Power System Components and Per Unit System 5.1 INTRODUCTION A complete circuit diagram of a power system for all the three-phases is very complicated. It is very much practical to represent a power system using simple symbols-for each component. resulting in what is called a single-line diagram. Power system engineers have devised the per-unit system such that different physical quantities such as current, voltage, power and impedance are expressed as a decimal fraction, or multiple of base quantities. In this system, the different voltage levels disappear and a power network consisting synchronous generators, transformers and lines reduces to a system of simple impedances, Another important component of a power system is the synchronous machine and it greatly influences the system behaviour during both steady state and transient conditions. The synchronous machine model, in steady state and transient conditions is given in chapter 4.0. 5.2 SINGLE PHASE REPRESENTATION OF A BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM Figure 5.1 shows a simple balanced three-phase network. As the network is balanced, the neutral impedance Z, does not affect the behaviour of the network, Fig. 6.1: Balanced three phase network Fig. 6.2: Single-phase representation of a balanced three phase network of Fig. 5.1.Power System Components and Per Unit System 97 For the reference phase ate ee Routan en ne HE Figure 5.2 gives the single-phase 1 equivalent ofa balanced three-phase network of Fig. 5 AAs the system is balanced, the voltage and currents in the other phases have the 82/44 fame magnitude but are ehifted in phase by | & 120° s = Now consider the case where a thres- phage transformer forme pert of three-phase yotem, Three identical single-phase two ; trinding traneformers may be connected to “ forma three-phase transformer The windings Va can be connected in four ways, YAY, Yoh, . |: SY and AWA, The phase of Y-Y and 4-8 8 transformer, there is no phase shift between corresponding quantities on the low and high + wy» +¥ veltage windings. However, for AY or Y=a transformers, there is always a phase shift 3¢ Figure 5.3 chows a three-phase Y-¥ bank, Schematic representation of this 4 transformer is shown in Fig. 5.4(a) and Fi + 5.48) shows the single-phase equivalent of © three-phase Y-¥ transformer and Fig. 5.400 gig. 5 9¢ Taeghéde two-winding Y-¥ shows the single-ine diagram. transform bank (a) Arrangomenta of core tnd cot fb) Singleine diagram, tt ® Fig. 6.4: (a) Schematic representation of three-phase y-y transformer, (b) Single-phase equivalent of Y-Y transformer, (c) Singlesine diagram of transtorme98 Electrical Power Systems Ifthe transformer is ¥-A connected as shown in Fig. 5.5 and for obtaining the single-phase equivalent circuit, the delta side has to be replaced by an equivalent star connection as shown, in Fig. 5.6. From Fig. 8.6, itis also seen that Vay leads Vy, by 30° a 2 ps a a Fig. 5.5: Three-phase two-winding Y-A transformer bank. Fig. 6.6: Y-A transformer with equivalont star connection Figure 5.7(a) shows the single-phase equivalent of y-A transformer and Fig. 5.7(b) shows the gle-line diagram, rip ps ve F aw 4 [oJ |, - ® C Fig. 5.7; (a) Single-phase equivalent of Y-A transformer, (9 Singledine diagram.Power System Components and Per Unit System 99 5.3. THE PER-UNIT (pu) SYSTEM Power system quantities such as current, voltage, impedance and power are often expressed in per-unit values. For example, if base voltage if 220 KV is specified, then the voltage 210 KV is 210/220 = 0.954 pu. One major advantage of the per-unit is that by properly specifying base ‘quantities, the equivalent circuit of transformer can be simplified. When expressed in per-unit values, the equivalent impedance of a transformer whether referred to primary or secondary, is the same. Another advantage of the per-unit system is thal the comparison of thecharacteristies of the various electrical