LOGICAL DEDUCTIONN

1. LOGIC
The word 'Logie'is derived from the
pressing thought' Greek noun logos'
nGIC the 'seienee of
Thus, LOG i8 meaning both thought and 'the word
aalogie
to be8olved
are thought as expressed in
as

g truth
per the
statementa
of the sta information given without any ncern means that the que language', This
i.e. conelusion conc of the formal validity
ith this unique
characteristic, the
should follow directly from the statements given
andidates to follov
low the rules and Logie Tost becomes
wmind for all types of reasoningwork as per the inatructions without
an instrument of
teaching the
the 8ame. practices
ut and teaches how to
an error. Thus, it prepares
detect and avoid
mistakes in

LOGICAL REASONING
In Logic, categorical statement is termed
any
as the
AProposition categorical
(or a
Proposition.
phole of, one set of objects-the statement)
set
is a statement
that asserts that either
statementeither included isidentified by the subject term the sentence
a
part of, or the
in, is in
expressing
predicate term in that
sentence. excluded from, another set-the set
or
identified
that

The standard form of a by the

proposition is:
Quantifier + Subject+ Copala+ Predicate
Thus, the proposition consists of
1. four parts:
Quantifier: The words 'all', 'no'
and 'some' are called quantifiers because they
quantity. 'All' and 'no'
universal are specify
quantifiers because they refer to
a

certain set, while the object every

quantifier 'some is a in a
leäst one
existing object in a cèrtain set. particular quantifier because refers to at
it

.Subject (denoted by 'S') : The

3.
Predicate (denoted by P): The
subject is that about which something said. is

which is affirmed or
the
denied about the
predicate is part of the proposition denoting that
Copula: The
subject.
copula is that part of the
proposition which denotes the relation
the
subject and the predicate.
between

xamples: () All p e men are animals

Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate
() Some pens Are erasers

our-Fold assification Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate

of 1 ropositions:
roposition i
articularantity
quantit if it begins with a particular quantifier. Besides, propositionswhich assert
18 said to have a universal quantity if it begins wiuh a universa quantifier, and a

VRmethting
Mihe rmareative uality,
qua while those which deny the inclusionol
about the inclusion of the whole
part one in or a
said of
have
the whole or a part of one set in the
set the other are to

all embereesaid
to v
have
e a negative quality. Also, a term is distributed in a proposition if it refers
the set of term. it is said to be
on the above objects denoted by that
propositions can be classified into four types
Otherwise, undistributed
facts,
 Logice Reas ing
(denoted by A): t
distributes anly the o
. Universal Affirmative Proposition with the subject.
while maintaining the vact
i.e. the predicate is not interchangeable
of the proposition eg,
validity
All snakes are reptiles snakes
cannot say 'All reptiles
are
we
This18 proposition A since
E) It distributes both the subiect
2. Universal Negative Proposition fdenoted by
: ..

term i s denied to
the entire clase.
the predicate i.e. an entire class of predicate the
subject term, as in the proposition. eg,
No boy is intelligent.
(denoted by D: lt distributes neither the
subie
3. Particular Affirmative Proposition
nor the predicate e.g,
Some men are foolish.
for all but only for s o m e m e n and similarly the
Here, the subject term 'men' is used not both a r e undistribued
predicate term foolish' is affirmed for a part subject class. So,
of
It distributes the
predicate.
4. Particular Negative Proposition (denoted by 0):
only
eg

Some animals are not wild.

for a part of its class and hence is undis
Here, the subject term 'animals' is uaed ónly in entirety to the subject term and
tributed while the predicate term 'wild'is denied
hence

is distributed.
These facts can be summarized as follows:

Distributed
Statement Form Quantity Quality
(A):AllS is P. Universal Affirmative S only
Both S and P
(E)- No S is P. Universal Negative
Neither S nor P
(1): Some S is P Particula Affirmative
(0): Some S is not P Particular Negative P only
LOGICAL DEDUCTION
The phenomenon of derivingaconclusion from a single proposition or a set of given propositions,
i skrnounas logical deduetion. The given propositions are also referred to as the premise
Two Inferential Processes of Deduction:
L Immediate Deductive Inference:
Heresconclusion is deduced from one of the given propositions,
ways

by any of the three

conversion, obversion and contraposition.

with interchanging an the
[Link]:The Conversion proceeds the subject term

term
predicate term i.e. the subject term of the premise becomes the predicate
conclusion and the predicate term of the premise becomes the subject of the con

The given proposition is called convertend, whereas

called its eonverse.
the conclusion
drawn frou

Table of Valid Conversions

Convertend Converse
A All S is P. I Some P is S.
Ex. All pins are tops. Some tops are pins.
E: No S is P. E No P is S.
[Link] fish is whale. No whale is fish
I : Some S is P. I Some P is S.
Ex. Some boys are poets. Some poets are boys.
Some S is not P. No valid conversion
 the
conversion, th quality remains the and the quantity
a
ve
c o n
same may change
An
n : In obversion, we change the quality of the proposition and replace the
Obversion: in obve
hat

ateterm by its complement.

Table of Valid Obversions
Obvertend Obverse
E No birds are non-mammals.
All birds are mammals
singers. A All poets are non-singers
N o poets are
Some nurses
are doctors. O:Some nurses are not aon-doctors.
Some politicians are non-
Some politicians are not statesmen. I :
statesmen.

statement, of a we first replace the subject

Contraposition: Toobtain the contrapositive these terms with
their
proposition and then exchange both
andpredicate terms in the
complements.

