many situations. For example by
recognising the relationship between
two variables, you can learn more
about real life situations and make
reasonable predictions about future
trends such as those concerning
populations and business.

Calculating the distance

between two points on a
You are familiar with locating
straight line
a point in a plane and using
coordinates to describe the We can represent the position of
position of a point in a plane. a point with respect to the y axis
These coordinates are called the and x axis by two numbers called
Cartesian coordinates of the point. coordinates. It is for this reason
(The name comes from the French that the xy-plane is also called the
mathematician Rene Descartes coordinate plane. These numbers
(1596 −1650). The system of using are enclosed in brackets and the first
a pair of coordinates to describe number in the brackets represents the
the position of a point in a plane position of a point with respect to the
is called Coordinate Geometry or x-axis and the second number in the
Cartesian Geometry. brackets represents the position of a
point with respect to the y- axis.
The coordinates measure the
displacement (+ or −) of the point
from two perpendicular axes, the If we want to find the distance
y-axis (Oy) and the x − axis (Ox) between two points on the coordinate
where O is the origin. plane, then a simple right angled
triangle can be constructed with sides
parallel to the axes.

269
Activity 1:

Calculating the distance between two points by using

Pythagoras theorem

Work in groups:
1. Using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on both axes draw
the straight line whose equation is y = x + 2 for the values
of x =2 , 4 , 6
2. U
 sing a ruler, measure the length of the line segment from
x=2 to x = 6.
3. Record your findings.

Now on the same graph paper draw straight lines y = 4 and

x = 6. Let the two straight lines intersect at P.
4. W
 hat type of triangle is formed by the line y = x + 2 and the
two lines you have just drawn?
5. M
 easure the lengths of the two legs of the triangle. Can you
find a way of finding these lengths by using the coordinates
on the two vertices of the triangle which are not right
angles?
6. U
 sing Pythagoras Theorem, find the length of the
hypotenuse of the triangle and compare your result with the
result you found in step 3.
7. Now generalize your results to finding the length of a
straight line from A(x1 , y1 ) to B(x2,y2) where (x1, y1 ) and
(x2, y2) are two points through which the straight line
passes.

Example 1:

Distance between two points

Find the length of the line joining A (1, 2) and B (3, 4)

AB = (3 −1)2 + (4 − 2)2

270
 = 22 + 22

= 8

= 2 2

= 2.83 (to 3 significant figures)

Exercise 13a

Find, correcting your answers to 2 decimal places where

necessary, the length of the line joining
1. A (1, 2) and B (4, 6)

2. A (4, 2) and B (2, 5)

3. A (3, 4) and B (0, 0)

4. A (−1, −3) and B (2, 1)

5. A (−4, −5) and B (1, 7)

6. A (0, −3) and B (4, 0)

7. A (−1, −3) and B (−2, −5)

8. A (−2, 1) and B (4, 2)

9. A (−5, −2) and B (0, −3)

10. A (−5, 0) and B (−7, −4)

The equation of a straight line

The equation of a straight line is a relationship between two
variables x and y. You drew equations of straight lines in Form
2 when you were solving simultaneous equations graphically. In
this section you shall continue to look at these lines in the xy-
plane.

271
Activity 2:

Writing the equation of a straight line in the form

y = mx + c

Generally, there are two forms of the equation of a straight line.

These are ax + bx = c and y = mx + c. In the first form, a, b
and c are numbers. In the second form m is the gradient of the
straight line and c is the y intercept.

In groups,
1.  rite your own examples of equations on each of the above
W
forms.
2. Present your answers on the chalkboard.
3.  ogether with your teacher, group the answers you have
T
presented into the two equation forms.
4.  roup the following equations into the two forms in 1
G
above:
a. 3y = 2x +1
b. 2y – 3x + 8 = 0
c. y = 2x
d. 4x + 3y = 6
e. 2x –1 = y

All the equations that have y on one side of the equation is

said to be in slope intercept form. Note that in this form the
coefficient of y must be 1.You should also have seen that the
basic idea in writing the equation of a straight line in slope
intercept form is to make y the subject of the equation.

Example 2

Write the equation y + 2x = 3 in the form y = mx + c

Solution

y = -2x + 3 ------------- m
 oving 2x from the left side to the right
side of the equation.

272
 Example 3:

Equation of a line

Write the equation 3y – 5x + 9 = 0 in slope intercept form.

Solution:

Move -5x and +9 to the right side of the equation:

3y = 5x – 9

Divide by 3 throughout:

y= x–3

Exercise 13b
Write the following equations of straight lines in slope intercept
from:
(1) 2y + 2x = 5
(2) 3y = 6x – 13
(3) 5y + 3x – 22 = 0
(4) 2x – y = 9
(5) x + 2y + 6 = 0
(6) x + y = 6
(7) 8x + 3y = 48
(8) 2y – x +1 = 0

Activity 3:

Relating gradient to the tangent of an angle

Consider the triangle below:

273
 P

20cm

40°
Q R

1. Express tan 400 as a ratio of the two legs of triangle PQR.

2. F
 ind the length of QR; give the answer correct to one decimal
place.

3. Find the ratio PQ to 3 decimal places.

QR
4. Now find tan 400 using a calculator.
5. C
 ompare the results in 3 and 4. What conclusion do you draw
from the results?

You might have noted that the gradient of a straight line PR is

equal to the tangent of 400 or the tangent of its complement i.e.
500.

Example 4

Equation of a straight line

A straight line makes an angle θ with the x - axis. The line cuts
the x axis at x = 8. If tan θ = ¼, find the equation of the straight
line in slope intercept form.

Solution

Substitute m for ¼ into y = mx + c

y=¼x+c

When y = 0, x = 8 so 0 = ¼ (8) + c

274
 0=2+c

c = -2

The equation is y = ¼ x -2

Activity 4:

Using the relationship between gradient of a line and

tangent of an angle to find gradient of a straight line

In Activity 3, we have seen that the gradient of a line and the

tangent of an angle (other than 900) in a right angled triangle
are numerically equal. As long as the lengths of the legs of the
triangle are known, we can find the gradient of the straight line.

Consider the triangle below:

6 P

1 Q R

0 2 4

1.  iscuss how you can find the lengths of PQ and QR without

D
having to use distance formula.
2. Use your findings to find the lengths of PQ and QR.
3.  ence find the gradient of line PR by dividing PQ by QR.
H
leave the gradient as a fraction with a numerator and
denominator only.
4.  rite the coordinates of P and R and discuss how you can
W
use the coordinates to find the result in 3 above.
5. Generalise the result in 4 above with P(x1,y1) and R(x2,y2).

275
 The gradient of a straight line is found by dividing the difference
between the two y-values by the difference between the two x-
values. If the gradient is 0 the line is parallel to the x axis. The
straight line parallel to the y-axis has an undefined gradient.

Example 5:

Gradient of a straight line

Find the gradient of a straight line passing through (3,6) and

(8,3).

Solution

3 6
Gradient =
8 3

3
=
5

Exercise 13c

Find the gradient of a straight line passing through each of the

following pairs of points:
1. (2,3) and ( 6,9)
2. (4, 11) and ( 2, 5)
3. ( 2.5,3.5) and ( 8.5 , 9.5)
4. ( 1, 2) and ( 6,5)
5. ( 4, 3) and ( 2, 8)
6. ( 4.5 , 5 ) and ( 2 , 10)
7. ( p , 2p) and ( 3p, 5p)
8. (2x,3y) and ( x , -2y)

276
Activity 5:

Formulating the equation of a straight line with a given

gradient and through a given point

We looked at this method when we solved example 3 on page

272. Carefully study this example again and rephrase the
question to contain the word “tangent” and the phrase “passing
through”.

Compare your rephrased question with those from other groups.

You can use the slope intercept form or the point intercept
form of a line to formulate the equation of a straight line with a
given gradient and through a given point. This is illustrated in
example 6 below:

Example 6:

Equation of a straight line

Find the equation of a straight line passing through (3, 5) and

with gradient .

Solution

Using slope intercept form,

Substitute y for 5, x for 3 and m for 2/3 into y = mx + c:

5 = (3) + c

∴5=2+c

∴5–2=c

∴c=3

∴ The equation is y = 2/3x + 3

277
 OR

Using point intercept form,

y – y1 = m(x-x1) where (x1, y1) is the given point and m is the

given gradient

x1=3 and y1=5

y – 5 = 2/3(x – 3)

∴ y – 5 = 2/3x – 2

∴ y = 2/3x – 2 + 5

∴ y = 2/3x + 3

Exercise 13d

Find the equation, in slope intercept form, of a straight line

passing through
1. (1,3) with gradient -3.
2. ( -2,-5) with gradient
3. (-3, 1) with gradient ½.
4. (7, 5) with gradient -2.
5. ( 1,-2) with gradient
6. (0,0) with gradient 1
7. ( 2,0) with gradient 3
8. (a, 2a) with gradient 2

Activity 6:

Finding the equation of a straight line passing through

two given points
1. On a graph paper, draw a straight line through A(-2 , 3) and B ( 4, -1)

278
2. U
 sing your knowledge for finding gradients of straight lines,
find the gradient of line segment AB.
3. N
 ow choose any point P on the straight line .Call this point
(x, y). Using this point and the coordinates of point A, find
the gradient of line segment AP.
4. D
 o you think the gradients in steps 2 and 3 are different?
Come up with a relationship for x and y using these results.
5. T
 ry to use the point P(x, y) and point B (4, -1) to find the
relationship between x and y. Compare your result to the
result in step4 and comment on the result.

The relationship you found above is called the equation of the

line through A and B. As you have seen, to find the equation
you only need to find the gradient of the line (see Activity 4) and
any one of the two points through which the line passes. You can
then use either the slope intercept form or the point intercept
form to find the equation of the line.

Example 7:

Equation of a straight line

Find the equation of a straight line passing through (1, 3) and

(4, 9)

Solution

9−3 6
First find the gradient of the line m = = =2
4 −1 3

∴The equation is of the form y = 2x + c.

To find the value of c substitute, the values of x and y from

any one of the two points.

Using the first point we have 3 = 2 × 1 + c

∴ c = 1

∴ The equation is y = 2x + 1

279
Exercise 13e

Find the equation of the line passing through the points A and B
in the form y = mx + c when
a. A = (2, 4) and B = (3, 8)
b. A = (0, 2) and B = (3, 5)
c. A = (−2, 0) and B = (2, 8)
d. A = (3, −1) and B = (7, 3)
e. A = (−4, −1) and B = (−3, −9)
f. A = (0,0) and B = ( 2,3)
g. A = ( 3,5) and B = (1,1)

Activity 7:

Finding the equation of a straight line from the graph

Consider the graph below:

y
4 Q

x
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1

−2
P

Discuss how you can find the equation of line PQ in the graph
above.

280
To find the equation of a straight line from the graph, you need
to obtain any two “smart points” on the line and use them to
find the gradient of the line. Then the slope intercept or the
point intercept form can be used to find the equation of the
straight line.

Example 8:

Finding equation of a line from a graph

ó =
= ====
==
== =
==
=====o =====
= =
== = P=
=
== = O=
=
== =N
=
=
M=
JO= =ñ
N= N= O= P =====Q==
=
=
= = =
JN
=
= = JO== ===== ==
==
==
== =
==
==== =
==
== = p =
== =
==
= ====
==
== =
==
==== =
==
==== =
==
==
== =
==
=== ====
==
== =
==
==
== =
==
==
== =
==
== =
=

Find the equation of the straight line RS above.

Solution

Two smart points are (0, 2) and ( 3,-2)

2 2
Gradient =
0 3
= -4
3

The equation is y - 2 = - 4 (x – 0)
3

y=- x+2
4
3

281
1. y y
8 3.

→
3

→
7 2
6 1
5 → - →x
-2 -1 -1 0
4 1
3 -2
2 -3
1 -4
→x -5
→
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1

→
-6
→ y
2.
→
5
4
3
2
1
→x
→
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-1
-2
→

5. y
4. 7
→

y 6
7 5
→

6 4
5 3
4
2
3 1
2 → →x
1 -1 1 2
-1
→ →x
→

-1 1 2 -2
-1
-2
→

282
Exercise 13f

Find the equations of each of the following straight lines:

Parallel lines
In this section we shall look at parallel lines. You have used
the idea of parallel lines in many situations e.g. when you
were learning about properties of parallelograms in your
JCE Mathematics or when you are using alternate angle or
corresponding angle properties. But what makes lines parallel?
Let us investigate this question by looking at Activity 8.

Activity 8:

Gradients of parallel lines

In your JCE you learnt about drawing parallel lines.

1. On a graph paper, draw two straight parallel lines.
2. Choose two smart points on each line and find the gradient of
each line.
3. Compare the gradients of the two lines. What do you notice?

In this activity you must have seen that parallel lines have the
same gradient.

Example 9:

Showing that lines are parallel

Show that the line passing through ( 1,3) and ( 2, 7) is parallel to

the line passing through (4,3) and (3,-1).

Solution

7 3
Gradient of the first line =
2 1

= 4

283
 3 (-1)
Gradient of the second line =
3 4
4
= 1

= 4

As the gradients of the two lines are the same, the two lines are
parallel.

Example 10:

Equation of line parallel to another line

Find the equation of a line through the point (1, 2) which is

parallel to the line 2x – 3y = 4.

Solution
First, put the given equation of the line into standard form i.e.

2 4
y= x+
3 3
4
∴ The line has gradient
3

This is also the gradient of the line whose equation we must find
because the lines are parallel.

4
∴ Using slope intercept form, y = x+C
3
Substitute x = 1, y = 2 into this form,

4 4
∴2 = × 1 + C ∴C =
3 3

2 4
∴ The equation is y = x+
3 3

284
Exercise 13g

1. Find the equation of the line which is

a) parallel to x – y = 1 and passes through (2, 3)
b) parallel to 2x + y = 3 and passes through (3, 0)
c) parallel to y + 5x = 2 and passes through (1, 3)
d) parallel to 2x – y = 4 and passes through (0, 3)
e) parallel to x – 3y = 1 and passes through (−2, −1)

2  straight line passes through A(5,7) and B( 0,-1). Another

A
straight line passes through Q(-3,-5) and R(2,3). Show that
AB is parallel to QR.
3  how that lines with equations 4x – 3y = 7 and
S
9y -12x - 1 = 0 are parallel.

