Energising change

PV Mini-Grid Installation
Dos & Don’ts
 PV MINI-GRID INSTALLATION

Dos & Don’ts

Funded by Funded by
Implemented Implemented
by by
 PV MINI-GRID INSTALLATION

Dos & Don’ts

Acknowledgement:
The publisher would like to thank the Government of Indonesia, especially Directorate of New and
Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources for giving
the permission to translate the book into English.

Publisher:
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH
Energising Development
Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn, Germany
Website: https://endev.info

Writer:
ing. Bagus Ramadhani, M.Sc.

Original Contributors:
Amalia Suryani, M.Sc.; Atiek P. Fadhillah, M.Sc.; Dipl.-Ing. Pelangi Saichu; M. Husni Mubarok, M.Sc.

Contributors:
Catoer Wibowo, M.Sc.; Imam Askolani; Gregor Josef Broemling; Isabella Lehmann

Design and Layout:

Fredy Susanto

Photo, Drawings, and graphs are provided by:

Energising Development (EnDev) Indonesia

Printed and distributed by EnDev

Eschborn, 2021

Photos, images and other graphic elements are copyright protected and therefore may not be
extracted separately from this publication. However, complete chapters of this book can be translated
into other languages and thus reproduced for training purposes, provided the publisher is informed
of the purpose and is given the appropriate credit.

Disclaimer:
This publication has been created to illustrate good and bad practice examples in off-grid solar power plant (PV
mini-grid) installations. Although all due care has been taken in the preparation of this publication, the authors,
contributors, GIZ, EnDev and any other individuals and parties involved are not responsible for any damage,
injury or other undesirable event as a result of the application or interpretation of this book.
The primary responsibility for quality, reliability and safety rests with the designers, suppliers, plant teams and
operators. It is strongly recommended that any design, construction, electrical and mechanical installation,
operation, maintenance and repair work is carried out and / or supervised and inspected by only qualified
technicians and engineers.

B PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 ABOUT THE GUIDELINE

In recent years, off-grid solar power plants (PV mini-grid systems) have played an important role
in increasing the electrification ratio in rural areas in Indonesia. Over a period of more than six
years, several private and government institutions, especially the Directorate General of New and
Renewable Energy (DG NREEC) have made efforts to improve the quality and reliability of the PV
mini-grid system that have been built. This can be seen from the results of technical inspections
carried out by EnDev during the period 2013 - 2015. Based on the results of inspections at more
than 300 PV mini-grid locations, valuable information has been obtained in the form of a collection
of photos related to installation quality and system performance that are worthy of sharing as
material. evaluation in order to improve or improve the off-grid PV mini-grid installation in the future.
With the existence of examples of good and bad installations, repetition of the same errors can be
avoided, and examples of good installations can be used as a reference so that system and user
security is guaranteed. With a good system installation, PV mini-grid will be more reliable, increase
component life, operate efficiently with a lower risk of damage.

Purpose
This installation practice manual was written as a recommendation to improve and standardize the
quality of existing and planned off-grid PV mini-grid installations. The book, which is dominated
by good and bad installation photos, is expected to be a lesson learned and a source of reference
for stakeholders, especially in the process of installation, design, inspection, and operation and
maintenance of off grid PV mini-grids.

Good examples show recommendations on installation practices to avoid hazardous situations

or reduce component life. Meanwhile, the bad examples indicate which installations should be
repaired and avoided in future PV mini-grid systems.

Scope of Discussion
The PV Mini-Grids Installations: Dos and Don’ts book is divided into 14 chapters whose topics are
discussed based on the core and supporting components in off-grid PV mini-grid. Because pictures
are more efficient and effective in conveying information than words, this book is designed to present
around 600 photos of good and bad practices of the off-grid PV mini-grid system. The example of
the installation in the book is dominated by PV mini-grids which was built in the 2012-2014 period.
Each chapter is preceded by an overview and function of the components and continues with
the installation of each component. Each topic or component section is equipped with a pair of
good and bad examples and is supported by a brief explanation behind the assessment. Each pair
of good and bad photos is followed by a brief theoretical basis of the findings in the photo and
recommendations for improving the quality of the installation. The assessment of good and bad
practices is based on relevant international and Indonesia national standards, instructions from
component manufacturers, and best practices in installing PV mini-grid. On certain topics there is
a warning that the system performance will be reduced to a safety hazard if the recommendations
are ignored.

Poor presentation of examples of installations does not represent the overall quality of the PV mini-
grid that has been built. Poor photos are only a few examples found in a small number of locations
that are used as examples to be avoided. In general, the off-grid PV mini-grid system is very well
constructed and operates effectively in providing energy services to households.

PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s C

 Good design and quality workmanship are the firsts attempts to present a reliable system. However,
the sustainability of the system cannot be ascertained if it is not properly operated and maintained.
This book also provides several recommendations for operators in operating and maintaining the
off-grid PV mini-grid. In general, this book presents:
1. The basic principles of off-grid PV mini-grid system and its components
2. Design concept and general installation tips
3. Tips for repairing the installation and avoiding safety hazards
4. Suggestions for the PV mini-grid performance verification process
5. Operational and maintenance recommendations for operators and technicians
Because this book is designed as a reference for general installation guidelines, this book cannot
replace the function of the installation manuals of component manufacturers (especially power
electronics components) as well as international and other national standards. Designers, installers,
inspectors, and technicians must refer to specific and more detailed references in order to present
a good off-grid PV mini-grid system. Along with the development of battery technology and power
electronics, it is estimated that there will be specific differences in the PV mini-grid installation
contained in the book and the newest off-grid PV mini-grid installation which is not the scope of
this book.

Target Readers
In general, this book is aimed at anyone who wants to increase his/her technical knowledge in the
off-grid PV mini-grid. However, the target is prioritized on stakeholders who are directly involved in
the planning, construction, and maintenance of PV mini-grids. The content in this book is intended
to be a reference for different stakeholders according to their respective needs. Here is a matrix
for the use of the book

Reader Information

System Designer • General design concept

• selection of components according to ideal specifications
• Calculation of component sizes to avoid capacity mismatches

Installer • Recommendations for proper component installation

• Ways to avoid bad installations
• Points that must be considered when configuring power electronics parameters

Inspector • Items to be tested during inspection or commissioning

• Impacts that arise if the test does not meet the requirements

Technicians • Ways to fix and upgrade poor installations

Operator • Recommendations for routine operation and maintenance

There are some activities that are only intended to be carried out by competent people. At least
installers, inspectors, technicians and operators are able to identify hazards and risks associated
with the installation and use of electrical devices and batteries as well as the installation and testing
of electrical devices.

D PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Symbols

The symbols below are used widely in the book.

Example of a good installation. Examples of installations that can

Installations can be maintained and be repaired and upgraded to avoid
upgraded for better performance. damage and harm the system or do
harm to the systems.

Notification showing important Warnings that could result in damage

information that needs attention. to systems or components, or a
decrease in performance if the
recommendations are ignored.

A warning that can create a safety General information regarding

hazard if the recommendations are how the component works, ideal
ignored. specifications, configuration,
calculation method, or factors
that must be considered during
installation.

Recommendations that should be Recommendations that should be

made when conducting system made when performing component
testing or commissioning. maintenance

PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s E

 LIST OF ABREVIATIONS

A Ampere
AC Alternating Current
ACPDB Alternating Current Power Distribution Box
Ah Ampere hour
AM Air Mass
BCR Battery Charge Regulator
BRC British Reinforced Concrete
BTS Battery Temperature Sensor
C Celcius
CCV Closed Circuit Voltage
cm centimeter
CRT Chatode-Ray Tube
CV Constant Voltage
DC Direct Current
DCPDB Direct Current Power Distribution Box
DHI Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance
DNI Direct Normal Irradiance
DoD Depth of Discharge
ELCB Earth-Leakage Circuit Breaker
EVA Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate
GB Gigabyte
GHI Global Horizontal Irradiance
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GPS Global Positioning System
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
ID Identification
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IP rating Ingress Protection rating
ISC Short Circuit Current
I-V Current-Voltage curve
km kilometer
kW kilowatt
LED Light Emitting Diode
LV low voltage
LVD Low Voltage Disconnection
m2 Square Meter

2 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker
MCCB Molded Case Circuit Breaker
mm milimeter
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
MV medium voltage
OPzV Ortsfest (stationary) PanZerplatte (tubular plate) Verschlossen (closed)
P3K Pertolongan Pertama Pada Kecelakaan
PLN National Utility Indonesia
PUIL General Requirement for Electrical Installation (Indonesian Utility Standard)
PV Photovoltaic
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
PV-VP Photo Voltaic Village Power
RCD Residual Current Device
RMS Remote Monitoring System
SCC Solar Charge Controller
SD Card Secure Digital Card
SoC State of Charge
SoH State of Health
SPD Surge Protection Device
STC Standard Temperature Condition
TM Tegangan Menengah
TR Tegangan Rendah
TV television
UOC Open Circuit Voltage
UV Ultra Violet
V volt
VAC volt Alternating Current
VDC volt direct current
VRLA Valve Regulated Lead Acid
W watt
Wp Watt Peak

PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s 3

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

About the guideline C

List of abbreviations D

1
Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System 8
1.1 Photovoltaic mini-grid 10
1.2
DC-coupling system 14
1.3
AC-coupling system 16

2.
Photovoltaic Array 20
2.1
Basics of photovoltaic 21
PV Array Shading 22
2.2
Photovoltaic Module 25
Performance label 27
PV Cell 29
PV module glass cover 33
PV lamination 35
Back-sheet of the PV 36
Junction Box 37
PV module frame 38
2.3
PV Modules Interconnection 39
Module composition in an array 42
Cable installation and support 43
Cable interconnection between PV modules 46
PV array orientation 49
Array foundation 51
Support pole 55
Module support 59

3.
Combiner Box 62
3.1 PV combiner box 63
3.2 Enclosure 65
Quality of the enclosure 65
Installation of combiner box 68
Signs, labels, and safety precautions 72
3.3 Electrical components in the combiner box 73
String protection device 75
Busbar terminal 81
Disconnector switch 82
Cable installation 84

4 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

4. Solar Charge Controller
4.1 What is solar charge controller? 89
Solar charge controller specification 92
4.2 SCC hardware installation and wiring 94
Location and arrangement of the units 94
Cable installation of solar charge controller 96
Protection and instrumentation 101
4.3 SCC parameter settings 104

5.
Grid Inverter 106
5.1 Basic of grid inverter 107
Grid inverter specification 109
5.2 Grid inverter hardware installation and interconnection 111
Location and arrangement of the units 111
Cable installation of grid inverter 113
5.3 Grid inverter parameter settings 117

6
Battery Bank 118
6.1
Basics of battery 119
Battery specification 122
6.2 Battery operation 127
Discharging 127
Charging 129
Temperature Limit 132
6.3
Battery interconnection 133
Battery bank wiring 135
Battery terminal connection 138
6.4
Battery installation 140
Location and layout 140
Battery rack 143

7
DC Distribution Panel 144
7.1 Basics of DC distribution panel 145
7.2 Enclosure 146
Quality of the enclosure 147
7.3 Electrical components in the distribution panel 149
Protection devices 150
Busbar and cable installation 153

PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s 5

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

8
Battery inverter 156
8.1 Basics of battery inverter 157
What is the ideal specification of a battery inverter? 159
8.2 Battery inverter hardware installation and interconnection 162
Location and arrangement of the units 162
Cable installation of battery inverter 164
Multi-cluster box 170
Battery temperature sensor 170
8.3 Battery inverter parameter settings 171

9
AC Distribution Panel 174
9.1 Basics of AC distribution panel 175
9.2 Enclosure 177
Quality of the enclosure 177
9.3 Electrical components in AC distribution panel 179
Protection devices 180
Busbar terminal 183
Local monitoring system 183
Cable installation 186

10
Monitoring System 188
10.1
Basic of monitoring system 189
10.2
Installation of monitoring system 192
Hardware installation 192
10.3
Monitoring parameters 196

11
Power House 200
11.1 Basics of power house 201
11.2 Protective fence 206
11.3 Construction of power house 208
Foundation of the power house 208
Installation of cable entry points 213
11.4 Construction and installation inside power house 214

6 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

12
Distribution Grid 216
12.1 Basics of distribution grid 217
12.2 Low voltage distribution grid 221
Distribution line 221
Grid pole 228
12.3
Streetlight installation 232
12.4 Medium-voltage distribution 235

13
Household Connection 238
13.1
Basics of household connection 239
13.2
Service connection 241
Service entrance 243
13.3
House wiring and installation 248
13.4
Utilisation of energy 252
Energy conservation 253
Energy efficiency 255

14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 258

14.1 Basics of Grounding and lightning protection 259
Equipment grounding 262
14.2 Grounding system 266
Protective equipotential bonding 267
Grounding electrode 268
14.3 Lightning protection system 274
Air termination system 275
Down conductor 278
Lightning protection grounding 279
Surge protection device 280
Lightning counter 284

PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s 7

 CHAPTER 1
Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System
✓ EXPLANATION ON HOW A PV MINI-GRID SYSTEM WORKS
✓ DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AC-COUPLING SYSTEM AND DC-COUPLING SYSTEM
✓ COMPONENTS IN PV MINI-GRID SYSTEMS

8 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

A photovoltaic (PV) system converts electromagnetic energy from the sun into electrical energy. It
is one of the recommended solutions for the rural electrification where the sun is abundant, fuel
is scarce and expensive. The main reasons of using PV technology can be summarised as follow:

Abundant energy Energy resource is locally Minimum cost on operation and

resource at no cost available and does not need to maintenance of a PV system
be transported

Less frequent regular No emission of harmful gases,

maintenance which can be liquid or solid waste.
performed by a trained local
operator

PV system is considered as an advanced system that consists of sensitive and expensive glass-
covered thin photovoltaic cells, solar charge controller, battery, battery inverter, and several additional
components. Indonesian manufacturers have been able to produce solar modules while most of
the components of power electronics are still imported from other countries such as Germany,
Thailand and China.

There are many types of PV systems both for grid-connected systems as well as stand-alone PV.
Although solar home systems (SHS) are more common due to its low-cost and simple design,
currently more mini-grids and PV hybrid systems are applied aiming for higher power and energy
usage as well as achieving better system sustainability through collective ownership.

Compared to other renewable energy technologies, such as hydro power, PV systems are rather
new in Indonesia. The Government was firstly implemented solar home system (SHS) for rural
electrification in 1987. Overtime, PV system in Indonesia have been expanding from SHS to mini-grid
systems. Despite the fact that Indonesia had been investigating in PV technology since 1970s, the
expertise about it remains in infant stage. This is due to the inadequate availability of competent
experts, skillful technicians, and engineering companies to design, construct, and maintain the
systems. Meanwhile, better supply chains of spare components for PV system are urgently required
to ensure the systems’ sustainability in the country.

Establishing a service and spare parts provider in rural area usually requires a longer time. However,
when proper maintenance of a system is regularly carried out, damages can be prevented and
the lifetime can be prolonged. This book will explain how a good PV mini-grid should be designed
and how bad practice can be avoided. It is intended to be a guide for stakeholders involved in PV
mini-grid development, especially in the context of rural electrification.

CHAPTER 1 Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System 9

 1.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC MINI-GRID

A PV mini-grid, or as it is often called stand-alone PV system, operates independently from larger

grids that are run by power companies or public utilities. The system requires batteries to store
solar energy “harvested” during the day to provide electricity at dark. There are two common PV
mini-grid configurations which will be described in this chapter, namely DC-coupling systems and
AC-coupling systems.

DC stands for direct current while AC for alternating current. Coupling refers to point to point
connection. A DC-coupling system connects PV array to DC side of PV system, which is battery.
Meanwhile, AC-coupling connects directly to the AC side of PV system with battery as a back-up.
If there is any excess of power not used by the load,this is converted back to DC via an inverter
and stored in the battery. The following figure illustrates an example of PV mini-grid system in DC-
coupling configuration.

In general, both configurations use similar components except for the use of charge controller
(the component installed after the combiner box). The use of charge controller in a DC-coupling
system is substituted by a grid inverter in an AC-coupling system. The following graphic illustrates
the function of each component.

Photovoltaic mini-grid system

10 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

CHAPTER 1 Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System 11
 Differentiation of PV Systems
OFF-GRID PV

SOLAR HOME SYSTEM PV MINI-GRID PV HYBRID

A solar PV plant is installed in Off grid PV system for a group Optimizing and synergizing
every home for primary of people. A PV system is several plants to complement
electricity needs such as DC installed in a centralized place each other, for example: a PV
lighting system with a and electricity is distributed system as the main source
capacity of 1 100 Wp. How it through an AC system with a and a diesel generator as a
works is almost the same as capacity of more than 15 kWp backup. Generally, PV
PJU. Not connected to the that uses batteries for nighttime systems, diesel power plants,
national grid using batteries. needs. When there is more micro hydro and windmills are
When there is excess power power supply from the PV than options for a hybrid. It can
from the PV-VP, it will be sent demand, excess power will be save at saving fuel and
reduce the need for more
to the battery If the PV-VP stored in a battery.. If the PV
battery capacity
power is less than the load, power is less than the demand,
less power will be supplied the required power will be
from the battery supplied by the battery

DC BUS AC BUS AC BUS

12 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 GRID-CONNECTED PV

PV ROOFTOP LARGE SCALE PV SYSTEMS

A PV rooftop system is A Large-scale PV system

installed on the roof of a (more than 100 kWp) utilizing
house, an office or a factory. It Individual Power Producer
connects directly to the main (IPP) scheme, based on a
utility network via a solar Feed in tariff (FIT) system or PV module Battery
inverter. When there is excess other contractual systems. It
power from the PV rooftop connects directly to the main
that is not needed in the utility network through large
house, it will be supplied to scale solar inverter. Power
the grid. If there is not enough from system will always supply
PV power available, the to the grid if the grid is Grid Inverter Battery Inverter
required electricity will be available
supplied by the grid. Electricity
can be sold to the grid using a
Net Metering device that
measures how much PV
power has been supplied. Solar Charge
Full Converter
Controller

Diesel Generator Wind turbine

AC BUS AC BUS

Utility Grid Transformer

AC BUS

Household

CHAPTER 1 Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System 13

 DC-Coupling PV mini-grid 2. Combiner box combines
several PV strings or a series
of PV modules together in
parallel configuration. It also
hosts the protection devices
2 to protect each string.
3. Solar charge
controller (SCC)
Converts the output from
PV to reach the battery
1 voltage level and controls
the charging process in
the battery bank.
1. A Photovoltaic array
consists of several modules
connected in series and/or
parallel. It converts the solar
radiation exposed to the entire
array to electrical energy.
10 3

Wiring connects the output from the

combined PV strings in a combiner box to
the solar charge controller located in the 4. DC panel is used as
power house. Cables are typically installed connection point (bus) for
underground and should be weatherproof. 4
the DC voltage. The panels are
Underground cables should be protected interconnected between SCC,
and signed (above surface) to prevent battery bank, and inverter.
damage for future earth works.
6

6. Battery inverter converts the

DC voltage DC voltage of the battery bank
(about 48 VDC) to AC voltage at
AC Low voltage
230 VAC. The inverter also
AC Medium voltage protects the battery from being
over discharged.
Communication cable

Grounding cable 7. AC panel is used to connect multiple battery

7
inverters in parallel as well as the connection to
Power flow when charging grid distribution line. The panel consists of
Power flow when not charging connection points or bus bars, protection devices,
energy meter, and operational indicators.

1.2 DC-COUPLING SYSTEM

The system is considered as a DC-coupling configuration when all of the components are connected
together in a DC bus. The power is first generated by the PV modules and is used to charge the
battery through solar charge controller (SCC). The SCC is typically a DC-DC converter with a
maximum power point tracker (MPPT). The MPPT optimises the captured energy and reduces the
voltage into battery voltage level.

During the day, with sufficient solar irradiance, the battery is being charged to reach a maximum
state of charge (SoC). As the electricity demand increases until it exceeds the PV power input, the
battery inverter will deliver the energy from battery to the loads and will stop operating when the
SoC of the battery reaches the minimum limit.

14 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 13. Low voltage distribution consists of grid
poles that are combined with streetlights to
support the overhead cables. The distribution
9. The power house is a lines might be configured as single phase
building where most electrical (230 VAC) or three-phase (400 VAC)
components (AC distribution depending on the total system capacity.
panel and battery bank) are
installed. It protects the 13
components from bad weather
or other environmental condition. 14. Household customers are
connected through the grid
9 pole and each of them is
equipped with a socket and
three LED lamps. Every
household is protected by a
miniature circuit breaker (MCB) 14
5. Battery bank and an energy limiter to control
stores the energy the energy allocation.
from PV during the
day and is used when
5 power is produced
and released.

12

12.A Lightning mast is used to

catch the lightning strike and to
avoid direct strike to the metallic
parts of the system or other
conductor materials. The
8. RMS and pyranometer are very system should be supported
important instruments to monitor the with good grounding and
8
performance of the complete system additional surge protection
and the irradiance of a particular site. If devices to protect the power
the communication network is available electronics from indirect
and working properly, the monitoring lightning strike.
can be done from different places as
long as they are connected to the RMS.

10. A Grounding box serves

10 as the equipotential bonding
of grounding from all PV
mini-grid components
including from the PV arrays.

11

11. Medium voltage distribution

is an alternative solution to reduce distribution losses including voltage drop. It consists of step-up and
step-down power transformers to convert the voltage from low to medium and vice versa. MV distribution is
necessary when the distance from PV system to the load or customers’ connection is more than 1 to 3 km,
depending on the size of the cable and the demand. Low voltage distribution consists of grid poles that are
combined with streetlights to support the overhead cables. The distribution lines might be configured as
single phase (230 VAC) or three-phase (400 VAC) depending on the total system capacity.

CHAPTER 1 Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System 15

 1.3 AC-COUPLING SYSTEM
The conversion in AC-coupling works in two ways; therefore, it causes more conversion losses compared
to DC-coupling. However, the AC-coupling is more favourable when the higher load is more likely to occur
during daytime as conversion losses will only occur in the grid inverter. It is less problematic to couple a
new system in the AC bus. Hence, such configuration gives more flexibility to easily be expanded with
additional PV arrays or to hybridise with another electricity generator.

1. Photovoltaic array
consists of several modules
connected in series and/or parallel. It
converts the solar radiation exposed
to the entire array to electrical energy.
9 3 Grid Inverter
2. Combiner box combines several PV
strings or series of PV modules together in 3.Grid inverterThe grid inverter or also
parallel configuration. It also hosts the known as PV inverter is a power
protection devices to protect each string. electronic component which converts
DC voltage from PV array into AC Battery
voltage for both direct consumption or inverter 5
Some types of battery inverter
storing excess power in the battery.
configurations may require a clustering
network with a maximum of three
inverters. It means that one inverter 5. Battery inverter converts the
should act as a “master” with the other DC voltage of the battery bank
two as “slaves”. If more than three (about 48 VDC) to AC voltage at
battery inverters are used, the additional inverters 230 VAC. The inverter also
should form another cluster. In this case, a protects the battery from being
distribution panel is required to organise, control, over discharged.
and communicate among clusters. Some 6 AC panel is used to connect multiple
manufacturers use multi-cluster box terminology battery inverters in parallel as well as the
to describe distribution panel in PV system with connection to grid distribution line. The
combination of more than three inverters. panel consists of connection points or bus
bars, protection devices, energy meter, and 6
operational indicators. AC panel
Unlike the DC-coupling, the battery inverter in
AC-coupling system works bidirectionally. It is
functioning as a charger (converting AC to DC)
when there is sufficient irradiance and less Similar to the DC-coupling system, the battery
energy is stored in battery (low SoC). As soon inverter should work in parallel to achieve high-power
as the load surpasses the amount of PV power output. Since battery inverter is the brain of the grid
input, typically during the night or cloudy day, distribution in mini-grid, there should be at least one
then the inverter will switch to DC-AC converter inverter acting as a “master” providing reference
thus the energy from battery will be used to voltage and frequency while the remaining inverters are
meet the load demand. acting as “slaves” that join the grid.

DC voltage Communication cable Power flow when charging

AC Low voltage Grounding cable Power flow when not charging

AC Medium voltage

16 16 PV MIni-Grid
Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s
 Key components that different AC from DC-coupling system are the grid inverter. In AC-coupling
configuration, PV modules and batteries are coupled on the AC bus through its dedicated inverters.
The PV modules are connected to a grid inverter where the power is converted from DC to AC.
Similar to charge controller, grid inverter is also equipped with MPPT to optimize the captured
energy. The power from PV array can directly be used by the load during the day and to charge
battery via battery inverter simultaneously.

8. The power house is a building 12. Low voltage distribution consists of grid
where most electrical components (AC poles that are combined with streetlights to
8 distribution panel and battery bank) are support the overhead cables. The distribu-
installed. It protects the components tion lines might be configured as single
from bad weather or other phase (230 VAC) or three-phase (400 VAC)
environmental condition. depending on the total system capacity.

4. Battery bank 11. Lightning mast is used to Low voltage

11 12
stores the energy catch the lightning strike and distribution
from PV during the to avoid direct strike to the
day and is used when metallic parts of the system or
4
the demand rises. other conductor materials. The
system should be supported
with good grounding and
additional surge protection
devices to protect the power
electronics from indirect
lightning strike.

DC Panel 7. RMS and pyranometer are very 13

important instrument to monitor
the performance of the complete 13. Households customers are
system and the irradiance of a connected through the grid pole
particular site. If the communica- and each of them is equipped
7 tion network is available and with a socket and three LED
working properly, the monitoring lamps. Every household is
can be done from different places protected by a miniature circuit
as long as they are connected to breaker (MCB) and an energy
the RMS. limiter to control the energy
allocation.

9. Grounding box serves as the

9
equipotential bonding of grounding
from all PV mini-grid components
including from the PV arrays.

10
10. Medium voltage distribution is an alternative solution to reduce distribution losses including voltage drop. It
consists of step-up and step-down power transformers to convert the voltage from low to medium, vice versa. MV
distribution is necessary when the distance from PV system to the load or customers’ connection is more than 1 to 3 km,
depending on the size of the cable and the demand. Low voltage distribution consists of grid poles that are combined
with streetlights to support the overhead cables. The distribution lines might be configured as single phase (230 VAC) or
three-phase (400 VAC) depending on the total system capacity.

CHAPTER 1 Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System 17

 DC COUPLING SYSTEM

Plus Minus

More efficiency
for night use

If the inverter dies because

the battery runs out “,
the solar module can still Small efficiency for use
charge the battery. afternoon twice a conversion

More suitable for

small capacities

06:00 12:00 18:00

Daya

Time

3) 1) 2) 3)

1) PV Power > load power and battery SoC <100%

PV Module
2) PV Power > load power and battery SoC=100%
3) PV Power <load power and 20% < Battery SoC < 100
PV Power SCC
Load Power 1)

DC Bus

Battery Load
Battery
Inverter
3)
2)

AC Bus

18 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 GRAPHIC 3 DC-Coupling PV mini-grid

AC COUPLING SYSTEM

Plus Minus

Easy to develop because AC

standards and on grid ready
The network will turns off
when the battery runs out

Cheaper for big capacity

Lower efficiency
More efficiency for night use
for day use

06:00 12:00 18:00

Power

Time

3) 1) 2) 3)

PV Module
1) PV Power > load power and battery SoC <100%
2) PV Power > load power and battery SoC=100%
DC Bus
3) PV Power <load power and 20% < Battery SoC < 100
PV Power
1) 2) 1) 3)
Load Power

Grid Battery Battery Load

Inverter Inverter

AC Bus

CHAPTER 1 Photovoltaic Mini-Grid System 19

 CHAPTER 2
Photovoltaic Array
✓ Identifying good and bad quality of photovoltaic modules
✓ Tips to avoid failures on photovoltaic modules
✓ Things to consider when combining photovoltaic modules in an array
✓ Guideline to improve the installation of photovoltaic array

20 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 2.1 BASICS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC

Photovoltaic generator is one of the most important components in PV mini-grid system. It converts
solar radiation into electrical energy. PV generator installation comprises of the following components:

PV module
interconnection
Photovoltaic module
is an electrical
is an assembly of several
interconnection
PV cells that are connected
to accumulate
in series form.
output power from
the connected PV
modules.

Foundation is used to anchor the

mounting structure to the ground. The
Support structure is the mounting structure that material used for the foundation should
holds the PV modules and defines the mounting be in good quality and deeply buried to
angle, azimuth, and height of PV array. have a stable system.

 What are the factors affecting energy yield of PV generator?

Solar irradiance is The output power of Orientation and PV modules technical

the intensity of solar a PV module is linearly inclination of PV arrays. performance and
electromagnetic proportional to its solar Sunlight obstructions quality which include
radiation incident on a irradiance. and soiling that may temperature coefficient.
surface. It is measured cause shading.
in kW/m2 and the
value varies in different
places. Therefore a
spot measurement
is important before
designing a PV system.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 21

 , PV ARRAY SHADING

Shading is a crucial problem in PV power plant as it may significantly reduce the system performance.
Not only decreasing the energy production, both partial and full shading risk the affected PV module
condition. When partially shaded, the heat dissipation in shady cell tends to get higher (known as
hot spot) and may reduce the lifetime of the PV module.

The PV arrays are located at higher terrain PV arrays are free of shades, although
and in perfect distance between arrays. there are massive numbers of lightning
rods installed.

Shading

Shading

Partial shading by the power house built Shading from big trees around could
nearby the array. significantly reduce the power production
up to 40%.

22 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to avoid reduction
in energy production due to shading?

Vegetation under and

surrounding the PV arrays
should remain low. It is
necessary to conduct
vegetation clearance during
periodic maintenance.
Design properly for each
PV site layout. The arrays Consider an accurate
should have sufficient location for each
distance in between to equipment to avoid
avoid shading from the shading such as lightning
nearby array or any higher mast, power house, grid
building at any time. pole, and fences.

Verify during
commissioning process
whether the PV arrays
are clear from shading at
any time and consider the
potential shading in the
future such as growing tree.

Conduct a correct site

identification during
feasibility study to ensure that
the system will be clear from
shading at all times of a day
and all seasons of a year.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 23

 Height

Insuficient

Insuficient

Insufficient distance between arrays leads PV array is too low. Vegetations may
to partial shading on the lower array. shade the PV modules and reduce the
airflow below the module.

What is the ideal distance between PV arrays?

It is important to calculate accurately the distance between PV arrays, especially when the arrays
are not installed at the same height. An adjacent distance may lead to shading, while very distant
arrangement between arrays results in excessive land use for the PV field.

The minimum required separation distance (D) between PV arrays is highly dependent on latitude
point of the site, height of the PV array (H), and time, especially in the place where the sun path
changing significantly during the year. In the case of site near to equatorial area, the rule of thumb
is that the distance should be at least twice the height from the PV surface.

Distance (m)
2
Height from the PV surface (m)

There are several software tools to

simplify the shading analysis (i.e.
PV SOL). The software allows the
height (H) engineers or designers to create layout
of their system, complete with the sun-
path chart at the appointed location
distance (D) and results in the amount of energy
yield which also includes the losses
when PV array is shaded.

24 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

2.2. PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE

A PV module consists of a number of photovoltaic cells that are interconnected in series form
and manufactured into a single robust unit. The cells and interconnecting busbar are protected
by encapsulating materials that will protect them from harsh environment and mechanical force
which may damage the thin cells. Electrical performance of a PV module is characterised by its
current-voltage (I-V) curve. The curve represents the current and voltage operating points for a
PV module at a certain solar irradiance and module temperature. Since PV module is an essential
component in PV mini-grid, good quality PV module is vital to sustain the operation of the system.

Typical silicon-based PV module

PV Cell

Frontside

Frame

Backside

Junction box
is used as a terminal connection
between the series of PV cells
to the load or other modules. It
contains the ribbon of PV cells,
cables and bypass diode.

PV module should be tested and comply with its quality standard according to IEC 61215 for mono
and polycrystalline module while thin film type adheres to IEC 61646. The modules should also
have warranty period that exceeds 20 years operation with maximum performance degradation
of 10 % per 10 years.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 25

 Typical silicon-based PV module

3
2

1. Frame is typically made of anodized

aluminium to avoid corrosion. As framing
is done at the end of manufacturing 4

process, it has the function to ensure the

5
robustness of the module.

2. G
lass cover protects the PV cell from
harsh environment condition and
ensuring the robustness of the module. 4. Photovoltaic cell is the main component
In consequence of its function, glass of PV module. It is made of semiconductor
cover takes the highest proportion of material that captures the sunlight and
total PV module weight. convert it to electricity. The cells are
interconnected in series to increase the
3. Encapsulant material or lamination total voltage by a thin busbar ribbon.
is a layer between PV cells and glass Silicon material is commonly used for
cover. The lamination is used to prevent photovoltaic cells, such as polycrystalline
mechanical damage to the solar cells and monocrystalline.
and electrically insulating the cells from
the rest of the panel. Typically, ethylene- 5. Insulating back-sheet is made of plastic
vinyl acetate (EVA) is used for the material to protect and electrically insulate
lamination sheet. the cells from moisture and weather.

 What should be considered when choosing the PV module?

• Use PV module with efficiency greater than • Maximum system voltage must be below 1,000
15%. Using high efficient PV modules will VDC. Setting limit to maximum system voltage
minimise the land use. adheres to the voltage of other equipment
that connect to PV module in which most of
• PV module frame should be resistant against them are rated less than 1,000 VDC. Thereby,
corrosion, i.e. anodized aluminium. interconnecting cable of PV module should
be pre-assembled with plug-in socket that is
• Power tolerance of the PV module should be rated at 1,000 VDC.
less than 2.5% under standard test conditions
(STC). This information can be found at PV
module performance label on the back of each
PV module, for example: “Peak power 100 W ±
2%” or “Output tolerance ± 2%”.

26 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 , PERFORMANCE LABEL

Label is attached on the back-sheet showing Label may soon be detached from the
the electrical characteristics of PV module. module over period of time.

The PV module should be labelled with its performance characteristics on the back side of
the panel.

 Why is it important to have label?

• It serves as a • Providing information • It provides a basis

reference for about the in designing array
PV module required electrical configuration as well as
performance during characteristics in sizing and selecting the
commissioning and case of PV module proper cables, connectors
inspection. replacement is needed. and protection devices.

Manufacturer and specific type of the module.Contact of

Brand and type of solar module
manufacturer for warranty claim.

Type Type of cell (e.g. monocrystalline, polycrystalline, etc.)

Nominal power of the module under standard test

condition (STC). STC encompasses conditions with solar
Module nominal power, PMAX [Wp]
irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, 25°C module temperature, and
air mass1 (AM) of 1.5.

Open circuit voltage, UOC [V] Voltage at the output of the module when there is no load.

Current through PV module when the circuit is shorted.

A short circuit occurs when the current finds a way
Short circuit current, ISC [A]
to bypass the appliance on a path that has little or no
resistance, which causes an excessive current flow.

Voltage at maximum power point [Ump] Operating voltage at maximum power.

Current at maximum power point [Imp] Operating current at maximum power.

Maximum permissible system voltage [Umax] Maximum voltage that the module can operate safely

1 Air mass (AM) represents the thickness of atmosphere. AM in Europe: 1.5, while in equator : 1.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 27

  How do I calculate the capacity of a photovoltaic module needed?