apparatus of different types and ratings is facilitated by expressing the impedances in per-unit based on their ratings. When all the quantities are converted in per-unit values, the different voltage levels disappear and power network involving synchronous generators, transformers and lines reduces to a system of simple impedances, Per-unit quantities are calculated ag follows: actual quantity. ase value of quantity per-unit quantity = 6.2) Let us define, where, S (apparent power), Vivoltage), current) and Zimpedance) are phasor or complex. quantities and denominators (.0., Sp, Vp, Ip and Zq) are always real numbers. To completely define a per-unit system, minimum four base quantities are required. ‘Two independent base values can be arbitrarily selected at one point in a power system, Usually, the three-phase base volt-ampere Sor (MVA), and the line-to-line base voltage Vp or (kV) are selected, The base value has the same units as the actual quantity and hence making the per-unit quantity dimensionless. Then, in order for electrical laws to be valid in the per-unit. system, following relations must be used for other base values: (MVA) FEKV)y (KV) BS dy Now substituting for Jy from eqn. ( anys was and ), the base impedance becomes 6.8) Note that phase and line quantities expressed in per-unit values are the same, and the cireuit laws are valid, ie, Su Vout en Here Spy = pers complex power = Fy, +) Qu Vjo = petsnit voltage r Iz. = complex conjugate of per-unit current J,100 Electrical Power Systems and alsa Vu = Zou lye 6%) ‘The power consumed by the load at its rated voltage can also be expressed by per-unit, impedance. The three-phase complex load power ean be given as: Saad = 3 Voaae 6.9) Here Sionatsoy Vpnase /hree-phase complex load power hase voltage F, = complex conjugate of per-phase load eurrent I, ‘The phase load current can be given as: Vpaase 5, ze (6.10) where 2 is load impedance per phase Substituting /, from ean. (6.10) in ean. (5.9), we get, Vonase wt = 8. Vpn = 6.11) Srna Also load impedance in per-unit can be given as 6.12) 6.18) Now Wiul = 95 [Maas B1Verweel? = LVind? 14) Using egns. (5.19) and (5.14), we get z= Wiel? MIVA), AVE SiacPower System Components and Per Unit System 101 ‘The impedance of generators, transformers and motors supplied by the manufacturer are generally given in per-unit values on their own ratings. For power system analysis, allimpedances ‘must be expressed in per-unit values on a common base. ‘When base quantities are changed from (MVA)s, ag to QMVA)s, ow and from (KV), ag 10 (KV)5, new the new per-unit impedance ean be given by CAVA) nom KV oa 4 oa BM ance OV, VADs cia EVIE, now 6.16) 5.4 PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION OF TRANSFORMER It has been stated in section-6.2, that a three- phase transformer can be represented by a single-phase transformer for obtaining per phase solution of the system. Figure 5.8 showsa single- phase transformer in terms of primary and secondary leakage reactances Z, and Z, and Fig. 5.8: Representation of single phase transformation ratio 1: a. transformer magnetizing impedance neglected) Let us choose voltage base on the primary side V;y and on the secondary side Vag, Also choose a common volt-ampere base of (VA)p Vin 5 Now wee 6D) [As the (V)y is common, we ean also write Jyp to ag 6.18) 6.19) ten (6.20) From Fig, 5.8, we can write, Ve= Bs Zs ls 21) Zl 6.22) Also 6.23) Substituting B, from eqn. (5.23) into eqn. (5.24), we obtain Vg= ak, - Substituting By from eqn. (5.22) into eqn. (5.24), we get, Vi= aV, ~ Zh) ~ Zell, (5.25) Ean. (5.25) can be converted in per-unit form, ie,102 Electrical Power Systems Velpu) Van = a[V, (ou) Vya - Z, (04) Z,x [,(Pa) Lyn] 2s(ou) Zey Tsu) Lo (5.28) Dividing eqn. 6.26) by Vgq and using the base relationships of eqns. (5.17), (6.18), (6.19) and (5.20), we get. Vatow) = Ve(ou) — Iy(pu) ZC) (pu) Zslpu) (6.27) Now we can write 28) Using eans. (5.27) and (5.28) we get, f ia) aa t Vieow) = Vow) = Kips) Zips) (6.29) “a where Apu) = Zlpu) + Z,(pu) 6.20) | | Figure 6.9 shows the per-unit equivalent circuit of the Fig, 5.87 Porunkt equivalent creuit transformer. ‘of single-phase transformer Zipu) can be determined from the equivalent impedance on primary or secondary side of a transformer. On the primary side, ts Ziow = Ziow + 7 Zou) = Z,(ou) + Zelpu) = Zipu) 6.31) Similarly on the secondary side, Zafou) = Ze(pv) + Zfpu) = Zor) 6.32) ‘Therefore, per-unit impedance of a transformer is the same whether computed from primary or secondary side. Example 5.1: A single phase two-winding transformer is rated 25 kVA, 1100/40 volts, 50 He. ‘The equivalent leakage impedance of the transformer referred to the low voltage side is 0.06|78" Using transformer rating as base values, determine the per-unit leakage impedance referred to low voltage winding and referred to high voltage winding.Power System Components and Per Unit System 103, Solution: Let us assume high voltage side is primary and low voltage side is secondary windings, ‘Transformer rating = 25 VA = 0.025 MVA V, = 1100 volt = 1.1 RV; Vg= 440 volt = 0.44 kV (MIVA), = 0.025, Vjg = 1.1 kV, Veg = 0.44 KV. Base impedance on the 440 vo ide of the transformer is tg = Who" ‘50 ~ RAV ADy (0025) Per-unit leakage impedance referred to the low voltage side is = 7.744 ohm oe 28 4, Zy,og= O75 78° ohm, Base impedance on the 1.1 KV side is 8 OD" Lag ag Zn = et 0 MBA), 0.025 0.75] 78° Zou) = P= = 1.74 10978" pu ou) = Bt P ‘Therefore, per-unit leakage impedance remains unchanged and this has heen achieved by specifying Von _ Mp Vex Veratat Example 5.2: Figure 5.10 shows single line diagram of a single- phase circuit. Using the base values of 3 VA and 230 volts, draw the per-unit circuit diagram and determine the per-unit, impedances and the per-unit source voltage. Also calculate the load current both in per unit and in Amperes. i sec-2 | secs qn Tt ye [e-ee# am 1) 3 AVA, 2901438 vot, X= 0.10 pu ‘The 2 KYA, 440/720 vot g'= 0.10 4 Fig. 5.10: Single-phase circuit,104 Electrical Power Systems ase values in each section have to be obtained. Base MVA™= 74; = 0.003 and this base value will main same for the entire network. . (MVA)y = 0.003 Also, Vp; = 230 volts = 0.23 kV, as specified in Section-1. When moving across a transformer, the voltage base is changed in proportion to the transformer voltage ratings. Therefore, and Von= (122) 499 volts = 118.09 volts = 0.11809 kv. (a0) = Von)” WAT Wox)®_ _ 433)" “ (IVA)y 0.003" ~ Zi ohm (Vas)*_ _ (0.11805 = = CUO = 4.61.0 * OVA), 0008 Base current in Section-3 is, = MIVA, _ 0.003 AWN p _ 0008 4 = 95.4 Amp. Win) 011808 Given that ot = Xaq = 0.10 pu M1, gew = 0.10 BU ‘Therefore, for transformer-T,, no change in per-unit value of leakage reactance. For transformer, Tp Bon, = PAD = 96.8 ohm ale (sea) ss{ohm) = 0.1 x 96.8 = 9.68 ohm Zya = 62.5 2 S68 0.1548, Foon = Gog = 01548 pe Sing (him) ine (PU) =Power System Components and Per Unit System 105, = Zx{ohm) _ (08 + 50.8) ho 464 = (0.1724 + j 0.0846) pu Per-anit circuit is shown in Fig. 6.11 20) po pole piss oa724 oper Velo how = pe Z{ou) = j 0.10 + 0.048 + j0.1548 “+ 0.1724 + j0.0646 Fig. 5.11: Perunt circu = 0.4058) 64.86" 0.956 [0° 0058 [64.86 T,(ow) * Igy = 2855 | 64.86" % 25.4 59.83 64.86" Amp. Example 5.8: Figure 5.12 shows single line diagram of a power system. The ratings of the ‘generators and transformers are given below: G1: 25MVA, 66V, x)= 0.20 pu G2: 15 MVA, GORY, x= 0.15 pa G3 + 30MVA, 13.2 RV, x—9=0.15 pu T, + 30MVA, 66-115 YRV, x)= 0.10 pu T, : 1S MVA, 664-115 YRV, x= 0.10 pu T, + Single-phase unit each rated 10 MVA, 6.9169 KV, xr) = 0.10 pu. Draw per-unit circuit diagram using base values of 30 MVA and 6.6 kV in the circuit of sgenerator-1 3 jones 355 Apu) = =64.86° pu (Amp) am y ©—3 <—®, ‘ova ae YY, yak Solution: The chosen base values are 30 MVA and 6,6 KV in the generator 1 circuit, Consequently, the