Table of Valid Contrapositions

Contrapositive
Proposition non-birds.
are

All birds are mammals A All non-mammals

A non-birds.
ISomenon-mammals are
I Some birds are mammals. logically
contrapositive of a given proposition always
ote:The valid converse, obverse
or

slows from the [Link] (SYLLOGISM): First introduced by Aristotle, a

1Mediate Deductive argument in which conclusion has to be drawn from two proposition.s
Syllogism is a deductive
referred to as the premises.
lample: 1All .lotus are flowers.
beautiful.
2. All flowers are
beautiful.
3. All lotus are and the proposition 3,
which follows from
propositions 1 and 2 are the premises
ery, the called the conclusion
elirst two propositions, is of words, which by
itself c a n be used as a
a combination
i n Logic, a term is a word
or

0ject or predicate of a proposition.

terms
gism is concerned with three conclusion and is denoted by P (first letter of
of the
Major Term:It is the predicate
Predicate'). of the conclusion and is denoted by S (first letter of
Minor Term: It is the subject
Subject'). common to
both the premises and is denoted by M (first
Middle Term:It is the term
letter of Middle'). animals.
xample: Premises: 1. All dogs a r e
are dogs.
2. All tigers
animals.
All tigers a r e
Conclusion: the major term, P
conclusion and so, it is

animals'is the predicate of the S.

so, it is the term,
minor
and
rS is the subject of the conclusion and so, 1t 1s the middle term, M.
premises
18 the term common to both the
or And Minor Premises Of the two premises, the major premise is that in which the
15 tnat in which the middle term the
premise is

e term is the subject and the minor

predicate.
For Deriving The Conclusion From Two Given Premises
es
T h e eonclusion does not contain the middle term.
 gieal Reas
Statements: 1. All men are girls.
Example. are students.
2. Some girls
1. All girls are men.
Conclusions:
2. Some girls are not students
term 'girls, s0 neither of them
1 and 2 contain the middle ca
follow
Sinceboth the conclusions the conclusion unless
it is distributed i
[Link] term can be distributed in
premises.
1. Some dogs are goats.
Example. Statements:
2. All goats are cows.

1. All cows are goats.

Conclusions:
2. Some dogs are cows.

which distributes neither the subject

nor the prediene.
Statement 1 is an I-type proposition goats'
which distributes the subject i.e. only
Statement 2 is an A type proposition only.
which distributes the subject 'cow
Conclusion 1 is an A-type proposition the premises
1 without being distributed in
Since the term 'cows' is distributed in conclusion
so conclusion 1 cannot follow.
at least in the premises
middle term (M) should be distributed
once
3. The
Otherwise, the conclusion cannot follow.
For the middle termto be distributed in a premise,

) M must be the subject if premise is an A proposition.

(i) M must be subject or predicate if premise is an E proposition.

(iii) M must be predicate if premise is an O proposition.

Note that in an I proposition, which distributes neither the subject nor the predicate, the middle
term cannot be distributed.
Example. Statements: 1. All fans are watches.
2. Some watches are black.
Conclusions: 1. All watches are fans.
2. Some fans are black.
Inthe premises, the middle term is 'watches'. Clearly, it is not distributed in the first premse
which is an A proposition as it does not form its subject. Also, it is not distributedin
Becond premise which is an I proposition. Since the middle term is not distributed evenon
inthe premises, so no conclusion follows.
4. No conelusion follows
(a) if both the premises are particular
Example. Statements 1. Some books are pens.
2. Some pens are erasers.
Conclusions: 1. All books are erasers.
2. Some erasers are books.
Since both the premises are particular, so no definite conclusion follows.
if both the premises are negative
(b)
Example. Statements: 1. No flower is
mango.
2. No mango is cherry.
Conclusions: 1. No flower is
cherry.
2. Some cherries
Since both the premises
are
mangoes.
negative, neither conclusion follows.
are
(c) if the major premise is particular and the minor premise
Example. Statements: 1. Some dogs are bulls.
2. No tigers are
dogs.
 Conclusions: 1. No
dogs are
2. Some bulls
tigers.
the first premis
nise tigers.
containing the middle
are

term
second premise containing the middle term 'dogs' as the
subject is the major premi
andt h

Sincet h e
'dogs'premise
major premise 1s particular and the minor
as the
predicate is the
is negative, so minor
oremise
pr
no conciusio
n
lows
ethe middle term is distributed twice, the conclusion
x e m p l e .
Statements: 1. All fans are chairs.
cannot be universal.
2. No tables are fans.
Conclusions: 1. No tables are chairs.
2. Some tables are chairs.
Mare the first premise an A proposition and so, the middle term 'fans'
is
ctrbuted. The second premise is an E forming the subject
proposition and so, the middle term fans' forming
ke predicate
the
i8 distributed. Since the middle term is
distributed twice, so the conclusion
eannot be universal
[Link] one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative.
Sxample. Statements: 1. All grasses are trees.
2. No tree is shrub.
Conclusions: 1. No grasses are shrubs.
2. Some shrubs are grasses.
Since one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. So, conclusion 2 cannot follow.
7. Ifone premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular.
Bxample Statements: 1. Some boys are thieves.
2. All thieves are dacoits.
Conclusions: 1. Some boys are dacoits.
2. All dacoits are boys.
Sinoe one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular. So, conclusion 2 cannot
follow
8.f both the premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be affirmative.
Example. Statements: 1. All women are mothers.
2. All mothers are sisters
Conclusions: 1. All women are sisters.
2. Some women are not sisters.
both the premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be affirmative. So, conclusion 2
annot follow.
fboth the premises are universal, the conclusion must be universal.
om
plementary pair : Apair ofcontradictory statements i.e. a pair of statements such that
e 18 true, the other is false and when no definite conclusion can be drawn, either of them
und to follow, is called a complementary pair. E and I-type propositions together formm a
tomp
ementary pair and usually either of them follows, in a case where we cannot arrive at a
t e conchsion, using the rules of syllogism.
dy the various possible cases and draw all possible inferences in each case, along
verification through Venn diagrams.
Case
A l l men are boys. All boys are students.
hediate
the c Deductive Inferences
omes e of first premise i.e. 'Some boys are men' and the converse of second premise i.e
SEadents are boys' both hold.
 Logical Reasoning
Mediate Deductive Inferences:
the conclusion must-be t o i
and affirmative, al
middle term. So, it follows t
universal
both the premises a r e
Since contain the
conclusion should not Some s t u d e n t s a r e men' also h Al
affhrmative. Also, the conclusion i.e. holds
men a r e students'. The converse of this
Inferences
Venn diagram
a r e men.
1. Some boys
Students
2. Some students
are boys.
Boys 3. All men are students
Men
4. Some students
a r e men.