1. Calculate energy needs at night (17.00-07.00) and during the day (07.00-17.00) by using the electricity
consumption pattern of the village community and the estimated load increase of 30%

Night energy: 71.5 KwH x 130% = 92.95 KwH

Day energy : 18 kW x 130% = 24.05 kWh

2. Check daily solar irradiation available at the site. data can be obtained through direct measurement
or statistical data (NASA, Renewable Ninja, or Global Solar Atlas). Find the lowest average daily
irradiation in the year

10
malam night
9

8
7 Jan Feb Mar Apr Mei Jun
5.75 5.59 6.17 6.12 5.85 5.54
6 day
5 Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
4 5.76 6.45 7.09 7.34 6.96 5.99
3
Average 6.22 kWh/m2/ day
2 Minimum 5.59 kWh/m2/ day
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Lowest irradiant on Feb 5.59 kWh/m2/ day

3. Calculate the total system efficiency

for night and day use taking Losses in the photovoltaic module = 11.5%
into account the losses in the Losses in the grid inverter/ chrarge controller = 3%
photovoltaic module (temperature Losses in battery inverter = 6%
rise, dust accumulation, module Losses in cable = 2%
mismatch), losses in power Losses in battery = 15% (lead-acid)
electronics and cables, and losses Total Losses at night = 37%
in the battery (nighttime). Total losses at day = 22.5%

4. Calculate the total system efficiency for night and day use taking into account the losses in the
photovoltaic module (temperature rise, dust accumulation, module mismatch), losses in power
electronics and cables, and losses in the battery (nighttime).
Night Time Energy + Day time energy
Total Modules^’ Energy =
100%-losses at night 100%-Daytime losses

92.95 kWh + 24.05 kWh

Total Modules^’ Energy = = 179.75 kwH
62.5% 77.5%

28 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

5. Calculate the capacity of photo voltaic module and required number of modules if the nominal
power of module is 200 Wp
total modules’ energy
Module capacity = x GSTC
minimum average irradiation 32.15 kWp
min. 162 x 200 Wp → 32.4 kWp
179.75 kWh
x 1,000 W/m2
5.59 kWh/m2/hari

, PV CELL

PV cell is very sensitive and susceptible to breakage due to mechanical load. The thin ribbon busbar,
which holds the interconnection between PV cells, is also inclined to crack due to improper PV
module manufacturing process. These defects will surely reduce the performance and output of
the PV module or the worst case might be no output.

 How to mitigate any damage on PV cells?

• Establish a comprehensive quality • Regular inspections must
assurance process at the factory be conducted to check the
such as: condition of PV modules as part
o sorting out bad cells; of preventive maintenance. A
o conducting an PV module that consists of bad
electroluminescence2 inspection cells has to be replaced by the
to identify poor soldering, micro manufacturer during the warranty
cracks, and bad lamination; period.
o running a mechanical load test
to determine possible damages
caused by such vibration or load.

Perfect condition of PV cell which is free from Snail track defect on modules, might be
crack, snail track3, and has good soldering. caused by material defect. In long term,
such defect may cause hotspot.

2. Electroluminescence is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light in response to an electric
current applied to the material.
3. The snail track is a mark that resembles a snail's path across the surface of a photovoltaic cell in a photovoltaic module.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 29

  What is hot spot?

An expanding areas of localized heat on PV cell happens when there are differences in
illumination among the PV cells. As the output of a cell is proportional to irradiance, the cells
may behave differently and may create problems when connected in series. The substandard
cells current will reduce and limit the operating current of the entire string. During this time,
the substandard cells will generate reverse power or dissipate power. It becomes more severe
when the substandard cells are completely covered and dissipating the total power produced
by the good cells in the string. Hence, this course creates hot spot.

Since there is a limitation in a cell to handle power dissipation, the substandard cells may be
overheated thus results in hot spot. Not limited to partial shading, temperature inclination might
also emanates from resistive heating due to poor quality of cells, lousy solder joints between
the cells and the presence of low-shunt cells. Low-shunt resistance provides route diversion
for the light-generated current thus causes power losses in solar cells. An ideal cell should
have high-shunt resistance, low-shunt resistance is typically caused by manufacturing defect.

Hot spot may degrade or damage the cell, melt the interconnection, and initiate arc due to
the deterioration of back sheet and lamination.

Poor soldering may increase series of A cracked PV cell in a string of cells. Such
resistance and thus deteriorating the PV crack will reduce performance and possibily
module characteristics. leads to hot spot.

Hot spot

Hot spot and low-quality modules that could Burnt PV cell due to significant
reduce the power production. increase of heat.

30 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

  How to avoid hot spot?

• Early detection of hot • Connect a bypass diode in reverse parallel

spot by regular check on with a cell or a group of cells. During normal
temperature of PV module operation, when all cells are irradiated, the
surface using thermal cells produce electricity and bypass diode is
imaging camera. blocked. The bypass diode starts conducting
when one or several cells are shaded.

How to identify the hot spot using thermal imaging camera?

Example of thermal imaging camera4. Detection of hot spot on a PV module. There

The spot is identified by pointing out the is a block of cell that has significantly higher
camera to the PV module. temperature compared to the neighbouring cells.

Six bypass

PV module is equipped with six bypass Absence of bypass diode may risk the PV
diodes located inside junction box to protect module during shading.
a string of 72 cells.

4 FLIR. Available: http://www.flir.fr/cs/display/?id=60636 (Accessed: 27 February 2017).

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 31

 How to choose a bypass diode

The figure illustrates a PV module with 72 cells connected in series and protected
by three bypass diodes during normal operation. Maximum number of cells to be
protected by one diode is mainly calculated based on breakdown voltage of the
cells and forward voltage (VF) of the diode. Typically, the breakdown voltage of
the cell is 30 V for monocrystalline and 12 to 24 V for polycrystalline.

The Schottky diode is often used for this purpose as it has low VF in the range of
0.15 to 0.5 V. A Schottky diode may protect up to 24 cells by assuming that the open
circuit voltage of a silicon-based cell is 0.5 V5. Therefore, three diodes are used to
protect 72 cells module.

Besides, the diode should have sufficient maximum repetitive reverse voltage
(VRRM). It is required because at lowest temperature the voltage might be equal to
the value of maximum open circuit voltage of the module divided by the number
of diodes. Considering module with open circuit voltage of 40 V and maximum
of 48 V due to decreasing module temperature, the VRRM of each diode should
be higher than 16 V.

(-)

A PV module with 72 cells

connected in series and protected
by three bypass diodes.

(+)

5 STMicroelectronics. How to choose a bypass diode for a silicon panel junction box. Application Note AN3432, 2011.

32 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, PV MODULE GLASS COVER

One of the glass cover functions is protecting the entire photovoltaic module. The glass cover
should be free from crack to ensure the optimum module performance as well as protecting
the module. However, several damages may be unavoidable, for example a stone landing
during landslide, falling trees, and human errors such as bad material handling and packaging
during shipment and inventory. A significant rising temperature due to hot spot, misuse of
support structure, and tension applied by the module frame may also cause the glass to crack.

PV modules should be free from cracks and avoid connecting a cracked PV module in an array.

 Why a broken glass should never be connected?

• Moisture, oxygen and water could enter the broken part and corrode the wiring, and possibly
cause short circuit.
• A severe glass damage may harm the PV cells and interrupt wiring connection between
the cells thus it may disconnect the entire string.
• The cracks may reduce the transmission of light to PV cell; therefore, lessen the output
power of module. Damages due to escalation of heat dissipation or hot spot heating in the
cell with least sun exposure may happen if bypass diodes are not installed in the module.
• Declining amount of power generation.

Shattered glass
Spot crack

Shattered module in the middle of good Spot crack on the glass possibly due to stone
modules. throwing.


How to avoid power cutback due to glass crack?

• Ensure that the modules are well-attached to the support structure.

• Improve material handling and packaging methods during transportation.
• Always store PV modules that are covered inside its packaging.
• Check condition of all PV modules regularly to identify possible cause of crack such as
landslide hazard or loose PV modules. A module with cracks should be immediately replaced
with similar module type.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 33

  Why the glass cover should always be cleaned?

PV modules should be cleaned regularly to optimize the transmission of light to the cells.
Soiled PV modules significantly reduce its performance.

 How to maintain the cleanliness of the module?

100

Mounting the PV array Schedule a regular cleaning Ensure the modules

with at least 10° tilt angle of PV arrays according to are free of residues on
to enable self-cleaning characteristics of the site the glass cover during
mechanism through location. Weekly cleaning is installation.
rainwater. The modules recommended when the site
should be installed is located in dry and dusty
with sufficient distance area such as nearby the
among them. beach, close to a volcanic
caldera, desert or sand dunes.
The sand or dust on the glass
cover has to be flushed with
water and swept to avoid
accumulation of dirt on it.


How to clean PV modules?

• It is best to clean the modules early in the

morning as the dew that emerges during
the night has moisten the dirt.
• Brush the dust and dirt before applying
water. Never use any metal tool to clean
the glass cover as it may scratch the glass
thus creates shadow.
• Only use clean water as the cleaning
agent. Avoid using chemical cleaning
agents such as detergent to avoid
unexpected scratches.

34 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Clean PV modules to maintain optimum Dusty PV modules located in sandy area.
light transmission to the PV cells.

, PV LAMINATION

Delamination can occur between the glass cover and encapsulant material as well as between
the encapsulant and PV cells. A defect mainly occurs due to inadequate quality of adhesive
bond that is sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, humidity, or contamination from the material.
Delamination results in reduction of light transmission thus lessen the output power.

Bad lamination around the busbar creating Big bubble under the glass cover indicating a
a gap between the glass and cell. bad manufacturing quality of PV module.

 How to avoid delamination?

• Select an adhesive that is adequately stable to moisture and is resistant to UV radiation.

• Conduct module testing to eliminate alteration in material and process.
• All encapsulants, back-sheets and labels have to be periodically tested under UV exposure
and high temperature.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 35

 , BACK-SHEET OF THE PV

The back sheet is made of a thin foil polymer that should be mechanically strong, UV resistant,
and functioning as a good barrier against direct exposure to the environment such as protecting
from weather, dirt, and moisture. The sheet also provides safe operation of PV module as it
is used to isolate the possible high DC voltage on the string of cells. Back-sheet of the PV
module should be free from cracks, bubbles, and delamination. This is to avoid water leakage
that may reduce the performance of the module due to corrosion of the internal metal parts,
degradation of the encapsulant, and internal short circuit.

Good condition of back-sheet. Delamination and broken back-sheet may

risk the internal connection.

Delamination leads to higher possibility of exposure to live (or electrified) components. The
situation might be worsened when the delamination forces the internal connection to break.
The broken busbar may create spark gap and thus generate arc6 especially at high voltage.

How to reduce the risk of having delaminated back-sheet?



• More selective in • Testing the module in a • Conduct visual screening

choosing material and long-term period with of the modules before
adhesive that is durable outdoor exposures. The shipment to the site.
to humidity and UV module should pass the
radiation. test adhered to IEC 61730
– Photovoltaic (PV) module
safety qualification.

6 Electric arc is a high-density electric current between two separated conductors in gas or vapor with a relatively low
potential difference, or voltage, across the conductors.

36 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, JUNCTION BOX

 What is a good junction box?

• Junction box is attached using a good quality adhesive system to maintain a long-term
adhesion.
• The junction box should be covered and rubbery sealed to avoid water ingress, short
circuit, and electrical hazard because of the existence of live voltage. A good junction
box should have at least IP 65 rating which provides protection against dust and low
pressure water jets.
• Equipped with appropriate cable glands suit to the conductor size. The cable glands
should be tightened to avoid water entering the box.
• Secure connection by having conductors that had been crimped and soldered.
• Installed with bypass diodes to protect the module from inflicting hot spot.

cable

A good junction box is well attached and Junction box is not closed properly thus
closed tightly. it may lose ingress protection (IP) rating.
Moisture and water may enter the box
and cause corrosion.

Unfastened cable gland

Vibration or physical movement during high Exposed junction box with unsecured
wind speed may shift the wood block and cable glands lead to corrosion of internal
leave the box open. connection and short circuit.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 37

 , PV MODULE FRAME

A PV module should be designed to withstand against heavy mechanical stress. The frame
should keep its form to ensure the robustness of the module and maintain the bonding to
the support structure. Moreover, having a non-uniform frame may increase the stress on the
glass, thus may risk the glass cover and the PV cell of being cracked over period of time.

The PV module frame should be in a good condition and securely fasten.

Twisted PV module frame causing glass Bent PV module frame due to missing screw.
cracking. PV module with broken glass
should be replaced.

 What can be done to avoid deformity on frame?

• The PV module must be securely • A proper handling during

fastened and prevented from transportation of PV modules. The
failing due to high wind or other packaging should shun vibration
mechanical loads. and bump to a minimum level.

38 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

2.3 PV MODULES INTERCONNECTION

Photovoltaic generator is built from the series and parallel connections of individual PV modules
to achieve an intended voltage and current. It consists of individual PV modules connected
in series to increase the voltage. Once the intended output voltage is achieved, the individual
series connection of PV modules is connected in parallel in the combiner box to increase the
current. The desired output power is linear with the number of modules. As the PV module
has voltage limitation, the number of modules and the total open circuit voltage should not
exceed to voltage rating of the individual module.

Example configuration of several PV modules forming a PV string

+ - + - + - + - + -

- + - + - + - + - +

PV interconnection

combiner box

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 39

 How to electrically connect the PV modules?

 What to consider when interconnecting PV modules?

The number of modules All components should PV string must consists

formed in series should have insulation rating of of similar type of PV
consider the maximum and 1000 VDC or at least the modules to avoid
minimum input voltage of maximum open circuit reduction of power.
solar charge controller and voltage of the entire PV
grid inverter. string at any condition. The
PV string voltage should not
exceed the rated voltage
(1000 VDC) or the maximum
voltage that all the
equipment could withstand.

The drawing of the complete array configuration should be available on site. Each combiner
box or even string should be labelled with number for tracking purposes.

40 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

What is PV cell, PV module, PV string, and PV array?

PV Cell
The basic building block
that has typically an output
voltage of 0.5 VDC.

PV Module
A group of PV cells
connected in series. It is
also called a solar panel.

PV String
Several PV modules
connected in series. The
number of PV modules
depends on the charge
controller or grid inverter.

PV Array
The entire group of
modules in a system. An
array can be multiple PV
string connected in parallel.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 41

 , Module composition in an array

PV arrays with identical modules to ensure Mix of various modules in an array

equal performance of each PV module. indicating differences in performance.

The complete PV array should contain identical PV modules with similar brand, type, and
characteristics. During commissioning, it is required to verify performance verification of each
PV string for the expected output and similarity between each PV string. The measurement
could be conducted in the combiner box.

Combining PV modules with different characteristics in an array is not strictly prohibited, but
not recommended as the module mismatch will reduce the performance of the total array.
Notice that an array should consists of modules with similar specifications as follow: type
of cell (monocrystalline, polycrystalline or thin film), nominal power, operating voltage and
current at maximum power, open circuit voltage, and short circuit current.

 Why should an array consist of similar type of modules?

• The total current and voltage in an array is limited to the weakest PV module. If in a PV string
there is a module with rated current lower than the others, the total current will be reduced
to the current value produced by the weakest module. For modules connected in parallel,
the voltage will be equal to the voltage of the lowest rated module.
• Maximum power point tracker (MPPT) in the solar charge controller and grid inverter will
not be able to find the most optimum operating voltage and current as the electrical
characteristics are different.
• Degradation rate of power is different among PV modules.

42 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 What can be done when a module need to be replaced?

• Replace the broken module in a PV • Replace the broken module in a PV

string only with module of the same block only with module of the same
brand, type, and rate of current at brand, type, and rate of voltage at
maximum power and short circuit. maximum power and open circuit.

, CABLE INSTALLATION AND SUPPORT

Tray

Cables are securely installed inside cable Cables are hanging loosely below the
conduits. modules and are not supported with
cable tray.

Cables are under tension

cable conduit

Cables are protected inside the cable Cables are unprotected, directly exposed
conduit. Providing cable support may to the sun, and under tension.
increase the lifetime of the cable.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 43

  How to improve the installation?

• Loosen cable tension • Re-route the cable and,

to avoid frequent if necessary, reduce the
disconnection that can cable length to cut down
be triggered only by small losses.
mechanical move.

• Avoid cable loop

• Despite UV and water-
between the positive
resistant cables are
and negative phase. The
used, it is preferable to
positive and negative
install the cables inside
phase of PV string cable
a cable tray or trunking
should be as close
to also help against
as possible to avoid
mechanical movement
induced voltage caused
during high wind.
by lightning strike.

• Always support the

• Regular inspections cables with cable
must be performed to conduit to prevent
check the condition direct contact between
of cables and its cables and nearby
connection. Cables sharp edges that
which exhibit signs of may lead to damage
bad connection, such of external sheath
as melted or burnt or insulation. Cable
and broken insulation, conduit should be
have to be repaired or suitable for outdoor
replaced. application such as fire
and UV-resistant.

Broken insulation may lead to electric shock hazard and creating electric arc.

How to route the PV cables?

• Install PV modules in one string in top-to-top configuration where the top-side of the modules
are placed in parallel with the top-side of other modules.
• Use a longer wire to connect between the top and bottom row. Long path will slightly increase
the voltage drop but reduce the risk of having induced voltage.
• Route the wire along the junction boxes of the PV modules to reduce the distance between
positive and negative wires (see diagram of Example configuration of several PV modules forming
a PV string).

44 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Cables are installed inside a conduit. Derating Cables are not protected in a conduit.
factor of the cable should be considered There is a risk of insulation damage due
when calculating the conductor size. to sharp edges.

Wires are installed along the junction box. A short path connection may result in
big cable loop, thus increase the risk of
induced voltage.

Unused conductor

single core cable

Cable with proper type (single core Make-shift solution of using only single
cable) and size is used. wire from multi-core cable.

The cross-sectional area of the interconnecting cables between solar modules in one module
string photovoltaic must not be less than 4 mm2. Avoid extreme bending of the cable. The
minimum bending radius must not be less than four times the diameter cable (Radius ≥ 4D).

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 45

 , CABLE INTERCONNECTION BETWEEN PV MODULES

 What to consider when selecting a PV cable connector?

• It is highly • Use plugs with similar • Avoid using strip

recommended to model and type to avoid connector or screw
use pre-assembled mismatch and poor type terminal.
or dedicated plug-in connection.
connector from the PV
module manufacturer.

• Suitable maximum
system voltage rating of
1000 VDC and current
rating at relatively high
temperature (up to
80°C) is required.

Plug-in connector

Plug-in connector
Screw type

Proper plug-in connector with single core Screw terminal is installed without any
cable is used. Cables including the connectors protection. Exposed terminals lead to serious
are also located inside cable tray. electric shock hazard as well as electric
faults.

46 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Neat wiring with fixed installation of Poor cable connection and isolated by
connection box. Quality of the internal unsafe and lousy electrical tape. Using
connection must be verified during electrical tape may result in inadequate
inspection. insulation.

Avoid using screw type terminals and unreliable electrical tape. Poor and unprotected
connector as well as underrated equipment may cause internal arcs, overheating, electric
shock hazard, and risk of fire.

 How to fix the installation?

• Since the voltage at the output of PV • Use the correct connector size for the
module will always be present during the cable used. Oversized cable insertion
day, always use a pair of insulated gloves will result in water intrusion into the
when working with the live conductor. internal connection.
Individual module may generate voltage
greater than 30 VDC. Direct contact with • If a plug connector is not available,
that voltage level is potentially dangerous. screw type terminal rated at 1000
VDC and suitable current can be
• Always disconnect the PV string from used. The terminal has to be installed
the load before interrupting the circuit or inside an enclosure and proper cable
disconnecting PV modules. shoes must be crimped correctly.

• Install or replace the screw type terminal

with a plug connector. Make sure that the Never disconnect the
conductors are crimped and connected PV module under load.
properly to avoid poor contact. Bad Disconnecting a module under
load leads to electrical arcing.
contact will increase resistance and
possibly create electric arc.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 47

 2.4 Support structure and foundation of PV array

Support structure and foundation selections are critical to determine reliability of a PV array.
It is important to conduct a proper site identification during feasibility study to obtain detailed
information concerning the soil type, land topography, possible obstacles for sunlight, land
area, local climate condition, and required tilt angle.

A PV array structure that consists of concrete foundation,

support pole, and module support

Tilt adjustment

Module support

support

Foundation

Base plate

The result of the complete structure should be a sustainable permanent mounting of the PV modules
array such as robust and free of corrosion. The array must be installed with correct tilt angle, azimuth7
angle, sufficient distance between the array and nearby obstacles and with suitable foundation.

7. Azimuth angle is the compass direction from which the sunlight is coming.

48 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, PV ARRAY ORIENTATION

The tilt angle or inclination angle is defined by the latitude of

the site. In a place located nearby the equator like Indonesia,
Tilt angle
the sunlight nearly hit straight on. Therefore, inclination angle of
0° is the most optimum angle to capture the direct irradiance8.
However, 0° or relatively flat angle may cause water pooling
or an accumulation of dust on the panel surface. Therefore, it
is recommended to incline the module to a minimum of 10° to
establish self-cleaning mechanism especially during rainy day. In
the place where the solar altitude varies throughout the year, the
optimum angle to maintain high performance is determined based The tilt angle can be measured
on the average of solar altitude in different seasons. using clinometer or protractor.

east (900)
north (00)

azimuth
south (1800)

west (2700)

The azimuth angle is also known as the direction where the sun is coming. The PV module should
be oriented to face the equator to obtain an optimized energy yield.

As the azimuth varies with the latitude and time, in the northern hemisphere where the latitude is above 0°,
the optimum orientation of the module is 180° or facing to the south. And in the southern hemisphere or
below the equator, the module should face to the true north or 0°. The direction is allowed to be deviated
by up to 45° to the east or west without significantly reducing the energy yield.

The coordinate of the sites can be found using handheld GPS (Global Positioning System). Once
the latitude is known, the orientation can be defined.

8. The total amount of radiation from the sun reaching the ground surface is represented by Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI).
The amount includes Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) which comes straight directly from the sun and Diffuse Horizontal
Irradiance (DIF) which is the radiation that has been scattered by the particle in the atmosphere.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 49

 The orientation of PV modules highly determines the amount of power output from the power
plant. Ideally, the orientation of PV modules should be arranged perpendicular to the sunlight
to receive direct radiation. The orientation should be properly defined during the design and
construction phases as it is directly affected by the orientation of foundation and structure.

S 0°03'53.7" N 1°03’17.9”
E 97°51'14.9" E 97°38’24.9”

PV modules are located in the equator and Tilt angle of less than 10° might be insufficient
are tilted at the angle of 13° to establish for self-cleaning in the rain.
self-cleaning mechanism.

Northern Southern hemisphere

PV arrays are in a perfect orientation. It is The site is located in the southern

located in the northern hemisphere and is hemisphere but the PV is facing south (when
facing south. it should be facing north). It increases the
solar incident angle9 (>0°), thus reducing the
output power.

9. Angle of incident is the angle between the incident solar radiation and normal to PV array surface.

50 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, ARRAY FOUNDATION

 How the foundation should look like?

Using precast concrete foundation Anchor bolt should be cast inside the
as an alternative. The upsides are foundation with depth of ≥ 30 cm. The
that the concrete will be cast in a distance between the anchor bolt to the
controlled environment, accelerating edge and corner of the foundation should not
construction schedule, and the quality be too close to the edge (≥ 10 cm).
could be closely controlled. However,
it could be problematic to transport anchor bolt
the precast block to the site.
base plate

The foundation
should be
reinforced with 10 cm
10 cm steel
20 cm
framework.

30 cm 30 cm ≥20 cm

nd
ou
gr Construction of
per
Never use wood up foundation should
as foundation as comply with a minimum
nd
wooden material ou dimension of 35 cm x
gr
might be rotten d er 35 cm x 60 cm (length
un
≥40 cm

and weaken the x width x height). If 60

structure. cm of height is used, the
installation depth of the
foundation should be at
least 40 cm or two third
of total height (20 cm
remains visible).

For stable and compact land,

such as rocky or gravel land, use
concrete foundation as an option.
In case of incompact soil of a
The concrete should be constructed
land, such as boggy or farm
with a good mixture of cement,
land, drive-in piles may provide
sand, coarse gravel, and water. A
more stable foundation,
good mixture has a ratio of 1 part of
although concrete that is buried
cement, 3 parts of coarse gravel,
deeper can still be used.
and 3 parts of sand.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 51

 wood block

PV array is mounted on concrete Unburried and exposed wood block is used

foundation. A solid concrete foundation will as foundation. Small mechanical force leads
ensure the stability of the structure. to huge instability.

gap
too close to edge

Undersized foundation may not be able to

Very good quality foundation with plastered
withstand high mechanical load and possibly
concrete, perfect dimension, and firmly fixed
the reason of the cracks.
to the base plate by the anchor bolts.

Corrosive bolt

Gap

The concrete foundation is not burried but Cracking and crumbling array foundations
is placed on a flat surface of other solid due to bad mix of concrete. The base plate
concrete foundation. However, a ballast and anchor bolts are not firmly attached.
foundation is acceptable only and only if it
fulfills some preconditions10 .

10. Preconditions for a ballast foundation are flat surface and no gap in between the surfaces, able to balance forces from the
PV array structure, remain stable in case of strong wind and other mechanical forces.

52 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

  How to fix the concrete foundation?

• Reconstruct the foundation by expanding the size of the concrete block and follow by
increasing the distance between anchor bolts and the foundation edges.
• Clean and compact the soil around the foundation and patch with correct mix of concrete.
The base plate should be properly mounted onto the foundation.


What could cause damages to foundation?

4 1. Poor mixture of concrete or porous structure due to

excessive water use.
3
2. Insufficient depth of foundation.
3. Undersized foundation and insufficient distance
1 between anchor bolts and foundation edges.
5
4. Missing anchor bolts that may cause vibration and
increasing stress on the other bolts.
5. Gap between base plate and foundation causes
unstable structures.


How to fix the foundations?

1. Fasten the nuts 11 until the base plate is firmly

attached with the foundation.
2. Cut the bolts and screw new anchor bolts to
securely attach the base plate.
3 3. Relocate the concrete foundation to align the base
2 plate right in the middle of the block
1


How to maintain a good quality foundation?

1. Regularly check the condition of the anchor bolts.

The bolts should be securely fastened and free
from corrosion. Stainless steel or galvanized steel
must be used.
2. Compact the soil prior to installation of foundation
avoiding unstable structure.
3. Always check the quality of the concrete and
conduct preventive action when necessary.
Preventive actions comprise of grouting or patching
any signs of cracks, enlarge dimension of the
foundation.

11. Nut is a type of fasteners with a threaded hole

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 53

 Perfect visible height of the foundation Insufficient height of foundation. The base
plate is not well-attached to the foundation
results in unstable foundation.

Misaligned and unsecured array mounting Base plate is too close to a particular side of
plate. Better calculation and construction foundation edge and is not properly screwed
work are required. with anchor bo lts.

Drainage system is built to avoid erosion and Eroded foundation may cause problem to
flooding. the entire structure. Foundation should be
repaired.

Grout

Although the quality has to be maintained Unfastened and corrosive anchor bolts.
from the early phase, grouting is one way to The bolts should be hot-dip galvanized and
fill the gap. fastened.

54 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 5

, SUPPORT POLE

 How to construct support poles for PV array?

1. Use either steel pipe or L-shaped steel to

support the PV modules. The steel pipe
dimension should have diameter of equal to
or larger than 100 mm (≥ 4 inches) and with a
minimal thickness of 3 mm. If L-shaped steel is
used, the shape should have dimension equal
to or larger than 100 mm x 100 mm and with a
minimum thickness of 4 mm.
2. Support pole should have a base plate in a
square-shaped and free standing on top of
the foundation. The base plate should have
minimum thickness of 8 mm and dimension of
200 mm x 200 mm and it should also have four
holes at all corners and fixed with anchor bolts
to the foundation.
3. Ensure that there is no gap between the bottom
of the pole (foot) and the foundation.
4. The supporting structures and all the bolts must
be made of hot-dip galvanized steel.
4 5. Height of the PV module should be maintained
at minimum of 700 mm to avoid dust and
vegetation from the ground.

3
2

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 55

 Strong PV modules supports and structures Infirm PV array with nonuniform tilt angle.
with neat wiring

High quality galvanized support pole. Poor quality of galvanized support pole
with missing bolts.

Make-shift solution of using wood block to Undersized foundation may not be able
fill the gap between the pole and module to withstand high mechanical load and
support. The gap should be closed by possibly the reason of the cracks.
fastening the screws.

56 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Base plate is used at the bottom of the pole Cracked foundation possibly due to
to anchor the pole to the foundation and absence of a base plate. Brittle structure
increase stability. could not resist medium mechanical load
thus the foundation is prone to damages.

Sufficient distance between the PV PV near to the ground is prone to

module and the ground. accumulation of dust and shading due to
vegetations. The height is also insufficient
for the wind to flow and blow off the dust.

Stable and rigid mounting structure with Leaning foundaiton and insufficient steel
multiple struts. support struts resulting an unrobust and
unstable array.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 57

  What to consider when
1 constructing in a slope
landscape?
3
1. The poles should be supported
with additional struts9 to ensure
the steadiness of the structure.
2. All concrete foundations of a PV
2 string should be at the same level.
Maintain the proportion between
the visible and buried part that
when the visible foundation is
higher, it should be followed by
deeper foundation.
3. The structure should not be
too high. A very high structure
results in difficulty to conduct
maintenance on the PV module.

9. Strut is a long, thin piece of wood or metal used for support in a building, vehicle, etc

58 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, MODULE SUPPORT

The module support is used to fix the module to the support structure. The module support should
be robust while the PV modules should be properly mounted to prevent damages due to forces
by strong wind.

Main Beam
Module rail

 How is a good installation of a PV module support?

1. To prevent galvanic corrosion between aluminium frame and the mounting structure, separation
is required such as PVC or stainless steel washer. All materials should be non-corrosive materials
such as aluminium or stainless steel.
2. Use stainless steel in the place with high humidity and high salt content.
3. It is recommended to have minimum distance of 20 mm between the PV module frames to
improve air circulation and anticipate the thermal expansion. The combiner box should not be
installed under the gap to avoid direct sun exposure.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 59

  How to mount the PV module?

Good PV arrays construction and robust Insufficient height of foundation. The

installation of the main beam and module base plate is not well-attached to the
rails. foundation results in unstable foundation.

Insertion system

• PV module is installed sliding into the inner

side of the mounting rail.
• To protect the frame surface from damage,
PVC frame protection can be used inside
the rail.

Mid-clamp

• PV module is pressed by the clamp on

both sides.
• Clamps are mounted on the support
structure along the PV module frame and
must be in symmetrical position.
• Excessive pressure should not be applied
to avoid deformation of the frame that will
soon harm the glass cover.

Frame mounting holes

• PV modules are directly mounted to the

mounting structure.
• PV modules should have four pre-drilled
mounting holes along the longer sides
of the frame with two mounting holes on
each side.

60 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

A loose PV module due to missing bolts. Cable ties is used to mount the frame.
High wind force may lift the module and The holes on the PV module frame should
twist the frame. be alligned with the rail and secured with
mounting bolts.

Should not be a gap

Mid clamps

Clamps are well mounted and press the Mid-clamp does not firmly hold the PV
frame. The clamps should not shade the modules. Need to readjust the PV module
cell.a by closing the gap in between.

end clamp absence of end clamp

Insufficient rail

The PV module is perfectly mounted to Insufficient length of module rail.

the module rail. Extending or replacing the rail and end-
clamps mounting are required.

CHAPTER 2 Photovoltaic Array 61

 CHAPTER 3
PV Combiner Box
✓ Main functions of a combiner box
✓ Components inside a combiner box
✓ Best practices to design and install a combiner box

62 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

3.1. PV COMBINER BOX

The primary function of combiner box is to bring the individual PV strings into one output to obtain a higher
PV output current. Individual PV strings are connected together on the busbars and both electrically and
mechanically protected inside an enclosure. A typical combiner box contains string protection devices,
surge protection devices, busbars or additional terminals, a disconnector switch and a grounding bar.
The combined output from the combiner box is then connected directly to either solar charge controller
in DC-coupling system or grid inverter in AC-coupling system.

Combiner box with four PV strings connected in parallel

1. PV string protection device is used

to protect individual PV string against
overcurrent. A fuse is typically used for this
purpose.
2
2. DC busbar is the connection point for
several PV strings. It brings multiple strings
into a common conductor. It is made of
solid copper conductor and tin-plated for 1
corrosion protection.
2

3. Disconnector switch allows the combiner

box to be safely disconnected from solar
charge controller or grid inverter before
maintenance work is carried out.
3
4. Surge protection device is used to limit 1
voltage in the event of overvoltage, lightning 4
strikes. The device is wired to positive DC
bus, negative DC bus and ground.

5. Enclosure houses the internal

components and protects them from harsh
6
environmental condition.

6. Grounding bar provides grounding 5

connection of the box (if metal box is used)
and to divert voltage from surge protection
device when overvoltage occurs.
7
7. Cable insertion from PV string

All components in the combiner box is operating in DC voltage that may reach up to 1,000 VDC,
depending on the grid configuration. An AC-coupling system with grid inverter typically has higher
input voltage of up to 1,000 VDC, while a DC-coupling system with solar charge controller is in the
range of maximum 150 VDC. It is preferable and safer to have a lower voltage in PV mini-grid, although
higher voltage system will reduce the losses in the circuit.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 63

  What to consider when designing a combiner box?

IEC
60364-7-712

• The enclosure is located • Designed in accordance • Ambient condition and power

outdoor thus it should endure to IEC 60364-7-712 losses of the components
a wide range of environment “Requirements for special affect the heat in combiner
condition, resisted against UV, installations or locations – box. Managing the heat in
and has a high IP1 rating to Solar photovoltaic (PV) power combiner box can prevent
avoid water and small object supply systems”. overheating and derating of
intrusion. the internal components.

• Maintaining definite • All cable connections should

separation of the positive be securely tightened to
and negative sides to prevent prevent fire hazards.
accidental short circuit.

Combiner box made of Poly-carbonate Combiner box made of metal sheets

1. IP Rating stands for ingress protection rating that is used to define levels of sealing effectiveness of electrical enclosures against
intrusion from foreign bodies (tools, dirt, etc.) and moisture. http://www.enclosurecompany.com/ip-ratings-explained.php

64 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

3.2. ENCLOSURE

PV combiner boxes are installed outdoor and might be exposed to various environmental condition such
as humidity, temperature variation, and rain. Therefore, it requires appropriate outdoor rating and should
have high IP rating and UV-proof. Special consideration should also be given to the heat management
inside the enclosure to increase the lifetime of the internal components.

 How to improve the installation?

• Double insulation or protection • Polycarbonate, polyester, or

class II. This type of enclosure painted steel material can be
does not require additional used for the enclosure. However,
connection to the ground it is recommended to use
because of the multiple layers polycarbonate material due to
of insulating material between its durability in a wide range of
the internal components and environments, resisted against UV,
the box surface. and is an insulating material.

• As an additional safety • Combiner box should be

precaution, the combiner box properly sized in accordance
should be labelled and protected to required PV strings to be
from unauthorised personnel. connected.

, QUALITY OF THE ENCLOSURE

The enclosure should have protection class of IP 66 or is protected against dust and powerful water
jets. In order to achieve this, the door should have rubber seal and cable glands at the cable insertions
to avoid water entering the box.

Rubber seal
No rubber seal

Cable gland
No cable glands

The rubber seal around the door and cable Absence of rubber seal around the door and
glands improve the IP rating of the box. cable glands will allow water and animal to
enter the box.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 65

  How to improve the installation?

• Install rubber seal around the • Reorganise the cable • Drill holes for the cable
door and close the big hole installation. If possible, glands and use glands
at the bottom of the box. recalculate the required cable according to the cross
size because overrated cable section of the cable.
will reduce its flexibility.

 How to ensure the ingress protection (IP) rating of an enclosure?

• Bad IP rating is indicated by water intrusion,

sign of corrosion, and animal inside the box.
Regular check and cleaning should be done
as preventive maintenance.

• Close the door of the combiner box properly.

• All cable insertion should pass through a

cable gland. The gland should be correctly
sized and tightened according to the outer
diameter of the cable. Do not put several
cables through a single gland.

• Seal the air vent on the enclosure to

increase the IP rating. However, drain valve
or breather should be provided to minimize
condensation.

• It is recommended to have a preassembled

combiner box that is factory tested according
to IEC 61439.