transmission line base voltage of Line-1 is 115 kV. For generator-2 base voltage is also 6.6 kV.106 Electrical Power Systems As the transformer 7 is vated 69 KV and 69 KV per phase, the line vltage ratio is 693/608 = 12/120 XV. Therefore, base line voltage for generator 3 circuit is (3) ea 115kV. "Therefore, line kV base on HLV. side of transformer 7 is the same as that of transmission Tine, ten TIS KV QIVA)s v= o1o( 22) iis 2 pi) pr pas pn Zo, im BD = 440.0 soar Sit = Gg 7 027 BU 90 Mine = Gag = 0-205 pu. Figure 5.13 shows the per-unit circuit diagram. Fig. 6.12: unit circuit diagram, Example 5.4: A 100 MVA, 33 kV, three phase generator has a reactance of 15%. The generator is connected to the motors through a transmission line and transformers as shown in Fig. 5.14 ‘Motors have rated inputs of 40 MVA, 30 MVA and 20 MVA at 30 RV with 20% reactance-each. Draw the per-unit eireuit diagram. Solution: Osan 1202008 O3E—™*J4-@ann not 00 pu eon, Hota hive any “no nk L_G@) 20108, = 020 0 agp s2hioKv sare y= 008 pu X= O08 pu Fig. 5.14; Singlestine diagramPower System Components and Per Unit System 107 Solution: Assuming, (MIVA), = 100 and (KV)p = 39 in the generator circuit p= 0.15 pu Vim = 98 22 = 113.43 kV In the motor circuit, 2 = 1s43x2 Vp, sor i Now 25, = 889" — 2866.0 Mine(PY) = Tg gg = 0-466 pu Sma PW) = 0.20% 200 (B) =oais m0 Sona) = 020% 202()" = 0551 pu Ses = 020208 (BJ =os25 0 Figure 5.15 shows the per-unit reactance diagram, Lassi 3 pee Fig. 6.18: Pernit reactance diagram.108 Electrical Power Systems Example 5.5: Three single phase transformers are given with their name plate ratings. Determine the reactance diagram Y-Y and Y-A connections, picking the voltage and power bases for the three-phase bank. ‘Transformer ratings (1 @) : 1000 kVA 12.66/66 kV 10 pu 50 pu Solution: For single-phase transformer CN OVA) Vio MVA) 2000 000 (HV), = 12.65 kV (KV)pz = 66 KV y= 2280 = 0200 Actual reactances (referred to the primary) are x)= 0.1 160.27 = 16.027 2 xq, = 50 * 160.27 = 8019.5 0. Let us consider now the three-phase interconnections of these single-phase transformers. If ‘we connect the primaries in Y (secondaries can be ¥ or A) and assume (MVA)p, 45 and (KV), 115 then IVA, 5, = 3X 1= 3.0 (Wp, uL= V9 % 12.66 KV (Via _ 3x 02.66)" Therefore Mert DIVA) ay a = 18027 <0 pu = 50 pu Reactance diagram of Y-¥ and Y-A connections is shown in Fig. 5.16. Note that reactance diagram for A-Y and A-A is also same. Fig. 6.16: Reactance diagram of three-phase transformers (Y=¥, Yn, A-Y and A~APower System Components and Per Unit System 109 Example 5.6: Draw the per-unit impedance diagram of the system shown in Fig. 5.17. Assumed base values are 100 MVA and 100 RV. @ ek ee ig. 5.17: Sample power system. GL: BOMVA, 122 kV, x= 0.10 pu G2: 20MVA, 138 RV, x= 0.10 pu T, : 80 MVA, 12.2/132 kV, xp, = 0.10 pu 1, : 40 MVA, 13.8/192 kV, xy = 0.10 pu Load : 50 MVA, 0.80 pf lagging operating at 124 kV. Solution: Base kV in the transmission line = 100 kV. Base RV in the generator ircuit G1 = 100% 325 = 9.24 kV 138 _ 9 45 Base kV in the generator cireuits G2 = 100x228 = 10.45 kV Now, For G1, QIVA) 5, new EVV, od Fat aen = Fah OVA og (RVR ee (MVA)p, now = (MVA)g = 100 (MVA)y y= Reted MVA of G1 = 50 MVA (Vp os = 1228 (BV )p, now = 9.24 KV Spun == 0.10 pa 1 122)" 6 — 010 200 «(222 on 0.3486 pu. Similarly for G2, 00 =f 138 \ 100, (122 rm = OT 928 For T2,110 Electrical Power Systems Base impedance of the transmission-line circuit, = (200) 700 100 ohm ohm) _ (+ j16) (0.04 + 0.16) pu 7 a+ Zul) = fon) = 2228 «000+ 000 94 ‘The load is specified as: S= (@) Series combination of resistance and inductance: Using eqn. (6.11), . ~ 024" ay759) ane" Zach) = pO = 0752-887 oh yx Ziann(chmn) 90752-26877 Zioxoio= Agen ee Zzong (OU) = 2.46 + j1.845)pu Recrice = Fas HD tacts: Roaton 984 2a)? 5 oa 2.5 ohm; Nanna) = Kenna = SEO" sue oo 125 pu ‘The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. 