animals. All fishes are animals.

Case 2. All birds are

Immediate Deductive Inferences:

are birds' and
the converse of second premise
The converseof first premise i.e. 'Some animals
i.e. 'Some animals a r e fishes' both hold.
Mediate Deductive Inferences:
Both, being A-type propositions, distribute subject
only.
distributed even once in the premises. So, no definite
Thus, the middle term 'animals' is not
conclusion follows.
Inferences
Venn diagram
1. Some animals are birds.
Animals Animals
2. Some animals are fishes.
or
3. Either No bird is fish' or 'Sorae birds are
fishes' as E and I-type propositions form
Fishes Fishes
Birds Birds a complementary pair

Case 3. All puppets are dolls. Some dolls are rattles.

Immediate Deductive Inferences:
and the of the secon
The converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some dolls are puppets' converse

premise i.e. 'Some rattles a r e dolls', both hold.

Mediate Deductive Inferences:
First premise, being an A-type proposition, distributes the subject only while the secou
premise, being an 1-type proposition, distributes neither subject nor predicate. Since the miau
term 'dolls' is not distributed even once in the premises, so no definite conclusion can be ar

Venn diagram Inferences

1. Some dolls are puppets.
Dolls Dolls
Puppets Puppets 2 Some rattles are dolls.
or 8. Either No puppet is rattle' pr So
puppets rattles' a s E and I-yp
are

Rattles Rattles propositions form a complementai

pair.
Case 4. Some writers are players. All players are musicians.
ImmediateDeductive Inferences: o f t h es e c o n

The converse of the first premise i.e. Some players are writers' and the convere
premise i.e. Some musicians are players', both hold.
 Deductive Inferences:
one premise is particu
nce term. So, it f the conclusion
d d l e
So, follows that Some writers aremust be par
articular and should not contain the
Some
musicians are
writers' also holds. musicians'. The converse of this
concu
Venn diagram
Inferences
Musicians [Link] are writers.
2. Some musicians
Players are players.
3. Some writers
Writers are musicians.
4. Some musicians are writers.
Case6. All boxes are toys. Some boxes
Ipmediate Deductive Inferences
are
clips.
he converse of the first premise i.e. 'Some
Some clips are boxes', both hold. toys are boxes' and the converse of the
second premise
Mediate Deductive Inferences:
Sipce one premise is particular, the
concllusion must be
middle term. So, it follows that 'Some particular and should not contain the
toys are clips'. The converse of this conclusion i.e. 'Some
dips are toys also holds

Venn diagram
Inferences
1. Some
Toys toys are boxes.
Boxes 2 Some clips are boxes.
3. Some toys are clips.
Clips Some clips are toys.
Case 6. All buses are vans. Some cycles are vans.
inmediateDeductive Inferences:
e converse of the first premise i.e. "Some vans are buses' and the, converse of the
etIse i.e. 'Some vans are cycles', both hold. second
Bediate Deductive Inferences:
tpremise, being an A-type proposition, distributes subject only and the second premise,
Deing an
a -type proposition, distributes neither subject hor predicate. So, the middle term
Vans' hot distributed even once in the premises. Hence, no definite conclusion can be drawn.
Venn diagram Inferences
1. Some vans are buses.
Vans
Vans 2. Some vans are cycles.

or 3. Either No bus is cycle' or 'Some buses

are cyeles' follows.
uses Cycles Buses
Cycles
Ase 7. Some radios are Some cameras are statues.
es radio cameras.

t e Deduetive Inferencea:
cameras are radios' and the converse of the second
first premise i.e. 'Some
ot thestatues
s e 6. Some are cameras', both hold.
 ensoning
Mediate Deductive Inferences: follows.
conclusion
no
definite
are particular,
Since both premises
Inferences
Venn diagram Some cameras are radios.

Cameras Cameras
Radiog 2 Some statues are cameras.

3. Either 'Some radios are statues' gr .

radio is statue' llows; as I and E-tw
propositions form a complementary
Radios Statues pair.
Statues

Case 8. All cakes are candies. No candy is pastry.