• Check during commissioning that the

combiner box is rated at IP 66. If written
information is not provided, ensure that there
is no open hole bigger than 1 mm.

66 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 spider

Insect nests inside the combiner box due Spider inside combiner box.
to poor ingress protection (IP).

Cable gland installed

Cable gland is not installed

Cable glands are sized and installed perfectly. Cable glands are not used. The sharp
edge may damage the cable insulation.

Combiner box is well painted or coated to Corroded combiner box. the box may not
cover the material from corrosion be well coated or painted

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 67

  How to prevent corrosion on the combiner box?

• Provide barrier between • Consider using stainless

corrosive material and metal steel material if metal box is
housing by painting with anti- required.
corrosive paint.

• Hot-dip galvanize the metal • Use anti-corrosive material

box or provide additional zinc such as polycarbonate or
or aluminium coating. polyester.

 What are the safety consideration if the box is made from metal?

• The box may not have • Additional wire should be

protection class II. However, connected between the
make sure the box is box and door to obtain safe
grounded to ensure safety for grounding.
the operator.

Combiner box should be safe to touch in case of fault or live conductor makes contact with
the box. This could be achieved by having double insulation or grounded box if conductive
material is used.

Polycarbonate box provides a good Ungrounded metal enclosure endanger

insulation in case of electrical fault. the operator or technician in case of
Additional grounding is not needed. fault.

68 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, INSTALLATION OF COMBINER BOX

Environmental condition will significantly influence ambient temperature in combiner box thus devalue
the internal electrical components. The combiner box should be installed in a safe location and below
the PV modules to maintain the desired internal temperature of the box.

Direct sunlight must be avoided as it may heat up the box and affects the housing condition
during long-term use.

Direct sun exposure

Combiner box is located under the PV The sun radiation will heat up the box and
module to avoid direct exposure from sun increase the temperature inside the box.
and rain.

Ideal position of the box. Cable glands Make-shift solution to cover the box from
should be located at the bottom or side of sun exposure using cardboard. Improper
the box. installation may also reduce the specified
IP rating.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 69

 Cable ties

Combiner box is fixed and mounted firmly Unstable and poor installation, the cable
using suitable fasteners. ties may not be able to hold the load.

Cable ties must not be used to fix combiner boxes.

 How to fix the installation?

• Relocate and install the

combiner boxes under the PV
modules. Ensure that there is
no direct sun exposure at any
time of the day.

• Re-positioned the box so that it

does not reduce the IP Rating

• If relocation is impractical,
provide a robust or fixed roof
on top of the box.

70 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Proper dimension of combiner box. The Very small combiner box considering
bigger internal space allows the electrical the high number of installed electrical
components to dissipate heat. components.

 Why the combiner box

should not be too small?

• Spacious area inside combiner

box provides better cooling of
the internal components.

• Maintain sufficient space to work

on the box during installation
and maintenance. Very small
combiner box is prone to
unexpected mistakes.
 

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 71

 , SIGNS, LABELS, AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

High voltage DC may exist on the busbars or non-isolated live conductors inside the combiner
box! Preventive measures before opening the box such as alerting technicians with warning
sign of electrical hazard is strictly recommended.

The combiner is attached with a Absence of a warning sign. Operator or

warning sign of electrical shock hazard. technician may not be aware of the high
risk of being electrocuted.

The box is equipped with lock to prevent Combiner box is not equipped with lock and
access from an unauthorized person.. can be accessed by anyone.

72 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

3.3. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS IN THE COMBINER BOX

The components inside the combiner box comprises string protection devices, busbars, surge
protection devices, switch disconnector, and grounding bar. The electrical component should
be selected and installed properly to achieve a proper operation and protection of the PV arrays.

 What is the typical electrical diagram of PV array installation?

String 1

- + - + - +

String 2

- + - + - +

String 3

- + - + - +

String 4

- + - + - +

String String
connection protection
device device

- +

Disconnector switch

Surge protection device

C O M B I N E R B O X

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 73

 
What to consider when installing
the equipment?

• All components should be DC-

rated and are able to accommodate
voltage up to the maximum voltage
of the PV strings.

• Ensure that the current-carrying

conductors are correctly sized
and secured by protection devices
from being overheated caused
by excessive current. Protection
devices should also be properly
sized to avoid unresponsive devices
or unexpected trip
.
• Using protection device that
can be reset, such as MCB, is
recommended due to the limited
spare parts in rural areas.

Electrical drawing is available and attached The installation is not provided with
to the combiner box to easily identify the drawing. This may cause difficulty during
components. service or maintenance.

74 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, STRING PROTECTION DEVICE

Each PV string has to be protected with a string protection device when a combiner box has more
than two strings connected in parallel. The protection device will protect the connected cables
and PV modules against overcurrent and reverse current in PV strings. It will disconnect the faulty
string and keep the rest of the strings in operation.

 What to consider when selecting string protection devices?

45°C

• Only consider • It is recommended • If fuse is preferred, • The current

protection devices to use MCBs than use PV type of fuse capability of the
that have proven fuses. MCB is more specifically designed protection device
DC switching sensitive, easy for photovoltaic should consider
capability. to identify faults, installation. derating factor in
able to be reset, case of high ambient
safer, and provides temperature. It is safe
individual string to consider derating
isolation. factor at ambient
temperature of 45°C.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 75

 Why string protection device is important?

The reverse current in PV strings occurs in the event of faulty wiring or short circuit in a PV module.
During normal condition, the current of each string is summed and feeding into the charge controller.
Once electrical fault occurs, the voltage of the faulty string is significantly lower than the healthy
ones. This results in flow of current from the healthy strings to the faulty one instead of to the
solar charge controller. A considerable sum of current from the healthy strings may increase the
temperature of the faulty PV module as well as the conductor. It is also possibly causing fire if no
overcurrent protection is installed.

Normal condition

String 1

- + - + - +

String 2

- + - + - +

String 3

I_string = 8A
- + - + - +

String 4

- + - + - +

String String
connector connector
device device

- +

Disconnector switch

I_total =8Ax4 = 32A

COMBINER BOX

76 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Never use an AC-rated circuit breaker in a DC circuit. Only use circuit breakers that have
proven DC switching capability.

Faulty condition

String 1

- + - + - +

String 2
I_string _fault = 24A

- + - + - +

String 3

- + - + - +

String 4

- + - + - +

String String
connection protection
device device

- +
I_reverse= 8A x 3 = 24 A

Disconnector switch

COMBINER BOX

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 77

 Voltage rating = 1000 VDC
Main fuse
AC-rated MCB

Main AC-rated MCB

DC-rated MCBs are used to protect PV strings. Wrong type of circuit breaker is used. AC-
rated MCB may not be able to extinguish the
DC arc.

 How to fix such installation?

• Main fuse is not necessary to be installed as there will be a small chance the fuse will burn. It
is recommended to remove the main fuse and bypass the cable since the fuse will generate
heat when current is flowing.
• Replace all AC-rated MCBs with DC-rated protection devices. Opt to use a string fuse instead
of blocking diodes. Blocking diodes cause additional drop of voltage for about 0.5 to 1 V that
leads to significant power losses. The function is better served by a string fuse.

How an AC switch and a DC switch extinguishes electric arc?

The function of a switch is to interrupt the circuit from/to power source, in this case PV array and
the load. During the event of disconnecting, the internal contacts detach and an electric arc will be
created as the current jumps across the air gap. In this period of time, the arc must be extinguished
to stop the flow of current through the circuit. As the characteristic of AC and DC voltage is different,
the AC and DC switches extinguish the arc differently.

• AC switch • DC switch

In the AC circuit, the voltage alternates in Unlike the AC circuit, DC circuit is constant and
sinusoidal form 50 times per second (for does not alternate. Since there is no 0 V, the AC
50 Hz grid) between +V and -V. Since there switch will not be able to interrupt a DC circuit.
is a point at which the voltage is at 0 V, the A DC switch uses magnet to attract the arc
switch will interrupt the connection as well from the air gap and extinguish it. Therefore,
as extinguish the arc particularly at 0 V. never use an AC switch that is not equipped
with magnet as it is unable to extinguish the arc.

78 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 +
String fuse

Blocking diode

Fuses are installed at both positive and Negative side (see black cables) is not
negative sides. Spare fuses are also protected by any protection device. Fuses
provided in the box. and blocking diode are used.

Opt to use a string fuse instead of blocking diodes. Blocking diodes cause additional drop of
voltage for about 0.5 to 1 V that leads to significant power losses. The function is better served
by a string fuse.

 Why the string protection device should be provided at both positive and negative sides?

• To protect the string cable in case of • To provide isolation

double ground fault. Double ground
fault occurs when the negative and
+ - at both positive and
negative sides.
positive sides touch the ground at the
same time. In this case, fault current
path may still be existed if protection
device is not provided.

Consider ambient temperature, power losses and ideal temperature of the internal
components when designing the layout of the installation.

Distance between fuses

Heat air stream

Fuses are installed in horizontal Fuses with vertical arrangement may cause
arrangement with adequate distance unexpected trip on the top fuses during
between the fuses. normal operation.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 79

  How to ensure proper operation of the protection devices?

• Use correct size of the • Conduct inspection to • Electrical fault has to

protection device. regularly monitor the fuses be located and cleared
condition. Burnt fuse or before switching
tripped MCB should be the MCB back on or
investigated immediately. replacing the fuse.

20%

• Fuse holder should • Provide a minimum of 20%

never be left empty. spare fuses from the total
Insert a dummy fuse to fuses installed with similar
avoid the spark gap. size and rating inside the box.

Never open the fuse holders during operation or under load. Intervene the circuit during
operational may lead to fire, due to electric arc and electrical shock hazards. Main switch
disconnector has to be opened.

 How to size string protection devices?

Example:
PV module specification:
• Short-circuit current (ISC) = 8 A
• Open-circuit voltage (UOC) = 25 V
• Number of modules connected in a
string (n_modules) is 10.

Minimum voltage rating (Urating) is 300 V

(1.2 x 25 V x 10).

Minimum current rating (Irating) is 10 A

(1.25 x 8 A).

80 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, BUSBAR TERMINAL

 How to safely install positive and negative busbars?

• Keep sufficient distance between positive and negative busbars. It is recommended to install
connections from different polarities on different sides.
• Ensure that there is no contact between cable conductors and busbars to avoid damage on
the cable insulation which is prone to short circuit.
• If rearrangement is not possible, install a non-conductive separator between the positive and
negative busbars.
• Heat-shrink insulation tube should be installed on the surface of the busbar to reduce the risk
of having short circuit as well as reducing the clearance in between.

Insufficient distance

Cable touches busbar

Positive and negative busbars are separated Insufficient distance between positive
by cable tray. and negative busbars.

Insulated comb busbar

Comb busbar is covered by insulation Unisolated and bare live conductor or

material to avoid accidental short circuit. unisolated busbar is prone to have short
circuit.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 81

 , DISCONNECTOR SWITCH

Interrupting a relatively high voltage DC circuit may cause

electric arc and possibly lead to fire hazards. A switch is
required to be installed at the output of the combiner box in
order to safely disconnect or isolate the PV generator and
load. The switch will ensure the absence of flowing current
and voltage during service and maintenance on the combiner
box, wiring to the power house, and solar charge controller
or grid inverter.


What should be considered when
installing a switch disconnector?

• The rated current of the switch should

be 1.25 times higher than the total
current of the connected PV string. For
example, if five PV strings with short-
circuit current of 8 A are connected
in the combiner box, a switch
disconnector rated at ≥ 50 A should be
used (8 A x 5 strings x 1.25 = 50 A).

• The switch should be DC-rated and

graded at maximum open circuit voltage
of the PV array. In case the voltage
reaches 1000 VDC, four poles in series
are required to break the circuit.

• Switch disconnector should allow safe

disconnection. Prior to maintenance,
it should easily be accessible by the
operator or technician to disconnect the
PV string.

82 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Vertical arrangement of
fuses

MCB

No disconnector switch at
the output

DC-rated MCB is used as a switch Single-pole AC MCB is used to

disconnector to isolate PV strings from disconnect DC circuit. AC MCB will not
the load. be able to estinguish the arc.

DC-rated MCB

AC-rated MCB is
symbolised with “~” sign

Double-pole DC MCB rated at 800 VDC Single-pole AC MCB is used to

is used to interrupt and isolate the disconnect DC circuit. AC MCB will not
circuit. be able to estinguish the arc.


How to fix such installation?

• Install a double-pole • In case of unavailable • Rearrange the fuse

switch disconnector at the DC switch disconnector, installation to a horizontal
output to isolate the PV a double-pole DC-rated configuration to avoid
array during service and MCB with the correct unintentional trip of the
maintenance. voltage and current rating upper fuses.
can be used.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 83

 , CABLE INSTALLATION

 How to avoid poor cable installation?

• All cables should be terminated using the correct

type and size of cable shoes. Always check the
tightness of the crimping by slightly pull the cable.
• Inspection should be conducted in a regular
basis. Use an infrared camera to identify loose
connections. Poor connection can be indicated
by warmer points.
• Ensure that all the screws and bolts are fastened.
If necessary, re-torque all electrical connections
in the combiner box.
• It is recommended to use preassembled and
tested components to avoid unnecessary
mistakes when performing assembly on site.
Quality assurance e.g. continuity test may also
be conducted in the factory to ensure a proper
connection and ideal ambient temperature.
• Avoid using excessive cable terminals. Additional
screw terminal will add new source of problems
as well as additional resistance.

Never use an AC-rated circuit breaker in a DC circuit. Only use circuit breaker labelled as DC-
rated for DC application.

Single core cable

PV string cable

Bigger size of the single core conductors Multi-core cable is connected in parallel
are used. The cables can handle the PV to increase the capacity of the cable. The
array current. cable is not equipped with cable shoes
either.

84 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Heat air stream

Poor cable crimping may risk the safety of Burnt sign at the terminal of MCB. Possibily
the operator and may lead to ground fault. due to electric arc caused by loose cable
connection.

Cables are well equipped with cable shoes Melted screw terminals. The screw
and screws are properly fastened. terminals are not designed to handle the
string current.

Cables must be terminated and properly tightened. Crimping and a bad connection can result
in increased heat due to high-resistance connection and possible fire risk

 What safety precautions should be taken into consideration before conducting an inspection?

• PV modules always • Always wear • Open the switch • Ensure that the
generate electricity insulated rubber disconnector to enclosure is
when they are glove. break the load. grounded or has
exposed to the sun. good insulation.
It is less dangerous
to conduct the
inspection during
cloudy time.

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 85

 Corroded terminals. Ensure that the Corrosion may increase the resistance
enclosure has high IP rating and replace the of the terminals.
corrosive terminals.

Label indicates the string number Burned

Poor cable crimping may risk the safety of Unlabeled components and wrong cables
the operator and may lead to ground fault. are used.

Difficulties in conducting service or troubleshooting are often found when tracing and finding
the correct components. It is recommended to label all components and put the circuit diagram
at the door of combiner box.

 Why correct labelling is required?

• The operator can easily follow the instruction through the labels, if remote troubleshooting
should be conducted.
• Provide safety precautions for the operator to be more careful when conducting activities.

86 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

What insulation colour of wire should be used?

red DC positive (+)

black DC negative (-)

green grounding

Cables are neatly wired and routed inside The cable is not installed in the cable
cable tray. tray and it has excessive cable length.

Cables should be arranged neatly and not too long. A very long cable will cause unnecessary
voltage drop..

CHAPTER 3 Combiner Box 87

 CHAPTER 4
Solar Charge Controller
✓ What is solar charge controller?
✓ Good and bad installation of solar charge controller
✓ Things to consider when setting the parameters

88 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

4.1. WHAT IS SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER?

Solar charge controller (SCC) or also known as battery charge regulator (BCR) or charge regulator is a
power electronic component in a PV mini-grid to provide interface between the PV array and the battery
bank to allow an optimal battery charging. It operates by regulating the charging voltage and current
based on the available power from the PV array and the battery state of charge (SoC). To achieve higher
charging current, multiple charge controllers can be installed in parallel on the same battery bank to
combine the power from each PV array. In this case, data interchange between the devices is required.

Typical installation of SCCs in the PV mini-grid system.

SCC

PV array

Solar Charge
Controller

DC BUS 48 V

Charge flow
Communication
Power line

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 89

  What are the functions of a solar charge controller?
• Convert high-voltage
DC from PV string to a
lower-voltage for battery
(typically 48 V).

• Maximize the power transfer from PV array

to the batteries using maximum power
point tracker (MPPT1) algorithm.

Heat sink

Display indicating
• Measure and monitor voltage,
the status of SCC
current, and energy captured
from the PV array and delivered
them to the battery bank.

Wiring
compartment

1 Maximum Power Point Tracker is an algorithm or technique used by solar charge controller or grid inverter for tracking
and extracting maximum possible power from PV array under certain conditions.

90 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 • Block reversing current from the
battery banks during the time with
insufficient solar irradiance or at night.

• Protect battery banks from

overcharging by decreasing the
charging current from PV array
when the battery is already full.
Overcharging the battery may cause
gassing and explosion depending
on the battery technology.

Schneider MPPT 60 150 SMA SIC 50-MPT

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 91

 , SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER SPECIFICATION

Selecting a proper type and design of SCC is important for the efficiency and life time of the PV
mini-grid system, particularly for battery. SCCs are specified mainly based on the configuration of
PV array, system voltage, and characteristic of the battery. Hence, it is crucial to understand the
specification of the SCC to avoid harming the controller. The table below explains common terms
used in the specification

Max. open circuit voltage [V] Maximum input DC voltage of PV array at open circuit voltage (UOC)

MPP or operating range [V] Range of voltage range for maximum power point tracker

Max. input current [A] Maximum input DC current of PV array at short circuit current

Output voltage [V] Nominal battery voltage

Max. battery charging current [A] Maximum output current to charge the battery at certain voltage

Leonics SCB 48120 Morningstar TriStar TS-MPPT-60

Label attached on the SCC shows the electrical characteristics of the installed SCC. The information on
the label is useful to identify the type and specification, especially during inspection or maintenance.

92 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 What is the ideal specification of a solar charge controller?

• Maximum input voltage and current of the device must be higher than maximum voltage
and current of the connected PV array at any condition, as well as considering the PV modules
temperature coefficient. Module temperature of less than 25°C will increase the output voltage
whilst higher temperature will increase the output current. Safety margin of 1.25 for both input
current and voltage should be considered.

Max. input voltage SCC > 1.25 x UOC PV Array

Max. input current SCC > 1.25 x ISC PV Array

• High efficiency (≥ 98%) at system voltage and featured with MPPT.

• Equipped with the following protection systems:
a. Input reverse polarity, when accidentally make incorrect connection with the wires
b. High-voltage disconnect, that automatically stops the charging process when the battery
voltage reaches the defined limit to avoid overcharging the battery.
c. Overcurrent protection, the device should be rated at least 125% of the PV array short
circuit current.
d. PV ground fault protection, to protect the cables when the conductors of the PV module
touching the grounding system.
e. Overvoltage protection, placed at the input from the PV array.
f. Temperature-compensated battery charging is the ability of SCC in controlling the charging
voltage based on battery temperature.

• Suitable for the installed battery technology (i.e. lead-acid, lithium-ion, zinc-air, etc.). Every
battery has different characteristics, therefore appropriate configuration is required, especially
when designing and installing the system. The nominal output current of solar charge controller
should not be higher than the permissible charging current of the used battery. The cut-off limit
or high-voltage disconnection threshold of the battery should be configured differently for each
battery technology.

Max. charge current SCC ≤ 10C* rate battery (lead-acid)

Voltage at CV mode ≤ Maximum voltage of battery

*C-rate is the rate which defines duration of a battery to be charged or discharged at full capacity.
The 10C rate means to allow the battery to charge or discharge within ten (10) hours, for example,
10C of 1000 Ah battery is 100 A. Battery with lower C-rate offers faster charge and discharge.
Lithium batteries allow lower C-rate, hence higher current per hour.

• User friendly display that shows the status of SCC. It will help operator or technician to easily
monitor the system.
• Tested and certified according to IEC 62509. The standard comprises of information regarding
battery charge controllers for photovoltaic systems as well as performance and functioning
charge controllers.
• Manufactured by a reputable company that has good track record and clear warranty
procedures.
• Connect only the similar brand and type of SCC in parallel when aiming a higher power.

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 93

 4.2. SCC HARDWARE INSTALLATION AND WIRING

As the installation requirements are different between the products, this chapter will only cover general
aspects of the installation. To access information that are specific to manufacturer or product, it is highly
recommended to follow the user manual of the product.

, LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE UNITS

Good airflow is crucial to keep the device temperature at

ideal operating temperature. Overheated device will reduce
the output power of the system or even put the device
into a faulty condition. For a good cooling mechanism, it
is recommended to consider the minimum vertical and
horizontal distance between the devices that are specified
by the manufacturer. The distance usually depends on
where the heatsink and ventilation are placed.
Minimum
clearance

Configuration of SCCs
with minimum clearance
required by manufacturers. Minimum Minimum
Check the user manual for clearance clearance
the minimum clearances.

>15 cm

<15 cm

Perfect distance between the devices. Insufficient distance between the devices
The heat convection will not affect the will hamper heat dissipation of the device.
equipment next to it.

Sufficient distance between the SCCs should be provided to allow heat to dissipate. Rated
performance may not be achieved if the clearances are below the requirement.

94 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to improve the heat management of the installation?

20 cm

• Re-arrange the • Power electronic equipment • Make sure that the

position of the charge should not be installed inside ambient temperature of
controllers based on an enclosure, unless an the room is below 30°C.
the recommended adequate ventilation, such as
layout specified by the active cooling, is provided. If
manufacturer. In general, the enclosure is not equipped
20 cm is an acceptable with cooling fan, relocate the
distance between the SCCs to an open area inside
devices for both vertically the power house to get natural
or horizontally. cooling for the devices.

• Regular cleaning for the • Install cable support to protect

ventilation of the SCC and route the cables. Heat
using dry cloth to avoid dissipation of the cables may
accumulation of dust. also contribute to accumulated
heat inside the panel.

SCC

PV string protection should not be here

Perfect distance between the devices. Untidy and very dense installation.
The heat convection will not affect the Installing SCC inside an enclosure
equipment next to it. requires a good air ventilation.

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 95

 , CABLE INSTALLATION OF SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER

The cable installation of the solar charge controller includes power cable and communication cable.
The power cable facilitates the distribution of power from the PV array and to the batteries, while the
communication cable ensures communication between the SCCs to exchange information, providing
control as well as data acquisition. It is highly important to install both cables in a proper way.

 Why wiring of solar charge controllers should be done properly?

• Reducing the risk of having • Synchronising the charge

short circuit and electric states between the
shock hazard to the operator/ SCCs to obtain optimal
technician. charging of battery and
sharing information of
the temperature among
the SCCs to activate the
compensation.

• Avoid having high voltage • Collecting measurement

drop that may cause data from the monitoring
premature charging system.
termination.

The cable compartment of SCC should always be covered. High voltage DC may exist at the
input terminal. Disconnector switch at the combiner box has to be switched-off prior working
on the cable compartment.

Open cable conduit

Exposed terminal

Exposed terminal of solar charge controllers. High voltage DC may exist at the terminals
and cause an electric shock. The network power cable should not be routed together to
avoid noise in the communication.

96 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Cable glands are used to protect the Cable glands are missing. Absence of
cable and prevent animal entering the rubber around the sharp edges may
compartment. damage the cable insulation.

Power cable Communication cable

Power and communication cables are Untidy cable installation. Cables are
installed separately and protected installed on the mounting structure
inside cable conduit. and fixed by cable ties.

 How to install the power cable properly?

• Choose correct type and cross-section of the power cable according to possible amount
of current flowing through, permissible voltage drops, recommended maximum and minimum
cross section from manufacturer, and size of the protection device. Typically for low voltage DC,
PVC-sheathed cables with the type NYAF, NYY, or NYF are used.

• Install the correct size of cable glands to avoid direct contact between cables and
sharp edges. It will also prevent any objects entering the cable compartment.

• Use cable conduit to protect the cables from the environmental interferences. Install the
communication cables and power cables in separate conduits. The signal might be disturbed
when installing communication and power cables closely.

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 97

 How is the recommendation to install multiple SCCs in parallel?

PV String

PV string MCB
Combiner box (Double pole)

PV string MCB
2
(Double pole)

P+N 3

DC DC
Solar Charge DC DC
Controller

P+N 4

PV string MCB 5
(Double pole)

DC Distribution panel

Uinput SCC > Uopen circuit PV array

1
Iinput SCC > n x Ishort circuit PV string

2 Irated PV array MCB ≥ n x Irated PV string MCB

3 Irated PV array MCB ≥ n x Irated PV string MCB

4 Max. 1% voltage drop and Irated array cable > Irated PV array MCB

5 Irated SCC MCB ≥ 1.25 x Irated SCC output current

98 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Why using single cable is preferable than two cables in parallel?

• Most terminal connection is • Protection device or MCB should

designed for single cable, be provided for each cable. MCB
fixing two cables in one will prevent the cable from being
terminal may reduce the overloaded especially when the
reliability of the connection. current is not equally split.

Ensure that the cables are fixed securely to avoid electric arc and possibly increase the
temperature at the terminal.

Two cables

PV input

Negative terminal

Positive terminal
Baterai output

Single cable per terminal and correct cable It is preferred to install single cable with higher
insulation color is used for DC cable. rating than two cables in parallel. Wrong cable
insulation color is used.

Additional insulation Burn spot

Network terminator
Bare copper is too close

Neat cable installation with additional insulator Burnt sign at the input terminal. This might
to ensure that the stranded copper does not be due to bad cable connection that creates
touch other terminal. electric arc.

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 99

 One SCC is not installed. Missing SCC will Fixed separation between positive and
reduce the energy production from the PV negative cables is required. Sign of electric
thus limiting the energy supply to the load. shock hazard must be provided.

 What to do when one of the SCC is not working?

• Disconnect the SCC electrically from the network by switching-off protection device at input
(combiner box) and output (DC panel distribution).
• Secure the connected cable by separating the positive and negative cables to avoid them
touching each other and conduct unintentional switching that may cause short circuit.

High voltage cable may exist on the cable end. Unattached conductor from the PV array has
to be protected and disconnected at the combiner box.

Interface to battery temperature sensor

Communication terminals

Communication cable is properly connected. Communication adapter is not working.

In this type, network terminator should be SCC with unworking adapter will not be
installed at each end to ensure signal quality read in the monitoring system.

Please refer to the manual for the recommended cable type. Some manufacturer allows only
straight ethernet cable type instead of crossover. Using twisted 2 pairs cable for the signal
connection may reduce the noise.

100 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to ensure that the communication is functioning well?

• Check the accumulation of • All the connected SCCs should • Interface adapter must
power and energy on the be presented in the monitoring be supplied by required
SCC’s display. system as well as the required power and voltage
monitoring parameters. Validate
the connection by checking
the recorded data of all SCCs
in the monitoring system.

Grounding cables

Grounding cable is not connected

Devices are grounded in daisy-chain or series Solar charge controller is not grounded.
wiring. However, it is preferable to have star
configuration or single-point grounding.

, PROTECTION AND INSTRUMENTATION

• PV ground fault protection

Ground fault is one of the most common fault in PV mini-grid. The fault occurs when the
positive conductor touches the grounding cable or grounded non-carrying conducting parts,
i.e. module frame, mounting structure, etc. Ground fault can result in considerable fault current
or electric arc that may increase the risks of electric shock and fire hazards.

To mitigate the risk, grounding system and ground fault protection must be properly installed
to avoid current flowing on any unintended path during ground fault. It is required to detect
and interrupt circuit when ground fault occurs due to broken cable insulation or bad wiring.

The ground fault protection is by default will ground the negative line of PV array to the
ground. Therefore, do not ground the negative line of PV array separately. Use external ground
fault protection in case the SCC is not equipped with the necessary protection. The support
structure of the PV should also properly grounded.

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 101

  How does the ground fault protection work?

1. During normal operation, the

current flows through the
normal path and the PV power is
delivered to the load.

2. Due to some reasons such as

corrosion, melting insulation,
insulation failures, and bad wiring,
short circuit occurs between the
exposed positive conductor and
the ground. The current path
changes and current flows through
the grounding cable and internal
ground fault protection fuse. The
fuse will immediately interrupt the
fault and report to the device that
ground fault is detected.

Integrated ground fault fuse

Integrated ground fault fuse

Fuse is installed in each SCCs that are

Integrated ground fault protection is
connected in parallel. Remove the fuse
installed in the SCC
from each units and leave only one unit
with fuse.

In case several solar charge controllers are installed in parallel and connected to the same battery
bank, only one ground fault protection should be installed. For the SCC with integrated ground fault
protection, remove the fuse from each unit and leave only one unit with attached fuse.

102 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

• Battery temperature sensor
Battery temperature sensor (BTS) should be installed properly to have correct function of
temperature-compensated battery charging. The compensation works by adjusting the
charging voltage based on the changing in battery temperature. Charging voltage decreases
when temperature reaches above reference temperature (typically 25°C) and vice versa, thus
it prevents battery charging at high temperature. Cable interconnection from BTS to the SCC
should also be maintained for its functionality unless the charging voltage will not be affected
by temperature changes.

Battery temperature sensor is not installed

Battery temperature sensor is not Battery temperature sensor is connected

connected. but left hanging. The SCC will measure
ambient temperature instead of battery
temperature.

 How to install the battery temperature sensor correctly?

• Install the sensor in the • The BTS cable should • Only one BTS is required per
negative terminal of the not be installed in the battery bank if multiple SCC
battery or in between two same conduit as the are installed on the same
batteries from the same power cable to avoid communication network. All
bank. Use adhesive tape to disturbance or noise. the SCC in the same network
attach the BTS to the side of will share battery temperature
the battery and bellow the information. In case that more
electrolyte level. BTS are installed in the same
bank, the highest temperature
will be used as an input to
change the charging voltage.

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 103

 4.3. SCC PARAMETER SETTINGS

Setting-up the parameter is a crucial step during installation to ensure a safe battery charging.
Correct setting of the parameter will not only allow the SCCs to efficiently work in parallel but also
to protect battery from overcharge and thus increase the lifetime of the battery. The parameter
can be configured according to the recommended values from the battery manufacturer. All the
basic parameters should be set properly prior to the commissioning.

 What parameter should be considered when configuring SCC?

• Device number or Identification number (ID) of each SCC in a network should

be defined and must be unique.
• Type of battery, it is important to set the correct type of battery to ensure
safety charging. Type of battery can be chosen between the lead acid battery
(Flooded, GEL, AGM) or other type such as lithium ion, zinc air. The OPzV battery
is specified as a GEL battery.
• Nominal Battery bank voltage, which mostly set at 48 V DC. Depending on
the battery type, the system voltage should follow the nominal voltage of the
battery.
• Battery bank capacity in Ah (Ampere-hour). The total capacity of the
connected battery banks should be specified to be used as a reference to
terminate charging process.
• Charging current limit defines the acceptable output current to charge battery.
• Charging cycle is either three-stages or two-stages charging process with no
float. Three-stages cycle consist of bulk or charging-current phase, absorption
or constant-voltage phase, and floating phase is normally used for lead-acid
and two-stages for lithium.
• Bulk voltage, at bulk stage, batteries will be charged with the maximum-allowed
set value of current until the absorption stage is reached. Considering that
different battery has different setting, use the recommended values from battery
manufacturer.
• Absorption voltage, in this step, the batteries will be charged with a constant
voltage, which was set with the set value for absorption voltage, and the current
will decrease.
• Float voltage is the voltage of the battery after absorption. During floating stage,
the battery will stop charging, the power from PV will go directly to the load when
needed. The stage will go back to bulk when the voltage reaches the defined
voltage. The following table is the recommended values in case the values are
not provided by battery manufacturer.

104 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Nominal voltage Bulk Absorption Float Charging
Battery technology
[V] voltage [V] voltage [V] voltage [V] rate [V]

Lead acid (OPzV)

2V 2.4 V 2.4 V 2.25 V ≤ 10C

Lithium-ion

3.7 V 4.2 V 4.2 V - ≤ 1C

Lithium Iron Phosphate

3.2 V 3.65 V 3.65 V - ≤ 1C

Ensure that the charging voltage is properly set. Improper setting of charging parameters may
cause fire hazard due to overcharging (if it is set above the limit) or insufficient charge at the end
of charging phase (if it is set below the limit).

Identification label

ID number will help the operator or technician 16 solar charge controllers are not
to identify the SCC. The number should equipped with ID number.
correspond to the ID on the combiner box.

CHAPTER 4 Solar Charge Controller 105

 CHAPTER 5
Grid Inverter
✓ What is grid inverter?
✓ Good and bad installation of grid inverter
✓ Things to consider when setting the parameters

106 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

5.1 BASIC OF GRID INVERTER

The grid inverter or also known as PV inverter is a power electronic component which converts DC
voltage from PV array into AC voltage for both direct consumption or storing excess power in the battery.
Similar to solar charge controller, the device is also equipped with MPPT to optimize the power captured
from the PV array.

As the inverter is unable to operate without grid voltage and frequency, the battery inverter should be
kept in operation and maintain the battery bank at the specified state of charge. In particular case where
grid voltage is available, the inverter will first observe the grid and synchronise with the grid’s voltage and
frequency to be able to join the network.

Typical installation of grid inverter in the PV mini-grid system.

CHAPTER 5 Grid Inverter 107

  What are the other functions of a grid inverter?

• Anti-islanding or automatic • Maximize the power transfer

shutdown when the grid from PV array to the batteries
is not available to provide using maximum power point
safety at the grid. tracker (MPPT) algorithm.

2 2. Combiner box
5 5. The power house.

1
1. Photovoltaic array
12

4 4. Battery bank
3 3. Grid Inverter

• Measure and monitor

input voltage, current, 6. Battery
6
DC Panel
and power captured Inverter

from the PV array and

deliver them to the grid.
8

8. RMS and pyranometer

9. Grounding box.
7
9
AC panel

11

108 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 , GRID INVERTER SPECIFICATION

The output of the inverter can be fed into single phase (220 VAC) or three-phase (380 VAC)
depending on the type and grid configuration. Some grid inverters typically have multi-string inputs
to allow several strings to be connected without using additional combiner box. The grid inverters
are specified based on the following parameters.

UDC max[V] Maximum input DC voltage of PV array

UDC MPP [V] Voltage range of maximum power point tracker (MPPT)

IDC max [A] Maximum input DC current of PV array

UAC rated [V] Output voltage (single-phase or three-phases)

PAC rated [W] Output power at normal condition, typically at 50 Hz

S max [VA] Maximum apparent power. Apparent power is the vector sum of active [kW]

and reactive power [var].

IAC max [A] Maximum output current at rated voltage

Label attached on the inverter showing the electrical characteristics of the installed grid inverter.

The written information on the label is useful to identify the type and specification, especially
during inspection or maintenance

CHAPTER 5 Grid Inverter 109

  What should be considered when selecting a grid inverter?

 The rated output power of grid inverter should be in the range of 0.9 to 1.25 of the installed
capacity of connected PV array. However, it is recommended to use 1 to 1 ratio between PV
capacity and inverter power for sizing to avoid inefficiency caused by an oversized inverter.

0.9 PDC PV Array < PAC Grid Inverter < 1.25 PDC PV Array

PAC Grid Inverter < 2 x PAC Battery Inverter

 The voltage and current rating must be chosen based on maximum voltage and current of the
connected PV array at any condition, upon consideration of PV modules temperature coefficient.

 High conversion efficiency (≥ 98%) and featured with dual MPP Tracking.

 Equipped with the following protection systems:

a. Input reverse polarity when accidentally connecting the wires wrongly.

b. Overcurrent protection at the DC and AC sides, the device should be rated at least 125%
of the PV array short circuit current.

c. PV ground fault protection to protect the cables when the conductors of the PV module
touch the grounding system.

d. Overvoltage protection at the input from the PV array.