4 Which of the following lines are parallel?

a. From ( -1,3) to (4,5)

b. From ( 2, -1) to ( 7,1)

c. From ( 0,-1) to ( 2,2)

Midpoint of a line segment

The midpoint of a line segment is a point which lies halfway
between the end points of a line segment. It is possible to find
the midpoint of a line if we know the coordinates of the end
points of the line. We first derive the formula for finding the
midpoint of a line segment.

Activity 9:

Deriving the formula for the mid-point of a line segment

1.  n a graph paper and using 1 cm to represent 1 unit on the
O
horizontal axis, plot the points A (2, 6) and B (6, 3).

285
2.  se the distance formula to find the length of line AB and
U
then get half of the length. Note that your answer is in cm.
3. From point A and along line AB measure the number of cm
you found in step 2 above and write down the coordinates of
the point you find.
4. What is the connection between the coordinates in 3 and the
coordinates in 1?
5. Come up with a generalization for finding the midpoint of a
line segment using (x1, y1) and ( x2 ,y2) as two points on the
straight line.

You have seen from this activity that the midpoint of a line
segment is found by finding half of each of the sums of the x
coordinates and the y coordinates i.e.

1
Midpoint = (x + x2, y1 + y2)
2 1

Example 11:

Mid-point of a line

Find the midpoint of a line from (2, 6) to (4, 8)

Solution

The midpoint is (2+8 , 6+8 ) = (5, 7)

2 2

Example 12

The midpoint of line PQ is (4, 9). The coordinates of P are (a, 5)

and of Q are (1, 7). Find the value of a.

Solution
+ +
( , ) = (1, 7)

So
+
=1

4 + a = 2 ------------- multiplying both sides by 2

= -2

286
Exercise 13h

1. Find the midpoints of the lines from:

a. (3, 4) to (1, -5)
b. (-1, -4) to (-8, -10)
c. (0, 3) to (2, -5)
d. (p, 2p) to (3p, -4p)
2. The midpoint of BC is (2, 4). If the coordinates of B are ( 1,8)
find the Coordinates of C.
3.  he coordinates of the point of intersection of the diagonals
T
of a parallelogram ABCD are (3.5, 2.5). A is the point (2, 5)
and B is a point (8, 8). Find the coordinates of C and D.
4. Find the distance between the midpoint of a line from (2, 2)
to (4, 5) and a point (7, 9)
5.  (2, 4) , V(5, 4) , W (1, 4) and X(0, 6) are four points on a
U
Cartesian plane. Find the gradient of the line joining the
mid points of lines UV and WX.
6.  he equation of a straight line is 2x + 3y = 7. Find the
T
equation of a line passing through the midpoint of A(8, 6)
and B(2, 4) parallel to the line 2x + 3y = 7.

Solving real life problems using coordinate geometry

The knowledge of coordinate geometry is useful many areas. The
following few examples show how useful coordinate geometry
can be in solving real life problems:

Example 13:

Real life problem using coordinate geometry

A contractor is to build an office for a company. He however

has to build the office in such a way as to suit the physically
challenged. Given that the recommended maximum slope for a
wheelchair ramp is and the contractor is to build a ramp that

287
rose to a height of 2m, calculate the minimum horizontal length
of the ramp.

Solution

The fraction 1/10 means y increases by 1m for every 10m increase

in x. You can model an equation as follows:
y

( 0,1)

x=
(10,0)

The equation of the straight line is y - 1= (x – 0)

y - 1 = x

y= x+1

To find the minimum length of the ramp, put y = 2

2 = x +1

2 – 1 = x

1=x

x = 10

This means the minimum length of the ramp should be 10m.

Example 14:

Real life problems using coordinate geometry

During the 2009 general elections in Malawi, 43 women were

elected into parliament. In 2014, the number of elected women
dropped to 30.Write a linear model for the number y, of elected
women who were parliamentarians between 2009 and 2014.

288
 Solution

Let x = 0 represent 2009. You can draw the following xy-plane

y

43

30

x
2009 2014

43 30
Gradient of the straight line = 2009 2014

13
= 5

Y intercept is 43,so the equation is y = --

13 x + 43
5

Unit summary
• In this chapter you have learnt to find the distance between
two points on a straight line, how to find the equation and
gradient of a straight line and how to find the midpoint of a
line segment. You have also learnt to write the equation of a
straight line in slope intercept form and to find the gradients
of parallel lines.

Glossary
Smart point: A point on the xy-plane where the straight line
graph passes through a vertex of a grid box.

289
Unit review exercise
1. Find the length of a line joining the following points:

(a) A( 3,8) and ( 3,3)

(b) P( -3,4) and Q ( 0, 6)

2. Write the following equations of straight lines in slope

intercept form:

(a) 3x – 2y = 13

(b) 4x +2y – 7 = 0

3. Find the equation of a straight line

(a) passing through (4, 5) and ( 1, 2).

(b) passing through ( -2,4) with gradient

4. The vertices of a triangle are A(-1, 8) , B(-2 , 0) and C(0, 0).

Show that triangle ABC is isosceles.

6. The line y = mx + 4 passes through the point (1 , 2).

Calculate

a. the value of m

b. the angle that this line makes with the y – axis.

c. the coordinates of the point where this line cuts the

x – axis.

290
 Direct variation

Unit Two related quantities are said to

be in direct variation if they have
the same rate regardless of the
variables. For example if the ratio

14 of y: x = k then you can write y = kx

or if you multiply both sides of this
equation by x then you have y = kx.
The number k is called the constant
of variation.

VARIATIONS
Activity 1:

Modeling direct variation

In pairs, discuss how you can model

direct variation from the following
In your JCE Mathematics you learned about
statement:
direct and inverse proportion. You learnt
that direct proportion is the relationship
The speed, s (in km per hour), of a car
between related quantities such that they
both increase or decrease in the same ratio. varies directly with time, t (in hours).
You also learnt that inverse proportion is After the car has travelled for 2 hours
the relationship between quantities such its speed is 40km/h. write a model
that as one quantity increases (decreases) that gives speed of the car in terms
the other decreases (increases) in the same
of t.
but opposite ratio. In this book, these
proportions will be referred to as direct
variation and inverse variations. You will
Compare your work with the other
learn to solve problems involving direct pairs.
and inverse variations. You will also Let your teacher check your work.
solve problems involving joint and partial
variations.
Example 1:
The knowledge of variation is used in many
Modeling direct variation
real life situations. For example, among
others, it can be used to find the number of The exchange rate of Malawian
people required to do certain work, it can be Kwacha (K), to the United States
used to find the speed at which a car must
travel so as to cover a certain distance in a
Dollar ($) is 1: 475.
given time and it can be used in physics to
find the force required to lift an object and
in many other situations.

291
 If the exchange rate is in direct variation, write a model that
gives K in terms of ($). Solution

K = c ($), c is constant of variation

1 = 475c ............. Substitute K for 1 and ($) for 475

c = 1 .............. Divide both sides by 475

475

K = 1 .($)
475

Exercise 14a

1. If y varies directly as x, write a model that expresses y in

terms of x when y = 2 and x = 4.
2. The pressure (p) of an object submerged under water is
directly proportional to the depth (h). When p = 460, h = 5.
Model an expression that gives p in terms of h.
3. The number of Calories, c, a person can burn and the time,
t(in minutes), the person spends on doing activity vary
directly. 150kg people can burn 75 Calories by sitting in a
class for 50 minutes. Write a linear model that relates c and
t.
4. The perimeter, p, of a square is proportional to the length,
l. When l = 4, p =16. Create a linear model that give p in
terms of l.
5. The number of bags (n) is directly proportional to the cost
(C in Kwacha) per bag. If 200 bags cost K40000, model a
linear expression which expresses n in terms of C.

Activity 2:

Deriving the general equation involving direct variation

In section 1.1 you modeled expressions representing direct

variation. You used the general form y = kx. In this section you
shall learn how this form can be derived. In groups go through

292
the following activity:
1.  uppose a 50kg bag of maize costs K5000. Construct a table
S
of number of bags (n) against total cost(c) for up to 5bags.
2.  hat happens to the total cost as the number of bags
W
increases?
3.  ick any two numbers of bags and find their ratio in
P
simplest form and then pick their corresponding costs and
find their ratio in simplest form. How do the two pairs of
ratios compare?
4.  ry other pairs in your table in a similar manner and
T
comment on the results.
5.  ow try dividing corresponding number of Kwachas by
N
the number of bags for all the entries giving the ratios in
simplest form. Comment on your findings.

You have seen that as the number of bags increases, the total
cost increases in the same ratio. You can then say that the
number of bags (n) is directly proportional to the total cost(c).
The symbol for variation is ∝ . So you can write c ∝ n to mean “c
is directly proportional to n” or “c varies directly as n” or
“c varies as n.”
Additionally, you have seen that the ratio c/n is the same for all
the corresponding entries or c/n = constant. Hence if n ∝ c then
c
/n = k where k is a Constant called the constant of variation.

Challenge:

Find your own example of a direct variation where the

quantities decrease in the same ratio.

Example 2:

Direct variation

Given that y varies directly as x and that y =3 when x = 6 find

the value of y when x = 10.

293
 Solution
Since y varies directly as x then = k or y = xk where k is a
constant
∴ 3 = 6k------------------substitute y for 3 and x for 6
∴ k = ½ -------------------divide by 6 both sides.
∴ the law of variation is y = ½ x
∴ When x = 10, y = ½ (10) i.e. y = 5

Example 3:

Derect variation

The mass (m) of each piece of log of wood that can be cut from
the same log of wood is directly proportional to the length (l) of
the piece. A piece 30cm long has a mass of 2kg. What will be the
mass of a 45cm long log of wood?

Solution

If m ∝ l then m = kl

∴ 2 = 30l

∴l = 1
45

1l
The law of variation is m = 15

1 (45)
when l = 45, m = 15

m = 3kg

Exercise 14b
1. If d ∝ t and d = 80 when t = 5, find d when t = 3.
2. p ∝ q and p = 4.5 when q = 12. Find p when q = 16.
3.  he time swing, t seconds, of a pendulum clock varies as the
T
square root of its length, l, cm. If t = 1 when l = 25 calculate
l when t = 1.5 seconds.

294
4. The cost (c) per metre of a cloth is proportional to the
number of metres (n) bought. If 2metres cost K750.00,
(a) Find the relationship between c and n
(b) Hence find n when c = K3750.00

5. The cost, c, of painting a wall is directly proportional to the

area, A, to Be painted. An area of 300m2 costs K3500. Find
the cost of painting 210m2

6. In a given period, the cost, (C), of paying for accommodation

at a hotel varies as the number (n) of participants present.
The cost of paying for 60 participants is K18000. Find the
cost for paying for the accommodation of 100 participants.

Activity 3:

Presenting direct variation graphically

The models you modeled in section 1.1 can be presented

graphically. You first develop a table of values, plot them on a
graph paper and then draw the graph of the model. In groups,
perform the following activity:
1. M
 odel a linear expression for a quantity y which varies
directly as x given that x = 20 when y = 10.
2. U
 sing the model, find the corresponding values of y when
x = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.
3. Present your values in a table form.
4. Using the values in the table, draw the graph for the
variation.
5. What type of graph is produced?

Graphs of direct variations are straight line graphs. The slope is

represented by the constant of variation.

295
Example 4:

Direct variation

P  Q and P = 20 when Q = 100, find the relationship between P

and Q and sketch the graph of the relation P ∝ Q.

Solution

Since PQ, P = kQ, where k is a constant.

So, 20 = 100k ---- Substitute P for 20 and Q for 100

k = 20
100

1
k=
5

The relationship is P = 15 Q

To develop the table for the relation use multiples of 20

( P-value in the given question) for P. One of the ways is shown
below:

P 0 20 40 60 80 100
Q 0 4 8 12 16 20

Then draw the graph as follows:

100

80

60
P

40

20

0
4 8 12 16 20
Q

296
Exercise 14c

For each of the following, find the relationship between the

variables and draw the graphs for the relationships:
1. y ∝ x and y = 40 when x = 20
2. y ∝ x and y = 8 when x = 32
3. P ∝ Q and P = 20 when Q= −10
4. R ∝ T and R = 10 when T = −10
5. L ∝ T and L = 15 when T = 5
6. M ∝ N and M = −30 when N = 10
7. V ∝ W and V = 40 when W = 200

Inverse variation
So far you have studied direct variation. You will now study
one more type of variation called inverse variation. Variables
x and y are said to be in inverse variation if the product of the
two variables is constant i.e. xy = k, where k is the constant of
variation.

Activity 4:

Modelling inverse variation

In pairs, discuss how you can model inverse variation from the
statement below:

The number of days, (d), it takes to build a wall varies inversely

as the number, (n), of boys available. If there are 20 boys the
wall takes 10 days to build. Model an expression that gives d in
terms of n.

Compare your work with the other pairs.

297
 Example 5:

Inverse variation

The time (t), taken by a car to cover a given distance varies

inversely as speed, (S in km/h). At 60km/h, the car takes 3hours.
Model an expression that expresses t in terms of S.

Solution

t S = k, where k is a constant --------- Model for inverse variation

3 (60) = k ----- Substitute t for 3 and S for 60

180 = k ------- Simplify

So tS =180 ------- Substitute k for 180.

Exercise 14d

1. Model an inverse variation equation for each of the

following for the given values of the variables:

(a) P varies inversely as Q. (P = 0.025, Q = 0.04).

(b) I varies inversely as R2. (I = 10, R = 1).

(c) T varies inversely as the square root of d. (T = 3, d = 64).

(d) P varies inversely as q (s = 0.5, q = 8).

