Design of control unit: Hardwired control unit 2.1.

To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU must generate the required control signal
in the proper sequence. There are two approaches used for generating the control signals in
proper sequence as Hardwired Control unit and Micro-programmed control unit.

Design of Control Unit

The Control Unit is classified into two major categories:

• Hardwired Control

• Microprogrammed Control

Hardwired Control Unit

Hardwired Control Unit is implemented using various electronic components such as

combinational logic units and gates. The circuit uses a fixed architecture. If the instruction set
is changed, the wiring should also be changed. As it is hardwired, the instruction set is constant
and does not change. Therefore, a Hardwired Control Unit is used in processors that use simple
instruction set known as the Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC).

Fig 1.1 Computer system components

Usually, these control units execute faster. However, Hardwired Control Units are difficult to
modify and implement. It is also difficult to add new features to the existing design. Therefore,
it has minimum flexibility.

Hardwired Control Unit –

A hardwired control is a method of generating control signals with the help of Finite State
Machines (FSM). The control signals that are necessary for instruction execution control in the
Hardwired Control Unit are generated by specially built hardware logical circuits, and we can’t
change the signal production mechanism without physically changing the circuit structure.

The following image shows the block diagram of a Hardwired Control organization.

Control Unit of Basic Computer

• A Hard-wired Control consists of two decoders, a sequence counter, and a number of

logic gates.
• An instruction fetched from the memory unit is placed in the instruction register (IR).
• The component of an instruction register includes; I bit, the operation code, and bits 0
through 11.
• The operation code in bits 12 through 14 are coded with a 3 x 8 decoder.
• The outputs of the decoder are designated by the symbols D0 through D7.
• The operation code at bit 15 is transferred to a flip-flop designated by the symbol I.
• The operation codes from Bits 0 through 11 are applied to the control logic gates.
• The Sequence counter (SC) can count in binary from 0 through 15.

Characteristics of Hardwired Control Unit

• Two decoders, sequence counter and logic gates make up a Hardwired Control.
 • The instruction register stores an instruction retrieved from the memory unit (IR).
• An instruction register consists of the operation code, the I bit, and bits 0 through 11.
• A 3 x 8 decoder is used to encode the operation code in bits 12 through 14.
• The decoder’s outputs are denoted by the letters D0 through D7.
• The bit 15 operation code is transferred to a flip-flop with the symbol I.
• The control logic gates are programmed with operation codes from bits 0 to 11.
• The sequence counter (or SC) can count from 0 to 15 in binary.

The control hardware can be viewed as a state machine that changes from one state to another
in every clock cycle, depending on the contents of the instruction register, the condition codes
and the external inputs. The outputs of the state machine are the control signals. The sequence
of the operation carried out by this machine is determined by the wiring of the logic elements
and hence named as “hardwired”.

· Fixed logic circuits that correspond directly to the Boolean expressions are used to
generate the control signals.
· Hardwired control is faster than micro-programmed control.
· A controller that uses this approach can operate at high speed.
· RISC architecture is based on hardwired control unit

Fig. 1.2 Hardwired control unit

Designing of Hardwired Control Unit

The following are some of the ways for constructing hardwired control logic that have been
proposed:

Sequence Counter Method − It is the most practical way to design a somewhat complex
controller.
Delay Element Method – For creating the sequence of control signals, this method relies on
the usage of timed delay elements.

State Table Method − The standard algorithmic approach to designing the Notes controller
utilising the classical state table method is used in this method.

Working of a Hardwired Control Unit

The basic data for control signal creation is contained in the operation code of an instruction.
The operation code is decoded in the instruction decoder. The instruction decoder is a collection
of decoders that decode various fields of the instruction opcode.

As a result, only a few of the instruction decoder’s output lines have active signal values. These
output lines are coupled to the matrix’s inputs, which provide control signals for the computer’s
executive units. This matrix combines the decoded signals from the instruction opcode with
the outputs from that matrix which generates signals indicating consecutive control unit states,
as well as signals from the outside world, such as interrupt signals. The matrices are constructed
in the same way that programmable logic arrays are.

Generation of a Signal

Control signals for instruction execution must be generated during the whole time range that
corresponds to the cycle of instruction execution, not just at a single moment in time. The
control unit organises the appropriate sequence of internal states based on the structure of this
cycle.
The control signal generator matrix sends a number of signals back to the inputs of the
following control state generator matrix. This matrix mixes these signals with the timing
signals created by the timing unit depending on the rectangular patterns typically provided by
the quartz generator. The control unit is in the beginning state of new instruction, fetching
whenever a new instruction arrives at it. Instruction decoding permits the control unit to enter
the first state relevant to the new instruction execution, which lasts as long as the computer’s
timing signals as well as other input signals, such as flags and state information, stay
unchanged. A change in any of the previously stated signals causes the control unit’s status to
change.

Result

A new corresponding input for the control signal generator matrix is formed as a result of this.
When an external signal (such as an interrupt) comes, the control unit enters the next control
state, which is concerned with the response to the external signal (for example, interrupt
processing). The computer’s flags and state variables are utilised to choose appropriate states
for the cycle of instruction execution.

The cycle’s last states are control states that begin fetching the program’s next instruction:
sending the program’s counter content to the address of the main memory buffer register and
then reading the instruction word into the computer’s instruction register. The control unit
enters an OS state, where it waits for the next user directive when the running instruction is the
stop instruction, which terminates programme execution.

Advantages of Hardwired Control Unit

• Hardwired Control Unit is quick due to the usage of combinational circuits to

generate signals.
 • The amount of delay that can occur in the creation of control signals is dependent on
the number of gates.
• It can be tweaked to get the fastest mode of operation.
• Quicker than a micro-programmed control unit.

Disadvantages of Hardwired Control Unit

• As we require additional control signals to be created, the design becomes more

complex (need for more encoders or decoders).
• Changes to control signals are challenging since they necessitate rearranging wires in
the hardware circuit.
• It’s difficult and time-consuming to add a new feature.
• It’s difficult to evaluate and fix flaws in the initial design.
• It’s a bit pricey.

References
Reference Books:

• J.P. Hayes, “Computer Architecture and Organization”, Third Edition.

• Mano, M., “Computer System Architecture”, Third Edition, Prentice Hall.

• Stallings, W., “Computer Organization and Architecture”, Eighth Edition, Pearson Education.
Text Books:

• Carpinelli J.D,” Computer systems organization &Architecture”, Fourth Edition, Addison

Wesley.

• Patterson and Hennessy, “Computer Architecture”, Fifth Edition Morgaon Kauffman.

Reference Website

• Design of Control Unit | Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial - javatpoint

• Hardwired Control Unit | GATE Notes (byjus.com)