 It is preferred to have minimum of two inverters to increase redundancy when one fails. It
is recommended to use only similar brand of grid inverter to maintain consistency in the
communication protocol. Albeit the aforementioned consideration, if only aiming for functionality,
it is still acceptable to use different brand with the same configuration and specification.

 User friendly display that shows the status of grid inverter. It will help operator or technician to
easily monitor the system.

 Tested and certified according to EN 50530, that describes standard for overall efficiency of
grid-connected utility inverters and IEC 62109, which outlines standards on safety of power
converters for use in photovoltaic power systems.

 Manufactured by a reputable company that has good track records and clear warranty
procedures.

 Equipped with multi-string inputs and communication module for monitoring purposes

Grid inverter should comply and being tested according to EN 50530 and IEC 62109 to ensure
the quality of the inverter. The inverter should also have warranty period for over five (5) years.

The German Energy Societz. (2008). Planning and Installing photovoltaic systems (Second edi). Earthscan.

110 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

5.2 GRID INVERTER HARDWARE INSTALLATION AND INTERCONNECTION

, LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE UNITS

The grid inverter can be installed both outside or inside a power house depending on the IP rating
specified by the manufacturer. In both cases, distance between components is important to be
considered to avoid overheating. Minimum distance of 30 cm should be maintained horizontally
and 50 cm vertically to allow natural convection. Good ventilation should also be provided to obtain
good air circulation thus gives natural cooling for the equipment.

Very close distance

Sufficient distance between inverters Insufficient distance between the devices

allows good air circulation and heat to will increase operating temperature of the
be dissipated. devices

Installing grid inverter next to the PV array is more recommended to reduce the power losses as
well as cost efficiency for the DC cables. Additionally, having inverter outside will also provide natural
cooling for the component. However, several considerations concerning the weather protection
should be taken into account.

Direct sun exposure

Grid inverter is installed under the PV Grid inverter is directly exposed by the sun.
modules and protected from direct sun Add adequate roof to avoid overheating.
exposure.

To avoid overheating components, grid inverter must be protected from direct sun exposure.
Increasing temperature may reduce its performance and life expectancy.

CHAPTER 5 Grid Inverter 111

  What should be considered when installing grid inverter outside?

• Location of the installation should be under roof or PV array.

• IP rating of the inverter should be at least IP 54 protection.
• Suitable mounting support.
• Ventilation of the grid inverter should remain clean to improve the cooling. Clean with dry
cloth to avoid accumulation of dust blocking the ventilation.
• AC cables should be rated for outdoor and protected from direct sun exposure.

Grid inverter is installed closed to the Bunch of long DC cables are used. Such
combiner box to avoid losses in the DC cable. installation increases the investment cost on
the cable as well as increasing voltage drop.

Good galvanized mounting support will Rusty inverter mounting support. Bad
ensure the quality of the installation. mounting support may risk the durability of
the installation.

112 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, CABLE INSTALLATION OF GRID INVERTER

Interconnection of the grid inverter consists of power cables, communication cable for data transfer
or data acquisition, and grounding of the component. The cables and their installation should be
dimensioned and designed according to the national standard and recommendation from the
manufacturer.

No cable conduit
Cable conduit

Bad cable entrance

Neat cable installation. Be aware of derating factor Bad cable entrance and cables are installed
of the cable and the separation between power and without cable conduit.
communication cable.

Power cable and communication cable should not be installed close to each other. Installing
in the same conduit may introduce noise in the data transmission.

Communication cable
Electronic solar switch or DC
load-break

Cut communication cable

The communication of grid inverters are Communication cable is not connected

interconnected through RS485 in daisy chain to anywhere. Data cannot be acquired by
configuration or in series data logger.

Additional grounding is required to protect the operator or technician from touch voltage
or being electrocuted in case the grounding at the AC cable terminal fails. Ensure that the
minimum and maximum cross-section are in accordance to the standard and manufacturer’s
recommendation. Typically, the cross section is between 10 to 16 mm2

CHAPTER 5 Grid Inverter 113

 Incoming string Inputs of combined strings

Ventilation should be kept clean

Additional grounding

Strings are connected individually to the Strings are combined in the combiner box
grid inverter. and split equally to be used as input of grid
inverter.

 How to fix the cable installations?

• Ensure that the communication • Reconfigure the PV string

cables are connected and cables and connect the cables
functioning properly. Use the data directly from the PV string to
cable specifically for inverters the grid inverter input. Reduce
communication interface to the number of strings and
increase performance and increase the string voltage if
network flexibility. the input is insufficient.

Keep in mind that the voltage of PV string may reach 1000 VDC. Always disconnect the MCB
at the grid inverter output, PV input at the combiner box, and load-break switch sequentially
when working on the grid inverter.

MCB of PV strings

Inputs of combined strings

2 strings output
Outgoing strings

Strings are individually go to the grid inverter. Strings are combined in the combiner box
MCB serves as overcurrent protection as well and split equally to be used as input of grid
as diconnector. inverter.

114 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Arrays are split

Strings are combined

Strings are combined

Arrays are split and cables are
unprotected.

Strings are combined to become an array and then split back to individual “string” to adapt with
the multi-input terminals of the grid inverter. Any outgoing cable from the combiner box to the grid
inverter must be protected.

 Why multi-string connection is preferred?

• Single input will only • Multi-string input • Minimise the number of

provide the array data, usually comes with components in the combiner
while multi-string input can dual MPP-tracking. Dual box such as busbar and main
show the performance of MPPT will increase the disconnector. Some grid
each string. system flexibility as inverters are equipped with
well as the amount of integrated electronic fuse and
harvested energy. surge arrester at the DC side.
Maximum input current per
string should be observed
prior to the installation.

Keep in mind that the voltage of PV string may reach 1000 VDC. Always disconnect the MCB
at the grid inverter output, PV input at the combiner box, and load-break switch sequentially
when working on the grid inverter.

CHAPTER 5 Grid Inverter 115

  How is the recommended installation when multi-input string inverter is used?

PV String

Combiner box

PV string MCB
(Double pole)

P+N 2

DC DC Integrated DC
Grid Inverter AC AC load-break

3P+N+PE 3P+N+PE 3

Grid inverter MCB

(three-pase) 4

Outgoing cable
(Three-phase) 5
Grid Inverter
Collector Panel
To Multicluster Box

1 Uopen circuit PV string < UDC max Grid inverter

Ishort circuit PV string < IDC max Grid inverter

2 Max. 1% voltage drop and Irated cable > Irated PV string MCB

3 Irated cable > Irated grid inverter MCB

4 Irated Grid inverter MCB ≥ 1.25 Imax Grid inverter

Irated Outgoing cable MCB ≥ n x Irated Grid inverter MCB
5
*n is number of parallel inverter

116 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 MCB is not present
Wrong cable
insulation color
MCB is not present

Cables should have the correct

coloring as the busbar

Outgoing cable is not protected by MCB. Protection device of the grid inverters
Leaving cable unprotected may increase the and outgoing cable are not installed.
risk of having overcurrent in the cable. Grounding cable is used as phase cable.

Every grid inverters and outgoing cables must not be left unprotected. Proper type and size
of protection device is crucial in providing safety in the installation.

5.3 GRID INVERTER PARAMETER SETTINGS

In principle, the grid inverter could be used in both off-grid or grid-connected system. The inverter works
similarly by following the grid voltage and frequency. In grid-connected system, the inverter will keep
providing power as long as the sun is shining and grid is capable handling the converted power.

On the other hand, when it comes to a PV mini-grid system, in which the operational is based on
battery storage and demand, the grid inverter will have to be controlled by the battery inverter. The
battery inverter must be able to communicate with grid inverter to limit their output power in case
the battery bank is already fully charged and the PV power is higher than demand. This can be done
by shifting the grid frequency hence the grid inverter reducing its output power. The magnitude of
the output power depends on the changing in frequency using droop control.

To achieve this, the setting of the grid inverter must be configured properly to an off-grid mode.
Having off-grid mode will allow the inverter to set its reference values

What parameters should be considered when installing grid inverter?

• Country data set is to adjust the parameters to the required grid. For stand-alone system, off-
grid or island mode should be chosen.
• Base frequency is the frequency of the stand-alone grid, which is 50 Hz.
• Minimum AC voltage is the minimum voltage of the system to operate. The value should depend
on the battery inverter range.
• Maximum AC voltage is the maximum voltage of the system to operate.
• Minimum AC frequency is minimum frequency of the system to operate. Typically, it is defined
in percentage from the base frequency (50 Hz).
• Maximum AC frequency is maximum frequency of the system to operate.
• Start power control frequency is the point where the frequency droop power control starts.

CHAPTER 5 Grid Inverter 117

 CHAPTER 6
Battery Bank
✓ Which type of battery is used in PV mini-grid
✓ Technical battery terminology
✓ Good and bad installation of battery bank
✓ Things to consider to prolong the battery lifetime

118 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

6.1 BASICS OF BATTERY

Batteries are used in PV Mini-grid systems to store energy produced by the PV array during the day, to
supply it to the load during the night or in the periods of cloudy weather. The battery is act like a buffer
to avoid mismatch between the PV supply and demand. Batteries are currently the most practical way
to store electricity generated by the PV array through electrochemical reaction. It is considered as one
of the most critical and vulnerable components in the system. Poor design or battery sizing may lead to
reduction of lifetime expectancy, shortage of energy, or even permanent failure of the system. Batteries
have a limited lifetime that depends on the usage behaviour as well as operating temperature.

Typical installation of the lead-

acid battery bank inside the
power house. Battery bank is
configured from several battery
cells connected to series or
parallel to achieve the intended
system voltage and capacity.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 119

  What are the other functions of a battery bank?

• Provide a back up energy that can be used • Supply the power

on the days with very cloudy weather or to load with stable
during emergency situation. Battery is voltage and current
normally sized with define days of autonomy through battery
or the buffer days to fulfil the demand inverter, also in the
without being charged. event of intermittent
power from the PV
array.

• It acts as a buffer store to

eliminate the mismatch
between power available
from the PVarray and power
demand from the load.
PV array

• Provide power to the power electronics such

as solar charge controller and battery inverter
Grid Inverter

grid voltage is available, the inverter will first

observe the grid and synchronise with the
AC Bus 230 / 400 V
grid’s voltage and frequency to be able to
join the network.
Battery Inverter

DC Bus 48 V • to supply power to electrical loads at stable

Charge flow
voltages and currents, by suppressing or
Discharge flow ‘smoothing out’ transients that may occur in
Communication
Power line PV systems.

120 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

There are plenty of battery technology available for PV mini-grid systems such as lead-acid, lithium
ion, Zinc air, Nickel cadmium, etc. However, due to the consideration if maturity of technology,
performance, as well as safety, only some are chosen to be used in remote areas. Lead acid battery
is the most common type of battery used in PV mini-grid systems, although, newer battery storage
alternatives such Lithium-ion and Zinc air are started to be considered to achieve higher lifecycle.
Both lithium ion and Zinc air battery require battery management system to ensure its safety and
prolong the lifetime. These batteries are also having higher energy density (Wh/ kg) that is sometime
more favourable for transporting to remote areas.

Positive terminal

Negative terminal

Lead acid OPzV battery arranged in vertical Lead acid OPzV battery installed in horizontal
insallation. arrangement

Zinc air battery banks. Each bank has Lithium iron phosphate battery banks with
capacity of 21 kWh at 48 V nominal voltage. parallel rack-mount battery. Each block has
nominal capacity of 100 Ah at 48 V nominal.

Deep cycle lead acid type of battery is widely used due to their long lifetime reliability, safer, easy to
use, and relatively lower cost. As the battery is located in remote areas and difficult to access, low
maintenance type such as sealed type and long lifetime battery is essential. OPzV type or Ortsfest
(stationary) PanZerplatte (tubular plate) Verschlossen (closed) of batteries is one of the mostly
used battery type for PV mini-grid systems. It is a valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery that has
tubular plate technology and immobilized gel as electrolyte to achieve higher performance. It is
capable to reach at least 1500 cycles with 80% of depth of discharge which is ideal to use. Only
the installation of this type of battery will be shown in this chapter.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 121

 , BATTERY SPECIFICATION

Battery is typically specified by its nominal voltage and capacity. The nominal voltage is basically
the mid-point voltage of the battery or the voltage measured when the battery has 50% state of
charge. While the capacity is the amount of current that battery could provide for some amount of
time (Ah). The nominal capacity is typically measured with discharging the battery within 10 hours
with discharging current of 1/10 of battery capacity.

Type of cell

No label

Nominal voltage and capacity

Label indicating the voltage, capacity, and Sufficient distance between inverters
float voltage of each battery cell should be allows good air circulation and heat to be
on the visible side. dissipated.

It is recommended that the battery should be tested according to IEC 60896-21 – “Stationary
lead-acid batteries - Part 21: Valve regulated types - Methods of test”, IEC 60896-22 –
“Stationary lead-acid batteries - Part 22: Valve regulated types – Requirements” as well as
IEC 61427 – “Secondary cells and batteries for renewable energy storage - General requirements
and methods of test” to meet the minimum quality standard.

122 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

As the battery is still relatively expensive and take a relatively big portion of the capital cost in PV
mini-grid, the selection and sizing should be done correctly to not oversize or undersize the battery.
Undersize may lead to high depth of discharge thus reducing lifetime as well as insufficient energy
during the night time. While oversize will be ineffective used of battery. Sizing can be done using
hand calculation and later can be corrected using simulation software such as HOMER or similar
to optimize the solution.

 What factors have to be taken into consideration when sizing the battery?

• Required energy during • The number of days that • As there will be significant
night time and the is expected to provide the amount of losses in the
load profile. Energy will energy to the load without battery, battery round-
determine the capacity, any input from PV array trip efficiency should be
while the peak power or during cloudy days. considered when sizing
will determine the Typically, two or three days
maximum discharging is used.
current to maintain at the
recommended level.

0
C
• Allowable depth of • Number for cycles • Temperature effect to
discharge should be known required to avoid frequent the battery lifetime and
to avoid deeply discharge replacement of the battery capacity.
of the battery. Depth of
discharge will also affect
the life cycle of the battery
significantly.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 123

 Terminology in battery

Nominal
Capacity or C State of charge
or SoC

Nominal capacity or C State of charge or SoC

indicated the amount of charge that can is the current state of the battery or the
be stored in the battery or that can be ratio of residual capacity and nominal
withdrawn from a fully charged battery capacity expressed in percentage (%).
cell under specific discharging rate. It
is specified in Ampere-hour (Ah), or
sometimes convertible to Watt-hours when
system voltage is known.

Input (Charging)
Depth of I10 = 100 A
discharge 1000 Ah

or DoD C-rate 100 A

= 0.1C or C10
1000 Ah

Depth of discharge or DoD is the amount C-rate is typically expressed as the charge
of energy used from the battery. It is the or discharge rate equal to the battery
opposite of state of charge. Therefore, capacity divided by time. For example: a
when a battery specifies its lifecycle might C10 discharging rate (or I10 for 1000 Ah
be greater than 1500 cycles with 80% would be 1000/10 or at 100 A.
DoD, meaning it will only occur if the usage
of energy is not higher than 80% of the
nominal capacity.

charging 100% discharging 80%

Round-trip
Deep discharge efficiency 80%
20%

Deep discharge is when the battery is Round-trip efficiency is expressed as ratio

discharged below the end-of-discharge between the energy used during discharging
voltage. End-of-discharge voltage itself is and energy to restore until its get fully charge.
the voltage point of the battery when the Efficiency includes the losses during discharging
battery has completely discharged or when and charging. Lead acid battery typicaly has
its SoC is less than 20% efficiency of around 85% or slightly lower than
lithium ion which is up to 95%.

124 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Overcharge is the situation when Cycle is one sequence of recharging
excessive current is applied to and discharging. Battery lifetime is
the battery at the end of charge. specified as cycle life or the number of
Overcharge leads to electrolysis and cycles before the battery fails. Ideally,
therefore development of gases as a good battery should have at least
well as loses of water. 2000 cycles or equivalent to 5 years of
operation.

Usable capacity Self discharge rate

3
x 100
5
Unusable
Capacity

State of health (SoH) is the ratio of Self-discharge rate is the rate of

current condition of battery to the loss battery capacity without any
ideal or the capacity when it is new. It load connected or due to internal
is expressed in percentage %. One of chemical activity. Lead acid is typically
the reason of the reduction of SoH is specified at maximum 2% per month
due to increase of internal resistance at 20°C. This number will determine
of the battery that makes some part of the requirement to charge the battery
battery capacity unusable when it is not in used.

Open circuit voltage is the voltage of

the battery without load.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 125

 How to size the battery bank capacity?

1. Daily energy required during the night time. Daytime

load should be covered by the PV and partly by battery Estimated energy = 60 kWh
Estimated peak = 15 kW
during the fluctuation. Peak load should be identified.

2. Energy required with consideration of days of autonomy.

Required days of autonomy = 2 days →

Required energy with days of autonomy > 60 kWh x 2 days = 120 kWh

3. Expected lifetime basded on ambient temperature. This can be seen from battery
manufacturer. According to Arrhenius law, the battery lifetime is significantly reduced by half
with every 100 C increase. 100% lifetime is typically at 200 C ambient.

Expected ambient temperature = 300 C ambien t→ 50% correction

Expected lifetime = 5 years → 365 days x 5 = 1,825 cycles
Required cycle life with temperature correction = 1,825 cycles / 50% = 3,650 cycles

4. Define the required depth of discharge to achieve expected lifetime based on the battery
technology. Following is for OPzV type of battery.
Service life cycles and Depth of Discharge
9,000
8,000 Required cycle life = 3,650 cycles
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Depth of discharge DoD (%)

Required minimum DoD = 45 (%)

5. Required capacity based on the required DoD and efficiency of the battery.

Battery efficiency = 85 %

Required energy with days of autonomy 120 kWh

Required capacity = = 313 kWh
Efficiency x Required DoD 0.85 x 0.45

6. Crosscheck with the peak load. The peak load should not be highre than the discharging rate of C10.

C10 rate = 313 kWh / 10 hours → 31,3 kW

Peak load of 15 kW < 31.3 kW

126 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

6.2 BATTERY OPERATION

, DISCHARGING

At the time of battery discharge, the closed-circuit voltage (CCV) of the battery experiences an initial
reduction do to ohmic losses and the voltage gradually reduces depending on the characteristics
until the low voltage disconnection (LVD) is reached. In this case, load should be disconnected to
avoid deep discharge the battery that may lead to reduction of acid concentration in the electrolyte
and sulphation on the battery terminal.

 What to consider when discharging the battery?

• Avoid deeply discharge the • Battery should not be charged

battery. Minimum of 1.95 V at very high current. The higher
per cell is recommended with the current the faster reduction
discharging time of up to 24 of voltage, thus LVD is reached
hours. Meaning with 48 V faster. The total energy that can
system voltage, 46.8 V is the be retrieved is also decreased.
end of discharge voltage. Battery manufacturer often stated
the capacity in the function of
C-rate. Typically, nominal capacity
is obtained when the C-rate is not
lower than C10.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 127

  What factors that influence the lifetime and capacity of battery?

• Depth of discharge
The greater the depth of
discharge, the fewer number
of cycle life. In order to
achieve minimum of 1825
cycles (5 years) at 20°C,
depth of discharge of the
battery should not be higher
than roughly 75%.

Cycle lifetime of OPzV in the fucntion of DoD and temperature1

• Ambient temperature
The higher the temperature, the
fewer number of cycle life. The chart
shows that lifetime is reduced by half
by an increase temperature of 10°C.

Design life of OPzV as a function of ambient temperature at floating stage2

• Swallow discharge
or discharge the battery at very low
depth of discharge may reduce the
charge acceptance or efficiency of
the battery. It is recommended to

• Discharging current → The higher

the discharging current the lower the
usable capacity

• Setting of constant voltage. High

constant voltage may cause battery to Charge acceptance of sealed lead acid battery3
overcharge and increase the gassing
process and thus reduction of water.

1
Hoppecke, “Installation, commissioning and operating instructions for valve-regulated stationary lead-acid
2
Hoppecke, “Installation, commissioning and operating instructions for valve-regulated stationary lead-acid batteries,” 2013.
3
D. Linden and T. B. Reddy, “Handbook of batteries,” 2001.

128 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, CHARGING

During charging proses, in particular at absorption phase, there is development of gas inside the
battery due to the split of water into oxygen and hydrogen due to electrolysis process. The gas is
trapped inside the battery under low pressure and form a water. In some cases, when the pressure
is increase significantly and reach the limit, valve will act to release the gas and therefore loss of
electrolyte. In this case, the hydrogen concentration is increased inside the room and therefore
good ventilation should be provided. It is also important to maintain the functionality of the battery
valve to avoid the loss of unnecessary oxygen at lower pressure. The gassing effect will also lead
to slow corrosion of the positive plate of the battery.

 How to improve charging process to prolong the battery lifetime?

~
• Battery bank should be • Avoid charging the battery • During the shipment and
charged according to the very high voltage above with storage, the batteries
specification with three maximum at 2.4 V during lose some charge due
stages charge method bulk and absorption phase. to self-discharge. It is
which is bulk, absorption, The charging current of the recommended during
and float. Equalization should batteries should not be higher the commissioning
not be done for OPzV or GEL than C10 rate of the battery to charge battery at
type of lead acid battery bank. Overcharge the battery minimum of 16 hours
may cause capacity loss, with constant voltage.
increase of acid concentration
in the electrolyte, as well as
overheating the battery.

Broken valve

Valve is at good condition to avoid Sign of battery active chemical leakage from
unnecessary loss of oxygen during normal the valve.
operation.

Sulfuric acid is corrosive and dangerous that can cause serious injury as well as blindness.
Avoid any contact with skin and clean immediately with water when exposed to the liquid.
Always use insulated gloves when cleaning up the liquid.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 129

 Broken valve

Broken valve

Broken battery valves will expel some Plastic bag is used to cover the pressure
the gasses easily to the atmosphere and relief valve. Broken valve should be
reduces capacity of the battery replaced instead. Excessive pressure may
damage the battery.

 Why damage valve should not be installed?

• Damage of battery valve • Release of oxygen

may lead to leaking of at low pressure will
hydrogen gas and possibly cause uninventable
electrolyte. Leaking of irretrievably lost
hydrogen and oxygen
mixture may lead to
explosion risk when the
hydrogen content in the
air reaches 4%, while
ealectrolyte is very harmful
and corrosive when spilled.

Ensure that the batteries are in a good condition without any damage before the installation.
Battery should be packed properly during shipment. Do not install battery with broken valve
or broken terminals.

Corosion

Battery terminal is in good condition and is Corrosion on the terminal reduces the
free from corrosion or sulphate flakes surface on the lead and increase the internal
resistance of the battery

130 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

  How to avoid corrosion on the terminals?

• Battery should be fully

charged minimum every
month and cycled. This could
be done by disconnect the
load to allow battery get fully
charged and re-connect
to discharge the battery.
Never fully charge the
battery and leave the battery • Battery should not be
• Avoid direct contact
undercharging may cause stored in very long duration
between lead alloy (battery
corrosion or sulphation on and left at low state of
terminals) and copper
the negative terminals. charge or undercharge.
(conductor).

Sign of active chemical leakage dropped Sulphide flakes may cause corrosion to
on the battery rack. This could be due to battery rack. Clean the battery and reduce
excessive release of gas (overcharging) the charging voltage if necessary.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 131

 , TEMPERATURE LIMIT

The ideal ambient temperature of the battery room should be in between 20°C to 30°C. In some
site, the outdoor temperature might be higher. In this case, the difference in temperature between
indoor and outdoor should not be higher than 2°C.

Acceptable and ideal battery room temperature. Very high battery room temperature leads to
Increase of 40C from the nominal will only significant reduction of battery lifetime by
reduce 20% of the designed lifetime. more than 50%.

Temperature sensor from the charge Sensor is located on the lid of the battery. It
controller is located in the middle of the will not sense accurately the tubular plate.
battery’s body.

Temperature difference between the battery string location should not be greater than 3°C.
Deviation of temperature will lead to different operating condition and cause lifetime to reduce
differently.

 How to indicate a bad battery?

• Bad battery can be seen from the increase of temperature during charging or discharging due
to high internal resistance of the bad battery.
• High internal resistance can also be seen from the significant increase or decrease of voltage
during charging and discharging. Bad batteries tend to reach absorption phase faster or
experiencing early charging termination and discharged faster.
• Deviation in open circuit voltage of larger than 0.5 V may indicate that the battery not at the same
state of charge as well as state of health.

132 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

6.3 BATTERY INTERCONNECTION

A battery bank consists a single string or of several battery strings connected in parallel. A single
string is composed of individual battery cells connected in series. Each of the cell produces a
voltage of about 2.1 V for lead acid and is varied depending on the battery technology as well as
the state of charge. The battery bank is then configured based on the desired system voltage
(battery voltage) and capacity.

When a higher voltage is required, the battery with same capacity is connected in series until the
battery string voltage reaches the required voltage, which is typically 48 VDC. While to increase
the capacity, the battery strings with the same nominal voltage and characteristics should be
connected in parallel.

How is the typical configuration of a lead acid battery bank?

48 V DC
2,000 AH

48 V DC 48 V DC
2,000 AH 2,000 AH
2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

2V 2V 2V 2V
1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH 1,000 AH

Battery string

Battery bank

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 133

  What should be considered when connecting the batteries?

• It is recommended to only • Mismatch of battery • It is recommended to

connect batteries with capacity may cause bigger not parallel more than
the same technology, battery to never get fully four (4) battery strings.
manufacturer, type, nominal charge and small battery To avoid charging and
capacity, and state of to get fully charge and discharging problem due
health in a battery bank. possibly overcharged. to discrepancy of state of
Different characteristics During discharge, small charge and state of health
may result in inefficiency battery will be discharged of each string.
during charging and faster and may be deeply
discharging or possibly discharged.
damage the batteries.

+ -

• Over current devices • Batteries in the battery • The voltage, current, and
must be installed on each bank should be at the same temperature of the batteries
positive and negative state of health and state of should be checked in
side of the battery string. charge. The state of charge regular basis to take
The over current device can be seen from the preventive action when the
should be specified voltage of each cell during voltage and temperature of
based on 1.25 x battery open circuit or no load. the batteries indicate the
voltage and 1.25 x possible The voltage of each cell reduction of state of health.
charging or discharging should not have difference
current, typically I10-rate. of 0.02 V or specified by
Temperature compensation the manufacturer. State of
of maximum 450C charge should be adjusted
should be applied in the accordingly before the
calculation. installation.

134 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, BATTERY BANK WIRING

NYAF 35 mm2 ≈ 103 A max

NYAF 50 mm2 cable is used to handle Undersized NYAF cable is used in the battery
maximum of 104 A. A correction factor due string that could be charged with higher
to ambient and grouping used is 0.75. current than the cable rating.

longer cable

The interconnection cables between the Paralel cables with different length leads to
battery cells have the same length and different cable resistance.
resistance

Don’t use grounding cable

for live conductor

Add additional resistance

Although the type and cross-section ar Different color of the cables for the same
similar. Cable with grounding color insulation terminal may cause confussion. Cable
should not be used for the live conductor. extension may introduce additional losses.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 135

  How to improve the wiring?
• The battery string cables should be sized to accommodate the possible current during charging
and discharging and have rating above the relevant over current device. It is recommended that
for each battery string to have minimum cross section of 50 mm2, however, the actual value
shoud be
• Use the same cable type, length, cross section, and cable arrangement to obtain similar electrical
resistance and ensure the same voltage drop between the strings.
• Avoid to extend the cable with additional connector and use the whole cable. Bad quality of the
connector and connection would increase the resistance.

Direct cable length

DC distribution panels are placed Different cable length between the battery
distributedly to avoid differences in cable strings. DC distribution panel should be
length between battery strings. located closer to the strings

The length of cable between the over current device and battery terminal must be as short
as practicable to avoid unintended voltage drop that may cause early charging termination
as well as early disconnection

Cables are installed neatly inside cable Cables are not installed inside conduit.
conduit. Correction factor of enclosed and Having cable inside the conduit will protect
grouping installation should be applied the cable as well as avoid operator trips over
according to IEC 60364-5-52. the cable.

136 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Example on how to size a battery bank cable

1. Estimate the possible charging and discharging current to and from the battery bank. This could
be done by checking the maximum DC current from the charge controller and battery inverter.

Battery inverter maximum power = 15,000 W

Solar charge controller maximum DC power = 15,000 W Charging current = 15,000 W / (48 V x 3) = 104 A
Battery voltage = 48 V Discharging current = 15,000 W / (48 V x 3) = 104 A
Number of battery banks = 3

2. Estimate the installation condition for temperature and cable arrangement.4

Insulated single core conductors in condult on a wall

Installation method B1 Estimated ambient temperature = 350 C
Number of grouped cable = 3

Current Rating for 2 x PVC Insulated Copper Conductors Ambient temperature

Size derating factor
Reference Installation Method
(mm2) 0
C
A1 A2 B1 B2 C D1 D2 E F
PVC EPR / XLPE
15 14.5 14 17.5 16.5 19.5 22 22 22 -
25 19.5 18.5 24 23 27 29 28 30 -
10 1.22 1.15
4 26 25 32 30 36 37 38 40 -
15 1.17 1.12
8 34 32 41 38 46 46 48 51 -
20 1.12 1.08
10 46 43 57 52 63 60 64 70 -
25 1.06 1.04
16 61 57 76 69 85 78 83 94 -
30 1 1
25 80 75 101 90 112 99 110 119 131
35 0.94 0.96
35 99 92 125 111 138 119 132 148 162
40 0.87 0.91
50 119 110 151 133 168 140 156 180 196
45 0.79 0.87
70 151 139 192 168 213 173 192 232 251
50 0.71 0.82
95 182 167 232 201 258 204 230 282 304
55 0.61 0.76
120 210 192 269 232 299 231 261 328 352
60 0.5 0.71
150 240 219 300 258 344 261 293 379 406
65 - 0.65
185 273 248 341 294 392 292 331 434 463
70 - 0.58
240 321 291 400 344 461 336 382 514 546
75 - 0.5
300 367 334 458 394 530 379 427 593 629
80 - 0.41
400 - - - - - - - - 754
85 -
500 - - - - - - - - 868
90 - -
630 - - - - - - - - 1005
95 - -

3. Apply correction factor due to ambient temperature and cable arrangement.

Correction ambient temperature = 104 A / 0.94 = 110.6 A

Correction factor number of grouped cable = 110.6 / 0.7 = 158 A
158 A < Rated current of 70 mm2 B1 method (192 A)

4. Crosscheck with the MCB or fuse rating. The cable rating should be higher than MCB or fuse
rating at the same correction factor. MCB or fuse should be rated at 1.25 of possible charging
or discharging current.

Correction ambient temperature = 104 A / 0.94 = 110.6 A

Correction factor number of grouped cable = 110.6 / 0.7 = 158 A
158 A < Rated current of 70 mm2 B1 method (192 A)

4 International Electrotechnical Commission, “Low-voltage electrical installations - Part 5-52: Selection and erection of
electrical equipment - Wiring systems,” 2009.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 137

 5. Calculate the possible voltage drop. The voltage drop should not exceed 1%
2 x load current x resistance x length 2 x 104 x 0.272 x 5
Voltage drop = 0.28 V → 0.5% → OK
1,000 1,000

Current carrying
Resistamce at 200C
capacity at 300C max Short circuit current of
Nominal cross Insulation conductor at 1.0 sec max
In Pipe In Air
sectional area min

Ω/Km MΩ. Km A kA
13.3 50 15 24 0.17
7.98 50 20 32 0.29
4.95 50 25 42 0.46
3.30 50 33 54 0.69
1.91 50 45 73 1.16
1.21 40 61 98 1.84
0.780 40 83 128 2.88
0.554 40 103 158 4.03
0.386 30 132 197 5.75
0.272 30 165 245 8.05
0.206 30 197 290 10.93
0.161 30 235 345 13.80
0.129 30 - 390 17.25
0.106 20 - 445 21.28
0.801 20 - 525 27.60
0.641 20 - 605 34.50
0.0486 20 - 725 46.34

, BATTERY TERMINAL CONNECTION

Acrylic with warning sign

Exposed metallic
connection plate

Exposed metallic
screwed terminal

The battery terminals are covered with Exposed battery terminals, potentially
acrylic board and are labelled with voltage battery short circuit that may cause spark
hazard sign. and explosion

The terminals of the battery are always alive, therefore never leave the terminals unprotected.
Metal parts may cause accidental short circuit. It is recommended to use insulated wrench
when fixing the connection.

138 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Exposed terminal

Battery terminals are well protected with Cardboard is used to cover battery
insualtor material and the cables are installed terminals. The makeshift solution is not
neatly. adequate to isolate the terminals.

Exposed terminal

Rubber cap

Terminal connector is equipped with Inproper plastic hose is used to isolate the
rubber cap. battery terminal.

NYAF 35 mm2 ≈ 103 A max

Connector plate is used to connect the end Only one cable is connected to the terminal.
terminal of the battery string Connection plate should be provided.

Ensure that the batteries are always clean from any excessive dust and water vapor to increase
the creepage distance between terminals. Only use wet cloth moistened by water to wipe
the batteries. A dry one may cause electrostatic charge through friction and increase the
explosion risk.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 139

 6.4 BATTERY INSTALLATION
 What to consider when installing the batteries?

• Installation of the batteries • Batteries can be installed

including the arrangement, in vertical or horizontal
racking, and requirement arrangement. However,
of the battery room should special attention from the
be based on IEC 62485- manufacturer should be made
2- Safety requirements for such as arrow indicator when
secondary batteries and battery installing battery in horizontal.
installations - Part 2: Stationary Ensure that the internal plates
batteries. are vertically arranged (same
polarity in vertical arrangement)

• Batteries should be installed on • Battery room should have

the stable and proper rack to adequate ventilation to avoid
avoid the battery from falling as high concentration of hydrogen
well as for better cooling. in the room during charging.
The lead acid batteries may
produce hydrogen gas that
could be ignited due to electric
arc or fire.

, LOCATION AND LAYOUT

Direct sunlight

Battery strings are intalled in zig-zag Some batteries are exposed directly to the
configuration with the ventilation to avoid sun light. Long term heating may cause
direct sun exposure. those specific batteries to fail earlier.

Battery banks should not be located close to the heat source or directly exposed to sunlight.
High temperature may result in reduction of lifetime, leakage, or even explosion.

140 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 <50 cm

>50 cm

direct sunlight

Sufficient distance between battery and Inadequate space between the power house
wall. Such confguration provides better wall and battery. Direct sun exposure may
alirflow and large passageway. heat up the battery.

< 10 mm
> 1 cm

Battery cells are installed with sufficient Inadequate distance between battery
distance for the battery to release heat. cells. Minimum distance of 1 cm should be
provided.

Battery bank is installed with adequate Very dense battery in a room may
space between battery strings. increase the source of heat and hydrogen
concentration

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 141

  How to improve such installation?

• Battery rack should have at • Shift the battery rack away

least some distance to the 50cm from the wall until the distance
wall to access the battery is 50 cm. Make sure that the
for cleaning. All the batteries battery is not directly exposed
should be easily accessible by the sun and enough space
for the maintenance. to conduct maintenance.

Battery room with natural lightning and Very dark battery room with insufficient
warning signs are attached in the battery ventilation and low lumen. Difficult to
room conduct maintenance.

How to improve such installation?



• Number of the batteries inside a battery room should be calculated based on the available
space and possible production of gas during charging. If the number of batteries is relatively
high, make sure that the ventilation should provide required flow rate. Typically, flow rate of 6.8
m3/h is necessary for every 48 V /1000 Ah during boost charging. This leads to requirement
of roughly minimum 200 cm2 ventilation opening.
• Provide natural lightning by adding additional ventilation. Additional ventilation will also improve
the air flow in the room. It is recommended that the light intensity should be at least 100 lx.
• Attach the warning sign such as “No smoking” sign, risk of explosive gas, corrosive materials,
and existence of live voltage should be clearly shown in the battery room.