5.18, The load is represented as series combination of Rand L, 104 pi? p29 08 ps oe jou Fig. [Link] Reactance diagram of example 5.6.Power System Components and Per Unit System 111 Example 5.1: Figure 5.19 shows a sample power system networks. Find the current supplied by the generator, the transmission line current, the load current, the load voltage and the power consumed by the load. On r Oo ee 23 worroa ¢ 3°93 z = naKv A “ay® SMA, 10 Wa fasta kv ‘3ai60 kV yy = 010 pu eg" 0.10 pu Fig. 5.19: Sample power system network for Ex-5.7. Solution: Choose AVA), = 100 KV)p = 138 Vnu=(228) eas. Ve = 198 KV Vig = 69 10 38)? = a a= 89" = e044 0 ny = 2 = 61.0 100 10+ j10 wie = 0.0525 (1+) pu 2, eat = 0.0525 (1+) m ad Now using eqn. (5.16) Ariat XO OVD Stine MVATS ca ORV, Here pot = 0.10 pu, KV)p. ga = 11.2 kV, (BV) p, yoy = 11.71 KV, (MIVAYp, gs = 8; CVAD gow = 100 112)? _ 100 24, ne = 040 x EEF 4g 100, 5 “aim? ® = 1.88 pu. Simms myp= 0102221 ps Note that old and new base voltage are name here.112 Electrical Power Systems Finally the source voltage in per-unit, 112 Vs = ah Figure 5.20 shows the impedance diagram of example 5.7. = 0.956 pu. A 18g 2 O89 $89 ——+rtpu) 00825 poses f 0.69 pu [Link] 00 Fig. 5.20: Impedance diagram of example 6.7. 0956102 Kpw = —__0%6 | __,, ow) F183 + 0.0525 + 0.0525 71+ 0.00 a.956L0" 956 pu) = wosa2s pw) = 0.5227 |-76.68° pu Lond voltage Viju(Da) = 0.63 % 0.9227] “76.68 = 0.203 |~76.68° pu 528825 “Tee2pTeaw PY Prijs (PV) = Ziya(P¥)|1(pu) |? = 0.63 * (0.8227)? = 0.0656 pu = 0.0856 x 100 = 6.56 MW load = 00x10 Now x8 _ 3“ anyx a0" = 4934.6 Amp uz = 22 x 4994.6 = 418.7 Am lea= 35 418.7 Amp. 138 284187 = 837 las = 8374 Amp, Generator current T= |Ipu)| * Ip ‘Transmission line current [Ig] = 0.3227 x 418.7 Amp = 135.11 Amp 8227 x 4934.6 592.4 Amp Load current [Ig] = 0.8227 « 887.4 = 170.23 Amp Load voltage, Vi(w) = Kipu) * Z, (pu) = 0.3227| 76.68" x 0,63 puPower System Components and Per Unit System 113, Vj (pw) = 0.2038 |-76.68" pu LV, | = 0.2088 x 69 KV = 14.02 KV (Line-to-line) Example 5.8: The single line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown in Fig. 5.21 Select @ common base of 100 MVA and 12.8 kV on the generator side. Draw per-unit impedance diagram. 1 Je h cow 7 F tine 13 Jef une 8 | aaah a Baa Fig. 6.21: Single line diagram of example 6.8. G : 90MVA, 13.8 kV, x= 18% T, + 60 MVA, 18.8/220 kV, 29) = 10% Ty: 50 MVA, 220/11 RV, xpy = 10% T, + 60 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, x4 = 10% T, : 50 MVA, 182/11 KY, x, = 10% M80 MVA, 10.45 kV, x,, = 20% Load : 57 MVA, 0.8 pf (lagging) at 10.45 kV. ges = 50.2 Mga = 702 Solution: The generator rated voltage is given as the base voltage at bus 1. This fixes the voltage bases for the other buses in accordance to the transformer turns ratios, Vp: = 13.8 &V 220) Vin = 130( 222) - (33) Base voltage on the high voltage side of 7 in Vigs = 220 kV and on its Low voltage side, Similarly, Now Base MVA = 100114. Electrical Power Systems For motor, using eqn. (6.16) QAVAYn nor, (RV as IVA) sow CKVDE, now 0.20, (MIVA, a= 80, (KV) = 100, (KV), ney = AL RV now (BU) maa (PU) * Here 10.45 kV 100, (10.45) 02x 18x 0.2256 pu. 30 ( 2) ” (Was)® _ (@20)* MvAy, 100 (Wys)*__ 132)" MIVA, 100 Ze pu= 0.1033 iges(DU) = Gar PA= 0.1089 pa 70 pa = 0.4017 Traga P= 04017 pu ‘The load is at 0.8 pf lagging is given by $,60) = 57|36.87° Load impedance is given by 40.45)" Stay 57=368T° %,= (1.582 + j1.1495)2.Power System Components and Per Unit System 115 Base impedance for the load is an? ‘teat = “T99 Q=1210 (1582 + 71.1495) n (pu) 11 = (1.266 + 0.95) pu ov) RY pu (1.266 + 7 0.95) ps ‘The per-unit equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig, 5.22. | p2 pias pa « je Bo pay Be ‘s poe Fig, 6.22: Per-unit impedance diagram of example 5.8, 5.5 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL ‘The methods for voltage control are the use of () Tap changing transformer, (i?) Regulating, transformers or Boosters, (if) Shunt capacitors, (jv) Series capacitors, (v) FACTS devices, In this book, first four category will be described. 