2. The time (t in seconds) taken to type a 2000 word document

varies with the rate (r) at which you can type. When the
rate is 40 words per minute, you can finish typing the
document in 50 minutes. Write a model that relates t and r.

3. The distance (d metres) required to balance a seesaw is

inversely proportional to ones weight (w in kg). A 120kg
can balance the seesaw at 60cm away from the centre of the
seesaw. Model an inverse variation expression that relates d
and w.

4. Prepare your own questions on modeling inverse variation.

Let your teacher check them.

298
Activity 5:

Deriving the general equation involving inverse

variation

Having looked at modelling inverse variation, you will now

learn how the general equation for this type of variation can be
derived. In pairs, go through the following activity:
1.  uppose a motorist is to cover 20km. Construct a table of
S
speed (s) against time (t) showing the time the motorist will
take to cover the distance if she travels at 5km/h, 10km/h
and 20km/h respectively.
2. What happens to the time taken as the speed increases?
3.  ick any two numbers of kilometres and find their ratio in
P
simplest form and then pick their corresponding numbers of
speeds and find their ratio in simplest form. How do the two
pairs of ratios compare?
4. Try other pairs of numbers in your table in a similar
manner and comment on the results.
5. Now try multiplying the number of kilometres by the
corresponding number of hours for all the entries. Comment
on your findings.

You have seen that as speed increases, the time it takes to cover
the distance of 20km decreases in the same but opposite ratio.
You can then say that the “time (t) is inversely proportional to
speed( s)” or “time (t) varies inversely as speed (s)”. You write t
∝ 1/s to mean “time (t) is inversely proportional to speed (s)” or
“time (t) varies inversely as speed (s)”.

Additionally, you have seen that the product ts is the same for
all the corresponding entries or ts = k where k is a constant.
Hence if t ∝ 1/s then ts = k where k is a constant called the
constant of variation.

Challenge

Can you find your own examples of inverse variation where

one quantity decreases and the other increases in the same but
opposite ratio.

299
Example 6:

Inverse variation

Given that y ∝ 1/x and that when y = 60, x = 12. Find the value
of x when y = 25.

Solution

If y ∝ 1/x then xy = k, k constant

∴ 12 × 60 = k

∴ k = 720

∴ The law of variation is xy = 720

∴ When y = 25, then 25x = 720

∴ x = 28.8

Example 7:

Inverse variation

The number of days (d) it takes to complete to paint a wall is

inversely proportional to the number (n) of men available to do
the work. 12men take 15 days to paint the wall. How long will
18men take to paint the wall?

Solution

If d ∝ then dn = k, k constant

∴ 12x15 = k

∴k = 180

∴ The law of variation is dn = 180

∴ When n = 18, then 18d = 180

∴ d = 10

∴ 18 men will take 10 days to paint the wall.

300
Exercise 14e

1. If y ∝ 1/x, and that when y = 100, x = 25. Find the

relationship between x and y hence find x when y = 20.
2.  iven that f is inversely proportional to d and that when f =
G
35, d = 7. Find d when f = 25.
3.  varies inversely as t. When q = 2, t = 8. Find the value of t
q
when q is increased by 80%.
4. T
 he time (t in minutes) it takes a typist to finish typing a
document is inversely proportional to the number of words
(w) she types per minute. if she types 250 words per minute
she takes 30minutes. How long will it take her to finish
typing the document if she types 100words per minute?
5. T
 he effort (e in Newtons) applied to lift a load placed 100cm
from the fulcrum is inversely proportional to the distance
(d in cm) away from the fulcrum on the other side. An
effort of 200N is required to lift the load when the distance
is 60cm. What effort will be needed to lift the load if the
distance is 40cm?

Activity 6:

Presenting inverse variation graphically

In this section you will learn how you can present the models of
inverse variation graphically. In your groups
1. D
 raw the table of values for the model yx = 100 using the
values x = 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25.
2. U
 sing the values and a scale of 1cm to represent 5 units on
the x – axis draw the graph of the equation xy = 100.
3. P
 resent your work to the other groups. let also your teacher
check your work.

You have seen that the graph of inverse variation generally

looks like this:

301
 y

Exercise 14f

Rewrite xy = k starting with y and draw the same graph with

negative values of x.

3. Joint variation

Joint variation is a variation whereby one variable varies with

the product of two or more other variables. For example, if
z = kxy, where k is a constant, then z varies jointly with the
product of x and y. You will now learn how to derive the general
equation involving joint variation.

Activity 7:

Deriving the general equation involving joint variation.

In form 2 you learnt the formula for volume of a cylinder. In

pairs,
1. Write down the formula.
2. Does the formula depend on the size of a cylinder?
3. Write the formula as a direct variation.

302
4. What is the value of the constant of variation?

You have seen that the formula for the volume of the cylinder
applies to all the cylinders. The volume depends on the square of
the radius and the height i.e. V r2h i.e V = kr2h where k = 22 .
7
Hence the general equation of a joint variation can be
derived from a direct variation.

Example 8:

Joint variation

p ∝ qr. When q = 2 and r = 5, p = 50

(a) Find the equation connecting p,q and r

(b) Find p when q = 5 and r = 4.

Solution (a) 9 = qr
∴ p = kqr where k is a constant
729d
Substitute p = 50, q = 2 and 9 in the equation above

∴50 = k × 2 × 5

∴ 50 = 10k
729d
∴ 9

∴ p = 5qr

This is the equation connecting p, q and d

729d 729d
(b) P = 5qr Substitute 9 and 9

∴ p = 5×5× 4

162 =

∴ k = 729

303
Example 9:

Joint variation

m varies directly729d
729d as d and inversely as the square of t. if k = 729
when 9 and 9 , find:
729d 729d
(a) m when 9 and 9
729d
(b) d when m = 72 and 9

Solution

1 729d
(a) m∝ d and m ∝ (b) M =
t2 t2

d 729 × d
∴m ∝ 2
∴ 72 =
t 32

729d
∴m = kd where k is a constant. ∴ 72 =
t2 9

∴ 162 = k × 2 ∴ 72 × 9 = 729d
32
4k
∴ 162 = ∴ d = 72× 9
6 729

∴ 9 × 162 = 2k = 72
81

729 × 3 8
∴ 9= =
4 9
∴ k = 729 = 0.9 ( to 2
decimal
places)

729d
∴ m=
t2

729 × 3
=
4

304
 =
9=
= 546.75

Example 10:

Joint variation

m varies directly with the square of n and inversely with p.

when n=2 and p=6, m=9. Find m when n=4 and p=8.

Solution

4k
m∝
6

∴ m = kn
2

k × 22
∴ 9=
6

4k
∴ 9=
6
∴ 54 = 4k

∴ k = 54
4

27 or 13.5
=
2
∴ The law of variation is m = 27n
2

2p
27(42)
∴ When n = 4 and p = 8, m= 2(8)

∴ m= 27

305
Exercise 14g

1. y varies directly with x and z. when x = 3 and z =10, y =15

Find the relationship between x, z and y.

2. a ∝ b2c. when a = 100, b = 2 and c = 5

(a) find a when b = 6 and c = 5

(b) find b when a=72 and c = 6.4

Q
3. p ∝ when Q = 75, R = 25 and p = 125
R
(a) find the equation connecting p, Q and R

(b) Find p when Q = 3 and R =100.

4. x, y and z are related quantities such that x varies directly

as y and inversely as the square of z. When x =24 and y =
3, z = 4

(a) Find the value of x when y = 4 and z = 8

(b) Find the value of z when x =128 and y = 1 .

4
5. r varies directly with t and inversely with s. r =27 when t =
9 and s = 2. Find r when t = 7 and s = 6.

6. If x∝ y and y∝ z . How does x vary with z?

7. P ∝ qr and q varies inversely with the square of r. How does

p vary with r?

8. x varies directly with y and z. When y = 6 and z = 3, x = 7 1 .

2
Find (a) x when y =12 and z = 5

(b) Z when x =2.5 and y = 4

9.  he mass m of a cylindrical tin varies jointly with its height

T
(h) and the square of its radius (r). If the tin 50 cm high
and of radius 2cm has a mass of 540g; Find the mass of a
cylindrical tin 10cm high and of radius 4cm.

306
4. Partial variation

This is the type of variation which consists of two or more

parts added together. The relationship in these parts varies
from question to question. Since there are two or more
parts added together, there are at least two constants which
are used in solving these questions. Hence the knowledge
of simultaneous linear equations is essential at this stage
since there is need to solve for the unknowns which are used
for constants in the equations.

Partial variation usually applies in situations where the

value of one major quantity is the sum of two or more
quantities varying in different ways. For example the
cost of running a boarding school depends on two separate
factors and these are overheads, such as electricity, water,
telephone bills, and wages of employees and on the other
hand the cost of food used in the feeding of students in the
school. In most cases, overheads are constants i.e. the bills
and wages are still paid without considering the fact that
there are students in the school or not. The cost of food is
the only quantity, which is proportional to the number of
students being fed at the school. Therefore, we can say that
the total cost is partly constant and partly varies as the
number of students.

Activity 8:

Formulating the general equation of a partial variation

You have so far learnt to formulate the general equation of

direct, inverse and joint variations. You will now learn to
formulate the general equation of a partial variation.

Look at the equation y = 3 + 2x. In pairs, come up with your own

examples of such equations. Discuss how similar the equations
you have given are.

You might have noted that the right hands of all the equations
are made up of two components: one is a direct variation and
the other is a constant. So if y = 3 + 2x, you can say y is partly
constant and partly varies as x. You should also note that in this
equation and in the equations you gave in activity 8, there are

307
two constants. You can therefore write y = a + kx as a general
equation of partial variation where a and k are constants of
variation.

Note: The knowledge of simultaneous linear equations is

essential at this stage since there is need to solve for the
unknowns which are used for constants in the equations.

Example 11:

Partial variations

A is partly constant and partly varies with B. When B = 2, A =

10 and when B = 4, A = 16

(a) Find the relationship between A and B

(b) Find A when B = 5.

Solution:

(a) From the first sentence A = a + b B where a and b are

constants.

From the second sentence 10 = a + 2b (i) and 16 = a + 4b (ii)

Subtract (i) from (ii)

16 = a + 4b

− 10 = a + 2b
6 = 0 + 2b

6 = 2b

∴b = 3

Substitute b = 2 in equation (i) to find b

10 = a + (2 x 3)

10 = a + 6

∴ a = 10 – 6

=4

308
 Hence A = 4 + 3B is the required formula. (from A = a + bB)

(b) When B = 5

∴A=4+3×5

= 4 + 15

= 19

Example 12:

Partial variation

A varies partly as C and partly as the square root of C. When C

= 4, A = 22 and when C = 9, A = 42

(a) 4

Solution

(a) From the first sentence A = aC + b C where a and b are

constant

From the second sentence

22 = 4a + b 4 (i)

And 42 = 9a + b 9 (ii)

i.e. 22 = 4a + 2b (i)

And 42 = 9a + 3b (ii)

Equation (i) x3 66 = 12a + 6b (iii)

Equation (ii) x2 84 = 18a + 6b (iv)

Subtract (iii) from (iv)

84 = 18a + 6b

− 66 = 12a + 6b

18 = 6a + 0

18 = 6a

309
 ∴a=3

Substitute a = 3 in equation (i) to find b

22 = 4 x 3 + 2b

22 =12 + 2b

10 = 2b

∴ b =5

Hence A = 3C + 5 c is the required equation.

(b) when C = 25

A = 3 × 25 + 5 25

= 75 + 5 × 5

= 75 + 25

= 100

Exercise 14h
1.  is partly constant and partly varies as Q. When Q = 3,
P
P = 22 and when Q =2, P = 18.

(a) Find the equation connecting P and Q.

(b) Find P when Q =10.

2.  is partly constant and partly varies as the square of y.

x
When y = 2, x =20 and when y = 3, x = 25; find the value of x
when y = 7.

3.  he cost of making a sofa set is partly constant and partly

T
varies with the time it takes to make. If it takes 3 days to
make, it costs K27, 000. If it takes 5 days to make, it costs
K31, 000; find the cost if it takes 2 days to make?

4.  he cost of running a boarding school is partly constant and

T
partly varies as the number of students in the school. If
there are 100 students, the total cost is K45,000 per month

310
 and if there are 240 students the total cost comes to K87,
000 per month. Find the total cost if there are 360 students
in the school.

5. M varies partly as N and partly as the square root of N.

When N = 4, M = 6 and when N = 16, M = 16. Find M when
N = 25.

6. E is partly constant and partly varies with S. When S = 40,

E = 50 and when S = 54, E = 92. Find S when E = 32.

7. The cost of producing mathematics books is partly constant

and partly varies as the number of books produced.
The total cost of producing 4 books is K2500 and that
of producing 10 books is K5800. Find the total cost of
producing 1000 books.

8. The cost of transporting people in a minibus from Blantyre

to Lilongwe is partly constant and partly varies as the
number of people transported. Transporting 15 people costs
K8750 and transporting 20 people costs K10, 000. Find the
cost of transporting 10 people within the same distance.

9. P is a quantity, which varies partly as V and partly as V2. When

V = 4, p =52.8 and when v =5, p = 81. Find p when v = 3.
10. T
 he resistance to motion of a bicycle is partly constant and
partly varies as the square of the speed. At 8 km/hr, the
resistance is 80N and at 12km/hr, the resistance is 100N.
Find the resistance if the speed of the bicycle is 20km/hr.

Activity 9:

Presenting partial variation graphically

You are familiar with equations of the form y = mx + c.

In pairs,
1. C
 ompare this form with the general equation involving
partial variation.

2. F
 rom your comparison, what type of graph is a partial
variation?

311
You must have seen that partial variation graphs are straight
lines in slope intercept form.

Example 13:

Partial variations

y is partly constant and partly varies as x. When x = 10, y = 2

and when x = 4, y = 14. Express y in terms of x and draw the
graph of the variation.

Solution

y = a + kx ---------- General partial variation equation.