Keep away the battery from sparking component might be the source of ignition such as:
open flames, electrical arc, sparks, or electrostatic charge.

5
North Star, “NSB OPzV Batteries - Tubular Gel Technology,” 2017.

142 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, BATTERY RACK


What should be considered from a battery rack?

• Ensure that the battery rack as well as the floor is able to support the weight of the battery
• All the material in the battery room must be corrosive proof to provide stable support to the heavy battery
• Avoid to use wooden especially in the place that plenty of termites.

Without rack

No conduit

Battery are installed inside th battery rack Batteries are not installed properly on
with edges to avoid the battery from faling. a rack or without sufficient support.

Strong battery rack with no sign of Wooden rack material is prone to

corrosion. Rack is equipped with side bar to termites and risk of being rotten and may
protect battery from falling cause the entire bank to collapse.

Horizontal battery arrangement on hot deep- Corrosive rack will reduce the metal
galvanized steel rack structure with no sign thickness resulting loss of mechanical
of corrosion. strength.

As the weight of each battery cell is approx. 70 kg which makes in total 1,680 kg for the entire
bank, a considerable weakening of material strength will cause structural failure or breakdown.

CHAPTER 6 Battery Bank 143

 CHAPTER 7
DC Distribution Panel
✓ What is the function of dc panel distribution?
✓ What should be inside the panel?
✓ Good and bad installation of the panel

144 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

7.1 BASICS OF DC DISTRIBUTION PANEL

DC distribution panel is the place where solar charge controllers, battery banks, and battery inverters
are connected together. The panel distributes the converted DC power from solar charge controllers to
battery banks and from battery banks to battery inverters at typically 48 VDC. A typical DC distribution
panel mainly consists of busbars as connection points and protection devices to protect the battery
banks and cables to SCCs and battery inverters.

DC distribution panel consists of three batteries connected in parallel, as well as five SCCs,
and three battery inverters

• Protection of outgoing cables to battery inverter protects the outgoing cable against
overcurrent or short circuit.

• Protection of incoming
cables from SCC serves
additional overcurrent or
short circuit protection
to the SCC and incoming
cable to the panel.

• Battery bank protection

is used to protect
individual battery bank
against short circuit.
MCB or fuse is typically
used for this purpose.

• DC terminal or busbar
is the interconnection
point of battery banks,
SCCs, and battery
inverters. It aims to bring
several devices into a
• Grounding bar common conductor. It
• Enclosure houses the is made of solid copper
provides grounding
protection devices and conductor and tin-
connection of the
busbars. plated for corrosion
box (if metal box is
used) and to divert protection. Terminal block
voltage from surge is also often used for this
protection device when purpose.
overvoltage occurs.

CHAPTER 7 DC Distribution Panel 145

  What to consider when designing a DC panel distribution?

• Ambient condition and • Separation between the

power losses of the positive and negative
components affect the conductors must be
heat inside the panel. maintained to prevent
Good heat management is accidental short circuit.
required to avoid derating The battery banks contain
of the components caused high energy content, hence
by overheating. significant spark may occur.

• All cable connections should • As the panel is located

be securely tightened to indoor, the ingress protection
prevent fire hazards. of the enclosure should be
rated at minimum of IP 3X
or protected against solid
objects greater than 2.5 mm.

7.2 ENCLOSURE

 What to consider from an enclosure?

• Polycarbonate, • Panel should have • Additional safety • Distribution panel

polyester, or painted double insulation precaution such should be properly
steel material can or protection class as label and sized in accordance
be used for the II. The enclosure protection from to required number
enclosure. has multiple layers unauthorised of SCC, battery
of insulating personnel should inverter, and
material between be provided as the battery bank to be
the internal system is running connected.
components and at maximum 56
the box surface to VDC which can be
protect operator dangerous to touch
or technician from especially in wet
touch voltage. condition.

146 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, QUALITY OF THE ENCLOSURE

The panel should have minimum protection class of IP 3X or is protected against solid objects
greater than 2.5 mm. In order to achieve this, the cable glands at the cable insertions should be
used and ventilation of the box should not be too big to prevent animal entering.

Rubber seal

No cable glands

Lizard

Cable gland

Cable gland is used to prevent animal Big insertion at the cable entrance providing
enrtering the panel. access to uninvited animal.

Wrong cable color

Sealant

Enclosure is made from polycarbonate Ungrounded box and improper way to seal
that provides good insulation and properly the cable insertion. Use of sealant will make
labeled with electrical shock hazard. cable installation become semi-permanent.

CHAPTER 7 DC Distribution Panel 147

  How to improve the quality of the panel?

• If the enclosure is
made from metal,
make sure that the
panel is painted using
anti-corrosive paint.

• Use the correct

colour of cable
insulation to avoid
misinterpretation
of the function for
each cable type.

• The door should

be closed
properly and
locked.

• Close the big opening • Use proper cable glands

at the cable entrance in accordance to the cross
using robust board section of the cable and
and drill holes for cable reinstall all the cables
glands. through the glands.

The panel should be safe to touch at any condition. This could be achieved by having double
insulation enclosure or grounded panel as well as its door, if metallic material is used.

148 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

7.3 ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS IN THE DISTRIBUTION PANEL

 How is the typical electrical diagram of DC panel distribution?

DC DC DC
SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER
AC AC AC

DC PANEL DISTRIBUTION
1 Incoming cable
protection device

Battery bank Outgoing cable

2 3
protection device protection device

DC DC DC
AC AC AC

Battery bank Inverter battery

1 Irated SCC MCB ≥ 1.25 x Irated SCC output current

Irated battery bank MCB ≥ (1.25 x Irated inverter input current x number of inverter)
2 ÷ number of battery bank
Irated battery bank MCB ≥ Irated SCC MCB

3 Irated battery inverter MCB ≥ 1.25 x Irated inverter input current

Label Electrical drawing

Electrical drawing and component labels are Neither drawing nor label is provided. This may
attached on the enclosure door cause difficulty during service or maintenance.

Knife type (NT) Fuse

CHAPTER 7 DC Distribution Panel 149

 Electrical drawing and labelling of all components should be available on site and possibly
attached on the panel to help operator, technician, or inspectors to identify the installed
components.

Heat-shrink insulation

Adequate distance between the component Neat but relatively dense installation. Dense
and bigger internal space allows the installation may create difficulty to conduct
electrical components to dissipate heat. measurement and maintenance.

, PROTECTION DEVICES

The protection devices protect the cables and battery bank against overcurrent and short
circuit. It will disconnect the faulty device or line in case of short circuit and keep the rest of the
devices in operation.

 What to consider when installing protection devices?

• Only consider • It is recommended to • Selectivity of the • The current capability

protection devices use MCBs than fuses. protection devices of the protection
that have proven DC MCB or MCCB (Molded- should be considered devices and cables
switching capability Case Circuit Breaker) is to maintain the MCB, should consider
and are able to more sensitive, easy to that protects battery derating factor in
accommodate identify faults, resettable, bank, to be the last case of high ambient
voltage up to the safer, and provides easy device to trip in case temperature. It is safe
maximum battery disconnection. Using of fault. to consider derating
voltage. fuse would require factor at ambient
special tool and spare temperature of 45°C.
part which is often
unavailable in rural areas.

150 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 MCB protects (+) and (-) cables from SCC
Knife type (NT) Fuse

Cables are not protected

MCCB protects (+) and (-) cables of
battery bank and inverter

Battery banks, SCCs, and battery inverters Cables from SCCs and to battery inverters
are protected by MCB and MCCB on both are not protected.
positive and negative sides.

Parallel inverters

Parallel connection

Two inverters are connected in one terminal One circuit breaker is used to protect three
of three pole MCCB. battery banks.

CHAPTER 7 DC Distribution Panel 151

  How to fix such installation?

• Install DC-rated • Do not combine • Separate the • Replace the cable size
MCB at each the installation into connection and to the correct cross
incoming and one protection install an MCB for section. The current
outgoing cable device. Combined each line. carrying capacity
to SCC and from protection will of the cable should
battery inverter, lose installation at least be greater
respectively. flexibility, such as than the maximum
unable to trip the possible current going
faulty line only. in and out from the
battery banks

 What to consider when using fuses?

• Use only the fuse switch-disconnector

type and widely available type across the
country to ease maintenance and repair
process, as well as, avoid difficulty in
finding component replacement.

• Conduct inspection to regularly monitor

the fuses condition. Measurement is
needed when there is any burning sign.

• Electrical fault has to be located and

cleared before resetting the MCB or
replacing the fuse.

• Spare fuses amounted 20% from the total

fuses installed with similar size and rating
inside the box should be provided.

Never interrupt the circuit or take the fuse during operation or under load. The battery inverter
and SCCs should be switched-off prior opening the fuse.

152 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Fuse switch-disconnector is used. It Standard fuse base is used. Using NT or
provides protection, safety, as well as NH type fuse without switch-disconnector
allowing easy fuse replacement. requires fuse puller and may create arc
when disconnecting.

 Safety precautions to consider before conducting an inspection

• Ensure that the solar • Cables connected to the

charge controllers and battery bank are always
battery inverters are alive. Use insulated
disconnected prior rubber glove to prevent
disconnecting the battery getting electric shock.

, BUSBAR AND CABLE INSTALLATION

Very close distance

Adequate distance between the busbars. Very close distance between positive
Separator is provided to avoid accidental and negative busbar. Rearrangement of
short circuit during installation or components is required.
maintenance.

CHAPTER 7 DC Distribution Panel 153

 Positive side Negative side

Improper cable bending

Positive Negative

Preferable installation with horizontal busbar Vertical busbar arrangement makes

arrangement. It provides easier cable routing difficulty to arrange and route the cable.
and clear separation. Some positive cables touch negative busbar
and vice versa.

Adequate separation between positive and negative terminals is required to avoid unintended
short circuit. It is easier to separate the connection if they are installed with left and right
arrangement. See CHAPTER 3 on how to safely install positive and negative busbar.

Current rating should be

≥ 1.25 x total input current of
the battery inverters

Outgoing line

The outgoing line from four battery banks Vertical busbar arrangement makes
in parallel has the same size as individual difficulty to arrange and route the cable.
battery and is not protected by an Some positive cables touch negative busbar
overcurrent protection device. and vice versa.

Never leave cables unprotected and always use proper cross-section of the cable that is
calculated based on the possible current passing through, as well as, the installation method1.
See CHAPTER 3 page on how to avoid poor cable installation.

1. SNI 0225:2011 Persyaratan Umum Instalasi Listrik 2011 (PUIL 2011)

154 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

CHAPTER 7 DC Distribution Panel 155
 CHAPTER 8
Battery inverter
✓ What is a battery inverter?
✓ Good and bad installation of battery inverter
✓ Things to consider when setting the parameters

156 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

8.1 BASICS OF BATTERY INVERTER

Battery inverters or also known as stand-alone inverters is the brain of PV mini-grid system that form the
AC distribution grid by regulating the voltage and frequency within allowable limit and maintain the energy
balance in the grid. Battery inverters can typically be used bidirectionally or unidirectional depending on
the system configuration. In AC coupling system, battery inverter works as an inverter (DC-AC converter)
as well as a charger (AC-DC converter). If there is an energy surplus from the PV and the batteries are
not fully charged, the battery inverter acts as a charger. And if there is shortage and battery still have
energy left, battery discharges to fulfil the demand through inverter.

Several battery inverters can be expanded or interconnected modularly to achieve higher output. It can
be configured in parallel as single-cluster in ¬¬single-phase or three-phase configuration as well as multi-
clusters with additional panel distribution. In this case, if one cluster fails, the others are still in operation.

DC voltage

AC Low voltage

Communication cable
PV Array
Grounding cable

Power flow when charging

Power flow when not charging

SCC

DC Panel

Battery
inverter
PV array
Grid Inverter

AC Panel
AC Bus 230 / 400 V
Battery Inverter

DC Bus 48 V

Charge flow
Discharge flow
Communication
Power line

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 157

  What are the functions of a battery inverter?

• Convert DC power from battery bank

(typically 48 VDC) to AC power grid of
230 VAC

• Protect battery bank from

overcharging by decreasing the
charging current when the battery is
already full. Overcharging the battery
may cause gassing and explosion
depending on the battery technology.

• Protect battery bank from deeply

discharged by switching off the
output when the state of charge of
the battery falls bellow the threshold.
As battery inverter requires battery
to operate, deeply discharge of the
battery can result in losing the grid.

• Measure and monitor the charging

and discharging voltage, current,
and energy to and from the battery
bank and the AC output voltage and
current.

• Automatic transfer switch when the

battery inverter is connected to other
resources such as external grid or
generator. External grid or generator
can be used as a back-up when the
battery is at low state of charge.

158 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Ventilation grid Information display Ventilation grid

Wiring compartment
Information display Wiring compartment

Six SMA Sunny Island 8.0H battery inverters Three Schneider XW 6048 inverters are
installed in parallel to form 36 kW three- connected in parallel to achieve 18 kW
phase AC distribution continous output power.

Wiring compartment
Ventilation grid

Information display

Information display
Wiring compartment Ventilation grid

Three Leonics Apollo S-219C inverters are Three Kehua Tech DBX 12-5 kW inverters are
connected in parallel result in 15 kW total installed to provide 15 kW output power to
output power the load

, WHAT IS THE IDEAL SPECIFICATION OF A BATTERY INVERTER?

• Minimum of two battery inverters should be used to increase redundancy in single-phase

system and three inverters in three-phase system. It is preferable to use the same brand or
type or any compatible inverters recommended by the manufacturer.

• Battery inverters should be able to operate in parallel. Control of grid inverter power is
preferably done by adjusting the AC grid frequency or so-called frequency shift power control
(FSPC). If the battery is fully charged, the grid frequency increases and power from other power
sources such as the grid inverter is curtailed. Once the battery voltage decreases, the grid
frequency also decreases and thus increases the allowable feed-in power of the grid inverter.

• Flexible to be configured in single-phase or three-phase and easily expandable with multi-

cluster configuration. The inverter should also be suitable for TN configuration.

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 159

 • Sizing of the battery inverters should be according to the average load and peak load
running for more than 30 minutes. Estimated or measured load profile should be determined
to identify the continuous and peak load. Battery inverters’ rating should not be higher than the
PV capacity.

Continuous rated power @ 25°C > Average load power

AC power at 25°C for 30 minutes > Peak load for more than 30 minutes

Continuous rated power @ 25°C ≤ PV capacity

• High efficiency (≥ 94%) at peak system voltage and featured with MPPT.

• Equipped with the following protection systems:

• Overcurrent and short circuit protection at AC side, the device should be protected against
overload and short circuit during discharging.
• High-voltage disconnect, that automatically stops the charging process when the battery
voltage reaches the defined limit to avoid overcharging the battery.
• Low-voltage disconnect, that automatically switches the inverter to standby mode or
completely OFF when the battery voltage or SoC falls below the pre-set limit to avoid
deeply discharge the battery.
• Temperature-compensated battery charging is the ability of battery inverter in controlling
the charging voltage based on battery temperature.

• User friendly display that shows the status of battery inverter and SoC of the battery
bank. Battery management system should be based on precise determination of the SoC. It
will help operator or technician to easily monitor the system.

• Data acquisition or data logging to obtain the performance data from the system directly
from the inverter or via separated remote monitoring system.

• Suitable for the installed battery voltage level and technology (i.e. lead-acid, lithium-
ion, zinc-air, etc.). The inverter should be able to operate with 48 VDC system voltage. The
charging and discharging current and voltage of battery inverter should not be higher than the
permissible value of the installed battery. The high-voltage disconnection and low-voltage
disconnection threshold of the battery should be configured differently for each battery
technology. If lithium-ion or zinc-air type of battery is used, battery management system of
the battery should establish the communication with the inverter.

160 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Max. charge current SCC ≤ I101 battery (lead-acid)

Voltage at bulk/absorption mode ≤ Maximum voltage of battery

• Tested and certified according to IEC 61000, IEC 62109, and IEC 61683. The standard describes
the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) interference, safety of the power conversion unit, and
guideline on how to test measure the efficiency of inverters used in stand-alone system.

• Manufactured by a reputable company that has good track record and clear warranty procedures.

• IP rating of the battery inverter should be at least IP 40 for indoor used to avoid the
penetration of insects, dust, corrosive substances, moisture or water.

IP 54 IP 20

IP54 rating provides protection against dust Low IP rating may cause small objects as big
and splash of water that may cause harm as 12.5 mm to enter the compartment

The information on the label is useful to identify the type and electrical characteristics of
the installed battery inverters, especially during inspection or maintenance. Label should be
attached and easily visible.

1.
I10 or charging current rate in 10 hours (Capacity [Ah]/10 hours)

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 161

 8.2 BATTERY INVERTER HARDWARE INSTALLATION AND
INTERCONNECTION
, LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE UNITS

The battery inverter should be installed inside a power house to protect the device from direct sun
exposure and harsh environment. Good heat management inside the room should be considered
by providing good air flow circulation. Adequate distance between battery inverters should be
maintained to allow heat dissipation.

Top ventilation

Side ventilation

Minimum Minimum
clearance clearance

Minimum Minimum
clearance clearance

Installation arrangement of battery inverters with minimum clearance for ventilation opening
and cable installation. Check the manufacturer instruction for the minimum clearances.

Ventilation

Ventilation is partly blocked

30 cm

Adequate clearance between the inverters Battery inverters are installed very close
to ensure air supply and allow heat to each other. Ventilation is blocked by the
convection. cable conduit.

162 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Warm air

Ventilation is
blocked

Ventilation opening is free from objects Ventilation opening of the battery inverter is
allowing the warm air to escape obstructed with foreign objects

Ventilation opening of the battery inverter should never be blocked by any object to avoid
unnecessary increase of heat. Increasing of heat will reduce the output power. Battery inverter
ventilation openings must regularly be cleaned from dust deposits

1 meter

± 50 cm

The front of the battery inverter have greater Insufficient front clearance may cause
than one meter of clearance difficulty when conducting service and
maintenance.

 How to improve the inverter arrangement?

• Position of the battery inverters should be rearranged based on the recommended layout
specified by the manufacturer. Depending on the location of ventilation, minimum clearance of
min.30 cm
30 cm should be maintained around the inverter to allow natural convection and proper cable
installation and 1 meter from the front side of the inverter.

350C • Ensure that the ambient temperature of the power house is not exceeding 35°C due to
excessive number of inverters installed in the room.

• The ventilation of the battery inverter should be cleaned in regular basis from dust
accumulation.

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 163

 Wooden base is used to elevate the Battery inverters are installed on top of free-
installation of the inverters. standing concrete blocks.

 How to fix such installation?

• As wood is susceptible to wet damage, • Free-standing concrete blocks are not very
replace the mounting base with anti- stable. Small movement on the inverter
corrosive metal structure. If the power may easily cause the entire installation to
house is not prone to flooding, install collapse. Use a more stable structure to
directly the inverters on the floor. elevate the inverters.

, CABLE INSTALLATION OF BATTERY INVERTER

Electrical connection in the battery inverter includes the battery and AC power cables, different
type of communication cables, and equipment grounding.

 The importance of correct battery inverter

• To mitigate the risk of • To establish parallel operation • To obtain the

having overheated cable, between master and slave measurement data from
electric fault, and possibly battery inverters as well as the battery inverters via
electric shock hazard to between the main cluster and remote monitoring system.
the operator or technician. extended clusters.

164 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Battery inverters and the cabling are neatly Very long cable reduces the efficiency of the
installed and routed inside the cable conduit. system due to unnecessary voltage drop.

 How to configure multiple battery inverters in parallel?

• One cluster, single-phase AC Bus 230V

In this configuration, up to three or N PE N PE N PE
four battery inverters (depending on

Slave 2
Master

Slave 1

manufacturer) are connected to a System

Control
battery bank forming a cluster. The Panel

AC output of battery inverters are

connected in parallel on a single-phase Data com. Cluster com.
line conductor. Cluster communication DC Bus 48 V
or AC synchronisation network should
be established between the inverters
within the cluster.
Battery bank

• One cluster, three-phase AC Bus - L1

Three battery inverters are connected
AC Bus - L2
in parallel at the DC bus and forming
three-phase distribution system. Each AC Bus - L3
of the battery inverter represents N PE N PE N PE
one phase of the three phases and
Slave 2
Master

Slave 1

operates at phase shift of 120° or 240° System

Control
between each other Panel

Data com. Cluster com.

DC Bus 48 V

Battery bank

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 165

 • Multi-cluster, three-phase
A multi-cluster system consists of multiple clusters connected in parallel. The output power of the
multi-cluster system increases with the number of clusters. As multi-cluster system is intended
for three-phase configuration, the number of installed battery inverters should be divisible by
three. Depending on the brand, a multi-cluster box is required to connect the clusters as shown
below. Multi-cluster communication should be established between the masters.

Multi-cluster distribution panel 4

Main Cluster Extention Cluster

L1 L2 PE L3 N L1 L2 PE L3 N
Cluster communication

Multicluster communication

Main N PE N PE N PE Extension N PE N PE N PE
cluster cluster
Slave 2

Slave 2
Master

Master
Slave 1

Slave 1
System System
Control Control
Panel Panel

Data com. Cluster com. Data com. Cluster com.

DC Bus 48 V DC Bus 48 V

Battery bank Battery bank

• Master is set to act as a control and monitoring centre and communicate with the slaves within
the same cluster and to other masters. The master regulates the frequency and voltage to be
followed by the slaves. It also controls the battery operation and connect or disconnect of the
slaves as well as monitors the battery state of charge.
• Slave follows the configuration setting and commands from the master within the cluster. The
slaves operate based on the commands issued by the inverter and provide the feedback to
its master.
• Main cluster has the highest cluster level in the multi-cluster system. The master of the main cluster
is superior than masters of the extension cluster. The task of the master is to communicate with
multi-cluster box, start and stop the entire system, and control as well as monitor the other masters.
• Extension cluster is additional cluster in multi-cluster system that is under the main cluster control.
The master of the extension clusters has to follow the signal sent by the master of main cluster.
The extension cluster is independent to the operational of the entire system, which means

Source: SMA2 and Schneider3

2.
SMA, “Installation - Quick Reference Guide Off-Grid Systems,” 2014.
3.
Schneider Electric, “Conext XW Multi-Unit Power Systems Design Guide,” 2016.

166 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Power and communication cables are Tangled power and communication cables.
protected inside cable conduit. Bad cabling can be dangerous and affecting
performance.

 How to improve the cabling of battery inverters?

• Re-route the cable and cut DC and 10 mm2 for AC or as per

the unnecessary length of the manufacturer instruction. The
cable. The length of power peak AC output current should
cable within a cluster should be be considered when sizing the
identical. cables and protection devices
(Cable rating > MCB rating > Peak
• Install cable conduit to route AC output current).
and protect the the cables and
preventing high mechanical • Battery inverters should
load on the cables by not be installed closely to the
leaving the cables hanging. connected battery bank.
The cable length between
• The cable length between the the battery bank and battery
battery inverters and battery inverters should not exceed 10
bank and AC distribution in a meters. And the total length of
cluster should be identical to the communication network
avoid unsymmetrical operation. should not exceed 40 meters.
• Use proper cable type based on • Power cable and communication
the operating voltage, maximum cable should be not be installed
charging and discharging close to each other or bundled in
current, and AC output current. the same conduit.
The cross-section of the cable
should be calculated based on • Label each power and
IEC 60364 or PUIL and should communication cable for easy
not be less than 70 mm2 for identification of the cables

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 167

 Communication cables Power cables

Wrong cable
Bundled by cable tie

Power and communication cables are Bundling of communication and power cable
protected inside cable conduit. may introduce unintended noise in the signal

Negative battery terminal

Positive battery terminal

Battery terminal connection is protected Absence of terminal boots can lead to an

with insulator material from direct touch and accidental short circuit to the battery.
being shorted.

The battery terminal connection is always alive and should never be left unprotected. Metal
parts may cause accidental short circuit and potentially creating sparks.

Xanbus network
AC sync
Network terminator on AC sync

Bad ethernet crimping

Ethernet cables for sycnronsation between Low quality self-made ethernet cable is
battery inverters and communication used. The outer jacket is not securely
network are properly installed. crimped inside the connector.

168 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Network terminator is normally used to terminate the first and the last devices of the
communication chain. Cross-check with the manufacturer instructions for the necessity to
terminate the connection.

 How to fix such installation?

• In battery inverter type above, the cluster network for AC synchronisation should not be terminated
with network terminator. Network terminator should only be installed on the first and last device
of the data communication network.
• Please refer to the manual for the recommended communication cable type. Some manufacturer
only allows straight-thru Category 5 (CAT 5 or CAT 5e) cable type with RJ45 connector. Using
twisted pairs cable for the signal connection may reduce the noise
• Replace the ethernet cable with higher quality crimping or use the cables provided by the inverter
manufacturer. The tiny wires may not be able to hold the mechanical load when plugging in and
out the cable. Excess wires should be cut and the connector should hold the outer jacket by
squeezing it into the connector.
• Use strain relief boots around the connector to avoid cable snags

open cable inlet

Sharp edge
Cable gland

Power and communication cables are Absence of cable glands may damage the
protected inside cable conduit. cable insulation due to sharp edge and also
causing IP rating degradation.

Grounding connection of the exposed Chassis of the battery inverter is not

conductive case is provided to prevent grounded. Ungrounded metal case may lead
electric shock. to electric shock hazard.

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 169

 , MULTI-CLUSTER BOX

Some manufacturer requires additional distribution panel to establish multi-cluster system and to
connect between the battery inverters (clusters), grid inverters, and the load. The panel is often
prewired and contains all the switching and monitoring devices. The panel is available according
to the required number of inverters to be connected.

Multicluster box 6.3

Multicluster box 12.3

AC distribution panel

SMA Multicluster box 12.3 is used to connect SMA MC box 6.3 is used to install six battery
three clusters consisting nine battery inverters in parallel before being distributed
inverters. to the grid via AC distribution panel.

, BATTERY TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Similar to the solar charge controller, the information on battery temperature is required
to prevent battery charging at high temperature. The charging compensation is done by
adjusting the charging voltage based on the increase of battery temperature.

Battery temperature sensor

Battery temperature sensor

Battery temperature sensor is connected to the battery inverter (master) and installed on the battery
for charging compensation feature.

Battery temperature sensor should only be installed on the master battery inverter of each
cluster. See chapter 4 on how to install the battery temperature sensor correctly.

170 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

8.3 BATTERY INVERTER PARAMETER SETTINGS

Setting-up the battery inverter parameter is an important step during installation to ensure the parallel
operation of multiple inverters and safe battery operation. The parameters should be configured
according to the manufacturer instruction and recommended values from the battery manufacturer.
All the basic parameters should be set properly prior to the commissioning. The configuration of
the battery inverters can be done using a system control panel that is connected to the master
inverter through data communication network.

Conext SCP

Sunny Remote Control

Four SMA Sunny Remote Controls are Conext System Control Panel are instaled to
installed to configure and monitor each set up and monitor the battery inverters.
cluster

 What parameters should be considered when configuring battery inverters?

• Basic configuration
• Device type to identify the master and slaves
• Operating mode should be set to stand alone or off-grid mode
• Type of battery can be selected between the lead acid battery technologies (valve regulated
or flooded) or other type such as lithium-ion. The OPzV battery is specified as a valve
regulated (VRLA) battery.
• Nominal Battery bank voltage, which is typically set at 48 V DC. The battery voltage should
be within the range of the nominal battery voltage.
• Battery bank nominal capacity in Ah (Ampere-hour) based on the C10 capacity of the battery
bank. Sum the capacity of all battery strings if multiple strings are connected in parallel.
• Line voltage and frequency of the grid is set to 230 VAC and 50 Hz.
• Number of line conductors is ether single-phase or three-phase configuration.
• Single cluster or multi-cluster to determine configuration of the system.
• Type of cluster differentiates between main cluster and extension cluster.
• Cluster address and type of distribution panel is to identify the address of extension cluster
and the product specific box is used
• Connected energy sources such as PV with grid inverter, generator, or external grid

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 171

 • Additional configuration for AC output is only done at the master
• Nominal AC voltage and frequency of the stand- alone grid. The default value is 230 V / 50 Hz
• Frequency droop function is to set the rate of frequency change per kW
• Minimum and maximum inverter voltage is the operating range of inverter AC voltage
• Minimum and maximum inverter frequency is the operating range of inverter frequency

• Additional configuration for battery configuration is only done at the master

• Low voltage disconnection is the cut-off limit of battery voltage that the inverter should stop
• Charging current limit defines the acceptable output current to charge battery. The value
normally depends on the maximum charge that can be applied to the battery.
• Charging cycle is either three-stages or two-stages charging process with no float. Three-
stages cycle consist of bulk or charging-current phase, absorption or constant-voltage
phase, and floating phase is normally used for lead-acid and two-stages for lithium.
• Charging voltage setting to ensure proper battery charging. See Chapter 4 for the
recommended values for the voltage setting. The recommended voltage for lead acid
OPzV is 2.35 2.4 V for the bulk and absorption stage, and 2.25 - 2.3 V for float charging or
consult with the battery manufacturer for the allowable limit.
• Battery temperature compensation is the adjustment required per increase of temperature
specified in mV per °C.

Device ID

Phase 1, Master

Battery inverters are labelled with ID Absence of label on the inverters can cause
showing the device type and phase difficulties when carrying out inspection or
connection maintenance

172 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

CHAPTER 8 Battery Inverter 173
 CHAPTER 9
AC Distribution Panel
✓ What is the function of AC distribution panel?
✓ What are the components inside the panel?
✓ Good and bad installation of the panel

174 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

9.1 BASICS OF AC DISTRIBUTION PANEL

Alternating Current (AC) distribution panel or also known as AC panel distribution box (ACPDB) is used
to divide and distribute the power from battery inverters to feed several loads or feeders. It is the place
where the battery inverters are connected in parallel to combine the output power as well as the housing
of protection devices of all feeders. A typical AC distribution panel consists of busbars, incoming and
outgoing feeders, protection devices, and local monitoring system. Depending on the system capacity
and topology, AC panel distribution might be configured in 1-phase or 3-phase arrangement.

1. Enclosure houses the protection

devices and busbars

2. Busbar is the interconnection 1 5 6

point between battery inverters, grid
inverters and output feeders. Typically,
four busbars consisting of three
lines and one neutral are used for
three phase configuration while two
busbars consisting of one line and
one neutral are used for single-phase
configuration.

3. Energy meter acquires the voltage

and current from each phase,
2
calculate the power and accumulate
the energy.
3 7 8
4. Current transformer is used as a
current input of the energy meter. It
measures the current on each phase
and converts it to a lower current that
is readable by the energy meter.
4 10 9
5. Timer and contactor control
operational hour of the streetlight.
Usually the streetlights operate only
for five hours. 30 kW AC distribution panel with
three-phase configuration
6. Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
protects the incoming feeders
(battery inverters) and the outgoing 9. Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
feeders to the grid distribution. prevents human from electrical shock
due to dangerous voltage on the metal
7. Fuse to interrupt the voltage
enclosure. The device will interrupt
measurement from the busbars
the load when considerable voltage is
in case of sudden short circuit or
detected. Residual current device (RCD)
damaged energy meter.
is also often used for this purpose.
8. Surge protection device (SPD) is
10. Grounding bar provides grounding for
used to limit voltage in the event of
the enclosure, surge protection devices,
overvoltage and lightning strikes.
as well as current transformers.

CHAPTER 9 AC Distribution Panel 175

  How is the cable insulation colour in 1-phase and 3- phase system?

All components in the AC distribution panel are operating in AC voltage that may reach up to 380
to 400 V for three-phase configuration. PV mini-grid with capacity bigger than 15 kWp is usually
configured in 3-phase. While system smaller than 15 kWp is normally operated in 1-phase or 220
to 230 V.

The insulation colours are according to PUIL1 2011 and SNI2 IEC 60445. Previous insulation colours
are red for phase 1, yellow for phase 2, blue for phase 3, and black for neutral.


What is good installation of a panel?

• Enclosure should be safe from touch voltage in case of fault. This could be done by having good
grounding of the enclosure or using double insulation panel.
• Additional safety precaution such as marking and label should be attached to raise awareness
that dangerous voltage is existing in the system.
• Good heat management is required to avoid significant derating of the components.
• Meters and light indicators should be available on the door and clearly visible.
• Panels should be properly fixed and easily accessible.

Panels are mounted on the wall and cables Free standing AC distribution panel may lead
are installed neatly. to instability and cause the panel to fall.

1
General Requirements for Electrical Installation - Indonesian Standard
2
SNI - Indonesia National Standard

176 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

9.2 ENCLOSURE

, QUALITY OF THE ENCLOSURE

It is important that all the active electrical components have clear warning label to alert the operator or
technician with the existence of live busbars and connectors in the panel. Apart from label, the panel
should also be provided with key lock to prevent unauthorized person from accessing the installation.

Panel is labelled with electrical shock Absence of labels reduces the awareness of
hazard. the dangerous voltage existence.

Electrical drawing

Component labelling

Additional board to protect the installation Sign of animals in the panel. Panel should
from direct touch. As built electrical drawing have at least IP3x to avoid animal entering
is available on the panel. the panel.

Ensure that all the components and cables are attached with relevant label. All the labels should
be corresponded to the available electrical drawing on the panel.

CHAPTER 9 AC Distribution Panel 177

 Cable gland

Cable gland is used to prevent animal Improper sealant is used at the cable
entering to the panel. It is preferred to have insertion. Cable glands should be used
individual gland for each cable. instead.

Grounding connection

The enclosure including its door is well Ungrounded door may lead to electric shock
grounded. when there is fault or cable insulation failure.

There is no guarantee that the door is conductively connected to the box. Attaching grounding
cable to the door will reduce the risk of having electrocuted when fault occurs.

178 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

9.3 ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS IN AC DISTRIBUTION PANEL

How is the typical electrical diagram of a single-phase AC panel distribution?

Irated Battery Inverter MCB ≥ 1.25

x Irated inverter output current

Irated voltage measurement MCB ≥

1.25 x Irated energy meter

Irated street light MCB ≥ 1.25 x Irated energy meter

Iratedoutput feeder MCB ≥

Iratedhouseholds MCB x number of households
Irated battery inverter MCB ≥ Irated output feeder MCB

Irated power house MCB ≥

1.25 x Irated appliances in the power house

It is recommended that the output feeders should be at least equal to the number of installed
battery inverters. This will enable protection coordination which avoid having feeder’s MCB
(downstream circuit) rating higher than the MCB of the single battery inverter (upstream circuit).

CHAPTER 9 AC Distribution Panel 179

  Why protection coordination is required?
• To ensure that the protection devices operate with the necessary reliability.
• To disconnect only the faulty line from the system.
• To avoid unnecessary disconnection of upstream protection device when overload or short
circuit occurs.

As built electrical drawing is available on site Panel without drawing and label on the
to indicate the location and interconnection cables and components causing the
between components possibility of having incorrect connection.

, PROTECTION DEVICES

 What to consider when installing protection devices?

• It is recommended to use MCBs than fuses. In case of fault, MCB is reusable and has higher
availability in the rural areas compare to the fuse.
• Protection for the feeders must be specified and installed according to the requirement of the
relevant standards (PUIL 2011 and IEC 60364)
• Always check that the MCB or fuse rating is higher than the load current and lower than the
rating of the protected cable.
• All the devices should be AC-rated and has voltage rating equal or greater than the operating
voltage (220VAC / 380 VAC)
• Ambient temperature of the panel should be taken into consideration in the sizing of devices.
Correction factor must be estimated in case of high ambient temperature. It is safe to consider
derating factor at ambient temperature of 45°C.

MCBs to feeders Three-phase MCB

Single phase MCB is used to protect Three-phase MCB is used for three different
individual feeder. feeders. Fault in one feeder will unecessarily
disconnect all feeders.

180 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Very close distance

Free hanging MCB

Fuse is used.
Spares are needed.