5.5.1 Tap Changing Transformer ‘The main purpose of all power transformer and distribution transformers is to transform clectric energy from one voltage level to another. Practically all power and many distribution transformers have taps for changing the turns ratio. Voltage magnitudb is altered by changing. the tap setting and affects the distribution of VARS and may be used to control the flow of reactive power. There are two types of tap changing transformers, () Offload tap changing transformers, Gi Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers. ‘The off-load tap changing transformer requires the disconnection of the transformer when. the tap setting is to be changed. Figure 5.23 gives the connection of off-load tap changing transformer. A typical offload tap changing transformer might have four taps in addition to the nominal setting, ‘Tap changing under load is used when changes in turn ratio may be frequent. Basically, a ‘TCUL transformer is a transformer with the ability to change taps while power is connected. Figure 5.24 gives the diagram of on-load tap changing transformer. In the position shown in. Fig. 5.24, the voltage is maximum, To change the voltage, following operations are required: (0) open Al, (fi) move selector switch PI to the next contact, (ii) Close Al, (ix) open A2, (0) move selector switch P2 to the next contact, (vi) close A2, These operations are required for one change in tap position. Step-down units usually have TCUL in the low voltage winding and de-energized taps in the high voltage winding,116 Electrical Power Systems vt tomo Lye is =) ke L wt ten Consider the operation of a radial transmission line with tap changing transformers at both ends as shown in Fig. 5.25, Objective is to find out the tap changing ratios required to completely compensate for the voltage drop in the line. 1 Fig. 6.25: A radial transmission line with tap changing ‘transformers at both ends. In Fig. 5.25, V; is the supply phase voltage and V, is the load phase voltage. Vs and Vi are the sending end and receiving end voltages of the line respectively. Figure 5.26 shows the voltage phasor diagram, Fig. 5.26: Voltage phasor diagram. From Fig. 5.26, we have, Vag Vg + KR + 5X) 6.33) Also, [Vg] 008 8 = | Val-+1I1R cos @ + [1X sin & (6.34) ‘The phase angle 8 is usually small, ic., 8 = 0.0, Therefore eqn. (5.34) can be written as: [Vel = [Val + [1]Reos + [|X sino (6.35)Power System Components and Per Unit System 117 Now we can write, P= [Val [1] 08 ¢ 6.86) = 1Vql ITI sino 6.30) P 1 cos 92 6.38) Ices = 5 (6.8 [Z| sino = —@ (5.39) Wal ), (6.98) and (6.99), we get, PR+QX Using eans. (6.3 Wal = [Val + TF 6.40) Since Vi = Vj. ts and Va [Link], the above equation becomes ty Vi] = ty] Va] + PROX (Al) el 1 (yy, PREOX| 542 mM (ov ny 42) We assume here that the product of fs and tp is unity, ie. fsty = 1, as this ensures that the overall voltage level remains of the same order and that the minimum range of taps on both, transformer is used. Substituting for fg = Its in eqn. (5.42), we get 6.43) [lal (,_PRE@XY" of (- Wave} Ml Example 5.9: A three-phase transmission Line is feeding from a 13.8/220 kV transformer at its sending end. The line is supplying a 105 MVA, 0.8 power factor load through a step-down transformer of 220/13.8 RV. Total impedance of the line and transformers at 220 BV is (20 + 120) The sending end transformer is energized from a 13.8 kV supply. Find out the tap setting for each transformer to maintain the voltage at the load at 13.8 kV. Solution: 1 Fx 105 x0. q 28 MW Q- % 105 x 0.6 3 21 MVAr. ‘The source and the load phase voltage referred to the high voltage side are: IMl=1% 7.017 KY. Using ean. 6.43), we have118 Electrical Power Systems Here and Example 5.1 1: A 220 RV line is fed through 33/220 RV transformer from a constant 33 kV supply. The impedance ofthe line