Immediate Deductive Inferences:
and the converse of the s e e
of the first premise i.e. Some
candies are cakes nd
The converse
both hold.
premise i.e. No pastry is candy,
Mediate Deductive Inferences:
the conclusion must be universal. Since one premise is
Since both premises a r e universal, is
So, it follows that No cake pastry.
negative, the conclusion must be negative.
is cake' also holds.
The converse of this conelusion i.e. No pastry
Inferences
Venn diagram
1. Some candies are cakes.
Candies
2. No pastry is candy.

3. No cake is pastry.

Cakes Pastries4 No pastry is cake.

Case 9. No coin is ring. All rings are bangles.

ImmediateDeductive Inferences
The converse of the first premise i.e. No ring is coin' and the converse of the second prem
i.e. 'Some bangles are rings', both hold.
Mediate Deductive Inferences:
First premise, being an E-type proposition, distributes both the subject and the preala
Second premise, being an A-type proposition, distributes the subject. Thus, the middle
ring' is distributed twice in the premises. So, the conclusion eannot be universal. Also, SInce
e
one premise is negative, the conclusion must be
negative. Thus, the conclusion "
particular negative i.e. O-type. So, it follows that 'some bangles are not coin.

Venn diagram Inferences

1. No ring is coin.
Coins Rings
Rings
2. Some bangles are rings.
or
3. Some bangles are not coins.
Coins
Bangles agles' or No

4 Either 'Some coins I-type

cOin is bangle' follows as E and

Bangles propositions form a
complementa.

pair
 9
10. Some lamps are candles. No candle is bulb.
Immeddiate ctive Inferences
rse of the first premise i.e. Some candles
he ce, No bulb is candle', both hold.
are lamps' and the converse of the second
prem
Deductive Inferences:
ediate

ne premise is
particular and the other negative, the conclusion must be
i.e. O-type. So, it follows that 'Some lamps
Since

negativ
are not bulbs'. particular
Venn diagram
Inferences
1. Some candles
Candles Lamps
are lamps.
Candles 2. No bulb is candle.

or 3. Some lamps are not bulbs.

4. Either Some lamps are bulbs' or No

Bulbs lamp is bulb' follows, as E and 1-type
Lamps propositions form a complementary
Bulbs
pair.

AnImportant Point To Remember:

While deriving logical conclusions, always remember that the following conclusions hold:
)The converse of each of the given premises;
(i) The conclusion that directly follows from the given premises in accordance with the rules
of syllogism;
(ii) The converse of the derived conclusions.

TYPE1:TWO-PREMISE ARGUMENTS
This is the simplest type of problems on logic and we proceed as discussed in the above cases,
to arrive at logically valid conclusions.

EXERCISE 1A
given below two statements
Directions (Questions 1 to 52): In each question You have to
are

I and lI. tcke the given two

olowed by two conclusions numbered be at variance from commonly knouwn facts.
to
atements to be true even if they s e e mwhich conclusions logically follows
of the given
ead the conclusion and then decide commonly known facts.
Othe two given statements, disregarding
Give answer
a) if only conclusion I follouws
0) if only conclusion II follouws;
f either conclusion I o r I follows;
fneither conclusion I n o r II follows;
f both conclusions I and II follow. (R.R.B. 2005)
are cats.
Statements All men are dogs. All dogs
Conclusions: All men are cats. olI. All cats a r e men.
film stars.
2 singers. All film directors a r e
otatements All film stars are playback
singers.
COnclusions All film directors a r e playback directors.
(G.B.O. 2006)
Some film stars are film
3. Stater
A houses.
roads. All roads are
ements :All pens are

Conclusions I. All houses are pens. IL Some houses are pens.

(Bank Recruitment, 2005)
10
gical Reas0
mansions are temples.
mansions. All
4. Statements : All huts are
huts. AI. Some temples
are
BI. 2008
Some temples are
Conclusions:.

All water is divine,

All temples
are divine.

L. All (PGDBMmansio2002ns
5. Statements temples are water
Conclusions:I. All water is temple.
a r e cats.

6. Statements All cars are cats.

All fans
IL. (M.B.A. 2004
Some fans are cars.
Conclusions: I. All cars are fans.
a r e chalks.
chalks. All chairs
7. Statements All pens are
II. Some chalks are
are chairs. pens,
Conclusions I. Some pens
(Bank Recruitment, 200
athletes win. All good athletes eat well. (Hotel Mr
8. Statements All good
well a r e good athletes.
2004
Conclusions I. All those who eat
eat well.
II. All those who win
student is inexperienced
9. Statements Every minister is a student. Every
Conclusions I. Every minister is inexperienced.
II. Some inexperienced are students.
(M.A.T. 2003
10. Statements: All tubes are handles. All cups are handles
Conclusions I. All cups are tubes. II. Some handles are not cups
are cakes.
11. Statements : All bags are cakes. All lamps
Conclusions I. Some lamps are bags. II. No lamp is bag.
12. Statements : All roads are waters. Some waters are boats.
Conclusions I. Some boats are roads. II. All waters are boats.
(Bank Recruitment, 2005)
13. Statements : All jungles are tigers. Some tigers are horses. (Bank P.O. 2005
Conclusions:I. Some horses are jungle. II. No horse is jungle.
14. Statements All birds are tall Some tall are hens. (A.T.M.A. 2004)
Conclusions I. Some birds are hens. II. Some hens are tall.
15. Statements : All artists are smokers. Some smokers are drunkards. (M.B.A. 200
Conclusions:I. All smokers are artists.
II. Some drunkards are not smokers.
16. Statements Some hens are cows. All cows are horses. (M.A.T. 2003)
Conclusions I. Some horses are hens.
II. Some hens are horses.
17. Statements Some pastries are toffees. All toffees are chocolates. (A.T.M.A. 200
Conclusions I. Some chocolates are toffees. II. Some toffees are not pastrnes
18. Statements: Some kings are queens. All queens are beautiful. (MA.T. 200)