Grounding cable

Unsafe installation of MCB. MCB should be Busbars are used to interconnect the
mounted and protected inside the panel. components. Grounding cable is used as
line cable.


How to ensure proper operation of the protection devices?

• Verify during commissioning that the protection devices are functioning correctly and are using
proper rating (not underrated).
• Conduct inspection to regularly monitor the fuses condition. Burnt fuse or tripped MCB should
be investigated immediately.
• Electrical fault has to be located and cleared before switching the MCB back on or replacing the fuse.
• If fuses are used, provide a minimum of 20% spare fuses from the total fuses installed with
similar size and rating inside the box.

Always make sure that the system is off or the panel is free from voltage when conducting
troubleshooting or inspection.

Earth-leakage circuit
breaker (ELCB) Only neutral is connected

Correct installation of the ELCB. All the ELCB is not installed correctly. All the phases
phases and neutral are connected to the should also be connected to the protective
ELCB. device.

CHAPTER 9 AC Distribution Panel 181

 All phases and neutral cables should be connected to ELCB to have complete protection. ELCB
can only be used in the following earthing systems: TT, TN-S, or TN-C-S. See Chapter 14 – Grid
distribution for different earthing arrangement or systems in PV mini-grid.

Indicator

Cables are not connected

Cables are not connected to the surge Replacement of surge protection device
protection device. The system may not be (SPD) is needed as shown with red indicator
protected from voltage spike. on the SPD.

Induced voltage may occur in all phases, therefore, all the phases including neutral and ground
should be connected to the surge protection device (SPD).

fuses Voltage measurements

Voltage measurements are protected by Voltage measurement is not protected by

fuses. any protection device. Energy meter is not
installed.

Cable connection from the energy meter to the busbar for voltage measurement should not be
left unprotected. Faulty energy meter or wrong connection may cause overload or short circuit.

182 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, BUSBAR TERMINAL

Cable touches the busbar

Line cables do not cross the neutral busbar. Direct contact of phase cable and neutral
Avoid direct contact between cable and busbar. Insulation may be damaged overtime
busbar from different line. due to the sharp edges and vibration.

Adequate distance between line and neutral Busbars installation of the phases are too
busbars. close and separation is not provided.

All the busbars should be identified with labels and are separated using isolated material to
avoid direct contact or accidental short circuit.

, LOCAL MONITORING SYSTEM

Local monitoring system is required to provide basic information such as instantaneous voltage,
current, frequency, power, and the total energy delivered to the load. The monitoring unit can be
in the form of digital or analogue meter. It consists of energy meter, voltage measurement and
current transformer as input of the meter.

CHAPTER 9 AC Distribution Panel 183

 Energy meter is provided to monitor the Digital meter on the panel provides
energy used by the load better visualization and precision of the
measurement values.


What to consider when installing an energy meter?

• Energy meter should be calibrated prior the shipment

• For better accessibility, it is preferable to have energy meter installed on the door of the panel.
• Verify correct reading of the meter during commissioning to avoid invalid or unreliable reading
of the data.

Energy meter is working properly and all The meter is not functioning and the third
phases are connected to the measuring line is not connected to the meter. Fuse
device. might be blown.

Ensure that all the phases and neutral are connected to the energy meter for correct reading.
The ratio of the current transformer should match with the input current of the energy meter.

184 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Current, voltage, and frequency of the The output current is not measured by the
electrical system are shown on the panel. panel. Output current is needed to identify
the power consumption of the load.

Voltage and current measurement of the output should at least be installed on the panel to
display the power delivered to the loads. The information is useful for the operator or technician
to see the instantaneous power as well as to detect faults.

, CABLE INSTALLATION

Electric tape

Neat installation and proper cable shoes Cable is not installed with proper cable
are used. shoes. Eletrical tape is used as insulation
and to fix the MCBs.

CHAPTER 9 AC Distribution Panel 185

 , CABLE INSTALLATION

Grounding cables

Wrong insulation colour (grounding cable) Improper cable connection and insulation.
is used for the line phase. Correct colour Replace the cable with the whole cable.
should be used instead.

Cables must be properly terminated and fastened. Bad crimping and connection can lead to
increase of heating, losses in wiring, and rising possible risk of being electrocuted and fire.
Always check the tightness of the crimping by slightly pull the cable.

 How to avoid bad installation?

• Use pre-assembled AC panel distribution. Pre-assembled panel is more reliable as the panel
is tested to assure the quality of the installation. Continuity test is usually conducted in the
factory to ensure a proper connection and normal ambient temperature.
• Verify during commissioning that there is no overheated cables or connectors. Verification
can be done visually, mechanically by checking the tightness of connection, electrically by
checking the voltage and current, as well as verified thermally.
• Thermal imager can be used to spot the abnormal heat due to undersized cable or bad
installation. Inspection is required when there is a significant difference in temperature between
the overheated component and its neighbours.
• Conduct inspection and maintenance regularly to make sure there is no loosen bolts, screws,
or cables due to vibration or temperature variation. Re-torque the bolts when needed.

186 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Cables are neatly wired and routed inside Unnecessary cable length and messy
cable tray. Colour codes and labels are installation. Re-routing of the cable
used to identify phases and components. installation is required.

Cables should be arranged neatly and not too long. A very long cable will cause unnecessary
voltage drop and higher cost. Bad installation may increase the risk of having fault due to
damaged cable insulation and causes difficulty to quickly identify the fault.

Cable is not connected

Improper connection may lead to an Conductors of two core cable are connected
electric arc. MCBs are not equipped with in parallel and not protected individually.
labels.

Only use one conductor in multi-core cable for each line. Connecting in parallel two different
insulation colours may lead to short circuit.

 How to fix the installation?

• Avoid using double core cables connected in parallel to increase the current flow use bigger
single core cable
• rewire messy cable installation. Cut unnecessary cable length and use cable conduit to
arrange and protect cable insulation

CHAPTER 9 AC Distribution Panel 187

 CHAPTER 10
Monitoring System
✓ Good and bad installation of monitoring system
✓ List of parameters to be monitored
✓ Things to consider when setting the monitoring system

188 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

10.1 BASIC OF MONITORING SYSTEM

Alternating Current (AC) distribution panel or also known as AC panel distribution box (ACPDB) is used
to divide and distribute the power from battery inverters to feed several loads or feeders. It is the place
where the battery inverters are connected in parallel to combine the output power as well as the housing
of protection devices of all feeders. A typical AC distribution panel consists of busbars, incoming and
outgoing feeders, protection devices, and local monitoring system. Depending on the system capacity
and topology, AC panel distribution might be configured in 1-phase or 3-phase arrangement.

 What are the main functions of monitoring systems?

• Evaluate whether the production meets the demand of the consumers

• Understand the system performance including its efficiency and reliability
• Provide support to the local operator in conducting troubleshooting
• Provide substantial information for further improvement on the system design which optimise
the components used in the system

Solar panel power line

communication

SCC Pyranometer

DC Bus 48 V

System System
Battery
Control Control
inverter
Panel Panel

Typical installation of the monitoring system. Cable communication is connected in daisy chain1.

PV mini-grid must be equipped with monitoring device to keep an eye on r its condition and to
initiate maintenance when needed. A typical remote monitoring system comprises monitoring device
as a data hub from individual devices and system control panel. The monitoring is conducted by
acquiring data such as voltage and current from each power electronic device, irradiance from
pyranometer then transfer the data to the monitoring device through communication cable. Further,
the data can be directly visualized, stored in data logger, or transmitted to the data cloud when
GSM/GPRS signal is available.

1. Daisy chain: a series of interconnected or related things

CHAPTER 10 Monitoring System 189

  What are the requirements of a good monitoring system?

• Featured with data logging function using SD card. Data logging interval of at least in hourly
period.
• Accessible from personal computer through web browser.
• Compatible with the type and brand of the installed power electronics and pyranometer.
Compatibility means an ability to communicate easily with the available interface and protocol.
• Featured with communication interface through ethernet and RS485.

Sunny WebBox, communication and Conect ComBox, communication and

monitoring device for SMA monitoring device for Schneider

SMA Sunny Remote Control to control and Schneider XW System Control Panel (SCP)
monitor Sunny Island battery inverter to control and monitor all connected power
electronics

190 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to monitor a PV mini-grid system?

1. Manually check the system

Monitoring is conducted by the operator in daily basis. It is performed by manually check the data
on the local monitoring system in AC distribution panel and on the system’s control panel. The
operator should visit the power house and write the basic data such as energy output, battery
voltage, input energy from the PV, etc. The checklist should be send regularly by the operator to the
owner of the system. See operation and maintenance guideline published by Directorate General
for New, Renewable Energy, and Energy Conservation (DG NREEC) for the maintenance checklist.

2 Monitoring system using data logger

Data is collected by the monitoring device and stored in an SD card with defined interval. All the
required parameters for the analysis should be registered during the installation of the monitoring
system. When reporting is needed, SD card should be sent to the owner. Notice that the length
of data stored in the SD card depends on the variety of parameters being recorded and the size
of the SD card used for the system. New data will overwrite the old data if the SD card is full.

3 Monitoring system using GSM/GPRS network

Monitoring system using GPRS is recommended due to the remote location of the site. With this
method, the owner can access to the data remotely without coming to the site. Firstly, it collects
the registered parameters then transmit the acquired data to the data storage of the owner.

Each of the above-mentioned method has its advantages and disadvantages. It is clear that the
manual check is the most robust way to monitor the system as the operator will directly check the
system and report in the form of log book. However, only limited details can be obtained from the
manual check method which is unfavourable for further analysis. Implementation of monitoring
system depends on the situation on site. Data logger is always considered as an option since
there are plenty of sites that do not have good mobile network. However, when mobile network
is strong enough and reliable, transmitting real time data with GPRS should be an option. In this
case, monitoring device should have

CHAPTER 10 Monitoring System 191

 10.2 INSTALLATION OF MONITORING SYSTEM
, HARDWARE INSTALLATION

Pyranometer connection

To other devices To computer

Functioning monitoring system with Monitoring system is installed but not

connection to the other devices through connected to anything.
Xanbus and RS485 for pyranometer.

Ensure that all the monitored devices are connected to the bus. There is a maximum number of
connected devices on a single monitoring device that should be taken into account. Consider
having additional monitoring device and creating multi-cluster configuration when maximum
number is exceeded.

SMA Battery inverter

Schneider SCC

SMA Monitoring

Solar charge controllers and battery A mix of two different manufacturers leads
inverters from the same manufacturer are to communication problem between the
monitored in the same network. components

Strain relief boot

Ethernet cables with strain relief boots are RJ45 strain relief boots is not equipped on
used as cable communication aiming for the grey cable.
more robust connection.

192 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Network terminator

Absence of network terminator

Network terminator is installed to the remote The communication network is not

monitoring. the component is the first component terminated by network terminator.
of the system that connects to the network

Neat cable installation of monitoring device Pyranometer is not connected properly to

and system control panel. Router will only the device. Data may not be readable.
be used when remote monitoring via GSM/
GPRS is possible.

 What to consider when installing the communication cable?

• Ensure that the communication cable is connected properly.

• High quality ethernet cable with strain relief boot should be used to reduce conductor stress
which may cause network failure.
• Straight-through cable type is often used for connecting different types of devices. Please refer
to the user manual from the manufacturer for the recommended cable type.
• When the network is connected in daisy chain, network terminator should be available at both ends.

CHAPTER 10 Monitoring System 193

 Pyranometer connection

From pyranometer

Pyranometer is connected to monitoring Pyranometer is installed but not connected

device via RS485 interface to the monitoring device. Avoid installing
communication and power cables in the
same conduit.

Analog input module

with Modbus interface

RS485 connection
120-ohm terminator

Unknown device

Pyranometer is connected to Modbus RS485 Messy and unsafe installation of analogue

terminal. Modbus network is terminated by input module from pyranometer.
120 Ω resistor.

Pyranometer should not only be installed correctly but also connected properly to the monitoring
device. Availability and reliability of data should be validated from the monitoring device. For the
system that does not equipped with internal resistor terminator in RS 485 network, additional
120 Ω resistor should be installed.

 How to fix such installation?

• Connect the • When Modbus RS485 • Reinstall the analogue resistor at the end of
pyranometer to the interface is available in input module and the Modbus network.
monitoring device the monitoring device, reroute the cables.
based on the make sure that the • Install termination
available input of the pyranometer has the same
monitoring system. communication protocol
and interface to avoid
additional data conversion
module.

194 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Additional data acquisition device

PC connection

Pyranometer is connected to additional data Instantaneous measurement of the

acquisition device. The data can only be irradiance. The device will only show the
acquired and monitored in a PC. instantaneous data without recording them.

 What to consider when installing solar irradiance meter?

• The pyranometer • Similar to PV • Ensure the validity • The dome or

should be installed module, the of the irradiance glass surface of
in the same plane pyranometer data during pyranometer should
as the PV array should be free of commissioning. always be cleaned
to represents the shade and with no Data can be and free of cracked
actual irradiance potential shading retrieved from the to improve the light
received by the in the future. SD card in the transmission into the
PV array. monitoring device. sensing element.

Sunny Sensorbox
Pyranometer

Dome

Cable data

The pyranometer is straightly hit by the The pyranometer has probablity of being
sunlight and in the same plane as the PV shaded and thus providing unreliable
array. Sunny sensorbox is installed as global irradiance data.
additional sensor.

CHAPTER 10 Monitoring System 195

 Pyranometer is free from shade but Pyranometer is installed below the PV
installed in-plane with the roof. The tilt module plane. The shadow from the PV
angle may follow the angle of the roof. module can cover the sensor.

Installing pyranometer in plane with PV module will allow the performance analysis of the PV
modules at particular tilt angle and position. It is recommended to install the pyranometer on
top of the PV array structure to avoid shading of the PV module from any angles.

10.3 MONITORING PARAMETERS

Monitoring is not only about possessing and maintaining the components but also establishing data
processing and evaluation methods for further use of the data. Monitoring will only be essential if
the acquired data are analysed and used for improvement. Data needs to be stored, pre-processed,
and analysed in a proper way to obtain reliable information from the system such as system
performance and efficiency. However, there are limitation in the monitoring device in storing all
data from each component. In order to evaluate the system correctly, performance indicators of a
PV mini-grid have to be defined prior to configuration setting. Following is an alternative option to
evaluate a PV mini-grid with DC coupling configuration.

What to analyse from a PV mini-grid?

PV module performance
• Photovoltaic efficiency
• Production factor
• Energy curtailment

Overall performance
• Performance ratio
• Capacity factor
• Solar charge controller efficiency
• Battery inverter efficiency Load behaviour
• Load profile
• Consumption trend
DC Bus 48 V • Demand factor

Battery performance
• Battery efficiency
• Battery operation range

AC Bus

196 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

The evaluation comprises not only the performance of the entire system such as performance
ratio, but also the performance of each individual component. It aims to improve the design or take
preventive action facing loss of performance, for example, battery efficiency, cycling behaviour of
the batteries, energy losses in PV modules due to dirt and temperature, etc. Performance Analysis of
Photovoltaic Mini-grid for Rural Communities in Indonesia2 can be referred for a detailed evaluation
method and for AC-coupling system. The study was based on IEC 61724 – Photovoltaic system
performance and combined with several literatures. In this case, there are parameters that should
be measured and recorded in the data logger to perform the evaluation.

Which parameters should be measured in DC-coupling system?

G
TPV

UPV , IPV

USCC, ISCC

DC Bus 48 V

UBATT_INV_IN, IBATT_INV_IN
UBATT, IBATT, SOC
TBATT

TROOM_BATT

UBATT_INV_OUT, IBATT_INV_OUT

AC Bus

No Parameter Symbol Unit Component

1 Irradiance G W/m2 Pyranometer
2 PV module temperature TPV °C Temperature sensor
3 PV array output voltage UPV V Solar charge controller
4 PV array output current IPV A Solar charge controller
5 SCC output voltage USCC V Solar charge controllers (combined)
6 SCC output current ISCC A Solar charge controllers (combined)
7 Battery temperature TBATT °C Solar charge controller
8 Battery voltage UBATT V Battery inverters (combined)
9 Battery current IBATT A Battery inverters (combined)
10 Battery room temperature TROOM_BAT °C Temperature sensor
11 Battery inverter input voltage UBATT_INV_IN V Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
12 Battery inverter input current IBATT_INV_IN A Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
13 Battery state of charge SOC % Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
14 Battery inverter output voltage UBATT_INV_OUT V Battery inverters (combined)
15 Battery inverter output current IBATT_INV_OUT A Battery inverters (combined)

2.
Fadhilah, A., Ramadhani, B., “Performance Analysis of Photovoltaic Mini-grid for Rural Communities in Indonesia”, Jakarta, 2017.

CHAPTER 10 Monitoring System 197

 Which parameters should be measured in AC-coupling system?

G
TPV

UPV , IPV

UGRID_INV, ISCC, IGRID_INV

DC Bus 48 V

UBATT_INV_IN, IBATT_INV_IN UBATT, IBATT, SOC

TBATT

TROOM_BATT

UBATT_INV_OUT, IBATT_INV_OUT

AC Bus

No Parameter Symbol Unit Component

1 Irradiance G W/m 2
Pyranometer
2 PV module temperature TPV °C Temperature sensor
3 PV array output voltage UPV V Grid inverter
4 PV array output current IPV A Grid inverter
5 Grid inverter output voltage USCC V Grid inverter
6 Grid inverter output current ISCC A Grid inverter
7 Battery temperature TBATT °C Battery inverter
8 Battery voltage UBATT V Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
9 Battery current IBATT A Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
10 Battery room temperature TROOM_BAT °C Temperature sensor
11 Battery inverter input voltage UBATT_INV_IN V Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
12 Battery inverter input current IBATT_INV_IN A Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
13 Battery state of charge SOC % Battery inverters (combined per cluster)
14 Battery inverter output voltage UBATT_INV_OUT V Battery inverters (combined)
15 Battery inverter input voltage IBATT_INV_OUT A Battery inverters (combined)

198 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

There are parameters that is not directly measured by the equipment but essential to be included
in the monitoring system, which is module temperature and battery room temperature. These data
should be measured using additional data acquisition device and connected to the monitoring
device with available protocol or typically using RS485 Modbus.

All the required parameters must be registered and logged in the data storage or SD card.
Some manufacturer only allows limited number of data to be stored in the data logger. In
this case, combined or aggregated data from several components with the same function
is preferable as the data to be stored instead of individual component which is not possible
due to system limitation.

 How to ensure that the data is valid and reliable?

• Ensure that the data storage card or SD card is formatted and inserted to the monitoring device.
Size of the SD card should at least be sufficient for one (1) year with one (1) minute logging
interval. Minimum of 2 GB SD card should be provided.
• Data in the SD card should be verified during commissioning for the interval, the logged
parameters, and the accuracy of the values. One week of measurement data should be provided
as part of the commissioning report.
• Simple performance analysis should be conducted during commissioning to validate the data by
using at least one-week measurement data. Having this process may reduce the data anomaly
in the measurement, hence avoid erroneous analysis afterward.

Data logging information showing that the 4 Memory card with size of 128 MB may not be
GB SD card will be fully utilized in more than sufficient to store complete data for one year.
10 years with 1 minute interval.

Defficiency of 125 W

Web interface of the system showing correct Unrealistic power flow with input power value less
power flow from PV modules to battery than the output. This is caused by one inverter that
banks and loads. is disconnected from monitoring device.

CHAPTER 10 Monitoring System 199

 CHAPTER 11
Power House
✓ Things to consider when designing a power house
✓ Good and bad construction of power house and protective fence
✓ Cable installation inside the power house

200 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

11.1 BASICS OF POWER HOUSE

Power house is the place to protect all the devices, especially sensitive electrical equipment, from
harsh environment and unauthorized access. The house is typically separated into two rooms,
consists of battery room with battery banks, and a room for DC panel distribution and controller that
comprises of solar charge controllers, battery inverters, monitoring system, AC panel distribution and
tools. The house can be made from concrete or polyurethane shelter depending on the available
materials. Dimension as well as the layout should give flexibility for the operator or technician to
operate the system and perform maintenance or repair measures.

Typical power house in Indonesia.

Daisy chain: a series of interconnected or related things

1

CHAPTER 11 Power House 201

 galvanized steel roof

Power house made of concrete and painted. Power house made of lightweight pre-
Power house is located under the tree to painted galvanized steel with polyurethane
shade from direct sunshine and keeping the foam as insulation material.
temperature low.

 What should be taken into account when constructing power house?

• Power house should be • Land should be free from • The entire power plant
designed to have sufficient risks of natural disasters has to be protected from
ventilation, light, and safe such as flooding or land animal intrusion and
from water as well as slide. Risks of having faulty unauthorized person by
animal intrusion. Good components due to natural using protective fence.
heat insulation should be disasters have to be
provided to reduce rising mitigated.
temperature inside the
powerhouse as an impact
from sun exposure.

• The power house should • Warning sign from

be located close to the apparent risks in
households aiming to electrical works such
reduce electricity losses in as electrocution as well
the grid. as explosion should be
available in the power plant
to raise awareness of the
operator and visitors.

202 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Power house is installed at higher level to Flooding in power house may cause
avoid water from entering the power house electrical faults, damaging the electrical
during flooding. components and endanger the operator due
to electric shock.

Power house and PV array are installed Landslide on site that resulted in burried
on top of the wooden patform to avoid power house.
disturbance caused by water.

Power house including all electrical components should be installed higher than the surveyed
flood level. The flood level and other historical information should be obtained from the local
people before construction.

 How to avoid flooding and risk of having landslide?

• Conduct a flood hazard mapping and ground assessment during feasibility study to choose the
most proper place to build the power plant.
• Avoid building power plants nearby steep slopes and natural erosion place.
• If the chosen location is still prone to flooding, survey the cause and source of flooding, its
frequency of flood occurrence, and the possible height of flood to be used as a reference to
design the support structure and foundation.
• Provide sufficient drainage system to accommodate the water balance on site.
• Build retaining walls and plant ground cover to reduce the landslide hazard.

CHAPTER 11 Power House 203

 Entrance path should be provided

Well-constructed pathway to access the PV PV mini-grid installed on muddy and watery

arrays land with inadequate pathway to access
power house and PV array.

Warning signs

Entrance path should be provided

Clean and neatly installed power house with Power house should not be used as
attached warning signs. warehouse. Only components, spare parts
and tools are allowed.

First aid kit is available in the power house in Fire extinghuiser is available on site for
case of an accident happens. Temperature emergency case. Needle showing the
monitoring is provided in the power house. pressure should be within green area and
has to be checked regularly.

204 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 What kind of tools should be available in the power house?

• Safety equipment such as • Screwdriver sets and • Digital clamp multi-meter

safety shoes and insulation insulated wrench or socket to measure AC/DC voltage
glove class 0 up to 1000 wrench sets. and current.
VA/1500 VDC.

• Ladder to conduct service • Digital thermometer, • Operation and maintenance

or maintenance at higher preferably infrared laser gun. manual of the PV mini-grid
location such as cleaning as well as user manual
PV modules, etc. of the components in
understandable language
by the operator.

Operation and maintenance guideline for Wrench sets and multimeter

operator. The books must be understandable
for the operator.

CHAPTER 11 Power House 205

 11.2 PROTECTIVE FENCE

PV mini-grid should be equipped with protective fence around it to protect the entire installation from
unauthorized person and wild animals. It will ensure not only the operationalisation of the system
but also a safety measure to keep some distance between live components and the people outside
the power plant area. Therefore, it is important to have a robust and correct installation of the fence.

Warning sign of high voltage area

> 1 meter

Height ≤ 15 cm

Power house made of concrete and painted. Very high gap between the fence and
Power house is located under the tree to ground will allow animal and human entering
shade from direct sunshine and keeping the the power plant area.
temperature low.

Wood mold

Fence foundation is constructed in a perfect Foundation is not burried and not in a

shape with a good height. The two third (2/3) complete beam shape. Wood mold is still
of the foundation height should be burried. attached to the concrete.


How to fix such installation?

• Install additional fence to cover the gap. The gap between the fence and the ground should
not give allowance for human and animals to enter that may harm the installation.
• Alternatively, reconstruct the foundation or shorten the height to only 15 cm from the ground if
the soil contour allows.
• Patch the foundation with a good mixture of concrete (one cement, three parts sand, and
three parts gravel. Ensure that the foundation has sufficient height (45 cm) and install the
concrete at 30 cm depth and 15 cm of visible part.

206 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How height the protective fence should be?

Hot-dip
galvanized BRC
fence
240 cm

≥ 150 cm

45 cm 30 cm

Foundation Foundation

Big gap

Corrosive hinges
Steep slope

Rusty gate hinges. Bad hinges quality may Soil erosion around fence foundation may
lead to broken gate. cause instability. Repair the foundation,
compact the soil and create drainage system.

BRC fences have to be coated with zinc (hot-dip galvanized) to avoid rusting especially if
installed in the place with high-salinity air.

CHAPTER 11 Power House 207

 Temporary support pole

Additional foundation

A good installation of protective fence with Leaning fence is hold by support pole. Repair
adequate height. Additional foundation is the foundation and align the fence.
installed for sandy soil .

11.3. CONSTRUCTION OF POWER HOUSE

The construction of the power house should consider foundation quality, adequate size of the
power house, ventilation, and construction of its foundation should accommodate water diversion
or drainage system. The size of the power house should be based on the number of components
installed and give sufficient space for the operator to operate and perform maintenance.

, FOUNDATION OF THE POWER HOUSE

≥ 20 cm

Very good foundation with perfect apron Cracked foundation due to bad mixture of
concrete distance from the wall. concrete. Patch the concrete with a better
mixture.

Foundation area of the power house should at least be bigger than the power house building
with 70 cm distance from the wall at the front side and 20 cm for the other sides. The foundation
should be constructed with minimum depth of 50 cm.

208 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 ≤ 20 cm

Good quality power house with good Apron concrete is not provided. Inadequate
foundation and apron. foundation size.

Crack

Gap
slided down crack

Cracked foundation due to gradual slide of Eroded power house foundation. Further
power house. erosion may lead to floated foundation and
resulted in cracking of the foundation.

 How to fix such installation?

• Patch the gap with a good • Retaining wall should be • Drainage system must
mixture ratio of concrete. constructed when the be built separately to
power house is located on avoid water flows close to
a slope. foundation that may lead to
erosion.

CHAPTER 11 Power House 209

 Canopy

Canopies are provided to shade the Power house window is not equipped with
ventilation from direct sunshine. canopies. Incoming sunlight from a certain
angle may direcly hit the component inside.

Canopy should be installed to provide shade for the window from weather condition such as
rain and direct sunlight.

Missing ventilation

Cross-ventilation combined with exhaust Insufficient ventilation to provide air

fans to extract heat inside the room. circulation inside the battery room and to
keep the room temperature low.


Why power house should be equipped with sufficient ventilation?
• Battery room temperature should not be too high to ensure the expected lifetime of the battery.
Ambient temperature of 30°C may significantly reduce battery lifetime.
• Hydrogen concentration inside the room may increase during charging process of lead acid
battery thus provision of adequate ventilation is vital. Hydrogen is very explosive and even a
small spark may cause explosion.
• Room temperature should be checked regularly and cooling initiative should be conducted
when temperature exceeds the safe limit.
• During commissioning, room temperature has to be validated within the acceptable limit.

The power house should have sufficient ventilation to maintain the ambient temperature at
maximum 30°C. Ventilation should not be blocked by any components.

210 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to improve cooling of the power house?

Cooling of the power house can be done using both passive or active cooling methods. Passive
cooling is the method using the building design to control the heat dissipation inside the building
with no energy consumption or also called natural convection. While active cooling force the air
to move or enhance heat transfer using additional energy or device such as fan or air conditioner.

How to improve cooling of the power house?



Passive cooling options:

• Cross-ventilation by placing inlet and outlet windows on the opposite sides to allow the natural
wind to flow. The system relies on the wind to blow into the building through the inlet window and
due to natural convection, the warm air goes through the outlet window. In this case, the window
must allow air to flow and the inlet window should be located at the possible wind direction.
• Turbine ventilator can increase the ventilation rate of the room.
• Insulation panel for the roof to reduce the convection by trapping the air in the panel and using
the trapped air to stop conduction.

Insulation panel for Turbine ventilator can Cross-ventilation by placing inlet and
the roof to reduce the increase the ventilation outlet windows on the opposite sides to
convection by trapping rate of the room. allow the natural wind to flow. The system
the air in the panel and relies on the wind to blow into the building
using the trapped air to through the inlet window and due to natural
stop conduction. convection, the warm air goes through the
outlet window. In this case, the window
must allow air to flow and the inlet window
should be located at the possible wind
direction.

Warm air out

Outlet windows

Cool air in

Inlet windows

Active cooling options:

• Exhaust fan or blowing fan can be used when passive cooling or natural convection is not sufficient
to extract the heat or blowing in cool air. Fan should be controlled by a thermostat.
• Air conditioner can significantly keep the room temperature cool. However, the device may
consume electricity of at least 10 kWh per day. It can be a favourable option when the energy
consumption of the air conditioner per day is less than energy lost due to reduced battery lifetime.
A smarter energy management system should be considered when using air conditioner.

CHAPTER 11 Power House 211

 Ventilation grill

Ventilation opening is covered with insect Broken insect net provide entrance for
net to prevent animals from entering the uninvited animals. Cable should not pass
power house. through the window.

Ventilation should always be covered with ventilation grill and insect net or screen to improve
the air flow and protect from animal.

Poor ventilation opening. Smaller net should Broken glass window. Open window with
be used instead. Grill should be provided to insect net should be used instead of glass
ensure the security. window.

 How to fix such installation?

• Patch the hole on the net • Install ventilation grill • Replace the broken
or if possible re-route the and insect net on the glass window with grill
grid distribution cable. The window and insect net.
feeder cable is preferably
installed underground.

212 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, Installation of cable entry points

Cables from combiner box are installed Cables are installed on the ground without
undergrond and protected inside PVC pipe. any protection from sun exposure. Cement
is used to seal the cable entry.

Never use cement to seal cable entry. The use of cement may degrade the cable insulation
properties and cause losing the cable flexibility due to permanent installation by cement.

Outgoing cables to the grid pass through Ventilation should not be used for the
foundation and protected inside pipe. outgoing nor ingoing cables.

Puddle and dirt inside the tunnel due to unsealed Cables should not pass through power
cable tunnel. The uncovered tunnel may become house wall. Absence of cable gland may lead
the entrance gate of rodents and reptiles. to damage insulation.

Sharp edges of the steel wall and friction with the cable may cause the insulation to peeled
off and resulted in short circuit. Shelter has to be grounded.

CHAPTER 11 Power House 213

 11.4 CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION INSIDE POWER HOUSE

Very organized and neat installation of Unfinished floor and untidy cabling. The
power electronic components. Cables are floor should be added with white ceramic
installed neatly inside cable trays. tiles. All the cables should be installed
inside cable conduit.

 Why using ceramic flooring tile?

• Ceramic is resistance • Easy to maintain by wiping • More durable and hard to

against water or stain. or mopping the dirt, water, crack.
or stain.

TV is installed in the power house. Power Refrigerator consumes the electricity

house should not be used for public place without limitation inside the power house.
or entertainment.

214 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Devices other than components of the PV mini-grid should not be installed inside the power
house. PV mini-grid is intended for community and not for personal use. Entertainment should
be installed in the public place to avoid unauthorized people from entering the power house.
Having additional electronics may contribute heat inside the power house and consume more
energy than it was designed.

Grounding and cables are installed neatly Untidy cable installation may lead to
with direct laying method. complication when problem or fault
occurs.

Cables are protected inside cable duct and Messy internal wiring. Underground cable
covered. duct should be covered.

Cables should be neatly installed with direct laying method. Correction factor due to grouping
and underground installation should be taken into consideration when sizing the conductor.

CHAPTER 11 Power House 215

 CHAPTER 12
Distribution Grid
✓ How is the ideal configuration of a distribution grid?
✓ Good and bad installation of distribution grid and its components
✓ Recommended installation of the streetlights
✓ Medium voltage distribution

216 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

12.1 BASICS OF DISTRIBUTION GRID

Distribution grid delivers the electricity from the power house to the households through low-voltage
(LV) system as single-phase (230 V) or three-phase system (400 V). The design of line configuration is
basically dependant on the capacity of the PV mini-grid and number of consumers. A system with the
capacity equal or greater than 30 kWp typically uses three-phase configuration, while a smaller system
runs single-phase configuration.

Consumers Grid pole and

streetlight

13

Low
voltage
distribution

Step down
transformer
Power House

Medium voltage
distribution
AC Distribution Panel

Step up
transformer

Typical distribution grid in PV mini grid

In a single-phase distribution grid, power is divided into several feeders in the AC panel distribution.
The number of output feeders is based on the location and number of the consumers or households
connected to the grid. In three-phase system, feeders are connected to different phases and should
be equally distributed to avoid unbalance voltage.

The main components in a distribution grid are grid poles, overhead cables, and cable supports. Streetlight
is included in this chapter because it uses the same grid pole and attached on the same distribution
line though streetlight is not the main component in the distribution system. The grid distribution may
include medium-voltage (MV) line when there is a high-demand and lengthy distance between power
house and households which may cause high-voltage drop. In this case, the distribution grid shall use
three-phase step-up transformer to 20 kV and step-down transformer.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 217

 Main Lateral Lateral Lateral
feeder Feeder Feeder Feeder

L1 L1

PEN
L2

L3

PEN
230 VAC 230 VAC

230 VAC 230 VAC 230 VAC

A typical configuration of distribution grid in a village with TN-C earthing system.

Distribution grid transmits electricity from the power house to households and installed along
the street which make it exposed closely to the consumers. Hence, quality for safe and reliable
installation must be assured to prevent injury, fatalities, or system damage. Poor installation quality
may result in electric shock and possibly death.

 What should be considered when designing and constructing distribution grid?

• All installation must follow best practices and local construction standards for low-voltage distribution,
medium-voltage distribution, as well as substation distribution.1, 2, 3, 4 The standards should describe
in detail the minimum clearances between ground and overhead cable, acceptable cable span,
appropriate cable supports, etc.
• Overhead cable should be robust and weatherproof. It should use aerial twisted cables with the
specification of NFA2X-T twisted cable 3x35 mm2 + 1x25 mm2 + 1x16 mm2 for the feeders on the
household connections as well as streetlights.
• The grounding scheme of the distribution should follow the applied local regulation. The TN-C network
system is being used in Indonesia which is also a standard for local utility. TN-C is a configuration
where the neutral conductor and grounding conductor are combined (PEN).
• Geographical location of the households. Mapping of the households should be done prior to
construction to identify and design the route of the distribution grid, location of the poles, and the
total length of the grid.
• The acceptable voltage drop on the grid should not be greater than 10% from the nominal voltage.

1
For Indonesia, PT. PLN (Persero), “Buku 1 – Kriteria desain enjinering Konstruksi Jringan Distribusi Tenaga Listrik,” 2010.
2
For Indonesia, PT. PLN (Persero), “Buku 3 – Standard Konstruksi Jaringan Tegangan Rendah Tenaga Listrik,” 2010.
3
For Indonesia, PT. PLN (Persero), “Buku 4 – Standard Konstruksi Gardu Distribusi dan Gardu Hubung Tenaga Listrik,” 2010.
4
For Indonesia, PT. PLN (Persero), “Buku 5 – Standard Konstruksi Jaringan Tegangan Menengah Tenaga Listrik,” 2010.

218 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

1. Estimate the peak load by using the nominal power of the total battery inverter.

Estimated peak load or total battery inverter capacity = 6 units x 5 KW =30 kW

2. Check the electrical properties of the selected cable size such as resistance and
reactance from the datasheet.

NFA2X-T 3X35MM2 + 25mm2 → R= 0.868 Ohm/km I x = 0.098 Ohm/km

3. Estimate the power factor of the loads. Power factor of 0.9 can be used as most of
the loads are LED lamps, unless more inductive loads identified.