and transformers at 220 kV is (40 +}90)@ Both the transformers are equipped with tap changing facilities which are so arranged that the product of the two off- nominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 150 MW at 0.8 pf., determine the settings of the tap changes required to maintain the voltage of the load bus at 33 RV. Solution: Figure 5.27 shows the single line diagram of the system, Fig. 6.27: Singlesine diagram of example 6.10, Using ean. (5.48), we have, 220 wa Here Vile Ivy = 22 = ror ny, Hil = 10 Mis tale 5 Vl Lis 3% 160 « 088= 40 MW 3 2 @ % 150 * 0, 3 30 MVAr, R=409, X=900 40x 40 +.90%90)")" aaa} f= 1.16 and = 0.86 Ans,Power System Components and Per Unit System 119 Example 5.11: Determine the transformer tap ratios when the receiving end voltage is equal to the sending end voltage, the high voltage line operates at 220 kV and transmit 80 MW at 0.8 pf an the impedance of the line is (40 4 }140)2 Assume tsty = 1.0 Solution: Using eqn. (5.43), we have PR+ ar) | IMAL TVel 127.017 KY, pei xs0x08= 21.93 MW Q= 5 X80 x 0.6 = 16 MVAr. R= 40.0, X= 1400 , sea | (2s 21810) ( Ganomny 20% ans Example 5.12 122A ines fo hough 8/188 RV trnsirmer from cotant 2 AY Spl as shin in gh tal mpc cn tongormers a a8 (10 + j25)Q If the load on the system is 100 MW at 0.65 pf long, calculate the setting of the tap Sioned maintain vata he oa buco SA [3e} Fae] tts fe te Fig. 5.28: Single lie diagram of example 5.12. Solution: Using eqn. (6.43), we have pean)" Tivr) | p= 1% x 065-2166 MW [V4] = 1V[= 2 = 762 KV 3 B120. Electrical Power Systems \ 76.2)" f= 1.08, = tq=0.92 Ans. fl _ 2 ese io= zg» 28) ; Example 5.13: A 12.66 BV line is fed through an 11/182 RV transformer from a constant 11 kV supply. At the load end of the line the voltage is reduced by another transformer of nominal ratio 132/11 RV. The total impedance of the line and transformers at 132 RV is (25 + j66)Q. Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing facilities which are arranged so that the product of the two off-nominal settings is unity. If the loud on the system is 100 MW at 0.9 pf lagging, calculate the settings of the tap-changers required to maintain the voltage of the load busbar at UB, Solution: As the voltage drop is to be completely componsated, Ivy] =1¥)| = 282 Kv = 762 KV Using ean. 6.43) 66.0. 30X25 +14.58 x 66)" of seateszesnae = \ (76.2)" } f= 119; t= 0.84 ‘There settings are large for the normal range of tap-changing transformers. It would be necessary, in this system, to inject vars at the load end of the line to maintain the voltage at the required value. 5.5.2 Booster Transformers or Regulating Transformers Regulating transformers also known as booster transformers. These are used to change the voltage magnitude and phase angle at an intermediate point in a line rather than at the ends as with tap-changing transformers or the system may not warrant the expense of tap-changing. A. Voltage Magnitude Control Figure 5.29 shows the connection of a booster transformer for phase a. The secondary of the exciting transformer is tapped and the voltage obtained from it is applied to the primary of the series transformer. The corresponding secondary voltage of the series transformer is added to the input voltage. Therefore, the output voltage isPower System Components and Per Unit System 121 Val = Von + AVag 6.44) ‘This type of booster transformer is called an in-phase booster because the voltage are in phase. V,; can be adjusted hy changing the taps of excitation transformer. The polarity of the voltage across the series transformer can be made reversed by changing the switch position, from S, to S,, such that Vis less than V,, a ay Exciting 2 veansioomer sooster transformer for voltage magnitude control Fig. 5.29: B. Phase Angle Control Booster transformers are also used to control the voltage phase angle, A typical arrangement. for phase ‘a’ of a booster transformer for phase angle control is shown in Fig. 5.30. 