Conclusions I. All
kings are beautiful. II. All queens are kings.
19. Statements : All men are married. Some men are educated. (R.R.B. 2005)

Conclusions I. Some married are educated. II. Some educated are mared
20. Statements Some dedicated souls are
angels. All social workers are angel
Conclusions I. Some dedicated souls are social workers.
II. Some social workers are (Bank P.O. 2002
dedicated souls.
21. Statements : All trucks fly. Some scooters (NIMAT, 2005
fly.
Conclusions I. All trucks are
scooters. 1. Some scooters do not 1
22. Statements :Some swords are
sharp. All swords are rusty.
Conclusions . Some rusty things are sharp. (M.A.T 2002)
II. Some rusty
things are not sharp.
Logue
11
:Some adults are boys. Some
23. S t a t e m e n t s
boys are old. (G.B.O. 2006)
ConclasionsI Some adults are not old. II Some boys are not old.
Statements Some books are tables. Some tables are mirrors.
Conclusions: I. Some mirrors are books. II No book is mirror
(Bank Recruitment, 2005)
af Statements Some dreams nights. Some nights are
are
days.
Conclusions I. All days are either nights or dreams:
II. Some days are nights. (R.B.I 2003)
96. Statements Some papers are pens. Some pencils are pens. (M.B.A. 2004)
Conclusions I. Some pens are pencils. II. Some pens are
papers.
7. Statements:Some doctors are fools. Some fools are rich. (M.A.T. 2001)
Conclusions: I. Some doctors are rich. II. Some rich are doctors.
28. Statements: All fish are tortoise. No tortoise is a crocodile (M.A.T. 2003)
Conclusions: I No crocodile is a fish. II. No fish is a crocodile.
29. StatementsAll windows are doors. No door is wall. (M.A.T. 1999)
Conclusions I. No window is wall II. No w all is door.
30. Statements: All roads are poles. No pole is a house. (B.T.M. 2005)
Conclusions I. Some roads are houses. II. Some houses are poles.
31. Statements All flowers are trees. No fruit is tree. (Bank Recruitment, 2005)
Conclusions I No fruit is flower. I. Some trees are flowers.
32. Statements All mangoes are golden in colour. No golden-coloured things are cheap.
Conclusions I. All mangoes are cheap.
II. Golden-coloured mangoes are not cheap. (IA.M. 2003)
33. Statements : All young scientists are open-minded. No open-minded men are
superstitious.
Conclusions: I. No scientist is superstitious.
II. No young people are superstitious.
34. Statements No gentleman is [Link] gentlemen are rich.
Conclusions: I. No poor manis rich. II. No rich man is poor.
(Hotel Management, 2003)
35. Statements : No magazine is cap. All caps are cameras.
Conclusions I. No camera is magazine. II. Some cameras aremagazines.
86. Statements Some desks are caps. No cap is red. (A.T.M.A. 2004)
Conclusions I. Some caps are desks. II. No desk is red.
8T. Statements Some books are pens. No pen is pencil.
ConclusionsI. Some books are pencils. II. No book is pencil.
8
Statements
Conclusions
: No women teacher can play. Some women teachers are athletes.

I. Male athletes can play II. Seme athletes can

play.
(G.B.O. 2006)
08.
Statements No bat is ball. No ball is wicket. (M.A.T. 2003)
Conclusions: I. No bat is wicket. II. All wickets are bats.
Statements: Many scooters are trucks. All trucks are trains. (M.B.A. 2004)
Conclusions L Some scooters are trains. II. No truck is a scooter.
tatements : Most teachers are boys. Some boys are students.
Conclusions: I. Some students are boys, II. Some teachers are students.
(N.M.A.T. 2005)
12
[Link]
cal Reasoning
42. Statements : No man isdonkey. Rahul
a
is a man
11. All men are aot
Rahal,
Conclusions I Rahul is not a donkey
Some boats are not poles
43. Statements: All poles are guns.
I1. Some boala are not
guns
Conclusions: I All guns are boats.
is honest.
44. Statements : All boys are honest. Sachin
Il. All honest persons are
Conclusions: I Sachin is a boy boys
1anya is very intelligen
intelligent girls.
45. Statements: Bureaucrats marry only
Conclusions: I. Tanya will marry a bureauerat.
I1. Tanya will not marry a
bureaucrat. (G.B.0. 2006)
46. Statements Raman is always successful. No fool is always successful
I1. Faman is not a fool
Conclusions: I. Raman is a fool.
(Hotel Management, 2003)
47. Statements All hill stations have a
: sun-set point. X is a hill station. (B.T.M. 2008
Conclusions: L X has a sun-set point.
have sun-set points
I1. Places other than hill stations do not
48. Statements: All fishes are grey in colour. Some fishes are heavy. (LA.M. 2003)
Conclusions I All heavy fishes are grey in colour

I1 All light fishes are not grey in colour.

49. Statements All educated people read newspapers. Rahul does not read newnpaper.

Conclusions L Rahul is not educated.