Power factor = 0.9

= accross (0.9) =25.84

4. Calculate the nominal load current based on the estimated peak load.

Estimated peak load

Load current =
3 x Nominal voltage

30,000 W
= 43 A
3 x 400 V

5. Measure the distance between the power house to the load or houeholds. Consider
the path for the distribution grid. This will determine the cable length.

Cable length = 500 m

6. Calculate the voltage drop on the distribution line

3 x load current x ( R.cos + X.sin ) x length

Voltage drop =
1,000

3 x 43 x ( 0.868 x 0.9 + (0.098 x 0.43 )) x 500

= 30.6 V → 7.7%
1,000

7. Calculate the voltage drop percentage

Voltage drop 30.6 V

% Voltage drop = = 7.7%
Nominal voltage 400 V

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 219

 Low-voltage grid layout in a village Typical installation of lowvoltage distribution
determines the type of cable installation on of a PV mini-grid.
top of the pole

 Recommended steps to perform study for designing distribution grid?

• Conduct households • Study environmental • Design the shortest possible

mapping in the village and condition, land topography route for distribution grid and
measure distance between and type of soil in the village define location for the grid
power house and the to select the grid pole, design poles. GPS handheld can be
households, especially the foundation, and the required used to register the household
farthest connection. pole support. locations as well as the
possible location for the pole.
The data should comprise of
GPS coordinates, altitude, and
possibly photos of the location.
Seek for an easy terrain,
adequate distance from trees,
and sufficient ground clearance
for the cables.

• Draw the grid layout • Inform local authorities or

with projected pole top trees owners that the trees
construction. Pole top may disturb the distribution
construction is designed network. therefore, they
based on the angle from one need to be cut regularly. • Estimate the expected peak
pole to its subsequent pole in power consumption by the
the distribution path. households on each feeder.

220 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

12.2 LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION GRID
Low-voltage distribution line in PV mini-grid is typically placed overhead and installed at an adequate
height above the ground. It aims to keep the safe distance between the line and the villagers. Good
installation of grid poles and pole top cable construction is essential and should be designed in
accordance to the specified clearance, pole function and working load.

, DISTRIBUTION LINE

Cable from
powerhouse

Cardboard

Cables from the power house are installed Cables are in contact with sharp metal edge
underground and well protected. and protected with inadequate layer.

Cable bundle from Very close

power house distance
with roof

Good construction of the first grid pole. Aerial bundle conductor should not be freely
Cables are neatly installed inside PVC pipe. hanging and exposed to sharp metal edge of
the power house.

Overhead cable must be distant from physical contact or adjacent to sharp metal edge to
prevent the insulation from damage. Damage insulation may increase the risk of having electric
shock as well as short circuit.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 221

 Recommended construction of low-voltage distribution grid

1. First pole is located right after the power house. The pole top is constructed using fixed dead-end
configuration that supports the twisted cable from the power house to the next pole.
2. Large angle assembly (α > 30°) is constructed using fixed or adjustable dead-end construction.
Dead-end construction is also used on the tension pole to adjust the tension of the overhead
line. A tension pole is needed in every 10 poles.
3. Small angle assembly (0° - 30°) is constructed using suspension construction. In this case, the
suspension clamp holds the neutral wire.
4. End pole with adjustable dead-end construction with turnbuckle. The cable end has to be
terminated properly and insulated.
4

30cm
2 3
α = 300 - 90 0 α = 00 - 30 0 α = 300 - 90 0
1
Cable height minimum sag 60cm
> 5m for village road
> 4m for house yard

Visible pole Distance

height pole 40m
pole 5.8m

From power Buried

house pole 1.2m


What are the requirements for right of way and safety distance in low voltage distribution grid?

• Distribution grid must • Minimum ground clearance between

not be too close the lowest span of overhead cables
to any objects that and ground is 4 meters for house
potentially disturb the yard and 5 meters for the village road.
installation. Minimum
min. 120 cm

of 50 cm distance
must be maintained
between the line and
buildings or trees.
• Minimum
Verification of this
distance
requirement should
between low-
be done during
voltage and
commissioning.
medium-voltage
distribution grid
is 120 cm.

222 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Clearance > 5 meters
Insufficient
cable height

Cables are installed at a safe distance from Insufficient cable height across the road.
the ground with clearance higher than five Potential for electric shock hazard.
meters.

Overhead cable is fimly mounted on the tree. A cable is passing through a tree. The cable
tension may increase when the tree grows
bigger.

The overhead cable should not be easily reached by the human. Sag distance should not be
lower than 60 cm to avoid higher tension on the cable.

 How to fix such installation?

• Pull the cable at the pole • Trees or branches has to be • V-shape branch of a tree
top construction through cut when the branches are should not be used for
strain clamp and adjust getting closer to the distribution overhead cable support,
the ground clearance of line. Operator should perform install additional grid pole
the cable accordingly. scheduled maintenance to to support the overhead
regularly check the potential cable instead.
disturbances to the line from
the existing objects in the
neighbourhood.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 223

 Types and when to use pole top construction5

1 Pole 8 Neutral cable

2 Stainless steel strip 9 Twisted Phase + Neutral
3 Stopping buckle 10 PVC pipe
4 Tension bracket (up to 1000 daN ) 11 Suspension bracket (up to 700 daN)6
5 Strain clamp 12 Suspension clamp
6 Plastic strap 13 Connector
7 Twisted phase cables

5
For Indonesia PT. PLN (Persero), “Buku 3 – Standard Konstruksi Jaringan Tegangan Rendah Tenaga Listrik,” 2010.
6
1 Dekanewton (daN) = 10 newtons (N)

224 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Strain clamp

Suspension bracket

Tension bracket

Strain clamps are used to hold the overhead Overhead cable is hanged freely on suspension
cables. Certain length of cable should be bracket. Suspension clamp should be used to
remained to adjust the cable tension. hold neutral conductor of the cable bundle.

Suspension bracket
NYA2X Twisted cable
3x35 mm2 + 1x25 mm2

Distance > 30 cm

Service connection Service connection without tap connector

Service connection and main distribution Many clamps are hooked on a suspension
line are installed on different bracket. bracket. Service dead-end clamp should be
Adequate distance should be provided. hooked on different bracket under the main line.

Always use standard cable supports and appropriate pole top construction such as fixed
dead-end, adjustable dead-end, and suspension, based on the position and function of the
poles. Bracket may be damaged if too many clamps are hooked.

Branch line Suspension clamp

Connector Strain clamp

Neat installation of cable branching on small Messy installation of the pole top construction.
angle assembly. Proper accessories and Many of the service drop is not equipped with
connectors are used. service dead-end clamp.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 225

  How to fix such installation?

30 cm

• Overhead cable should not be • To avoid overloading on the • Install service dead-end
hanged without any support. bracket, add another tension clamp on each service drop
Add suspension clamp and bracket under the existing and hook neatly on separate
hook neutral wire on it. bracket with minimum bracket.
distance of 30 cm.

Neutral conductor

Tension bracket

Strain clamp

Good construction of large angle Overhead cable is used as counter mast

distribution pole with tension bracket and support between grid poles. Steel wire with
strain clamp. cross-section area of 50 mm2 should be
used instead.

Neutral conductor

PVC pipe to protect cable end

Exposed conductor

End conductors are installed inside PVC Conductors are exposed without any
pipe. Neutral conductor is grounded to insulation. Conductor may touch metal pole
maintain the TNC7system. and cause fault.

Never left live conductors without proper insulation. The end conductors should be cut at
different length and insulated using plastic strap to avoid short circuit between the conductors.

7
TNC system is a grid configuration for distribution system where the neutral conductor and grounding conductor is combined.

226 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 MV distribution line

Distance 120 cm

LV distribution line

Safe distance between medium voltage and Medium voltage and low voltage lines are
low voltage line. installed close to each other.

NYM 1.5 mm2

Strain clamp

Melted cable insulation due to fire for NYM cable is used as overhead
land opening close to the cables. Damage distribution line. Cable with cross-
insulation may lead to short circuit. sectional area of 1.5 mm2 is too thin to
resist against mechnical forces.

Never use small conductor for overhead line. The use of small cable may overstress the cable
and lengthy span may cause fatigue at the connection points due to mechanical forces.


How to improve such installation?

• Distance between low-voltage and medium-voltage distribution should not be less than 120 cm.
• In the planning, ensure that the distribution grid route will not pass the location which may
exposed the cable insulation to fire risks such as forest burning, etc.
• Only use appropriate components in accordance to the location and angle of grid distribution.
Bad installation may lead to system blackout and safety hazards to the human.
• NYM cable should be replaced with appropriate cable type NFA2X-T 3x35mm2+N for overhead
cable or NFAAX 2x10 mm2 for service drop cable.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 227

 , GRID POLE

The grid poles must be strong and robust enough to maintain the distribution line installation as
well as preventing the risk of electric shock to the villagers who might be unintentionally touch the
conductors. The poles should be designed at a height complies to the local standard. It has to be
constructed with concrete foundation and, possibly, guy wire to resist the forces due to the weight
of conductor, tensile stress due to temperature change, and the wind.

20 cm

20 cm 10 cm

Perfect shape of grid pole foundation. Grid pole is not supported by concrete
20x20x60 cm concrete foundation is used foundation. Depending on its depth and
with 50 cm buried and 10 cm visible. soil structure, the pole may not be able to
stand and resist the force.

Grid poles have to be supported by concrete foundation to reinforce its strength. Type and
size of the foundation depend on pole locations and soil condition.

Gap between concrete foundation and Unburied and poor grid pole foundation.
the ground. Concrete foundation is High forces may cause instability or even
constructed without any functional use. collapsed grid pole.

228 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Wooden pole

Galvanized steel poles are used and Low-voltage distribution cable is hanged
installed with acceptable distance in on the thin wooden pole due to the
between. extended distance between metal poles.

 How to improve such instalations?

• Improve the foundation • Wooden pole with V

construction and bury the shape without additional
foundation and the pole clamp must not be used
in the ground at least 1/6 as supporting pole for air
of the lengthlean angle is cable. As replacement use
greater than 5° degrees. designated distribution
pole for small angle
construction

Distance between grid poles should not be longer than 50 meters. It should be considered
during planning of the distribution grid path in the preliminary phase of the project.

Cable conduit

Hot-dip
galvanized

Corrosive

Very good quality pole is used. Pole is made Rusty pole due to poor coating quality.
of hot-dip galvanized steel with bigger Corrosive pole may lead to reduction of
diameter at the bottom. pole strength.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 229

 Grid pole is installed with acceptable tilt Leaning grid distribution pole due to
angle. The tilt angle of the pole should not excessive force at large angle assembly
be greater than 5° and bad foundation structure.

 How to avoid leaning pole?

• Make sure that the working load of the pole is calculated properly in accordance to the cross-
section of the cable, the pole position, and the soil condition within a range of 200 daN, 350
daN, and 500 daN.
• Use additional pole support such as guy wire, strut pole, or span guy wire to strengthen and
stabilise the pole.
• Assess the soil type and construct the most suitable foundation for the poles.
• Ensure that 1/6 of the total length of the pole is buried. In this case, if the length of the pole is
7 meters, 1.2 meters of the pole should be buried.
• Perform maintenance regularly to check the pole condition and conduct correction when the
lean angle is greater than 5° degrees.

guy wire

85° < α < 95°

NYAAF cable

Pole is installed firmly and stabilised with Improper use of LV distribution cable as a
guy wire. guy wire to support the pole.

Only use proper steel wire with minimum cross section of 50 mm2 as a guy wire. Make sure
that the angle of the guy wire is not smaller than 60°.

230 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to perform maintenance on the distribution grid pole?

• Ensure that MCB of the • Check stability of the pole • Check pole top
feeder is switched off. and use proper safety construction, cable
Measure the voltage of the equipment before climbing connection and cable
feeder and make sure that up. Proper ladder should be tension.
there is no voltage on the used and fixed at bottom.
line. Ground the feeder if
possible. Close the panel to
make sure that nobody can
operate the MCB.

grounding cable

Pole and neutral conductor are grounded Grounding cable is too small. Size of
with sufficient grounding cable to maintain grounding conductor should at least half
the TN-C configuration. of the cross section area of the phase
conductor.

Grounding of the pole and neutral conductor should be done on the first pole, last and every
200 meters (5 poles) from the first pole. When the same pole carries medium- voltage and
low voltage distribution, grounding must be done every three poles. Grounding resistance
should not be greater than 10 Ω.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 231

 12.3 STREETLIGHT INSTALLATION

Streetlight is installed in every two grid poles with additional mounting arm to fix the streetlight
head. The streetlight is typically controlled by a timer or light sensor to automatically switch on
and off the light based on the availability of sunlight. To have the centralised control of all units, the
streetlights are powered by a separate feeder.

 What to consider to have a good lighting from the streetlight?

• Streetlight should not be • Beam should be focused on the street

installed too high and free with maximum beam angle of 120°.
from objects that may Maximum width of a typical street in a
shade the light. village is three meters, therefore higher
beam may not necessary.

• Energy saving LED type of streetlight

should be used for better lumen per watt
or efficacy. Hence, the streetlight requires
less energy to light up an area.

• According to SNI8 7391:2008

– “Specification of street
lighting in urban areas”,
the minimum average
illuminance of the local
road is 5 lux or 5 lumen per
square meter.

8
Indonesian National Standard

232 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

Waterproof LED streetlight with IP 65 rating Inappropriate type of lamp is used for
is used. streetlight. The streetlight does not have
sufficient IP rating.

High failures of streetlights can be in part ascribed to inappropriate products used. Ensure
that the streetlight is waterproof and tested according to IEC 60598 for luminaires ingress
protection (IP) rating. For example, IP 65 enclosure is rated as “dust tight” and protected
against water projected from a nozzle.

The streetlights are installed on the Dysfunctional streetlight because it is

same pole without mounting arm and not installed in the middle of a tree thus its
focusing on the street. light is blocked by the leaves.

Streetlight installation is facing at the Streetlight is facing to the wrong

correct direction with acceptable mounting direction. Streetlight should provide
height, boom length and tilt angle. lighting to the street.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 233

 Free hanging NYM cable

Improper connection and

without MCB
Junction box

Direct contact

Streetlight installation is facing at the Streetlight is facing to the wrong direction.

correct direction with acceptable mounting Streetlight should provide lighting to the
height, boom length and tilt angle. street.

MCB must be installed to only disconnect individual streetlight in case of short circuit due to
faulty device. A combined type 1 and 2 surge protection devices must also be installed on the
streetlight pole that has grounding installation.

 How to improve such installations?

• Trees or branches that • Move the mounting arm to • Use only cable that is
is potentially shade the the right direction. designed for outdoor use.
lamp should be cleared. Replace the NYM cable
Check in regular basis with NYY type.
that the streetlight is still
in operation and is not
blocked by anything.

• Cable should not be freely • Add weatherproof junction

hanging. Install the cable box with MCB and surge
inside a cable conduit or arrester at a reachable level
pipe and mount it on the to protect the streetlight as
pole using metal strip. well as the entire feeder.

234 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Lamp fixture

Free hanging streetlight because of bad Bamboo is used as pole for lighting inside
installation of streetlight housing to the the power plant area. Light fixture is
mounting arm. exposed to sun and rain.

12.4 MEDIUM-VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION

In order to reduce the voltage drop on the distribution line due to long distance between power
house and households, voltage is transform to medium-voltage (MV) at 20 kV using a step-up
transformer and a step-down to 400 V AC when reaching the households. Depending on the length
and load in each phase, MV distribution should be initially considered when the distance is greater
than 1 km. It is because with distance longer than 1 km, the voltage drop may reach more than 10%
or violating the standard. The MV distribution consists of step-up and step-down transformers,
panel distributions, protection elements such as lightning protection, disconnector, overcurrent
protections, and 20 kV cables.

Arrester 10 kA

Fuse cut out

LV conduit

height < 3 meters

Distribution panel

Step-up transformer is installed neatly Very low installation of transformer inside

and at a safe distance from the ground inadequate fence. High risk of injury due
with lightning arrester and panel. to electric shock.

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 235

  What should be considered from the installation of medium-voltage distribution?

• Power transformer is installed at elevated level according to local regulation or at minimum four
(4) meters to avoid access from unauthorized personnel.
• Install adequate protective fence with minimum height of 2 meters and protection from climbing
to prevent human or animal reaching high voltage area. Sign of electric hazard is attached.
• Overhead line should have minimum height of six (6) meters from the ground and 2.5 meters
from any objects such as roof, trees, antenna, etc.
• Ensure that the following components are grounded: neutral conductor of secondary side, body
of the transformer, lightning arrester, and exposed conductive parts. Each should be grounded
using individual electrode and connected using minimum copper conductor of 50 mm2.

Transformers are attached with sign of Power transformer is mounted inside

existence of 20 kV voltage. It helps to raise easily accessible wooden fence without
an awareness to the people about the any warning sign.
potential risk.

Transformer should be mounted securely to avoid any significant movement due to vibration
or any mechanical forces.

LV bushing

LV distribution cable

Distribution panel

Panel distribution is installed to distribute LV distribution cable is not protected by any

power to feeders and protect low-voltage protection device. Cables from LV bushing is
side of the transformer. directly connected to the LV distribution line.

Never leave outgoing low-voltage cable from the step-down transformer without any protection.
Correct size of MCB should be provided inside panel distribution.

236 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

CHAPTER 12 Distribution Grid 237
 CHAPTER 13
Household Connection
✓ Good and bad examples of service connection installation
✓ How to safely install electrical connection in the house
✓ Awareness to use energy efficiently

238 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 13.1 BASICS OF HOUSEHOLD CONNECTION
Household connection includes service connection from low voltage grid
distribution line to electricity installation inside the house. Starting from the service
drop that brings the connection from grid pole to the service entrance then
continued with installation inside the house or house wiring.

Households are supplied with single-phase power supply. Thereby,

each house is equipped with adjustable energy limiter, an MCB as
protection device, and appliances kit which comprises of three
LED bulbs with wall switched, and one socket for additional load.
1
Description of a typical service connection is exhibited in the
2
diagram below.

Typical service connection uses

strain hook on the building, basic
components as mentioned above
and appliances kit in a house.

Distribution grid 4

5
Service connection

House wiring

1. Grid distribution pole holds and supports the main distribution line
2. Service dead end clamp or wedge cable clamp to hold the service drop
3. Service drop is the electrical service lines than run from main distribution line into the
service entrance of the house.
4. Service entrance consists of energy limiter and MCB as protective device.
5. House wiring is the internal wiring of all appliances inside the house such as wiring
between appliances and the wall socket.

Daisy chain: a series of interconnected or related things

1

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 239

 Safety of the users and better utilisation of energy are the main things that should be carefully
considered from the household connection. Household installation should be at a very good quality
and the safest possible to reduce the safety risk to the end-users who are unfamiliar and have
limited knowledge in electricity. It is very important to ensure that all installations are not harmful to
the users during their activities and no possibility of damaging the system due to short-circuiting. In
this case, it is important that the household installation comply with the requirement of the national
regulation and installed by professional.

 What are the risks that should be considered in the household installation?

• Electric shocks due to both • Fires due to overheated

direct and indirect contact element or electric arc.
with live conductors. Overheated element
Indirect contact happens occurs when the
when there is an insulation equipment is not sized
failure and live conductor correctly according to
touches metallic parts or the load. Electric arc
liquid. sparks when there is
bad connection between
conductors.

• Mechanical stress that may

harm the installation as well • Under-voltage connection
as the human. Installation due to voltage drop in the
should be fixed and grid may potentially cause
mounted properly. damage to some sensitive
household appliances.

Apart from the safety issues, users need to understand the basics of utilising the energy.
It comprises of how to conserve the energy, using the energy efficient appliances, as
well as using electricity for productive activities.

240 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

13.2 SERVICE CONNECTION

Service connection is a set of components including overhead conductors that connect the
household electric installation with the low voltage grid distribution. It consists mainly service drop
and service entrance.

, SERVICE DROP

Service drop is the overhead cable that connects the main low voltage distribution cable to the
energy meter by using a tap connector. It brings the electrical service to the house. The cable is
attached to service dead-end clamp at both ends to adjust the tension.

 How to install a good service drop?

• All installations should • Avoid using very long

comply to local utility conductor that may
standard in connecting cause unnecessary
electrical service (2nd voltage drop. Voltage
Book PLN – Construction drop should not be
Standard of Electrical greater than 1%.
Service Connection)1.

• Although the household • Use service dead-end

load is very small that clamp on both ends
requires only thin cable, to hold and adjust the
twisted cable with 10 mm2 tension of the cable.
should be used to increase
the cable strength.

Service drop cable bundle

NFAAX 2x10 mm2

Service drop cable is under tension and Unnecessary long cable to the household
cable is well installed on the wall using without any proper cable support. The
cable clamp. longer the cable, the higher the losses.

1
Indonesia: PT. PLN (Persero), “Buku 2 – Standard Konstruksi Sambungan Tenaga Listrik,” 2010.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 241

 Strain hook

Clamp is not hooked

Service dead end clamp

Strain hook is installed to hook the service

Incorrect use of service dead end clamp.
dead end clamp. The type of strain hook
The clamp should be hooked on the strain
depends on the surface material.
hook.

Cable is in contact
with sharp roof
Non-UV resistant cable ties

MCB

Standard cable tie is used to fix the service Distribution cable should not touch the
drop cable. MCB should not be installed at sharp edge of the roof. Temperature
the roof. increase and friction may cause damage in
cable insulation.

Always use service dead-end clamp when the distance between the pole and the house is
greater than 3 meters. In this case, installing tap connector in the middle of cable span is
acceptable. However, the cable should be fixed on the wall to avoid service drop connection
failure due to wind motion


How to fix such installation?

• To minimise losses, reduce the length of the cable and adjust the service drop accordingly. The
distance between overhead service drop to the ground should not be less than 4 meters.
• Installation of the main MCB to the grid should be reachable by the users.
• Try to avoid using cable ties to fix the installation. Install service dead-end clamp and hook the
clamp to the provided strain hook.
• Add hard layer between cable and sharp edge roof. Alternatively, re-route the service drop to
the location that is free from sharp side of the roof.

242 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, SERVICE ENTRANCE

The service entrance provides the function of connecting household appliances to the grid. In
this case, the service entrance is in the form of energy meter box that consists of energy limiter,
MCB, and grounding connection. Energy limiter serves to limit the usage of the energy per day for
each of the connected household. Daily energy quota is set by the operator based on the available
energy from the PV system and the number of households with typical quota up to 600 Wh for
each household.

As the box is accessible by the owner, it is important that the box is provided with protection against
direct touch. This is to avoid people with insufficient knowledge in electricity access the components.

Tap connector

180 cm

Plastic cover to protect from rain

Energy meter box is installed at a good Energy meter will not be readable if installed
height from the ground and shaded. at the gable (more than 3m from the
Energy meter is easily being monitored. ground). Long cable should not be hanging
to avoid connection losses.

The energy meter box should be accessible both visually and physically by the owner and
installed at safe location with minimum 150 cm from the ground.


Where and how to install energy meter box?

• Energy limiter and MCB has to be installed inside the box with outdoor rating or minimum IP 45.
• Energy meter box has to be installed at height in between 150 cm to 200 cm. Very high installation
may cause difficulty to read the display while lower height might be dangerous for children.
• The box should be installed under the roof to protect from direct sunlight and rain.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 243

 Plastic bag is used
as insulation

Bad connection with

bare conductor

Energy limiter is not installed at the Unsafe bypass connection. Service drop is
service entrance. Absence of limiter allows directly connected to the housewiring.
unrestrained energy to the owner.

Installation without energy limiter and MCB or so-called bypass connection is considered to
be an illegal connection. Bad bypass connection may lead to electric arc and fire especially
if it is installed in wooden house.


Why an energy limiter and MCB are essential to the house installation?

• Energy limiter is used to avoid excessive use of energy by the consumer that may consume all
the available energy from the PV system.
• Connection without energy limiter leads to unfair energy allocation among the users.
• MCB protects the installation against over-current and short-circuit that may lead to fire.
• During the service in the house, MCB can be used to isolate the house wiring from the grid by
switching it off manually.

House cabling
Bad connection

Cable clamp

Grounding cable inside conduit

MCB for diesel genset

Energy meter box is fixed firmly on the Poor and dangerous installation. Cable
wall with very organized cable installation connection shall comply to local standard
inside cable conduit and clamp. and fixed to the wall .

244 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Wire seal

Energy meter with IP 54 is used and Installing equipment inside a box with low
sealed. MCB is accessible by the user. IP rating will not significantly protect the
equipment from the rain or moisture.

No conduit

Single insulation wire

For security and safety reason box should Energy limiter and MCB are not installed
be locked and only operator has access inside a weather proof enclosure. Wires are
to the box. However, MCB should not be fixed on the ceiling without conduit.
installed inside the box.

 How to fix such installation?

• Reorganize the cables, install inside cable conduit and fix to the wall.
• Use junction connection box to protect the cable connection from direct touch.
• Never connect the household diesel genset in parallel to the PV mini-grid. Use changeover
switch between PV mini-grid and genset if wanting to use the same household installation.

Direct weather exposure on the energy meter with low IP rating may cause energy meter to
fail, especially in coastal area. Energy meter and MCB should be installed inside a secure and
weather proof box for outdoor installation or at least rated at IP 4x and higher.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 245

 How to calculate the possible number of the new connections?

Due to limited number of energy limiter and MCB in a village, sometimes new household connection
has bypass connection that may risk the household installation as well as the PV mini-grid. For
this reason, it is recommended to provide at least 10% spares of energy limiter and MCB or for the
remaining possible connection to the PV mini-grid.
Maximum number of connection is determined by the available energy from the PV array and
maximum power that can be handled by battery inverter. Following is simple calculation on how
to calculate the possible new connection:

Energy based Power based

1. Check the capacity of the PV mini-grid 1. Check the capacity of the totl batter inverters

PV capacity =30,000 Wp Battery inverters capacity = 30,000 W

2. Check the number of huseholed connection 2. Check the number of huseholed connection
and public facility. It is assumed that the energy and public facility. It is assumed that the energy
allocation for public facility is the same as allocation for public facility is the same as
energy quota for household. energy quota for household.
Existing connection = Existing connection =
110 household + 5 public facilities 110 household + 5 public facilities

3. Check the energy quota per household per day. 3. Calculate the possible peak power based on
MCB installed in household

Daily energy quote = 450 Wh MCB rating = 1 A

4.Check the average global horizontal irradiation in 4. Calculate the maximum household connection
the location using satellite data. The irradiance based on energy available with assumed total
can be obtained from global Solar Atlas or similar efficiency of 60% including the distribution losses.
database. Optionally, the average irradiance in
Indonesia can be assumed at 4.5 kWh/m2/day. Battery inverter capacity
Maximum
connections =
MCB rating x grid voltage
Irradiation = 4,500 Wh/m /day 2

30,000
= 130 connections
5. Calculate the maximum household connection ! A x 230 V
based on energy available with assumed total
efficiency of 60% including the distribution losses.
5. Calculate the possible remaining household
PV capacity x irradiation x efficiency connection.
Maximum
connections =
1000 W/m2 x 450 Wh
Remaining = Max. connection - existing connection
connections
30,000 Wp x 4,500 Wh/m2/day x 0.6
= 180 connection
130 - 115 = 15 connections
1,000 Wh/m2 x 450 Wh

6. Calculate the maximum household connection Additional of 15 households can be supplied by

based on energy available with assumed total the PV mini-grid
efficiency of 60% including the distribution losses.

Remaining = Max. connection - existing connection

connections

180 - 115 = 65 connections

246 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

From the result, the PV system is capable in delivering the energy to another 65 connections but
it will not survive during peak load. Therefore, by calculating based on power allocation, there
are only 15 additional households which can be connected by the system. In this case, spares of
energy limiter and MCB should be provided to the local operator to anticipate new connection.
When connecting the new connection to the feeder, it is important to check the existing current of
the feeder (refer to Chapter 9 AC Distribution Panel to conduct the checking). The new household
connection should be connected to the low loaded feeder.

C1 = 1 A

C4 = A4

Seal

An 1 Ampere MCB is used to protect Higher rating (4 A) of MCB is used. High

household installation. This equal to rating may lead to overcurrent at the power
roughly 230 W of power consumption. house MCB.

Painted cable

No cable shoe Hanging tap connector

Cable for grounding is used for line Unsafe and untidy household connection
connection. The possibility to wrongly with hanging cables and tap connection.
connect the cable to the ground is very high. Cable should not be coated with paint.

Always use the correct colour of cable insulation. Yellow-green should only be used for
grounding. Misperception on the colour may lead to electric shock or short circuit.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 247

 13.3 HOUSE WIRING AND INSTALLATION

House wiring starts from the MCB in the energy meter box, then distributing power from the grid
to all appliances in the house. The wiring includes the installation of light sockets, socket outlet,
wall-switch, cables, as well as grounding. It is crucial that the installation should be at very good
quality and safe from any electric shock or fire hazard.


How to increase safety in the household installation?

• Installation should be according to IEC 60364 – Electrical Installations for Building as well as
PUIL (General Requirement for Electrical Installation) for Indonesian standard.
• Safe installation should be assured by professionals during commissioning. Sampling check
could be done to validate the commissioning result.
• All electrical appliances that requires grounding or typically with metal box should be grounded.
Grounded appliances will reduce the current flow to the body in case of somebody is in contact
with faulty appliance.
• Use residual current device (RCD) to protect the users from electric shock when touching live
conductor. Live conductors should not be left unprotected.
• Use double-insulated appliances to avoid leakage or faulty current on the housing.
• Local operator should check the cable and grounding installation of every household in regular
basis. It is recommended to perform the inspection twice a year.

Good grounding
connection

Hanging grounding conductor

Grounding is provided for appliances Grounding cable is not connected to the

grounding ground

The main grounding installation as well as the appliances grounding should always be
maintained to reduce the risk of electric shock on faulty appliances.

248 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Hanging cable
Unprotected socket

E27 fitting with screw

Lamp is installed on the beam and protected Socket bulb is not precisely installed under
under the roof. the roof. Showery weather may cause
short-circuit.

All appliances that is not weatherproof or has low IP rating should always be protected from
rain and moisture.

NYM cable is used No plugs

Power plug

AC power plug with correct cable type is Extremely dangerous installation. Cabel
used. Grounding terminal and cable must be should always be equipped with power plug.
connected when the device requires grounding. Single insulation cable should not be used.

Never connect wires directly to the socket. Bad connection will lead to electric arc and increase
of temperature. Always use appropriate power plug to connect appliances. Reliable extension
cord should be carefully selected indicated by at least SNI certified.

Lamp fixture is mounted on the beam and Lamps are hanging and not mounted
switch are installed at reachable height. properly. Cables should not be under
Cables are well mounted on the wall and tension.
without tension.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 249

  How is a good house wiring installation?

• Always use cable with double • Cable should be routed • Bulbs should be
insulation such as NYM or inside cable conduit to installed in socket with
NYY. Three-core cable for protect the cable insulation screw base instead of
phase, neutral, and protective from damage. PVC pipe free-hanging bulbs.
conductor with minimum cross or flexible conduit can be
section of 1.5 mm2¬ should used. It is a must to install
be used. The current carrying single insulation cable
capacity of NYM 1.5 mm2 is 18 inside cable conduit.
A if it is installed at 30°C.

150 cm

• Socket outlet should be • For safety reason, wall

featured with protective switches and socket
earthing terminal. The terminal outlets should be
should be connected internally installed with minimum
with grounding wire to provide 150 cm from the ground
grounding for the appliances. and easy to reach.

Twist-on wire connector

Wire clamp

Electrical tape Bare conductor

Neat installation of house wiring Junction Junction connection is not installed inside
connection box is provided to house the box. Twist-on wire connectors should be
cables interconnection. used to fasten the conductors instead of
electrical tape.

250 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Connecting two or more conductors should be done by twisting the conductors and fasten with
twist-on wire connector. Avoid using electrical tape as the thin tape may be damaged by the
conductor and leave the live conductor unprotected. Unprotected live conductor may cause
electric shock as well as short circuit. Junction box must be provided.

Extension cord without

grounding

Neat cable installation and junction. NYM Very messy house wiring. Hanging cables all
cable and conduit is used for household over the wall.
appliances.

No plug Extension cord with

grounding

Damaged cable
insulation Position is too low

Extension cord should not be placed on Socket outlet is installed at very low height.
the floor. Splash of water might cause very Socket should be kept away from the kids.
dangerous situation.


How to fix such installation?

• Re-route the wires and install inside cable conduit to reduce the tension on the cable.
• Use extension cord with grounding terminal to ensure that the grounding connection is always
available.
• Avoid installing socket outlet or putting extension cord at very low height that is reachable by kids. All
type of electrical connection should be installed with minimum of 150 cm from the ground.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 251

 Voltage is within the acceptable range. There is 14.4% voltage drop on the line
distribution. The voltage level is violated
from the acceptable voltage range.

The voltage at the latest connection should not be less than 10% or greater than 5% from the
nominal voltage. In this case the voltage should not be lower than 207 V or 198 V for 230 V and
220 V, respectively.


Why high voltage drops or under-voltage grid is not acceptable?

• Low voltage will cause appliances to draw more current and thus increase of heat and harm the
cable insulation as well as damaging home appliances.
• Reduce of current will also cause the MCB to trip unintendedly due to the increase of current.
• Motor or fans will not work efficiently as not enough torque being produced to the load. This will
heat up the winding and reduce the lifetime of the motor.
• For CRT (Chatode Ray Tube) type of TV, the colour may change when the voltage is low.

13.4 UTILISATION OF ENERGY

Sun radiation is abundance and free but the energy that can be captured and stored is limited.
Therefore, it is important to save the energy by using electricity wisely only when needed and use
energy-efficient electronic components. Saving the energy will not only secure the availability of
energy at the power plant but also prolong the life time of battery.

The utilisation of electricity should not be limited only to lightning and entertainment. Electricity
should be used also for productive activities such as lighting for small shop, refrigerator for cold
drinks, bakery, small workshop, etc.

252 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 The use of referigerator in a small shop Manual way of mixing the dough and
showing the productive use of energy. processing the food is replaced by electric
mixer and blender.

As the power and energy consumption might exceed the common limit for households, regulation or
special installation should be made by local operator and village management team. Energy security
in the power house and safety of the installation should be considered when giving permission
and choosing the appliances.


What should be considered when some entrepreneur proposes productive use activities?

• Understand the load behaviour of the appliances. The consumption of appliances should not
exceed 1000 W when connected to single-phase household connection. Meaning some small
motors such as sewing machine, mixer, and blender are still acceptable for single-phase.
• Higher load or motor greater than 1000 W should consider three-phase connection. In this case,
special connection should be designed. Make sure that regulations regarding the electricity
usage for productive use is made within the villagers, such as for tariff and time allocation to
operate the higher load appliances.
• Calculate the possible energy used of the appliances and time. Energy for household lighting
should be prioritised before fulfilling the energy for productive activities by using excess energy.
It is preferred to have productive activities which use high load appliances to operate during
day time.
• For the motors with high starting current, soft starter has to be considered in the facility to avoid
disturbance on the grid.

, ENERGY CONSERVATION

Energy conservation means the behaviour to reduce the amount of energy service such as turning-
on the light only when people are around, switch-off the TV after use, not using fans when the
weather is cold, or using simple sound system when there is an event. Unnecessary energy
consumption may lead to waste of quota in the energy limiter.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 253

 A single lamp is used to provide lighting for Excessive use of lamps in an empty mosque.
the learning process. Lamp should be lit only when the public
facility is in used.

Lamp is unnecessarily lit during the day Streetlight is installed in the public building
time. Approximately 60 Wh energy is wasted without adequate support and lit during day
during day time for a single bulb. time.

Unnecessary waste of energy during the day time will lead to lower energy quota for night use.
Forgetting to turn-off a 5 W LED bulb during day time will already reduce the quota up to 60 Wh
within 12 hours which is equal to one fifth of the typical daily quota 300 Wh.