2 = a +10k (i) ---------- Substitute y for 2 and x for 10

14= a + 4k (ii) ---------- Substitute y for 16 and x for 4

−12 = 6k ----------------------- Subtract (ii) from (i)

k = −2 ------------------------- Divide by 6 both sides

2 = a − 2 (10) ---------------- Substitute k for -2 into equation(i)

2 = a – 20

a = 22 ------------- Rearrange

The expression is y = 22 – 2x

The graph is a straight line whose y – intercept is 22 . The graph

also cuts the x axis at −11 (i.e when y = 0)

The graph is drawn below:

312
 y

22

y = 22 -2x

x
0 11

Exercise 14i

Draw partial variation graphs for the following questions:

1. A
 quantity y is partly constant and partly varies as x. When
y = 5, x = 2.5 and when y = 3 , x = 1.5.
2. p is partly constant and partly varies as q. When p =3, q = 1
and when p = 6 , q = 2.5
3. A
 is partly constant and partly varies as B. When A = 11, B
= 7 and when A = 15 , B = 9.
4. The cost (C in Malawi Kwacha) of making an item is partly
constant and partly varies with time(t in minutes) it takes
to make the item. When t = 100, C = K498 and when t = 30,
C = K148.
5. T
 is partly constant and partly varies as C. When C =5,
T = 37 and when C = 15, T = 57.

Unit Summary
• In this unit you have learnt direct, inverse, joint and partial
variations. You have learnt to model direct and inverse

313
 variations and to derive general equations involving the four
variations. You also learnt how you can present variations
graphically and solve variation problems.

Unit review exercise

1. If y varies directly as x, write a model that expresses y in
terms of x when y = 9 and x = 3.

2. Q is directly proportional R . When Q = 100 , R = 5. Model

an expression that gives Q in terms of R.

3. If y ∝ x and y = 80 when x = 5, find y when x = 3.

4. V ∝ W and V = 4.5 when W = 12. Find V when W = 16.

5. Given that y ∝ and that when y = 20, x = 10. Find the value
of x when y = 25.

Given that y ∝ and that when y = 2, x = 3. Find the value

6. 
of x when y = 1.

7. If T varies directly as the cube of S and that T = 6 when S =

2, find T when S = 8.

8. The mass (m in grams) of a solid varies directly as the

volume(V in cm3) of the solid. The mass is 12g when the
volume is 8 cm3. Find the volume for which the mass is 30g.

9. The resistance , R , of a wire varies inversely with the cross

sectional area of the wire, A. A 500cm wire length copper
wire with a radius of 0.1cm has a resistance of 0.1ohms.
find the resistance of the same length of copper wire with a
radius of 0.2cm.

10. The intensity, I in watts per m2, of jet engine noise at

Kamuzu International Airport varies inversely as the
square of the distance, r in m2. At a distance of 1 metre the
intensity is 10 watts per square metre. An airport cargo
worker is 15metres from the jet engine. Calculate the
intensity of the jet noise at that distance.

11. The royalties, in Kwacha, that an author receive on the

sale of a book are partly constant and partly varies as

314
 the number of books sold. On sales of 10000 she receives
K80000 and on the sales of 6000 she receives 50000. Find
the amount she will receive on the sales of 15000copies.

12. The cost of producing a component is partly proportional

to the area of the component and inversely proportional to
the number of components produced each day. On a day
120 components of area 10cm2 were produced and the cost
was K100 per component. On the other day 180 components
of area 20cm2 were produced and the cost per component
was K80. Find the cost per component of producing 50
components per day of area 50cm2.

Glossary: None

References
S. Hau and F. Saiti (2002), Strides in Mathematics Book 3,
Longman , Blantyre

Larson etal ( 1998),Heath Algebra An Integrated Approach,

Heath and company, Ottawa.

G. D. Buckwell and B.N Githua, Gold Medal Mathematics,

Macmillan, London.

315
 Drawing graphs of quadratic
functions

Unit Activity 1:

15 You are familiar with completing or

drawing a table of values of a given
equation from your JCE Course.

In groups,
GRAPHS OF QUADRATIC 1. Discuss how you construct a
FUNCTIONS table of values for any given
equation.
2. Now construct a table of values
for the equation y = x2 for −4 ≤
Recall from unit 1 that a quadratic x ≤ 4.
function is a function of the form 3. Using a scale of 2cm to
ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are represent 1 unit on both axes,
constants and a ≠ o. plot the points on the graph.
Youlearnt how to factorize quadratic What shape have the points
expressions and how to solve formed?
quadratic equations by factorisation,
completing the square and by the 4. Using a free hand draw the
quadratic formula. graph of y = x2 through all the
In this unit, you are going to learn
points.
about the graphs of quadratic 5. Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 but
functions and the properties of such now use the equation y = −x2 .
graphs. You shall learn how to draw
and interpret graphs of quadratic 6. Comment on the similarities
functions. You shall also learn how to and differences between the
solve quadratic equations and linear two graphs.
and quadratic equations graphically
and how to formulate quadratic You should have noted that if the
equations given quadratic graphs graph of a quadratic function is
which cut the x – axis. plotted and drawn, a smooth curve
The knowledge of quadratic graphs is produced. The curve is called a
is used in many situations such as parabola. The parabola is either cup
in the study of falling objects and in shaped when the coefficient of x2
studying quantities related to time is positive or inverted(cap shaped)
among others. when the coefficient of x2 is negative.

316
Exercise 15 a

For each of the following quadratic functions, construct a table

of values and then draw the graph.

1. y = 1 x2 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4
2

2. y = − 1 x2 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4
2
3. y = 2x2 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4

4. y = −2x2 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4

5. y = x2 + 1 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4

6. y = x2 − 1 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4

7. y = −x2 − 1
for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4

8. y = x2 − x − 2 for −4 ≤ x ≤ 4

9. y = −x2 + 2x + 3 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 5

10. y = 3x2 − 3x − 6 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 3

Interpreting graphs of quadratic functions

In this section, you shall learn to interpret graphs of quadratic
functions. You shall learn to describe the effect of a, b and c
on the nature of graph of y = ax2 + bx + c, find maximum and
minimum values of a quadratic function and to find the equation
of the line of symmetry.

Activity 2:

The effect of changing the value of a in y = ax2

In Activity 1 you drew the graph of y = x2. You will now see more
closely what happens to this graph as the value of a change.

317
In groups,
1. D
 raw the graphs of y = x2, y = 2x2, and y = 3x2 on the same
axes and using the same scale.
2. How do the three graphs compare to the graph of y = x2?
3. What is the major difference amongst the graphs?
4. W
 rite down the coefficients of the three graphs in order of
their steepness starting with the less steep.
5. What can you say about the effect of the change in the value
of a on the graph of y = x2?

You have seen that as the value of a decrease, the graphs

become more and more open or they become less and less
steep. In all the three graphs, the line x = 0 divides each graph
into equal halves. In other words, the line x = 0 is the line of
symmetry.

Activity 3:

The effect of adding or subtracting a constant from the

quadratic squaring function i.e. the equation y = x2

In your groups,
1. Draw on the same axes and the same scale, the graphs of
y = x2 , y = x2 − 1and y = x2 + 1 for values of x from −4 to +4.
2. What are the similarities and the differences between the
graphs?
3. How do the shapes of the two graphs compare to that of
y = x 2?
4. W
 hat can you say is the effect of adding or subtracting a
constant to x2?

You have seen from this activity that all the three graphs have
the same shape and that in all the three graphs, the line x = 0 is
the line of symmetry. The three graphs only differ in the points
where they cut the y axis. This enables you to come up with the
following interpretation about the graphs:

318
  dding a constant to the quadratic squaring function i.e
(a) A
to x2 shifts the graph vertically upwards along the line of
symmetry. The graph shifts by the value of the constant.
(b) Subtracting a constant from the quadratic squaring function
i.e. to x2 shifts the graph vertically downwards along the
line of symmetry. Again, the graph shifts by the value of the
constant.
(c) T
 he constant also gives the minimum value of the quadratic
function for cup shaped parabola or maximum value for cap
shaped parabola.

Example 1:

Sketching graphs

Draw sketches of the following graphs on the same system of

axes using the same scale on both axes:
a. y = x2 + 4 b. y = x2 - 3

Solution

From activity 3,
•  he graph of y = x2 + 4 has the shape of y = x2 but shifted
T
vertically upwards by 4 units and that y = 4 is the minimum
value of the function.
•  he graph of y = x2 - 3 has the shape of y = x2 but shifted
T
vertically downwards by 3 units and that y =-3 is the
minimum value of the function.
• x = 0 is the line of symmetry

The graphs are drawn below:

319
 y

y = x2 + 4

y = x2 - 3
x
0

-3

Activity 4:

The effect of adding or subtracting a constant from x and

then squaring the result

Again in your groups,

1. D
 raw, on the same axes and scale, the following graphs:
y = x2 , y = (x − 1)2 and y = (x + 2)2 for values of x from −4 to
+4.
2. What are the similarities and the differences between the
graphs?
3. What is the equation of the line of symmetry for the graphs?
4. What can you say is the effect of adding or subtracting a
constant from x and then squaring the result?

You have seen that the graph of y = (x − 1)2 has the same shape
as the graph of y = x2 but has been shifted to the right by 1
unit. The graph of y = (x + 2)2 also has the same shape as the
graph of y = x2 but has been shifted to the left by 2 units. The
lines of symmetry are the lines x = 1 and x = 2 respectively. The
minimum value of each function is 0. The square of the constant
gives the y-intercept.

320
You can therefore make the following interpretations about
adding or subtracting constants to x before squaring:
(a) Adding a constant to x before squaring shifts the graph
of y = x2 horizontally to the left by the value – constant
(minus the given constant).
(b) S
 ubtracting a constant from x before squaring shifts the
graph of y = x2 horizontally to the right by the value positive
constant (plus the given constant).
(c) T
 he minus constant and the plus constant are also the new
lines of symmetry.
(d) Y-intercept is the square of the constant.

Example 2:

Sketching graphs

On the same axes draw sketches of the graphs of y = (x − 3)2 and

y = (x + 4)2

Solution

From activity 4,
•  he graphs of y = (x − 3)2 and y = (x + 4)2 are the same as
T
the graph of y = x2 but shifted horizontally to the right by
3 units and to the left by 4 units respectively.
• 0 is the minimum value of each function.
• x = 4 and x = 3 are the lines of symmetry respectively.

The graphs are drawn below:

321
 y

2
y = ( x -3)
y = ( x + 4)2 16

x
-4 0 3

Example 3:

Drawing graphs

Draw a sketch of the graph of y = x2 – 2x + 3

Solution

You need to relate this function to the forms y = ax2 or y = (x − a)2

first. These are the functions that you have looked at in activity
3 and 4. You do this by writing the given function into a perfect
square plus a number by adding and subtracting (coefficient of
x)2 as follows:

y = x2 – 2x + {½(–2)}2 – {½(–2)}2 + 3

y = x2 – 2x + 1 – 1 +3

y = x2 – 2x + 1 + 2

i.e. y = (x – 1) 2 + 2

You can see that expressed in this form, y = x2 – 2x + 3 is the

graph of y = x2 shifted in two directions: 1 unit to the right
and then 2 units upwards or in short, it is the graph of y =
(x – 1)2 shifted upwards by 2 units. The equation of the axis of
symmetry (which is also the x –value at the turning point of the

322
 graph) is x = 1 and the minimum value of the function is
y = 2.the graph is drawn below together with the graphs y = x2
and y = (x – 1) 2 for you to see their relationship:

y y= x2 – 2x + 3

y= x2
y = (x – 1) 2
3

1
x
0 1

You will now investigate the effect of increasing or decreasing

the values of a , b and c in the equation y = ax2 + bx + c .

Activity 5 :

Finding the effect of increasing or decreasing the values

of a , b and c in the equation y = ax2 + bx + c .

Copy the following table in your exercise books before you go

into your groups. Fill in this table as you go through the activity:

Increasing Decreasing Increasing Decreasing Increasing Decreasing

the value the value of a the value the value the value the value
a of b of b of c of c
Effect on
turning
point
Effect on
line of
symmetry

1. I n your groups, draw the graph of y = x2 – 2x – 8, clearly

showing the line of symmetry and the turning point of the
graph. Note that in this equation a = 1, b = − 2 and c = − 8.

323
 2. N
 ow, keeping the values of b and c constant, increase the
value of a and draw the graph of the resulting equation on
the same axes.
3. S
 how the equation of the line of symmetry and the turning
point of this graph.
4. H
 ow do the two compare with their positions in the first
graph?
5. Increase the value of a even further and repeat the process.
6. Fill the first column of your table.
7. R
 epeat the above steps and fill column 2 by decreasing the
value of a.
8. Investigate the effects of b and c in a similar manner and
complete the table. Note that as you investigate the effect of
b, a and c must be kept constant and when you investigate
the effect of c, a and b must be kept constant.
Investigate the effect of a on one graph the effect of b on another
graph and similarly the effect of c.

Challenge

Use the equation of a cap shaped parabola to investigate the

effects of a , b, c on the nature of the parabola. Come up with a
table similar to the one you used on the cup shaped parabola in
activity 5.

Exercise 15b

Draw sketches of the following graphs. In each case, state the

equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the
turning point of the function:
1. y = x2 − 2
2. y = −x2 + 1
3. y = −(x − 1)2
4. y = 3x2 + 6x
5. y = 2x2 + 5x + 2

324
Activity 6:

Finding the maximum and minimum values of a

quadratic function

A minimum or maximum value of a quadratic function is

the value of y at the turning point of the graph. Earlier on
in activity 1 of this unit, you saw that a quadratic graph is
either cup shaped or cap shaped. A cup shaped parabola has a
minimum point i.e. lowest point while the cap shaped parabola
has a maximum point i.e. highest point. In short, a cup shaped
parabola has a minimum value while cap shaped parabola has
a maximum point. Each of the two points lies on the line of
symmetry. You will now learn how to find the maximum and
minimum values of a quadratic function by doing two group
activities.