I1. Reading newspaper is not essential to be educated.
(M.B.A. 2005)
50. Statements : Some papers are pens. Angle is a paper
Conclusions: L. Angle is not a pen II. Angle is a pen. (R.B.I. 2003)
51. Statements: Some engineers are fools. Anand is an engineer
Conclusions L Some fools are engineers. IL Anand is a fool. (M.B.A. 2002)
2. Statenments : Some men are educated. Educated persons prefer small families.
Conclusions: I. All small families are educated.
IL Some men prefer small families.
Directions (Questions 53 to 65): In each of the following questions, tuwo statemen
are given followed by three or four conclusions numbered 1, 11, Ill and IV. You have to
take the given statements to be true even if they seem to be at variance from n
commonly known facts and then decide which of the given eonclusions logicallyfollou
from the given statements disregarding commonly known facts.
53. Statements All branches are flowers. All flowers are leaves.
Conclusions L All branches are leaves. I1. All leaves are branches
II1. All fowers are branches. IV. Some leaves are branches.
(a) None follows (b) Only 1 and IV follow
(e) Only Il and 1ll follow (LL.C. A.A.0. 2005)
(d) All follow
84. Statements All politicians are honest. All honest are fair
Conclusions: I Some honest are politicians. I1. No honest is politictan
II. Some fair are pohticians. IV All fair are politicians.
(a) None follows (6) Only 1 follows (N.M.A.T 2005
(c) Only l and l1 follow (d) Only I and III follow
55. Statements : All terrorists guilty. All terrorists are criminals.
are
Conclusions Either all eriminals are guilty or all guilty are crimiinals
Loge 13
I1. Some guilty
persons are criminals.
Il1. Generally criminals are
guilty.
IV. Crime and
guilt go together. G.B.O. 2006)
(a) Only I follows (b) Only I and III follow
i) Only II follows d) Only II and IV follow
s& Statenents All aeroplanes are trains. Some trains are chairs.
Conclusions: I. Some aeroplanes are chairs.
II. Some chairs are
aeroplanes.
IIl. Some chairs are trains.
IV. Some trains are
aeroplanes.
(a) None follows (b) Only I and II follow
(c)Only I and Ill follow d) Only IlI and IV follow (L.I.C. A.A.O. 2005)
57. Statements Some bottles are drinks. All drinks are cups.
Conclusions:I. Some bottles are cups. II. Some cups are drinks.
III. All drinks are bottles. IV. All cups are drinks
(a) Only I and II follow (6) Only II and III follow
(c) Only II and IV follow (d) Only II and IV follow
(e) Only I and IV follow PGDM, 2002)
58. Statements Some books are pens. No pen is pençil.
Conclusions: I Some pens are books. II. Some pencils are books.
II. Some books are not pencils. IV. All pencils are books.
(a) Only I follows (6) Only II and III follow
(c) Only I and III follow (d) Only I and II follow (G.B.0. 2006)
59. Statements: Some clothes are marbles. Some marbles are bags.
Conclusions I. No cloth is a bag. II. All marbles are bags.
III. Some bags are clothes. IV. No marble is a cloth.

(a) Only either I or IV follows (b) Only either I or II follows

(d) Only either I or III follows
(e) None follows
(N.M.A.T. 2006)
b0. Statements: All shares are debentures. No debenture is an equity. (M.A.T. 1999),
II. Some debentures are shares.
Conclusions I. No equity is a share.
III. No share is an equity.
(b) Only II follows
(a) Only I follows
(d) All follow
e) Only IlI follows
L. Statements: Some tables are TVs. Some TVs are radios.
II. Some radios are tables.
Conclusions I. Some tables are radios.
III. All radios are TVs. IV. All TVs are tables.
(b) All follow
(a) None follows follow (M.B.A. 2004)
c) Only I and III follow (d Only II and IV
82 pockets. No pocket is a pouch.
eatements: Some bags are
II. Some bags are not pouches.
Conclusions: I. No bag is a pouch IV. No pocket is a bag.
are bags.
III. Some pockets III follow
(a) None follows (b) Only I and
I or IV follows
le) (d) Only either
Only II and IH follow
e) All follow
 Log
14
lights.
Reasoning
Some taxis have
68. Statements : Some taxis have horns.
light.
I. Every taxi has either horn
or
Conclusions
neither light nor horn.
II. Some taxis have
a s well a s lights.
11. Some taxis have horns
No taxi has horn as well as light.
IV. follow
(a) Only I and II follow (b) Only II and III
follows
(c) Only II and IV follow (d) Either III or IV
(e) All follow (M.B.A. 2002)
64. Statements : Some houses are offices. Some offices are schools. (L.1.C. A.A.0. 200
Conclusions I. Some schools are houses. II. Some offices are houses.

III. No house is school. IV. Some schools are offices.

(a) Only II and III follow (6) Only I and IV follow
(d) Only II and IV and either I or III follow
(c) Only either III or IV, and I follow
65. Statements No box is toy. All toys are blocks.
Conclusions I. Some blocks are toys. II. Some blocks are boxes.
III. No block is box.
(a) Only I follows (b) Only either II or III follows
(c) Only either II or III, and I follow (d) None follows

ANSWERS (EXERCISE 1A)

1. (a) :Since both the premises are universal and affirmative, the conclusion must be
universal affirmative. However, conclusion II, being an A-type proposition, distributes
the term 'goats'. Since the term 'goats' is distributed in II without being distributed
in any of the premises, so conclusion II cannot follow. Thus, only I follows.
2. (e):Since both the premises are universal and affirmative, the conclusion must be
universal afirmative and should not contain the middle term. So, I follows. Il is the
converse of the second premise and so it also holds.
3.(b) :Sinee both the premises are universal and affirmative, the conclusion must be
universal affirmative and should not contain the middle term. it follows So,
All pens are houses'. II is the converse of this conclusion and so it holds. Since the
that
term 'houses' is distributed in I without being distributed in any of the premises, su
I does not follow.
4. (e) : As discussed above, it follows that 'All huts are
temples'. I is the converse of this
conclusion and so it holds. I is the converse of the second
holds. premise and s0 1t a
5. (d):Since the middle term 'divine' is not distributed even once in the definite
conclusion can be drawn. premises, no