2 ay, veanstormor Fig. 6.30: Booster transformer for voltage phase angle contol Phase shifting is used to control active power flow. From Fig. 5.30, we can write, Va + AV (5.45) Figure 5.31 gives the phasor diagram showing phase ifting effect of phase a. Now lot us assume, Avig= [Link]= 0: V5 Voy 20° AVig= = JN Voy (5.46) Using ean. (6.45) and (6.46). We have Vee = (A= jaV8)Vyq 6.47)122 Electrical Power Systems Note thatthe injocted voltage AVjq isin quadrature withthe voltage V,q, thus the resultant voltage Vi, goes through a phase shift a as show in Fig. 5.31. Similar connections are made for the remaining phases, resulting in a balanced three-phase output voltage 5.5.3. Shunt Capacitors ‘Shunt capacitors are used for lagging power-factor circuits. The effect is to supply the requisite reactive power to maintain the values of the voltage. Capacitors are generally connected to a busbar and are disposed along the route to minimize the losses and voltage drops. Capacitor is, constant impedance type load and its value is proportional to the square of magnitude of the voltage. Therefore, as the voltage falls, the VArs produced by a shunt capacitor falls, Thus, when needed most, their effectiveness falls. Figure 5.82(a) and (©) show the single line diagram of a line and its voltage-phasor diagram before the addition of the shunt capacitor and Fig. 5.32(b) and (@) show them after the addition of shunt capacitor. @ Fig. 6.82: Voltage phasor diagram (a) and {c) without shunt capacitor () and (a) with shunt capacitor. 5.5.4 Series Capacitors Series capacitors, ic., capacitors connected in series with line conductors and are used to reduce the inductive reactance between the supply point and the load. One major drawback of the series capacitors is the high overvoltage produced when a short-circuit current flows through it, ‘and special protective devices need to be incorporated (i.e. spark gaps and non-linear resistors) Figure 5.33(a) and (b) show the transmission line with series capacitor and vollage phasor diagram, ‘The relative merits between shunt and series capacitors may be summarized as follows: 1, Ifthe load VA¥ requirement is small, series capacitors are of litle use. 2. If voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are very effective. 3, With series capacitors, the reduction on line current is small; hence if thermal considerations limit the current, little advantage is obtained and shunt compensation should be used.Power System Components and Per Unit System 123, ' Se ae | |. @ Fig. 5.33: (a) Transmission line with series capacitor, (b) Voltage phasor diagram with series capacitor. 4. The shunt capacitor improves the power factor of the load whereas the series capacitor has Tittle effect on the power factor. 5. For long transmission lines where the total reactance is high, series capacitors are effective for improvement of stability EXERCISE 5.1. Three generators are rated as follows: GI: 100 MVA, 33 KV, x, = 0.10 pu. G2: 150 MVA, 32 KV, y= 0.08 pu G3: 110 MVA, 80 kV, xq, = 0.12 pu, Determine the reactance of the generator ‘corresponding to base values of 200 MVA and 35 RV. Ans. x.) = 0.277 pu Xp = 0.089 pu, x = 0.16 put 5.2, Determine the transformer tap ratios when the receiving end voltage is equal to the sending end voltage. The high voltage line operates at 230 kV and transmnite 80 MW at 0.8 pf and the impedance of the line is (40 + j150)0. ‘Ans 1M, t= 087 5.8. Draw an impedance diagram for the electric power system aa shown in Fig. 5.84, and all impedances in por-unit on a 100 MVA base. Select 20 XV base voltage for generator. The three-phase power and line ratings are given below G1: 90 MVA, 20 kV, x5 = 0.09 pu G2: 90 MVA, 18 kV, xy. = 0.09 pu TL: 80 MVA, 20/200 RV, xy = 0.16 pu 72: 80 MVA, 200120 RV, x = 0.20 pu Line : 200 kV, ge = 120.0 Load : 200 kV, S= (48 + j63MVA. = © 3 A Lin Loan Fig. 5.34: Single line aiagram for problem 5.3.