In groups,
1.  raw up a table of values for the quadratic functions y = x2
D
+ 2x − 3 and 4 +3x – x2 for −4 x 4.
2. Using the tables, draw the graph of the quadratic function y
= x2+ 2x − 3 and 4 + 3x – x2
3.  hat is the value of x at the minimum or maximum point
W
from the graphs?
4.  ow, find the roots of the two quadratic functions and
N
complete the table below:

Equation of parabola Roots of the x value at the turning

parabola point of the parabola
x2 + 2x – 3
4 + 3x – x2

5. Now find the relationship between the roots and the value of
x at the turning Points of each graph.

You must have seen that the value of x at the turning point of
the graph is half the sum of the two roots.

325
 Example 4:

Turning points

Find the x value at the turning point of the graph

y = 2x2 – 7x + 3

Solution

First find roots of the equation 2x2 – 7x + 3 = 0.

(x – 3) (2x – 1) = 0 ------------ By factor method

x = 3 or x = ½

Hence the x vale at the turning point is ½ (3 + ½) = 1.75

Exercise 15c

Find the value of x at the turning points of the following graphs:

1. y = x2 − 5x + 6
2. y = x2 − 4x – 5
3. y = x2 + 8x + 15
4. y = 4x2 − 5x – 6
5. y = 4x2 − 3x −10

Having seen the relationship between the roots and the value
of x at the turning point of a graph, you will now see the
relationship between the x value and the constants a and b of a
parabola ax2 + bx + c.

Activity 7

In groups, study the table below which shows the roots of

parabolas, the turning points, the x value at the turning points
and the values of a and b in the parabola. (One fraction in
column 3 has deliberately not been simplified)

326
Equation of parabola Roots of the x value at the turning Coefficients of x2 and x
parabola point of the parabola

y = x2 – 8x + 15 3,5 8
/2 a = 1 and b = –8
y = 6x2 – 7x + 2 1
/2 , 2/3 7
/12 a = 6 and b = –7
y = 3x2 – 13x + 12 4
/3 , 3 13
/6 a =3 and b = -13
y = 6x + 7x – 5
2 1
/2 , –5/2, –7
/12 a = 6 and b = 7

Discuss the relationship that you see between the x value at the
turning point and the constants a and b of a parabola in each
row. Write down this relationship. Use your own equations and
verify that the relationship is true.

You must have seen that in column 3 the numerator is the

value of b with opposite sign and that the denominator is twice
the value of a. The results can be generalised as follows: the
x – value at the turning point ( maximum or minimum) of the
parabola y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants is

−b
x= and this also gives the equation of the line of symmetry.
2a
−b
To find the corresponding value of y, substitute x = into the
2a
quadratic equation. This gives the maximum or minimum value
of the quadratic function.

Example 5:

Maximum and minimum points

For the function y = x2 + x − 6, what is

(i) The value of x at the minimum point?

(ii) The equation of the line of symmetry?

(iii) The minimum value of y.

−b
(i) at the minimum x = , and for this quadratic function
a = 1, b = 1, c = −6 2a

327
 1 1
∴x = – =− .
2 ×1 2

1
(ii) The equation of the line of symmetry is x =
2

2
 1  1 1
(iii) y =  −  +  −  − 6 = − 6 .
 2  2 4

Exercise 15d

Find the maximum or minimum values of the following

functions and the equation of the line of symmetry.

1. y = x2 + 2x – 6 2. y = 2x2 + 3x – 5

3. y = x2 – 4x + 1 4. y = x2 + 2x – 3

5. y = 1 − 2x – x2 6. y =4 – 8x – 2x2

7. y = −3x2 − 12x + 1 8. y = 5 − 2x – 4x2

9. y = (x – 1)2 10. y = (2x + 1)2

4. Solving quadratic graphs graphically

You learnt to solve quadratic equations in unit 1 of this

book. In that unit you used factorisation and quadratic
formula. You will now learn to solve quadratic equations
graphically.

Activity 8:

Finding roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

graphically

In your groups,
1. Draw the table of values for the function y = x2 + x – 6 for
the values -4 x 4.

328
 2. Using a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on both axes draw
the graph of y = x2 + x – 6 on the graph paper.
3. Read off the values of x at the two points where the graph
cuts the x axis i.e where the graph cuts the line y = 0.( note
that since y = 0, you have actually drawn the graph for the
equation 0 = x2 + x – 6 or x2 + x – 6=0)
4. Now solve the equation x2 + x – 6 = 0 by factors and compare
your result with the values you found in 3 above. What do
you find?

It can be seen from the results that to solve the equation ax2
+ bx +c = 0, the quadratic graph is drawn and the roots of the
equation are the x values at which the graph cuts the x-axis.

Exercise 15e

Solve each of the quadratic equations below by plotting a graph

for −4 ≤ x ≤ + 4. On the horizontal axis, use a scale of 1cm to
represent 1 unit. On the vertical axis, use the scales indicated in
the brackets against each question:

1. x2 – x – 6 = 0 ( 2cm to represent 5units)

2. –x2 + 1 = 0 ( 2cm to represent 5units)

3. x2 – 6x + 9 = 0 ( 2cm to represent 10units)

4. – x2 – x + 12 = 0 ( 2cm to represent 5units)

5. x2 – 4x + 4 = 0 (2cm to represent 10units)

6. 2x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 ( 2cm to represent 20units)

7. x2 + 3x – 10 =0 ( 2cm to represent 10units)

8. 3x2 – 5x – 2 = 0 ( 2cm to represent 20units)

9. 2x2 – 7x = 0 ( 2cm to represent 20units)

10. x2 – 4x + 3 = 0 ( 2cm to represent 10units)

329
Activity 8:

Solutions to simultaneous linear and quadratic equations

In activity 7, you solved quadratic graphs by finding the points

of intersection of a quadratic graph and any horizontal line. You
will now learn how to solve graphically equations of the form
ax2 + bx + c = d, where d is less than 0 or is greater than 0. You
will also learn to solve quadratic equations by finding the points
of intersection of the quadratic graph and other linear equations
of the form y = mx + c.

Suppose you want to solve graphically the equation x2 + 3x − 6 =

4 for −6 x 3
1. Draw up the table of values for the equation y = x2 + 3x – 6
for −6 x 2.
2. Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 1 unit on both axes draw
the graph of y = x2 + 3x − 6
3. Now draw the line y = 4 on the same axes as y = x2 + 3x – 6.
4. Read off the values of x at the points where the two graphs
intersect.
5. Now solve the quadratic equation x2 + 3x − 6 = 4 by factors
and compare the results with the results they found in 3.
Comment on your findings.

You have learnt from the above activity that provided that
solutions exist, all quadratic expressions equated to a constant
can be solved by drawing the graphs of y = the quadratic
expression and y = the constant and their point(s) of intersection
give the solution to the quadratic equation.

Some equations that can be solved in a similar way are those

of the form ax2 + bx + c = ax + c where a, b and c. Go through
activity 9 below:

330
Activity 9:

Graphical solutions by points of intersection of the

quadratic graph and a linear expression of the form
y = mx = c

Suppose you want to solve graphically the equation

x2 + 2x – 1 = x + 1 for −6 x 3.

In groups,
1.  sing the values of x in the given range, draw up the tables
U
of values for the two equations.
2.  sing a scale of 2cm to represent 1 unit on both axes draw
U
the graph of y = x2 + 2x − 1 and y = x + 1
3.  ead off the values of x at the points where the two graphs
R
intersect.
4. Now solve the quadratic equation x2 + 2x − 1 = x + 1 by
factors by grouping and compare the results with the results
you found in 3. What do you find?

You have seen that the results in 3 and 4 are the same.
This means that provided that solutions exist, all quadratic
expressions equated to a linear expression can be solved by
drawing the graphs of y = the quadratic expression and y =
the linear expression and their point(s) of intersection give the
solution to the quadratic equation.

Example 6:

Graphical solutions

Solve graphically the equation x2 + x – 6 = 2x + 3

Solution
In this case you draw the graphs of y = x2 + x – 6 and y = 2x + 3
on the same pair of axes.
y = x2 + x – 6

x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y 6 0 −4 −6 −6 −4 0 6 14

331
For graphs of straight lines, you only need three pairs of points.

y = 2x + 3

x −3 0 3
y −3 3 9

Now you can draw the two graphs

y=x2+x-6

y=2x–6

The two graphs intersect when x = −2.5 and when x = 3.5. Hence
the roots of the equation x2 + x – 6 = 2x + 3 are x = −2.5 and x =
3.5.

Sometimes you are asked to draw a graph and use it to solve

other quadratic equations.

Example 7:

Grapical solutions

(a) Draw the graph of y = 3x2 – x – 2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.

(b) U
 se the graph to solve the following equations:

( i) 3x2 – x = 12

(ii) 3x2 – 7 = 0

(iii) 3x2 = 2x + 5

332
 (iv) 2 + x – 3x2 = 0

Solution notes:

Draw the graph of y = 3x2 – x – 2 as in the previous activities.

Then proceed as follows to answer part (b) of the question:
i.  earrange 3x2 – x = 12 to get 3x2 – x − 12 = 0. Then draw
R
the graph of y = 3x2 – x – 2 – (3x2 – x –12) i.e. y = 10. The
roots of the equation 3x2 – x = 12 are the x values at the
points of intersection of the two graphs.
ii. A
 s before, draw the graph of y = 3x2 – x – 2 – (3x2 – 7) i.e.
y = 5 – x. The roots of the equation 3x2 – 7 = 0 are the x
values at the points of intersection of the two graphs.

Now get graph papers and solve the two remaining equations.
Let your teacher check your work.

Note that to solve one graph using the other, the former graph
must first be rearranged so that it equals to 0. The quadratic
expression of this arranged graph is then subtracted from the
quadratic expression of the drawn graph not vice versa. Usually,
the result of subtraction is a linear graph which is then drawn
using any three x values in the given range.

Exercise 15f

1.  sing the scale of 2 cm to represent 2 units on the x axis

U
and 2cm to represent 1 unit on the y axis, draw the graph of
y = x2 + 5x – 6 for –6 x 1.
Use the graph to solve the equations
(a) x2 + 5x −6 = 0
(b) x2 + 5x − 6 = −10
(c) x2 + 2x − 7 = 0
2. S
 olve graphically the simultaneous equations y = x2 and
y = x + 3 by drawing the two graphs on the same axes. Use
the scale of 2 cm to represent 2 units on both axes.

333
3.  n the same axes and scale, draw the graphs of
O
y = x2 – 3x + 10. Use this graph to solve the equation
x2 – 4x + 3 =0 for integral values of x from -1 to 5
4. O
 n the same axes and scale draw the graph of
y = 2x2 − 3x − 7 for the following values of x : −2 , −1 , 0, 1 ,
2 , 3, 4, 5. Use this graph to solve the following equation 2x2
-5x − 6 = 0
5. By drawing the graphs of y = 2x2 + x – 3 and y = 2x – 1 on
the same axes, solve the equation 2x2 + x −3 = 2x – 1
6. D
 raw the graph of y = 4 + 3x – 2x2 for values of x from −3 to
5. Use your graph to solve equation 5 + x – 2x2 = 0

Activity 5:

Formulating quadratic equation from roots

Study the solution to the quadratic equation x2 – x – 2 =0 below:

x2 – x – 2 = 0

(x2 – 2x) (+ x – 2) = 0

x(x – 2) + 1(x – 2) =0

(x + 1)(x – 2) = 0

x = –1 or x = 2

Now suppose you are given the roots (−1 and 2) of the quadratic
equation, discuss in groups how you can find the quadratic
equation x2 – x – 2 = 0. Report your findings.

To find the quadratic equation x2 – x – 2 = 0, you will have to

work backwards from the roots.

Example 4:

Equation from roots

Formulate a quadratic equation whose roots are and - .

Solution:

334
 Let x = or x = -
i.e. 3x = 2 or 5x = –1

i.e. 3x – 2 = 0 or 5x + 1 = 0

i.e. (3x – 2) ( 5x + 1) = 0

15x2 – 7x – 2 = 0

Exercise 15g

Formulate a quadratic equation whose roots are:

a. 2 and 4
b. –1 and –5

c. –4 and

- and -
d.

and -2
e.

Activity 10:

Formulating the quadratic equation given a quadratic

graph which cuts the x-axis

Working in groups,
1.  raw the graphs of y = x2 – x – 12 and y = 2x2 – 2 x – 24 on
D
the same axes.
2. F
 rom your graphs what are the roots of each of the two
equations?
3. N
 ow use the method of formulating the quadratic equation
given roots in activity 4.
4. Are you able to get both equations?

335
 You may have discovered that there are more than one
equation to the given roots. In fact, there are more than
two equations whose roots are 4 and -3. You should also
discovered that the method of working backwards works
only where the product of the roots equals the y-intercept of
the graph. Where the product of the roots is not the same as
y intercept of the graph we need another method.

Example 8

Find the equations of the graphs in the diagram below:

-15

Solution

Since –1 x 5 = –5, the equation of the graph which cut the y axis
at -5 is

(x + 1)(x – 5) = 0 i.e. x2 – 4x – 5 = 0.

Now –15 is 3x – 5, hence the equation of the other graph is

3(x2 – 4x – 5 = 0) i.e.

3x2 – 12x – 15 = 0.

Example 9:

Finding equations of graphs

Find the equations of the graphs in the diagram below:

336
 (a)

-15

-5 2

-10

(b)

Note that x = −5 and x = 2 are the x-intercepts.

Since −5 x 2 = −10, the equation of graph (a) is

y = (x + 5) (x − 2) = x2 + 3x − 10.

For graph (b), the y intercept is or or times the y intercept

of graph (a) so the equation of graph (b) is y = (x2 +3x +10) i.e.
x2

Example 10:

Finding equations of graphs

Find the equation of the parabola which has roots x = −2 and

x = -6 and cuts the y axis at y = 4

Solution

−2x −6 = 12

Now 4 = times 12

Hence the equation of the parabola is y = ( x + 2)(x + 6)

337
 y= x2 + 8x + 12

y= x2 + x+4

Exercise 15h:
Find the equation that defines each of the following graphs.