6. (d):Since the middle term 'cats' is not distributed even once in the
conclusion follows. premises, no de
7. (b):Since the middle term 'chalks' is not distributed even once in the te
premises, no de
conclusion tollows. However, II is the converse of the first premise and so it n
8, (d) :Since the middle term
'good athletes' is distributed twice in the the
conclusion must be particular and should not contain the
middle term.
premiselws
5o
that 'Some of those who win, eat well. 1
9. (e):Every' is equivalent to "All. Thus, since both the premises and

affirmative, the conclusion must be

universal affirmative and
are universa
ontain
the middle term. So, I follows. 1l is the should not cuit
converse of the second
also holds. premise anu
 15
)Both the premises are A type propositions. So,
in either, the middle term 'handles
forming the predicate is not
distributed. Since the middle term is not
even once in the premises, no definite distributed
conclusion follows
ich : Since the middle term 'cakes' is not distributed even once in
the premises, no definite
conclusion follows. However, I and II involve only the extreme
terms and form a
complementary pair. So, either I or II follows
aid): The first premise is A type and distributes the subject. So, the middle term 'waters
which forms its predicate, is not distributed.
The second premise is I
type and does not distribute either
the middle waters' forming its subject is not
term subject or predicate. So,
distributed.
Since the middle term is not distributed even
once in thè
conclusion follows. premises, no definite
13, (c):Since the middle term
'tigers' is not distributed even once in the premises, no definite
conclusion follows. However, I and II involve only the extreme terms and form a
complementary pair. So, either I or II follows.
14. (6) Since the middle term tall' is not distributed even once in the
conclusion follows. However, II is the converse of the second premises, definite
no
premise and so it holds.
15.(d):Since the middle term 'smokers' is not distributed even once in the premises, no
definite conclusion follows.
16. (e):Since one premis is particular, the conclusion
must be particular and shouid not
contain the middle term. So, II follows. I is the converse of II
and so it also holds.
17. (a) Since one premise is particular, the conclusion must be
particular and should not
contain the middle term. Thus, it follows that 'Some pastries are chocolates'. I is
the converse of the second premise and so it holds. Since both the premises are
affirmative, the conclusion cannot be negative. Thus, II does not follow.
18. (d):Since one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular. So, neither I nor
II follows.
19. e):Since one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular and should not
contain the middle term.
So, I follows. II is the converse of I and thus it also holds.
20. (d) The first premise is an I type proposition. So, the middle term 'angels' forming the
predicate is not distributed. The second premise is an A type proposition. So, the
middle term 'angels' forming the predicate is not distributcd.
Since the middle term is not distributed even once in the premises, no definite
conclusion follows.
21. (d) : Since the middle term 'fly' is not distributed even once in the premises, no definite
conclusion follows.
22. (a):Since one premise is particuBar, the conclusion must be particular and should not
contain the middle term. So, I follows. Since both the premises are affirmative, the
conclusion cannot be negative. Thus, II does not follow.
.
(d):Both the premises I-type propositions and as such, the middle term boys' is not
are
distributed even once in the premises. So, no definite conclusion follows.
4. (c)
:Since both the premises are particular no definite conclusion follows. However, I
and II involve only the extreme terms and form a complementary pair. Thus, either
I or II follows.
5
t):Since both the premises are particular,no definite conclusion follows. However, II is
the converse of the second premise and thus it holds.
6 )
e :Since both premises are particular, no definite conclusion follows. However, I is the
converse of second premise, while II is the converse of the first premise So, both o
them hold.
27.(d
a): Since both the premises are particular, no definite conclusion follows.
16
Logical Reasoning
2,
6
e):Since both the premises are universal and one premise is negative, the conel
must be universal negative. Also, the conclusion should not contain the middla
le term.
So, II follows. I is the converse of II and thus it also holds.
28. (e) the premises are universal and one premise is negative, the conel
:Since both
must be universal negative. Also, the conclusion should not contain the middlelusion
ton
So, I follows. However, II is the converse of the second premise and thus it also holam
30. (d)
olds.
:
Since both the premises universal and one premise is negative, the concusio
are
must be universal negative. So, neither I nor II follows.
31.
(e) :As
the
discussed above, the conclusion must be universal negative and should not contain
middle term. So, it follows that No flower is fruit. I is the converse ofthis
conclusion and thus it follows. II is the converse of the first premise and so it also
holds.
32. (b)
:Clearly, the conclusion must be universal negative and should not containthe middle
term. So, it follows that 'No mango is cheap'. Since all mangoes are golden in colour
we may substitute 'mangoes' with 'golden-coloured mangoes'. Thus, II follows.
33. (d): The subject in both the conclusions is vague. The true conclusion is 'No
young
scientist is superstitious'. Thus, neither I nor II follows.
34.
(d):The first premise is an E-type proposition. So, the middle term 'gentleman'forming
the subject is distributed. The second-premise is an A-type proposition. So, the
middle term 'gentlemen' forming the subject is distributed.
Since the middle term is distributed twice, the conclusion cannot be universal. Since
one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. Thus, it follows that Some
rich men are not poor'. Thus, neither I nor II follows.
$5. (c):As
above, the conclusion must be particular negative and
discussed
contain the middle term. So, it follows that 'Some cameras are not magazines'
should not
However, I and II involve only the extreme terms and forma complementary pair.
Thus, either I or II follows.
36. (a):Since one premise is particular and the other premise is negative, the conclusion
must be particular negative and should not contain the middle term. So, it follows
that 'Some desks are not red'. However, I is the converse of the first premise and
thus it holds.
37. (c) :As discussed above, the conclusion must be particular negative and should not
contain the middle term. So, it follows that 'Some books are not pencils'. However,
I and II involve only the extreme terms and form a complementary pair. Thus, eltner
I or II follows.
38. (d):Since one premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. So, neither conclusion
follows.
39. (d):Since both the premises are negative, no definite conclusion follows.
40. (a):Since the first premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular'andshould
not contain the middle term. Thus, only I follows.
41. (a):Since both the premises are particular, no definite conclusion follows. However,1 15
the converse of the second premise and thus it holds.
42. (a): Since on premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. Conclusion II canno
follow as t contains the middle term. So, only I follows.
43. (d):Clearly, the term 'guns'is distributed in both the conclusions without being distributed
in any of the premises. So, neither conclusion follows.
the
44. (d): Both the premises are A type propositions. So, the middle term honest' forming u
predicate in each is not distributed in either.
Since the middle term is not distributed even once, no definite conclusion follow
crats.