(a)
(b)

-3 6

(c)

-18

1. Find the equation of the parabola which has

a.  oots x = 3 and x = − 4 and its y-intercept is −12.
R
Find the equation of the parabola.

b. x-intercepts 3 and 4 and its y-intercept is − 6. Find

the equation of the parabola.

c.  as x-intercepts 4 and −3 and its y-intercept is 24.

h
Find the equation of the parabola.
2.  ne of root of a quadratic equation is x = 0.5. The graph has
O
a turning point at (2, 3.5). Find the equation of the parabola.
3.  wo quadratic graphs cut the x axis at x = -2 and at x = 5.
T
The y-intercept of the first graph is 5 and the y-intercept
of the second graph is −10. Find the equation of the second
graph. (y = −1/2x2 + 1. 5x + 5

338
 Prepare your own questions on finding the equations of
parabolas which cut the x-axis.

Unit summary
In this chapter, you have learnt to draw and interpret graphs
of quadratic equations, how to solve graphically quadratic
equations and linear equations and how to formulate quadratic
equations given roots and given graphs which cut the x axis. You
also learnt to find minimum and maximum value of a quadratic
function.

Unit review exercise

1. Draw the graph of y = x2 – 3x + 2, taking the values of
x between o and 4. Use a scale of 2cm to represent to
represent 1 unit on the horizontal axis and 1cm to represent
1 unit on the vertical axis. From the graph, what is the
minimum value of the quadratic function?
2. By drawing the quadratic graph, find the maximum value
of the quadratic function y = 1 – 2x – 3x2. Draw the graph in
the range of x values from -3 to 3 and using a scale of 2cm to
1 unit in the x axis and 1cm to 1 unit in the y axis.
3. Solve graphically the equation x2 – 4x + 7 = x + 1. Use
2cm to represent 1 unit in the x axis and 2cm to represent 5
units in the y axis.
4. Draw, using the same scales and axes, the graphs of
y = x + 3 and y = x2 – x + 1 for values of x from –3 to +4. Use
the graph to solve the following equations:
(a) x2–2x – 2 = 0
(b) x2 – x – 2 = 0

5. By drawing the graphs of y = –x2 + 4 and y = x + 2 solve the

equation
−x2 + 4 = x + 2.

6. The equation y = – 0.035x2 + 1.4x + 1 where x and y are in

measured in cm is a model of the path taken by a bullet

339
 fired from the ground level. What is the maximum height
reached by the bullet?

7. Members of a science club at a secondary school launch a

model rocket from ground level and the velocity of the rocket
is given by the formula h = −16t2 + 96t −128 where h is the
height in metres and t is the time in seconds. After how
many seconds will the rocket reach 128m above the ground?

8. A Blantyre City Council firefighter aims a hose at a window

25m above the ground . The equation y = 5 + 2x – 0.05x2
describes the path of the water.

How far from the building is the firefighter?

Glossary
Line of symmetry: A line that divides the quadratic graph into
two congruent halves.

References:
1. Rheta N. Rubenstein et al ( 1995), Intergrated Mathematics
McDoughtal Little, New York

2. Larson, Kanold, Stiff (1998), Heath Algebra 2, Heath and

Company, New York

340
 Presenting inequalities
graphically

Unit Activity 1:

16 Sketching linear inequalities in

one variable graphically

In pairs, discuss the following

questions:
1.  hat do you think a linear
W
INEQUALITIES inequality in one variable is?
2.  rite at least five examples
W
of linear inequalities in one
variable and let your teacher
check your answers.
In your JCE mathematics, you
learnt how to show inequalities A linear inequality in one variable
on a number line. You also learnt is an expression that contains one of
how to formulate and solve the four inequality symbols and has
inequalities. its one variable raised to the power of
1. The examples of linear inequalities
In this unit, you will learn to in one variable are x > 5, x ≤ 2.5, x
graphically present inequalities, > 0, y ≤ 5, y > 3, x ≤ 1.5. To sketch a
how to graphically illustrate linear inequality in one variable you
simultaneous linear inequalities, use either a dashed line or a solid
and how to graphically illustrate line. A dashed line is used when
the solution to simultaneous the inequality symbol is > or <. The
inequalities in two variables. You dashed line shows that the number
will also learn how to present through which the line passes is not
inequalities in two variables included in the solutions. When the
graphically. symbol is ≤ or ≥ use the solid line to
show that the number through which
Inequalities are used in modeling the line passes is included in the
real life situations such as solution set.
those that involve area, finding
dimensions of rectangles, Example 1:
triangles and other geometrical
shapes. They are also used in Present the graph of the following
finding profits in a business. inequalities on xy-plane.
(a) x>5
(b) y≤3

341
 Solutions

To present the above graphs, first replace the inequality symbol

by “ = ” and draw the line of the resulting equation. Note that
the line will depend on the inequality symbol in the given
question. Then identify the side of this line containing the
solutions and shade the unwanted side of the line. The graphs
are shown below:
y

3 y=3
x
(a) 0 5 (b)

x=5

Example 2:

Graph the solution of x –2 > 0, where x is a real number in the

xy -plane.

Solution

x – 2<0

∴x< 2 + 0

∴x < 2
y

x
0 2

x=2

342
Exercise 16a

Sketch the graphs to show the region represented by the

following inequalities in the xy-plane.
1. x < 4
2. y < –2
3. y ≤ –1
4. x + 2 > 5
5. 3 < 7 – x
6. x − 2 > 1
7. y ≤ 4
8. y ≤ 5

Illustrating simultaneous linear inequalities graphically

Simultaneous linear inequalities are inequalities composed of
two inequality statements in one sentence. They may be in one,
two or even in three variables. In this book you shall only look at
the first two.

Activity 2:

Illustrating simultaneous linear inequalities in one

variable graphically
1. In your groups discuss the meaning of simultaneous linear
inequality in one variable.
2. G
 ive examples of simultaneous linear inequality in one
variable.

Example 3:

Sketching graphs of inequalities

Sketch the graph to show the region represented by the

inequality −1 < x ≤ 3, in the xy-plane.

343
 Solution:

Note that this inequality is composed of two inequalities

−1 < x or x > −1 and x ≤ 3. Inequalities like these are called
simultaneous linear inequalities in one variable.
y

x
-1 0 3

x = -1 x=3

Exercise 16b
Sketch the graph to show the region represented by the
following inequalities in the xy-plane:
1. 2< x ≤ 4
2. 4≤ x ≤ 5
3. 1< y < 4
4. 3≤ y< 3
5. 1 ≤ y ≤ 3
6. 2< x < 3.5
7. 1 < x < 2
8. 2.5 <y < 3.5

Activity 3:

344
Illustrating linear inequalities in two variables graphically
1. D
 iscuss in groups what linear inequalities in two variables
are. Give examples of these inequalities.

You are given four set of points in the xy – plane above

and the line whose equation is y = –x + 4 drawn from an
inequality y ≤ –x + 4. Note that this line divides the plane
into regions called half planes. By making substitutions into
the inequality, find out which of the four sets of solutions
satisfy the inequality. Complete the table below:

Inequality Set of points Satisfies/doesn’t satisfy the

inequality(write true/not true)
y ≤ –x + 4 (-4,6) True
y < –x + 4 (-4,-6)
y > –x + 4 (4, 6)
y ≥ –x + 4 (8, 2) Not true

2.  ake a general statement about shading the unwanted side

M
basing on the results you found in 2.
3. Try other points and verify that the statement you have
made in 2 is correct.
4. N
 ow replace the symbol ≤ in the inequality by one other
symbol and make substitutions as in 1, each time recording
which set of solutions satisfies the new inequality.

You should have seen that for the inequities y ≤ –x + 4 and y

< –x + 4,the set of points are true only for the points below the
line y = –x + 4. This means all the points below this line will
satisfy the inequalities. Hence the region above this line is an
unwanted region.

For the inequalities y > –x + 4 and y ≥ –x + 4, the set of points

are not true only for the points below the line y = –x + 4.
This means all the points below this line will not satisfy the
inequalities. Hence this region is an unwanted region. In other
words, for the inequities y > –x + 4 and y ≥ –x + 4, the wanted
region is above the line y = –x + 4.

You can now generalise the results as follows:

345
As long as y (or any variable representing the vertical axis) is on
the left side of the inequality statement and is positive,
1. Shade above the line if the inequality symbol is ≤ or <.
2. Shade below the line if the inequality symbol is ≥ or >.
If y is on the right side of the inequality symbol, you may need to
rearrange the inequality for you to apply the results above.

Example 4:

Illustrate graphically the region represented by the

following inequalities on the xy plane:

(a) x + y < 4

(b) x + y ≤ 4

Solutions:

(a) • First know where the line x + y = 4 will cross the

x − axis by putting y = 0 in the equation i.e. x + 0 = 4,
∴x=4
• Also know where the line x + y = 4 will cross the
y − axis by Putting x = 0 in the equation i.e. 0 + y = 4,
∴ y = 4.
• You draw the graph of x + y = 4 as a dashed line
because the Inequality symbol is <.
• As y is on the left side of the inequality and is
positive, you shade above the drawn line (Rule 1
activity 3)

Graphically the line will look like this

346
 10

(-4,6) 6 (4,6)

4
2 (8,2)

0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
-4 y = -x + 4
-6
(-4,-6)
-8

-10

In figure above, all points in the unshaded area satisfy the

inequality

x + y < 4.

(b) Similarly, the line to be used for the inequality is x + y ≤ 4.

The only Difference is that the line will not be dashed but a
solid line because the boundary is included in the

The graph will look like this.

347
 10

0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2

-4
x+y<4
-6

-8

-10

Example 5:

Graph the inequality 2x + y > 6

Solution:

(a) L
 ets know where the line 2x + y = 6 crosses the x and y axes
by putting y and x = 0 respectively into the equation
2x + y = 6

2x + 0 = 6

2x = 6

x=3

∴ It will cross the x axis at x = 3

Similarly putting x = 0

2 ×0 + y = 6

0+y=6

y=6

∴It will cross the y-axis at y = 6

348
From result 2 of activity 3, you shade below the line 2x + y = 6.

The graph will look like this:

2x + y > 6

All points in the unshaded area satisfy the inequality 2x + y > 6.

Example 6:

Graph the inequality x – y ≤ 3

Solution:

For line x – y = 3

If x = 0, then y = −3

If y = 0, then x = 3

∴ The line will cross points (0, −3) and (3, 0)

Also note that y is on the left side of the inequality and is

negative. Rearranging, you shall have y ≥ 3 – x and so you shade
below the line.

Graphically, it will look like this:

349
 x−y≤3

Exercise 16c

Graph the following inequalities in the xy-plane:

1. x + 3y < 6 2. 2x + y > 4

3. x + y > 5 4. 2x − y ≥ 4

5. x − y ≥ 0 6. −3x − 2y < −6

7. x − 2y < 0 8. −2x − 2y > 0

9. 3x − 5y ≤ 15 10. x+y≥2

Illustrating simultaneous linear inequalities in two variables

graphically
Two or more inequalities may be graphed in the same coordinate
plane. The intersection of these graphs is the solution set for
the system of inequalities. In activity 3, you learnt how to graph
linear inequalities in two variables graphically. This is the same

350
 method used to illustrate simultaneous linear inequalities in
two variables.

Example 7:

Show graphically the solution set of the system y < x and

x + 2y ≤ 4.

Solution

Using ideas of activity 3 you come up with the following graph:

2
x + 2y = 4
1

y=x 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1

The solution set for y < x and x + 2y ≤ 4 is the unshaded area.

Exercise 16d

Graph each of the following simultaneous linear inequalities:

1. x + y ≥ 2 and x – y < 2

2. x + y ≤ 3 and x − y < 3

3. x ≥ y and x + y ≤ 6

351
 4. −2x − 3y > −6 and 3x – 2y > 6

5. y ≥ 2 x and y ≥ −x

6. 2x − 5y ≤ 10 and x + y ≤ 5

7. y − x≤ 2 and x + y < 1

Writing down inequalities that describe a given region

To write down an inequality describing a given region, you need
to consider a number of things;
• whether the line dividing the plane into half planes is
dashed or solid.
•  hich side of the line is the wanted side or contains the
w
solutions of the inequalities.
• the equation of the line dividing the plane into half planes.

Example 8:

Inequalities for a given region

Write down the inequalities that describe the unshaded regions

below;

y
y

2
x
-3 0 x
-2 0 4

Solutions

(a) The line passes through x = –3 so its equation is x = –3. The

line is dashed so the inequality symbol must be < or >. The

352
 wanted side is to the left of the line where numbers are less
than -3. Hence the inequality is x < –3.

(b) You must note that in this example there are three lines
bordering the unshaded region. The gradient of the line
passing through (–2, 0) and (0, 2) is = 1. Therefore its
equation is y – 0 = 1(x– –2) i.e. y = x + 2. The line is solid
so the inequality symbol must be ≤ or ≥. The line is shaded
above and in the equation, y is on the left and is positive.
Therefore the inequality is y ≤ x +2 (activity 3).

By a similar method, the equation of the line passing

through (4, 0) and (0, 4) is y = –x + 4. The line is dashed so
the inequality symbol must be < or >. The line is shaded
above and y is on the left of the equation and is positive
therefore the inequality is y ≤ –x + 4.The equation of the
third line is y = 0 and is shaded below. Therefore the
inequality is y ≥ 0.

Exercise 16e

Write down the inequalities that describe the unshaded region

in each of the following:
y
(1) (2) y

x x
0 2 0

-3

353
 y
y
(3) (4)
3
x x
-1 0 3 -2 0 3

-4

(5)

-4 0 4

-
-4

Unit summary
In this unit, you have learnt to present inequalities in one and
two variables graphically. You have also learnt to illustrate
graphically the solutions to simultaneous linear inequalities
in one and two variables and writing down inequalities that
describe a given region.