45. C):The dats does not mention whether all intelligent girls are married to båreaucr
So, either I or II may follow.
 17
Lagnc

(h):Since both the premises are universal and one premise is negative, the conclusion
46. (e
must be universal negative and should not contain the middle term. So, only II follows,
. (a): Since both the premises are universal and affirmative, the conclusion must be
47.
universal affirmative and should not contain the middle term. So, only I tollows.
(a) :Since one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular and should not
48. (a)
contain the middle term. So, it follows that 'Some heavy things are grey in colour.
I is a cumulative result of this conclusion and the first premise. Thus, only I holds
49. (0) : Since both the premises are universal and one premise is negative, the conclusion
must be universal negative and should not contain the middle term. So, only I follows.

(c):Since the middle term distributed even once in the premises, no

'papers' is not
50.
definite conclusion and II involve only the extreme terms and
follows. However, I
form a complementary pair. Thus, either I or II follows.
the middle term 'engineer' is not distributed even once in the premises,
n0
51. (a) :Since and thus
definite conclusion follows. However, I is the converse of the first premise
it holds.
must be particular and should not
52. (b):Since one premise is particular, the conclusion
contain the middle term. Thus, only II follows.
r e universal and affirmative,
the conclusion must be
53. (b):Since both the premises ashould not contain the middle term. Só, it
follows that
universal affirmative and
converse of this conclusion and
so
All branches a r e leaves'. Thus, I follows. IV is the
it also holds.
a r e fair'. I is the converse of the
first premise,
54. (d):Clearly, it follows that 'All politicians III hold.
conclusion. So, both I and
while II is the converse of the above
conclusion
distributed twice irt the premises, the
55. (c):Since the middle term 'terrorists'is criminals'. Thus, II
cannot be universal. So, it
follows that 'Some guilty persons are

holds. no definite
even once in the premises,
56. (d):Since the middle term 'trains' is not distributed
of the second premise while IV is the
conclusion follows. However, III is the converse
both of them hold.
converse of the first premise. So,
and should not
57. (a):Since one premise is particular, the
conclusion must be particular
follows that 'Some bottles a r e cups'.
Thus, I follows.
contain the middle term. So, it
holds.
second premise and so it also
II is the c o n v e r s e of the the conclusion must be
and the other negative,
68. (c) :Since one premise is particular middle term. Thus, III follows. I
is
should not contain the
particular negative and
and so it also holds.
the c o n v e r s e of the first premise conclusion follows. However, I
no definite
a r e particukar,
both the premises Thus, either
9. (d):Since the extreme terms and form a complementary pair.
and III involve only
I or III follows. the conciusion must
one premise is negative,
premises are universal and
o0.
(d):Since both middle term. So, it follows that
and should not contain the
be universal negative converse of this
conclusion and so
Thus, IlI follows. I is the
share is equity. holds.
No first premise and so it also
a n
the c o n v e r s e of the
it also holds. II is
definite conclusion follows.
no
a r e particular,
O(a):Since both the premises negative, the
conclusion must be
62. (c):Since o n e premise is particular and the other the
term. So, II follows. III is
and should not contain the middle
particular negative
and thus it also holds.
converse of the first premise follows. However II
a r e particular,
no definite conclusion
C ) S i n c e both the premises III or IV follows.
and IV form a complementary
pair. Thus, either However, I
conclusion follows.
no definite
a r e particular,
64
a): Since both the premises terms and form a complementary pair.
So, e i t h e r I
extreme of the
and IlI involve only the first premise while IV is the c o n v e r s e
of the
or llI follows. II is the
converse

both of them hold.o

second premise. Thus,
18 Logical Reasoning
1s distributed twice in t.
65. (c) : Since premise 1s negative and the middle term toys
one the
negative and should not contain th
premises, the conclusion must be particular
middle term. So, it follows that 'Some blocks a r e
boxes'.
not However, Il and
ihvolve only the extreme terms and form a complementary
pair. So, either II orl
and thus it also holds.
tollows. I is the c o n v e r s e of the second premise