Glossary:
Wanted region: The region that contains solutions to an
inequality or a set of inequalities.

354
 Linear inequalities: Inequalities whose equations produce a
straight line graph.

Unit review exercise

1. Draw diagrams to represent the following inequalities:
1. x≥2
2. y ≥ –3
3. x<5
4. y<2
5. –2 < x < 5
6. 2<x+y≤5

2. Write down the inequalities that describe the unshaded

regions in each of the following:

-3 0 4 x

-2
(a)
y

0 x

(b)

355
 -3
y

0 2 x

(c)
y

- 2 0 x

-3

(d)

0 3 5 x

(e)

356
 Organisation of data

Unit When you first look at some data, all

you can see is a jumble. Such data
is called raw data or unprocessed
data. Raw data is hard to analyse.

17 Therefore data must be organized

in such a way that it can easily
be understood. In the activities
that follow, you will learn how to
organize data so that it can easily be
STATISTICS understood.

Activity 1:

Classifying grouped data

In your JCE Mathematics you
There are two types of data:
learnt about some statistics.
Qualitative and Quantitative data.
You learnt about collecting and
classifying and presenting data Qualitative data are non-numerical
in form of graphs.,In this unit, data e.g. the texture and colour of a
you will learn about organisation fabric.
of data, presenting data in form
of charts and tables, calculating Quantitative data are numerical
measures of central tendency and data e.g. the numbers of people in a
spread and interpreting data. room or the height of a person.

Quantitative data is further classified

into two groups: Discrete and
Continuous data.

Discrete data are countable for

example: The number of rooms
in a house or a person’s shoe size.
Continuous data are measured
data, for example: length, weight,
temperature and time are all
measured on a continuous scale.

Now in pairs, discuss whether

the following data are discrete or
continuous: Explain your answers.

357
 1. Your weight from birth to age 14.
2. The time you get up each morning for one month.
3. The number of mangoes you sell at the market each week.
4. The number of peas in a pod.
5. The age of pupils at your school.

Example 1:

Classifying data

Classify the following groups of data as discrete or continuous:

a. a group of 16-20 years of age.
b. a group of students who attended lessons for 15-30 periods
in a week.

Solutions
a. I t is continuous data because between any two weights you
measure any value is possible.
b. I t is discrete data because number of periods is distinct. You
cannot have one and half periods or two and three-quarter
periods e.t.c.

Exercise 17a

Classify the following grouped data as discrete or continuous.

The data properties or what the data stand for is shown in the
brackets against each group:
1. 50 – 80 (marks in %)
2. 20 – 30 (temperature in degrees Celsius)
3. 40 – 60 (speed in km/h)
4. 61 – 70 (heights in cm)

358
 5. 100 – 150 (weight in kg)
6. 10 – 15 (Number of rooms in houses)
7. 4 – 6 (Shoe sizes)
8. 2 – 10 (number of people in cars)
9. 0 – 9 (number of absentees)
10. 19 – 20 (age group)
11. 0 – 99 (monthly salary in Kwacha)

Class intervals
In many cases you may have a set of many items e.g. numbers.
It is hard to make an analysis of the numbers or it is hard to
make any interpretation from the set. To get a clearer picture of
the data you group the data within class intervals. Each class
interval has the beginning and end. The beginning is called the
lower limit and the end is called the upper limit. The number
of items from the lower limit to the upper limit is called class
width.

The following things need to be considered when grouping data

within class intervals:
1. The starting point of the first class interval must be the
smallest number in the given set or a number just below
that.
2. Each class interval must be of the same class width.
3. The class intervals must not overlap.
4. T
 he last class interval must contain the highest number in
the given data.

Activity 2:

Forming class intervals

You are given a set of different numbers representing marks

359
scored by students in a mathematics test marked out of 100.
The lowest mark is 1 and the highest mark is 100. In pairs form
class intervals given that
(a) The first class interval is 1 – 10.
(b) The first class interval is 1 – 20.

Compare your work with that from other pairs.

Suppose the first class interval was 1 – 5, why would the

intervals 1 – 5, 5 – 9, 9 – 13 e.t.c. be wrong?

Example 2:

Class intervals

The table below gives masses, in kg, of 30 students:

43
45 50 47 51 58 52 47 42 54

50 45 55 57 41 46 49 51 50
61

44 53 57 49 40 48 52 51 48
59

Table 1

Form class intervals with 40 – 45 as the first class interval.

Solution

First note that this is continuous data and as such the class
intervals must cover all possible masses of data. Hence you can
have the following intervals: 40 – 45, 45 – 50, 50 – 55, 55 – 60
and 60 – 65.

Example 3:

Class intervals

The number of people passing through a check point was

recorded after every 30 minutes for 24hours. The smallest
number recorded was 3 and the highest number recorded was
40. Form class intervals for the data with 1 – 5 as the first
interval.

360
 Solution

Unlike in example 1, this is discrete data and so there are no

half values between the class intervals. Hence the intervals are
1 – 5,

6 – 10, 11 – 15, 16 – 20, 21 – 25, 26 – 30, 31 – 35, and 36 – 40.

Exercise 17b

In questions 1 – 5, the first class interval and the class of data

are given. Form the next 5 class intervals for each question.

1. 1 – 9 ;(discrete data)

2. 1 – 15; (discrete data)

3. 40 – 45; (continuous data)

4. 20 – 30; (continuous data)

5. 40 – 59; (continuous data)

In questions 6 – 10 the lower limit of the first class interval,

the class width and the class of data are given. Form 5 class
intervals for each question.

6. Lower limit = 1, class width = 5, discrete data.

7. Lower limit = 10, class width =10, discrete data.

8. Lower limit = 0, class width = 20, discrete data.

9. Lower limit = 50, class width = 5, continuous data.

10. Lower limit = 8, class width = 6, discrete data

11. 50 cars were tested to see how far they had travelled on 10

Litres of certain petrol and the distances travelled in km were

recorded as shown in table 2 below:

361
Table 2

100 110 130 120 140 121 127 142 126 143
130 134 107 131 145 111 146 112 147 144
131 130 132 129 108 132 131 125 149 140
128 106 133 128 128 148 123 133 141 122
135 139 134 122 143 101 128 138 121 149

The first two of the five class intervals for the data are 100 – 109
and 110 – 119. Write down the other intervals.

Activity 3:

Determining class boundaries

A class boundary separates one class from the other i.e. the
ending point of one group is the starting point of the other. In
groups, discuss how you can determine the class boundaries for
the following class intervals: The data is continuous.

1 – 9, 10 – 19, 20 – 29, ---

Present your work to class.

Each class boundary lies halfway between the upper limit stated
in one class interval and the lower limit stated in the next. This
means the class boundaries are the averages of the two limits in
the intervals given. The number of values from the lower limit to
the upper of each class gives the class width.

Example 4:

Class boundaries

The following are intervals of temperature measured in degrees :

1 – 5, 6 – 10, 11 – 15 … Determine the class boundaries for the

groups.

Solution

Get the averages of the upper and lower limits for adjacent class
intervals as follows:

362
 , , = 0.5, 5.5, 10.5, ---

So the class boundaries are 0.5, 5.5, 10.5 and so on.

Example 5:

Class intervals

The following are class intervals of ages of a group of students.

0 – 9, 10 – 19, 20 – 29.

Determine the class intervals for the groups.

Solution

Ages are usually given in completed years. For example you say
someone is 9 years old from his or her 9th birthday until just
under their 10th birthday. This means someone who is 9 years
364days i.e. 10 years belongs to a group

0 – 9. So for ages, 0 – 9 means from 0 to just less than 10 years.

So the class boundaries for the groups are 0, 10, 20, 30.

Exercise 17c

1. The intervals below are weights (in grams) of a number of

tomatoes for grading purposes:

60 – 65, 65 – 70, 70 – 75, 75 – 80, 80 – 85.

Determine the class boundaries for the intervals.

2. The following are the intervals of lengths ( in mm) of 30

leaves measured by students in a statistics lesson:

30 – 40, 40 – 50, …, 90 – 100.

What are the class boundaries for the groups?

3. The ages of people attending a lesson on environment are

grouped as follows: 0 – 9, 10 – 19, 20 – 29, 30 – 39, 40 – 59,

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 60 – 69 , 70 – 79.

Determine the class boundaries of the intervals.

4. The temperature, measured to the nearest degree Celsius,

recorded at a certain place over a period of time is grouped
as follows:

0 – 14, 15 – 29, 30 – 34, 35 – 49, 50 – 64, 65 – 79.

What are the class boundaries for the data?

5. Several books were collected to see how many pages each

book had. The pages of the books were put in the following
categories:

1 – 5, 6 – 10, 11 – 15, 16 – 20, 21 – 25 , 26 – 30.

Determine the class boundaries of the groups.

Activity 4:

Finding mid-points of class intervals

In pairs, discuss what “mid-point of a class interval” is.

Suppose 40 – 59 is a class interval, what will be the mid-point of

this Interval? Explain how you got it.

The mid-point of a class interval is the value midway between

the lower limit and the upper limit of each class interval. It
may be calculated by finding the arithmetic mean of the two
numbers.

Example 6

Find the mid-point of the interval 86 – 100.

Solution

Mid-point =

= 93

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Exercise 17d

Find the mid-points of the following class intervals:

1. 20 – 24
2. 72.8 – 72.9
3. 12 – 30
4. 1 – 10
5. 80 – 100
6. 30 – 39
7. 140 – 144
8. 0 – 99
9. 100 – 119
10. 40 – 50

Presenting data in forms of charts and tables

Diagrams and tables are often used to display data. They are
simpler to understand than just crumbled data. Diagrams
look more attractive and interesting and help you to spot any
patterns and compare things easily. In the activities that follow,
you will learn to present data in form of frequency tables,
histogram, pie charts and frequency polygons.

Activity 5:

Presenting data in the form of a frequency table

Frequency is how many times a value in the given data occurs.

Frequency of things can be shown in a table called frequency
table.

In your JCE you learnt how to tally the given data and draw

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 frequencies from them. In pairs, discuss how you can come up
with a frequency table for the data below. Draw the table. The
data shows marks obtained by 25 students in a test.

14 19 9 17 15 20 17 10 15
12 17 11

17 15 16 17 19 17 12 8 17
10 12 15

18 15 10 7 10

From your table

(a) What is the total frequency?
(b) W
 hat are the frequencies of the following scores? 12,17 and
20 Present your findings to class.

Exercise 17e

1. Consider the data below:

1 1 2 0 0 3 1 1 2
2 2 1 1 0 4 1 0 2
3 1 2 1 3 0 1 2 1
4 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 2
0 1 2 2 3 3 0 1 4
(a) Draw a frequency table for the distribution.

(b) What are the frequencies of the following: 0 , 4, 1?

Construct a frequency table for the distribution below:

1 1 3 3 3 0 2 0 1 2
0 3 0 4 2 3 0 3 1 3
3 4 0 0 6 3 5 0 1 0
3 1 0 7 4 3 3 0 2 3
1 3 3 2 5 0 3 0 6 3
1 0 3 5 0 1 4 2 3 4

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Which value ha the highest frequency?

3. Consider the scores below:

26 12 24 42 16 18 30 24 36 8

34 24 20 16 24 16 18 26 10 32

24 12 26 12 12 20 24 18 14 22

24 14 34 24 20 12 20 24 20 26

32 12 16 42 26 22 24 20 16 18

18 30 24 36 41 35 30 41 10 36

(a) I n groups, form class intervals for the data using

intervals 5 – 9, 10 – 14, ---
(b) Draw the frequency table for the data.
(c) Which group has the highest frequency?

4. The following marks were obtained by 80 candidates in a

Mathematics test which was marked out of 65.
54 52 31 47 24 36 27 15 44 26
8 20 46 32 27 31 33 57 39 32
43 32 23 33 31 21 38 28 40 19
52 37 38 39 9 30 47 29 8 13
33 35 48 18 36 39 23 58 34 35
16 21 32 38 34 13 27 32 37 23
37 49 25 38 24 27 48 36 45 18
41 34 43 12 47 24 61 29 37 33

Using intervals 0 – 9, 10 – 19, ---, draw the frequency table

for the data.

Activity 6:

Presenting data in the form of the histogram

In groups,
1. F
 ind the class boundaries of the following class intervals:
1 – 5, 6 – 10, 11 – 15, 16 – 20.

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2. G
 iven that the frequencies of the above intervals are 2,3,5,7
draw a bar graph on a chart paper with the class boundaries
on the horizontal axis and frequencies on the vertical axis.
3. Find the area and the width of each bar.
4. N
 ow for each bar, divide the area by the width. What do you
notice?
5. Report your findings to class.

A histogram often looks like a bar chart that you dealt

with in your JCE. However the essential characteristic of
a histogram is that it represents frequency by area and
that there is a numerical relationship between quantities
whose frequencies it represents as you saw in instruction 5
in the above activity. In addition there are no gaps between
adjacent bars in the histogram.

Example 7:

Drawing histogram

The frequency distribution below shows weekly earnings of 50

people.

Weekly earnings 0– 99 100 – 199 200– 299 300– 399 400– 500
(Kwacha)
Number of people 5 16 19 6 4

Draw a histogram for the frequency distribution.

Solution:

As the first interval starts from 0,using the method of finding

class boundaries shown in example 3 on page 359 would lead
into the first class having a class width different from the others
so use the lower limits of the intervals as boundaries. The
histogram is shown below:

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 20
20

15
Frequency

15
Frequency

10

10

0 100 200 300 400 500

Weekly earnings ( kwacha)

Example 8:

Drawing a histogram

The data below shows a frequency distribution of temperature

in degrees Celsius recorded at a weather station over a period of
time.

Class interval (t minutes) Frequency

1–5 5
6 – 10 13
11 – 15 14
16 – 20 12
21 – 25 6

Draw a histogram for the distribution.

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 Solution

The class boundaries are 0.5, 5.5, 10.5, 15.5 and 25.5
20
20

15
Frequency

15
Frequency

10

10

0
0.5 5.5 10.5 15.5 20.5 25.5
Temperature (ºC)

Activity 7:

Presenting data in the form of a frequency polygon

If you draw straight lines through the mid-points at the top

of each bar of a histogram, the resulting graph is a frequency
polygon. Basing on this statement, in groups discuss how you
would construct a frequency polygon using the data provided in
example 8. Draw the polygon.

Example 9

Use the frequency table below to draw a frequency polygon.

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 Class interval (Marks) 1 – 5 6 – 10 11 – 15 16 – 20 21 – 25
Frequency 3 5 7 6 4

Solution

The class boundaries are 0.5, 5.5, 10.5, 15.5, 20.5 and 25.5 .The
mid points of the class intervals are 3, 8, 13, 18 and 23. You then
draw a histogram for the data and then a frequency polygon as
below:

10
Frequency

0
0.5 3 5.5 8 10.5 13 15.5 18 20.5 23 25.5
Marks

If you only use the midpoints, you get the following frequency
polygon. Note that extra intervals have been added at the
beginning and at the end to remove “hangings” of the polygon.

1010
Frequency

5
5
-2 3 8 13 18 23 28

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Exercise 17f

1. Draw a histogram hence a frequency polygon for the table

below:

Height, x cm Frequency
130 ≤ x < 135 8

135 ≤ x < 140 14

140 ≤ x < 145 17

145 ≤ x < 150 12

150 ≤ x < 155 4

Total: 55

2. The temperatures recorded one summer were as follows

Temperature 0F 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78
Number of days 3 5 12 14 13 8 5 9 6 3 2

Draw a histogram hence a frequency polygon.

3. The lengths of pupils’ forearms were recorded as follows:

Length of forearm (cm) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Number of pupils 8 9 21 24 20 27 16 22 12 9

Draw a histogram hence a frequency polygon.

4. The year of manufacturing 100 cars in a car factory is:

Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Number of cars 42 48 57 79 74 85 52

Draw a histogram for the data.

5. The table gives the time taken for students to travel to

school.

Time (minutes 0 ≤ t < 10 10 ≤ t < 20 20 ≤ t < 30 30 ≤ t < 40

Frequency 12 36 8 5

Draw a histogram for the data.

6. The actual time between departure of minibuses at rush

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 hour was recorded to the nearest minute.

Time (minutes) 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of minibuses 13 18 35 12 19 3

Draw a histogram for the data.

Activity 8:

Presenting data in a form of the pie chart

In your groups do a research on the following:

1. Definition of a pie chart.
2. The steps in drawing a pie chart.
Report your findings to class.

A pie chart is a circular diagram used to display data. The whole

pie stands for the whole amount of data being dealt with and
each slice stands for a named part of the data. To draw a pie
chart you follow the following steps:
1. Find the total frequency of the given data.
2. Divide 3600 by the total frequency.
3. M
 ultiply each frequency by the result in 3. This gives the
size of each slice.
4. Measure the angles in 3 above anticlockwise at the centre of
the circle.

Example 10:

Drawing pie charts

Draw a pie chart to show the following daily life of Takondwa:

Activity Number of hours

Lessons 5
Meals 1
Homework 3
TV 2
Travel 1

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 Sleep 8
Other 4

Solution

Total frequency = 5 + 1 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 8 + 4 = 24

Angle for 1 of each activity = 3600

240

= 150

Angles for each activity are 5x150, 1 x 150, 3x150, 2x150, 1

x150,8x150 and 4x150 i.e.750, 150, 450, 300, 150, 1200 and 600

The pie chart is shown below:

Meals
Homework
0
15
TV 450 Lessons
300 0
75
Travel 150
1200 600
Sleep
Others

Exercise 17g

1. The frequency distribution below shows how a

manufacturing firm used its income in 2004:

Area of spending Wages Building Raw materials Profit

Amount spent (%) 5 15 75 5

Draw a pie chart to show the distribution.

2. A school allocates its weekly timetable to pupils in Form 3

as follows:

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 Subject English Mathematics Physical science
Number of periods 12 15 18

Represent the above information in a pie chart.

3. The total surface area of the earth is approximately 510

million km2. The area is composed of water and land as
shown in the pie chart below:

29%

Water

What angle of the pie chart represent water?

4. In a village 324 litres of water are used each day. The pie
chart below shows how the water is used.

Cooking Washing

540
Given to W ashing
animals clothes

How much water is used in washing clothes?

375
Measures of central tendency
In your JCE you learnt about three measures of central
tendency, mean , mode and median. You learnt how to calculate
them from an ungrouped data. You will now learn how to
calculate the measures from grouped data.

Activity 9:

Calculating median of grouped data

In groups, discuss how you can find the middle value (median)
from the frequency distribution below:

Age (years) 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20- 24 25-29

Number of people 2 3 6 9 8 5

You cannot find median directly from a frequency distribution

table. The table helps you to find the class that contains the
median (median class).

You add the frequencies cumulatively to find the position of the

middle value(s). If the sum (n) of frequencies is even, the median
is th and ( + 1)th values while if the sum of frequencies is odd
the median is th value.

Example 11

Find the median of the frequency distribution below.

Class interval 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59

Frequency 1 2 11 9 14 3

Solution

Sum of frequencies = 1 + 2 + 11 + 9 + 14 + 3 = 40

Hence the middle values are 20th and 21st values. Add the
frequencies cumulatively as follows:
1 + 2 = 3 values
3 + 11= 14 values
14 + 9 = 23 values

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 Hence the 20th and 21st values are in the class in the class
interval 30-39. Hence 30 - 39 is the median class.

But if we need to estimate a single Median value we can use

this formula:

(n/2) – cfb
Estimated Median = L +   ×w
fm

where:

• L is the lower class boundary of the group containing the

median

• n is the total number of data

• cfb is the cumulative frequency of the groups before the

median group

• fm is the frequency of the median group

• w is the group width

So the estimated median of the above data =30 + x 10

= 30 + 6.7
= 36.7

Exercise 17h

1. The frequency distribution below shows the heights in cm of

50 students.

Height (cm) Frequency

120 -129 8
130-139 3
140-149 9
150-159 22
160-169 7
170-179 1

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a. What is the median class of the data?
b. Estimate the median of the data.

2. The following are the weights 30 pupils in kg.

45 62 35 54 48 35

48 59 52 40 54 46

59 51 32 37 49 42

53 38 37 35 53 46

48 44 33 52 54 44

Construct a frequency distribution using intervals 30 – 39, 40 –

49,--- and find the median class and the median of the data.

3. The frequency distribution below shows number of students

who scored marks within 10-mark class intervals in a test.

Marks Frequency
1-10 2
11-20 7
21-30 9
31-40 11
41-50 13

a. Find the median class of the distribution.

b. Calculate the median of the data.

4. Find the median of the frequency distribution which shows

diameters in mm of 24tins.

Diameter(mm) 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-109

Frequency 1 3 7 8 5

5. Find the median class and median of the frequency

distribution below.

Class interval 31 - 50 51-70 71-90 91-110

Frequency 1 11 4 3

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Activity 10 :

Calculating mean of grouped data

The table below is given in example 1 of this topic.

43 45 50 47 51 58 52 47 42
54 61 50 45 55 57 41 46 49
51 50 59 44 53 57 49 40 48
52 51 48 1

In groups,
1. Calculate the mean of the above data using the method you
learnt in form1 to the nearest whole number.
2. Group the data in the following intervals:
40 – 44, 45 – 49,---.
Construct a frequency table using intervals for the data
using the intervals.
3. Find the midpoint of each class interval.
4. Multiply each midpoint by the frequency of that group.
5. Sum up the frequencies and the products.
6. D
 ivide the sum of all the products by the total frequency
correcting their answer to the nearest whole number.
7. Comment on your findings.

The method of finding mean by grouping data only gives an

approximation but is a quicker and less tiring way of finding the
mean where the data is so large. The method can be summarised
into the following steps for finding mean of grouped data:
1. Find the frequency and midpoint of each class interval.
2. Multiply each midpoint by the frequency of that group.
3. Sum up the frequencies and the products.
4. Divide the sum of all the products by the total frequency.

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 Example 12

Calculate the mean of the frequency distribution below.

Number of cars 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49
Number of days 1 1 2 8 19 14 4 1

Solution
Class interval Midpoint of class interval Frequency Midpoint x Frequency
10-14 12 1 12
15-19 17 1 17
20-24 22 2 44
25-29 27 8 216
30-34 32 19 608
35-39 37 14 518
40-44 42 4 168
45-49 47 1 47
Sum=50 Sum= 1630

Mean = 32.6 cars/day.

Sometimes you can use what is known as a working mean. A

working mean is the central value of the class with the highest
frequency in this case 30 -34. The central value is 32. You then
proceed as follows:
Class interval Class central Frequency (f) Central value-Working Frequency x
mean. This is a called
Value(x) deviation. Deviations
10-14 12 1 −20 −20
15-19 17 1 −15 −15
20-24 22 2 −10 −20
25-29 27 8 −5 −40
30-34 32 19 0 0
35-39 37 14 5 +70
40-44 42 4 10 +40
45-49 47 1 15 +15
Total deviations 30

Mean deviation = 30 ÷ 50 = 0.6

Then add this mean deviation to the working mean.
Mean of the data = 32 + 0.6 = 32.6 cars/day.

380
Exercise 17i

Find the mean of each of the following frequency distributions:

1.

Class interval 1- 5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25

Frequency 3 5 10 6 4

2.

Class interval 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70

Frequency 2 5 7 9 11

3.

Class interval 100-109 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149

Frequency 5 15 25 35 20

Find the working mean and hence the mean of the following
frequency distributions:

4.

Class interval 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24

Frequency 5 20 5 10 10

5.

Class interval 0-49 50-99 100-149 150-199 200-249

Frequency 6 8 11 9 4

Activity 11:

Calculating mode of grouped data

You cannot give the exact value of mode from grouped data.
However, you can make a reasonable estimate of it by using the
formula below.

fm − fm-1
Estimated Mode  = L +  × w
(fm − fm-1) + (fm − fm+1)

381
Where:

• L is the lower class boundary of the modal group( the group

with the highest frequency)

• fm-1 is the frequency of the group before the modal group

• fm is the frequency of the modal group

• fm+1 is the frequency of the group after the modal group

• w is the group width

Go back to activity 10 above and find the modal class and the
mode of the data.
1. Using the method of mode of ungrouped data find the mode
of the data in activity 9 and compare it to the mode you
have just found.
2. Comment on your findings.

Example 13

The following frequency table was drawn up for the marks in a

mathematics test.

Class Frequency
50-53 7
54-57 8
58-61 9
62-65 6
66-69 4
70-73 1

a. What is the modal class?

b. Estimate the mode of the data

Solution
a. Modal class = 58-61

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 b. Mode = 58 + ( )
x3
= 58 + 0.2
= 58.2

Exercise 17j

For each of the following frequency distributions find the modal

class and hence estimate the mode.

1.

Class interval frequency

0–9 3
10 – 19 5
20 – 29 11
30 – 39 9
40 – 49 8

2.

Class interval Height (cm) frequency

40 – 44 7
45 – 49 9
50 – 54 10
55 – 59 6
60 - 64 2

3.

Mass of nails (g) 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-14

Number of nails 15 12 10 5 3

4.

Length of life (hours) 201-300 301-400 401-500 501-600 601-700

Number of bulbs 10 16 32 54 88

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 Activity 12:

Calculating the range of grouped data

In groups, discuss how you can get the range from the frequency
distribution in example 13.

In a grouped frequency distribution, you can also make a

reasonable estimate of the range. It is found by subtracting the
lower limit of the first class interval from the upper limit of the
last class interval.

Example 14

Estimate the range of the data in example 13.

Solution

Range = 73 – 20 = 23.

Exercise 17k

Estimate the range of the data in question 1 to question 4 of

exercise 17i.

Unit summary
• In this unit you have learnt about organisation of data,
presenting data in form of charts and tables, calculating
measures of central tendency and spread.

• In this unit you have also seen that you cannot give exact
values of mean, mode and median. You can only give
estimates of them.

384
Unit review exercise
1. T
 he first class interval of discrete data is 0- 4. Form the next
5 class intervals.
2. The lower limit of the first class interval of continuous data
is10, the class width is 8. Form the first three class intervals
for the data.
3. Two first class intervals of data are 15-19 and 20-24. Find
(a) the class boundary and(b) the midpoint of the class
intervals.
4. The weights ( in kg correct to the nearest tenth) of a group
of thirty dogs were recorded as follows:
15.5 14.8 15.8 14.3 14.6 15.0
16.2 13.9 15.2 15.1 16.0 15.2
14.4 15.4 15.7 16.2 14.9 14.7
15.5 13.7 15.5 14.3 14.7 15.1
Represent the data in the form of a frequency distribution
using intervals 13.5 -13.9,14.0-14.4,---
5. 4
 5 children working in groups, were asked to time each
other’s estimates of the length of a minute. Their estimates
correct to the nearest second , are given below.

53 47 77 63 59 54 62 65 71
77 42 68 67 51 72 57 73 48
61 46 51 50 63 68 54 50 65
53 78 69 44 56 77 58 55 79
66 58 67 52 48 70 49 71 73

Using intervals 40 – 44, 45 – 49,---, draw a histogram for the

data.
6.

Number of games Frequency

1-5 2
6 - 10 7
11 - 15 8
16 - 20 3

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 Using the frequency distribution above find
a. the mode
b. the median
c. the modal class
d. the median class
e. the range.
f. the mean.

Glossary
Qualitative data: Data of properties that are numbers.

Quantitative data: Data of properties that are not numbers.

Discrete data: Countable data.

Continuous data: Measured data

Lower limit: The beginning of one class interval.

Upper limit: End of class interval.

Class width: Number of values from the lower to the upper

limit.

Class boundary: A point where one class ends and the other
begins.

386