Lamps are installed with sufficient Lamp installation should not be too close to
distance to provide better light distribution each other. It is preferable to change the lamp
with higher lumen to increase illumination.

254 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Make sure that the lamp has wide beam angle with minimum of 300°. Some of conventional
LED bulb can only distribute light with angle of 120°. Lamp with narrow beam angle should not
be installed horizontally.

All appliances are switched-off when the Exaggerated sound system for a limited
owner is not using them. energy source. One passive speaker may
consume 400 W.


Additional efforts to reduce the use of electricity

• Lighting for public facility can be equipped with motion sensor, timer, or light sensor to switch-
off automatically when nobody is in the room or when the sun is set.
• Paint the wall with reflective colour like white will help to increase the illumination.
• Always Install the lamp in vertical position with head lamp facing down to improve the illumination

, ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Saving energy through using energy-efficient appliances will significantly contribute to reduce the
energy consumption in a household. Energy efficiency is a way of using technology that consumes
less energy to achieve the same output or service, for example replacing incandescent lamp and
cathode ray tube (CRT) TV with LED technology. The prices of energy-efficient components might
be slightly more expensive than the conventional ones. However, the higher price comes with
lower energy consumption and longer life time that makes the appliance is cheaper in the long run.

 What to consider when buying new appliances?

• Preform simple analysis on the cost benefits of different kind of options. Choose the most
efficient appliances for the best price.
• Always look at the power consumption of the appliances before buying electronic item. This is
to avoid non-optimal use of appliances due to overload of the MCB or insufficient quota.
• Calculate the estimated daily energy usage to be match with the daily energy quota.

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 255

 How to calculate power and energy consumption in a household?

1. List all the household appliances.

2. Check the power consumption of each appliance in watt. Power consumption is shown the
label attached on the appliances.
3. Check and estimate the operation hours of the appliances per day. Example: LED bulb is
running 12 hours during the night from 18:00 to 06:00.
4. Calculate the energy use of each appliance in watt-hour per day.
Energy per day = Power x hours/day

5 W x 12 hours Energy per day = 60 Wh

5. Calculate the total power of all appliances

Power 1 + Power 2 + ........+ Power appliance Nth

5 + 5 + 5 + 10 + 40 + 15 + 5 Total power = 85 W

6. Calculate the total energy per day of all appliances

Energi 1 + Energi 2 + ........+ Energi appliance Nth

60 + 60 + 60 + 40 + 120 +60 + 10 Total energy per day = 410 Wh

7. Crosscheck with the MCB rating. Total power of all appliances should be less than maximum
power of MCB.
Maximum power MCB > Total power

Maximum power MCB = 1 A x 230 V 230 W > 85 W

Existing appliances
No. Appliances Power (watt) hours/day Energy/day
1 LED bulb 5 12 hours 60 Wh
2 LED bulb 5 12 hours 60 Wh
3 LED bulb 5 12 hours 60 Wh
4 LED bulb 10 4 hours 40 Wh
5 LCD 40 3 hours 120 Wh
6 Fan 15 4 hours 60 Wh
7 Phone charger 5 2 hours 10 Wh
Total 90 W 410 Wh

<230 W <450 W

8 Rice cooker 300 0.5 hours 150 Wh

Total 390 W 560 Wh

<230 W <450 W

8. Crosscheck with the energy limiter. Total energy consumption per day should be less than
daily energy quota (if using energy limiter).
9. Add the item to be purchased into the calculation to check whether the appliance can be
used with existing configuration.

256 PV Mini-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 High efficacy LED lamp is used. LED needs Less efficient fluorescent tube lamp is used
only 5 W to emit 400 lumen. for terrace lighting. Fluorescent lamp is not
recommended to use because of excessive
energy use with shorter lifetime.

Which type of lamp should be selected?

Instead of only looking at the cost and power consumption or wattage of a lamp, one should look
at the right lumen when installing new light point or replacing broken bulb. Efficacy or lumen per
watt as well as lifetime should be considered when choosing the right lamp. The higher the efficacy
means more efficient lamp and the when the cost per lifetime is lower meaning it is actually cheaper
price in a long run. Following is the comparison of different lamp technology installed on site. The
price for fluorescent tube lamp includes the housing and the ballast.

Technology LED bulb CFL lamp Fluorescent tube

Watts 9W 10 W 10 W
Lumens 800 lm 590 lm 390 lm
Cost2 34,000 IDR 22,000 IDR 36,000 IDR
Est. Lifetime 15,000 hrs (3-4 years) 6000 hrs (1.4 years) 5000 hrs (1.1 years)
Efficiency 89 59 39
Cost / lifetime 10,000 IDR / year 10,000 IDR/ year 32,700 IDR/ year

LED TV with lower power consumption is CRT TV is used. CRT TV is cheap but less
preferable despite its expensive cost. efficient compared to LCD or LED TV.

2
Indonesian currency

CHAPTER 13 Household Connection 257

 CHAPTER 14
PV System Grounding and
Lightning Protection
✓ How is the ideal configuration of a distribution grid?
✓ Good and bad installation of distribution grid and its components
✓ Recommended installation of the streetlights
✓ Medium voltage distribution

258 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

14.1 BASICS OF GROUNDING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Grounding is a technique to electrically connect the conductive material of an equipment to the earth.
It aims to provide safety of the installation from the unexpected fault current. Grounding includes the
connection of current-carrying conductor to ground as well as connection of non-current carrying
conductive equipment such as PV module frame, support structure, metal enclosures, and other
conductive equipment. The absence of grounding will not only cause electrical shock hazard in the
installation but also introduce potential damage of the installation especially during lightning strikes.

Grounding scheme in PV mini-grid system

Grid pole and

street light

PV array
13

Combiner box

Power house
Consumers

Battery bank
SCC

DC panel
Transformer

battery inverter Lightning arrester

Pyranometer

AC panel Grounding box

grounding cable

Transformer


Why grounding is strictly required?

• To protect the electrical installation and equipment due to fault current and lightning strike
• To avoid different potential on exposed conductive parts through equipotential bonding
• To ensure safety for human and animals from electrical shock through both direct (directly
touching the live conductor) and indirect contact (i.e. touching the electrified conductive
equipment due to insulation fault)
• To provide safe path to dissipate lightning surge to the ground

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 259

 Lightning strike is one of the threats to PV mini-grid systems due to location of the system which is in
open area and far from high conductive structure. Unexpected failures of the systems and insulation
damage may occur if preventive measures such as installation of a proper lightning protection system
and grounding system are not considered. The damage to the electrical installation might be caused by
both direct strike (direct strike to the structure) and indirect strike (lightning striking near to the structure)
that may cause overvoltage on the line.
Lightning is high current electric discharge between cloud and ground and between positive and negative
charges in the cloud. The rapid discharge occurs when the insulating capacity of air breaks down when
the charges grow large enough. Cloud to ground type of lightning is the type that occurs most often
and causing damages. The possible damages due to lightning strikes are explained in IEC 62305-1 and
distinguished as S1, S2, S3, and S4 depending on the location of the strikes. depicted in the following
figure. The expected damages are broken PV module frame and glass, failures of the power electronics
or other sensitive equipment due to overvoltage, broken cable insulation, and electric shock hazard due
to touch and step voltage caused by lightning electromagnetic impulse.
In order to determine the required protection measures against lightning strikes, the concept lightning
protection zone is often defined. The zone is divided into external zone which are LPZ 0A that is susceptible
to direct lightning strike with full lightning current, LPZ 0B with risk of partial lightning current, and internal
zone which is LPZ 1 and LPZ 2.
In order to avoid the damage, lightning protection system (LPS) should be installed to protect the system
from direct as well as indirect lightning strike. LPS is classified into external and internal LPS. The external
LPS namely air termination system, down conductor and earth termination system which is mainly to
provide the protection zone against direct strike on the structure in PV mini-grid. The internal LPS are to
prevent any dangerous flashover and damage caused by surge. The internal LPS consists of equipotential
bonding, separation distance, and surge protection device.

S1 flash to the structure may

cause mechanical damage or
injury to the people.
S1, Flash to the structure
13

LPZ 1,2 , no direct flash

partial lightning current,
damped magnetic field.

S2 Flash near the PV

may cause induced
overvoltage due to
LPZ OA , Direct
lightning
flash , full
electromagnetic
lightning
impulse
current, full
magnetic field.
LPZ O8, no direct flash
partial lightning current,
damped magnetic field. S4 flash near the
service connected to
installation causing
induced overvoltage

S3 flash to the service

connected to installation
causing induced overvoltage
grounding cable

260 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Components in grounding system

Grounding Electrode Conductor

 Equipment grounding connects exposed non-current carrying conductive parts

of the component to the ground

• Grounding system provides grounding connection to the live electric part.

• Functional grounding is installed to ensure the proper functionality of PV systems such as
avoiding potential induced degradation1 (PID) in the PV modules by connecting the negative
pole of PV to the ground. The grounding is typically done in the power electronics.
• Lightning grounding provides the current path to the ground during lightning strikes.
• Equipotential bonding bar ensures that all the conductive parts are on the same voltage level
and at zero potential. The bonding prevents the current flow through the conductive parts that
may cause electric shock.
• Grounding electrode conductor connects the bonding bar to the grounding electrode using
grounding electrode clamp
• Grounding electrode is the conductor that connects the grounding of PV systems to the soil

Design, size, and installation of earthing conductor and boding must follow local standard or
international standard such as IEC 60364-5-51 and IEC 60364-7-712

1 PID or Potential Induced Degradation is a phenomenon that normally affects crystalline silicon-based PV module. PID is
caused by the leakage current and voltage potential in the module between solar cell and other parts of the module such
as grounded frame, glass, etc. The phenomena lead to a significant reduction of performance gradually over the years
and accelerates with humidity and temperature.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 261

 
How to prevent PID?

• Grounding the negative pole of the PV array to avoid having negative voltage relative to the
surrounding
• Discharge the charged on the modules by inverse the voltage on the PV array during the night
time. This can be done using special device with automatic night-time discharging of PV module
such as PV offset box.

The grounding of negative pole of PV array is permitted as long as there is a galvanic isolation
between AC and DC side, or when the grid inverter with galvanic isolation is used. Grounding
the negative pole in the system with transformer-less inverter may lead to a short circuit
between PV plant and the grid when ground fault occurs.


What to consider when installing functional earthing?

• Ground fault protection device and overcurrent protection device should be installed when the
negative pole of the PV array is connected to the ground to avoid any fault current flowing in
the functional grounding conductor.
• Functional grounding should be installed in between switch disconnector of the PV array and the
grid inverter or solar charge controller. Some of the manufacturer provides grounding connection
through ground fault detection interruption (GFDI) with fuse to interrupt the connection when
ground fault occurs.

, EQUIPMENT GROUNDING

Equipment grounding is required to ensure that the exposed non-current carrying conductive
parts in the PV mini-grid system such as PV module frames, mounting structures, metal conduits,
metal enclosure of junction boxes and distribution panels, and chassis of the power electronics,
and fences are on the same voltage and zero potential to earth. A good grounding protects the
users or operator from touch voltage, especially during faulty condition or when the live conductor
get in touch with metal chassis.

Rubber

10 mm² Grounding cable

Each of PV module frame is grounded by Bonding between PV modules is done on

having interconnected grounding cable directly the clamp. The clamps may have rubber
on the frame. that prevent direct contact.

262 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 PV module frame must be grounded to prevent floating potential especially in the system with
transformer-less inverter. Inverter contains high frequency switching components that may
cause small fluctuation in the array cable. Since the PV cables are capacitively coupled to the
module frame, the fluctuation induces voltage on the frame.

Mounting structure is bonded to the PV Grounding conductor is detached from the

module frame and neatly grounded. cable lug cause loss of protection.

10 mm² Grounding cable

Should be Corrosion
grounded

Good grounding of PV mounting structure with Poor grounding connection and installation.
proper size and routed nicely. Metallic conduit Insufficient conductor size and absence of
shoule also be physically grounded. cable lug.

The equipment grounding conductor should not be less than 6 mm2 for copper, 16 mm2 for
aluminium or 50 mm2 for steel.

How to improve such installation?



• Grounding of the PV module frame should be done by connecting the grounding cable directly
to the frame. Ensure the direct contact between modules since special coating or layer may
isolate the connection.
• Visual inspection and performance verification by performing grounding continuity test on all
grounding connection should be done in regular basis to ensure the grounding connection.
• The mounting structure of PV array should be bonded to each other by connecting it to the
bonding grid of PV array. Connection should be made underground with cross connector.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 263

 No cable lugs

Makeshift solution using nails to fix the earthing Cable lug is not properly mounted on the
electrode on the mounting structure anchor bolt of the mounting structure. Small
movement may cause the connection to lose.

Chassis of the battery inverter is grounded None of the solar charge controllers (SCC)
through lay-in grounding lugs. are grounded. Chasis of SCC should be
grounded individually in star configuration

Avoid of connecting equipment grounding in daisy-chained configuration. Grounding continuity

can break-off easily when the first connection is removed and resulting the increase of electric
shock hazard.

Copper lug

Steel washer

Corrosion on the washer may increase the Wrong cable insulation color may cause
connection resistance. Avoid direct contact of confusion and lead to misplace of cables.
dissimilar metal that has different anodic potential.

264 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Fence is grounded to protect persons or Ungrounded metallic raceway leads
animals from electric shock due to indirect to electric shock hazard when the tray
contact. become live under fault condition

Bonding conductor of SPD

Door of the enclosure is connected physically Absence of bonding conductor may lose
to the equipotential bonding bar the protection against indirect contact as
well as protection from lightning strike


How to fix such installation?

• To prevent galvanic corrosion, avoid of having direct touch between copper and aluminium
frame or copper and hot dip galvanized steel. Bimetallic washer or bimetallic joints can be used
to prevent direct contact.
• Use different cable insulation to distinguish between power cable and grounding conductor.
Yellow/green cable insulation colour or bare wire should be used only for grounding purposes.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 265

 14.2 GROUNDING SYSTEM

Grounding system or also known as earthing arrangement is the connection of the grounding
conductor to the parts of the installation for safety purposes. One of the most common grid
configuration and used by local utility is TN system that stands for Terre Neutre. In this configuration
the neutral line is combined with protective earth conductor. There are three types of TN system
that can be implemented namely: (1) TN-C or combined protective earth and neutral (PEN), (2) TN-S
or separated neutral and grounding conductors, (3) TN-C-S in which hybrid of TN-C and TN-S.
TN-C networks are commonly used for low distribution grid as it is the most cost-effective earthing
arrangement. The grounding system does not require additional conductor for protective earth (PE)
connection, although it is the least safe arrangement with highest risk of broken neutral.

Grounding conductor
Grounded neutral

Neutral cable is combined in the grounding bar Neutral cable is grounded to maintain the
to achieved combined PEN conductor. combined PEN conductor at the distribution
grid pole.


What should be consider from sizing of protective conductor?

• Protective earth conductor should be the same as the phase conductor for the phase conductor
of up to 16 mm2, as mentioned in IEC 60364-5-54 “Electrical installations of buildings – Part 5-54:
Selection and erection of electrical equipment – Earthing arrangements, protective conductors
and protective bonding conductors”.
• For the phase equal to or greater than 35 mm2 the conductor should be half of the phase conductor.

Ensure that the neutral conductor is grounded along the distribution line. Grounding should
at least be done on the first pole, last and every 5 poles from the first pole with maximum
grounding resistance of 10 Ω.

266 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, PROTECTIVE EQUIPOTENTIAL BONDING

Equipotential bonding is electrically connecting grounding conductors except for functional

grounding (if transformer-less inverter is used) together to the equipotential bonding bar to achieve
the same potential. It ensures that no current will flow on through the conductive parts that may
cause electric shock during electric fault condition or lightning strike.

 What should be consider when installing equipotential bonding bar?

• Equipotential bonding should be located closed to the entrance of grounding conductor that
connects to the main equipotential bonding bar.
• Grounding should be labelled with the grounded equipment according to the as built grounding diagram
• Ensure that the connection between grounding conductor, equipotential bonding bar, and
grounding electrode has low resistance path. Perform ground continuity test to verify that the
grounding connection has low resistance

Grounding electrode clamp

Grounding electrode conductor

Grounding and bonding conductors from other Excessive number of conductors are
bar is connected properly to main quipotential bonded in a grounding electrode clamp.
bonding bar

Individual grounding electrode

Combined grounding installation of several Separated grounding installation lead to

equipotential bonding systems in the main possible potential difference between the
equipotential bonding bar grounded equipment.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 267

 
How to improve such installation?

• It is preferred to use bonding bar as main equipotential bonding rather than connecting on the
grounding electrode clamp for a better connection resistance
• Never left the grounding system separated. Combine the grounding electrode by having copper
conductor of minimum of 6 mm2 between the electrodes.

Ensure that all the grounding rods must be bonded together including the grounding electrode
of PV array, power house, and lightning protection. It is recommended to use equipotential
bonding conductor of at least 6 mm2 for copper or 16 mm2 for aluminium.

Cable lug is not crimped

Equipotential bonding bar is installed Grounding conductor is detached from

properly with secure connection of grouding cable lugs. Ensure that conductor is
conductors. pressed over the entire length of cable lug

Install equipotential bonding bar near the cable entrance to prevent partial lightning current
from entering the power house

, GROUNDING ELECTRODE

The grounding electrode is the conductor that provides connection to the ground and determines
the grounding resistance PV mini-grid system to earth. The grounding electrode chain consists of:
1. Grounding electrode conductor that connects the main equipotential bonding to the electrode
2. Ground electrode clamp to securely attach grounding conductor and electrode
3. Grounding electrode. It is important to obtain low grounding resistance by having a proper
grounding electrode material, length, proper installation, and low soil resistivity.

Soil resistivity is one of the key factors to determine the design of grounding system such as length
of electrodes or grounding electrode material to achieve low grounding resistance. Soil resistivity
means ability of earth to conduct electricity. It depends on the type of soil, humidity, and temperature.

268 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Grounding electrode

Grounding
electrode
conductor

Grounding electrode clamp Corrosive rod

Proper installation of grounding rod. Well- Poor installation of the grounding rod inside
attached grounding electrode and located pile of stones. The unburied rod does not
inside the grounding box. provide any intimate contact with earth.

Grounding electrode Stand-alone electrode

Grounding electrodes are connected in parallel Grounding electrode is not connected

to reduce the grounding resistance. However, to any cable and located outside the
the distance should not be too close grounding box.

What to consider when installing grounding electrode?



• The lower the soil resistivity, the higher the corrosiveness. The grounding electrode should be
made from corrosion-resistant, highly conductive, and low resistance material such as copper.
• Ensure that the length of the electrode is sufficient to have contact with surrounding soil, and
thus lowering the resistance of grounding system. Minimum of twometer electrode length with
cross section area of 25 mm2 should be used for copper-based conductor. The soil resistivity is
reduced steeply up to four meters depth and after there is no significant change
• The grounding resistance should be kept as low as 5 Ω for the main grounding, PV array, and
lightning rod. Grounding resistance should be frequently measured at least once a year and
corrective action is required when the resistance raises above the limit.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 269

 Grounding electrode is installed in moist Concrete is very poor in handling high
soil. Higher moisture content may increase current. During fault condition, water will
significantly the soil conductivity. turn to steam and causing cracks

G5 clamp

Clamp is used to provide better grounding Poor installation of grounding electrode.

connection or low resistance path. Very thin electrode conductor and no clamp
is used.

Connection of the grounding electrode conductor to electrode should be in a good contact to

maintain electrical connection. Connection should be visible and easily maintained.

270 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Good quality and corrosion free U-bolt clamp Non standard grounding electrode clamp
for burrial condition is used. It is preferrable to is used. Corrosion may not only cause
keep the connection above the ground resistance to increase but also break the
connection


How to improve such installation?

• Increase the distance between grounding electrodes to at least be equal to the depth of the
grounding rod to achieve higher influence in soil resistance. Installing the rods close to each
other will cause an intersect of resistance area of the electrodes and therefore the resistance
will not be significantly reduced.
• Ensure that the resistance of the connection is low. It is recommended to keep the resistance
not more than 1 mΩ.
• Corrosion protection layer or anti-corrosive tape could be applied to isolate the grounding clamp
and protect the bonding connection from corrosion. Especially when the connection is located
underground.
• Use proper grounding electrode clamp such as G5 type or U-bolt clamp

4.27 Ω 18.78 Ω

Low grounding resistance at the main Relatively high grounding resistance of

grounding electrode. lightning rod.

The grounding resistance for the main grounding electrode, PV array, and the lighting protection
should not be greater than 5 Ω. Grounding resistance should be frequently measured at least
once a year and corrective action is required when the resistance raises above the limit.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 271

 Good installation of grounding electrodes Equipotential bonding bar should not be
and equipotential bonding bar with adequate install on the ground. Submersed bonding
distance from the ground. bar may speed up the corrosion process.


What should be considered from grounding box?

• The grounding control box is made from stone masonry that is in casted cement and smoothened.
The height and cover (with handle) of the box must be designed to be easy for maintenance
• In order to keep the soil wet, salt and coal can be added to the existing soil to keep the soil
wet and increasing the conductivity of the soil. As rule of thumb, 8 kg of salt per 1 M3 of soil is
sufficient to significantly increase conductivity.
• Minimum of 20% of moisture should be maintained to achieve low resistivity. Lower concentration
will rapidly increase the resistance. Soil should be watered regularly to maintain the resistivity
low, especially during dry season.
• Grounding box in a hilly area or sloping landscape may have a dryer soil due to the fast drain of
water table. Always choose location for the box that is not very easy to get drained.
 

Ensure that the grounding pit is composed from porous soil to absorb the water and maintained
at wet condition. It is preferred to keep the any connection (clamp) above the ground.

Good installation of grounding electrodes Improper construction of grounding box.

and equipotential bonding bar with adequate Corroded and almost covered bonding bar.
distance from the ground. Absence of ground electrode.

272 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to improve the grounding resistance?

• Measure the existing grounding resistance using earth ground tester for base reference
• Prior the installation, perform soil resistivity test to obtain the best possible location for grounding
installation and to identify the drive-in depth of the grounding rod to achieve low grounding resistance
• Calculate the required length of the electrode to achieve 5 Ω resistance. To reduce the resistance,
increase the rod length or install several rods in parallel. From the following graph, at least 20
m drive-in depth of electrode is required for concrete soil to achieve 5 Ω. Other solution is to
install several rods in parallel.
• Measure the existing grounding resistance using earth ground tester for base reference
• Prior the installation, perform soil resistivity test to obtain the best possible location for grounding
installation and to identify the drive-in depth of the grounding rod to achieve low grounding resistance
• Calculate the required length of the electrode to achieve 5 Ω resistance. To reduce the resistance,
increase the rod length or install several rods in parallel. From the following graph, at least 20
m drive-in depth of electrode is required for concrete soil to achieve 5 Ω. Other solution is to
install several rods in parallel.

Type of soil Resistivity in Ωm

Concrete 100 – 500

Boggy soil 20 – 40

Farmland 90 – 100

Humid sandy soil (dry) 200 – 400 (1000 – 1100)

Rocky soil 100 – 3000

Gravel 200 – 1500

River water (sea) 10 – 100 (0.3)

Resistance (RA) of grounding
electrode vs its length2

• Alternative to paralleling the grounding electrodes, it is preferable to use buried ring grounding
system. Bare copper cable or copper clad cable of at least 25 mm2 could be buried around the
power house or PV array.

Grounding rods in parallel Buried ring grounding system

• Build grounding box to maintain the grounding connection as well as the soil condition.

2
Lightning Protection Guide, 3rd updated version, 2015, Dehn, Neumarkt, Germany

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 273

 14.3 LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM

Lightning protection system provides a protective zone to ensure the safety of the PV system as well
as the people and animal against direct and indirect strikes to PV systems by using air termination
system, down conductor, low resistance grounding termination, equipotential bonding, adequate
separation distances and surge protection devices. It is important to conduct risk assessment,
possible damage, and the required protection against lightning strike in the PV mini-grid system
according to IEC 62305-2 and IEC 62305-3

How is the typical lightning protection system in PV mini-grid?

1. Lightning rod provides path to ground that can be used to conduct the high lightning currents
when lightning strikes occur or to intercept the lightning flash.
2. Lightning mast supports the lightning rod to achieve the targeted tip height. It is also supported
by guy wire to provide stability to the mast.
3. Down conductor provides the safe path for the lightning current to be discharged by the
grounding electrodes
4. Lightning grounding or earth termination system is responsible in discharging the lightning
current through the ground.
5. Equipotential bonding ensures that there is no potential difference or potential drop between
the grounding electrodes
6. Separation distance is the distance between the air termination system or the down conductor
and the metallic components in the installation.
7. Surge protection device protects the electrical equipment from the lightning surge.

274 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 How to prevent damage from lightning strike?


• Install a proper air termination system. PV arrays and power house should be in the protection
zone of the air termination system.
• Down conductor and grounding electrode system should be properly sized and installed
• Separation distance between air termination system and any conductive parts such as PV
modules frame should be maintained to avoid spark
• All the grounding electrodes such as lightning grounding, PV array grounding, and main grounding
electrode should be connected together through the main equipotential bonding
• All the electrical and electronics devices have to be protected against overvoltage on DC and
AC sides using surge protection device (SPD).
• To protect against overvoltage, avoid loop in the cable installation. The positive and negative
cables should be installed closely. Protect the long cable inside earthed metallic conduit that is
connected to the equipotential bonding to shield the cable from inductive surge.

The lightning protection system should be designed according to IEC 62305 – Protection
against lightning.

, AIR TERMINATION SYSTEM

Air termination provides protection by attracting the electric charge and discharge it to down
conductor. The location and design of the air termination system should be defined properly to
obtain the full protection of the power plant from direct lightning strike. Several methods such as
rolling sphere or protective angle to position the air termination system can be used to estimate
the protected area.

Free standing lightning mast with air termination rod that is designed using protective angle method
is typically used in PV mini-grid system. Protective angle is the angle between the rod and the line
projected to the ground. The protected area is in three-dimensional concept forming a cone. The
protective area depends on the height of the air termination rod from the ground and the class of
LPS as defined in IEC 62305-3.

51°
17 m
Unprotected area
51°
17 m

Protected area

Protected area

PV arrays and power house are inside the Some PV arrays are in the unprotected zone
protected cone of the air termination system. and at risk for direct lightning strike.

The tip height of the lightning mast should not be lower than 15 meters to achieve 20 meters
radius of protected area, considering LPS class III for PV system bigger than 10 kWp. Extending
the height will only increase radius of up to 2 meters.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 275

 Lightning mast

Equipotential bonding

Air termination system is installed at the perfect Massive installation of lightning rods
location to cover the PV arrays and power may cause additonal shading on the PV
house. modules.


How to improve such installation?

• Increase the protection radius by replacing the conventional franklin rod with early streamer rod
or install additional lightning rod. Rolling sphere method can be considered when positioning
multiple rods.
• It is not necessary to install lightning mast and multiple lightning rods. For relatively small ground
mounted PV arrays, optimizing the lightning mast is preferable than installing multiple rods to
increase the protection area.
• Equipotential bonding of the lightning rods should be installed underground using meshed earth
termination system

Early streamer emmision (ESE) rod is used to Simple rod or franklin rod is used. The
enlarge the protection radius and improve the metal rod conducts passively when struck
precision using additional ionization system. by lightning.

276 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s


Why ESE rod or active lightning rod is preferred over the passive one?

• ESE rod provides bigger protection radius. The ionization system of the rod is activated by the
electromagnetic field produced by the storm and leads to the creation of upward streamer. The
early initiation of the streamer increases the efficiency of lightning attraction and protection radius.
• ESE rod is less expensive in comparison to the installation of multiple franklin rods to protect
bigger area.
• ESE rod has a better precision in forming a discharge channel through the rod.

Lightning rod

Mast

Tensioned guy-wire

Very good construction of lightning mast with Bent lightning mast due to wind force
guy-wire to add stability on the free-standing and absence of guy-wire to support the
segmented mast. structure.

Turnbuckle

Corroded wire

Anchor head

Concrete

Guy-wires are anchored securely using Corrosive single guy-wire. Additonal

turnbuckle hooked on the anchor head. anti-corrosive wire should be installed to
Turnbuckle is used to adjust the tension. support the segmented mast.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 277

 , DOWN CONDUCTOR

Protected down conductor

Down conductor is well protected inside PVC Undersized down conductor (16 mm2)
pipe and fixed to the lightning mast may lead to the increase of lightning path
resistance.

50 mm2 cable is used as down conductor to The down conductor is connected to ordinary
safely discharge the lightning current to the cable sealed with tape. This connection is
ground. unsuitable to withstand high current.

Since the down conductor provides the link between lightning rod and the grounding electrode,
the down conductor should have at least cross-section area of 35 mm2 for copper to be able
in handling temperature rise due to lightning current

Separation distance between lightning mast including the down conductor and conductive parts
in the power plant such as PV modules frame and power house should be maintained to prevent
induced overvoltage and electric arc. Overvoltage can be created due to large electromagnetic
field caused by high current passing through the down conductor of lightning mast. Separation
distance is the electrical isolation between the air termination system including the down conductor
and other conductive parts

278 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 < 1 meter

> 1 meter

Separation distance is kept between the Lightning rods are installed very close to
down conductor and PV modules frame and PV array.
power house.


How to fix such installation?

• Increase the separation distance between lightning rods and PV array to avoid any flashover
or induced voltage by relocating the lightning rods.
• The actual required minimum separation distance should be calculated based on the formula
in IEC 62305-3 by considering the class of LPS, insulation material, circulating current through
air terminals and down conductor, and the distance between the level where the separation
distance is measured to the ground. Typically, the distance should not be less than 1 meter.

, LIGHTNING PROTECTION GROUNDING

Grounding electrode of lightning protection Grounding electrode should not be installed

is burried and installed inside a grounding directly in the concrete. As its temperature
box. may rise and cause concrete to break.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 279

 
What should be considered from lightning grounding?

• Lightning grounding should have low impedance path to efficiently divert the lightning current
into the ground and avoid unexpected mechanical damage, heat, or sparks.
• Grounding connection should be as short as possible and installed close to power cable to
avoid loop that may introduce induced voltage.
• Lightning protection grounding should have low resistance between grounding electrode and
earth. Ensure that the grounding resistance is not greater than 5 Ω. It is recommended to use
two grounding electrodes in parallel for lightning protection grounding

To main
equipotential
bonding bar

To grounding Down conductor

electrode

Equipotential bonding bar to connect Grounding electrode is not connected to

between lightning grounding electrode and down conductor.
main grounding system.


How to improve such installation?

• Re-install the grounding electrode from concrete to the soil and install inside a grounding box
• Connect the down conductor to the grounding electrode through equipotential bonding bar.
Lightning equipotential bonding and main equipotential bonding bar should be connected with
conductor not less than 16 mm2 for copper.
• Check in regular basis the connection between down conductor and equipotential bonding bar
as well as between the bar and grounding electrode.

280 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

, SURGE PROTECTION DEVICE

Surge protection device (SPD) is used to protect against indirect lightning strikes or nearby strike
to the grounded structure as well as inter and intra cloud lightning that generates electromagnetic
field to induce transient current into the cable loop. SPD works by diverting the surge current to the
ground during transient voltage. In this phase, the semiconductor switch in the SPD changes its
state to low impedance and safely short the connection to the ground. Therefore, it is necessary
to have the SPD grounded. Surge protection should be ideally be installed at the cable entrance
to protect the power electronic components such as charge controller, grid inverter, or battery
inverter from damaging transients.


What is the purpose of surge protection device?

• Reduce the risk of flashover in the system by providing equipotential bonding to the main
grounding system.
• Mitigate the surge in the system due to direct or indirect strike. Direct lightning strike on the
distribution grid, lightning conductors, or nearby the PV mini-grid installation can affect the
installation within radius of 10 km. While the Induction in the conductive elements of the PV
installation such as in the power cables due to indirect strike can be felt within 1 km distance.
• Protect electrical and sensitive electronic equipment as well as PV modules. The sensitive
semiconductor of the PV cell should be protected from static discharges and voltage surge.

Three phase SPD

Three phase surge protection device The installation is not equipped with SPD.
is installed in the panel to protect the Electronics devices are at risk of being
installation against overvoltage affected by lightning surge or induced voltage

Never leave the electrical installation unprotected. Induced voltage or transients caused by
lightning strike may enter the installation and damage the main power electronic devices or
cable insulation and terminals to be damaged.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 281

  What to consider when installing SPD?

• Always use DC rated SPD at the DC system, and AC for the AC system as the switch works
differently in extinguished arc.
• The required SPD should be based on the distance between the installation and separation
distance between external lightning protection and PV modules frame.
• SPD should not only be installed to protect the power line, but also the communication line if
the cables are coming from outside the power house (i.e. from grid inverter). Additional SPD
might be required to be installed at the communication line.
• Install the surge protection device closed to the incoming cable.
• SPD in combiner boxes to protect the inverters and PV arrays against surge voltage. The selection
should be in accordance to IEC 61643-12.
• SPD should always show green lifetime indicator. Replace the device when the indicator shows
that the device is already in its end of lifetime, which is typically in red colour.

Where and which type of surge protection device to install?

• Install type 1 AC SPD close to the outgoing cable in the AC distribution panel if the distance
between inverter and AC distribution panel is not greater than 10 meters (d1 < 10m)
• Install type 2 DC SPD close to the grid inverter (or solar charge controller for DC coupling) if
the distance between combiner box and power electronic components is less than 10 meters
(d2 < 10 m). Install type 1 DC SPD if the distance between combiner box and power electronic
components is greater than 10 meters (d2 > 10 m)
• Install additional type 2 AC SPD close to the inverter, if the distance between grid inverter and
AC distribution panel is greater than 10 meters (d1 > 10 m).
• Install additional type 2 SPD close to the combiner box if the distance between combiner box
and power electronic components is greater than 10 meters (d2 > 10)

Surge protection devices should be selected properly according to the possible discharge
current, voltage protection level, system voltage. Ensure that the maximum continuous operating
voltage of the DC SPD is greater than 1.2 times of open circuit voltage of the connected PV array.

282 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

 Burnt SPD

T2

The surge capability of the power line surge Type 2 AC SPD is not sufficient to protect
protector is not high enough to handle the the electrical equipment against lightning
lightning surge. surge.

Minimum of type 1 AC SPD should be installed in the AC distribution panel if external lightning
protection is installed regardless the separation distance.

Grounding connection

Phase and neutral connection Grounding

cable

Phase, neutral, and grounding cables are Ungrounded surge protection device. It will
properly connected to the surge protection omit its function to divert the surge to the
device. ground.

Never left an SPD ungrounded. SPD should be grounded with low resistive path to safely divert
the surge current.

How to improve such installation?



• Connect the grounding cable to the SPD. Minimum of 6 mm2 copper conductor should be used
for type 2 SPD and 16 mm2 copper conductor for type 1 SPD.
• Short circuit protection device such as MCB or fuse should be installed before the surge protection
device to avoid interruption in the installation caused by short circuit in the SPD.

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 283

 , LIGHTNING COUNTER

Lightning counter is installed to measure the lightning flash density in the PV mini-grid site. The data
can be used as basis to take additional preventive action to avoid any damage caused by direct
or indirect lightning such as replacement of air termination system or surge protection devices.

Battery powered lightning counter is Lightning counter is not protected from

in operation and protected from harsh direct sun and water exposure.
environment inside the box.

Inductive loop

Lightning current flow

Inductive sensor from the impulse counter is Impulse counter is installed at wrong
instlled on the down conductor location. The inductive loop should be
installed on the down conductor.

Inductive sensor
cable

AC-powered impulse counter is used. Impulse counter is not connected to the

Absence of grid voltage may cause grid and no inductive loop is installed.
interruption in the monitoring.

284 PV MIni-Grid Installation: Dos & Dont’s

CHAPTER 14 PV System Grounding and Lightning Protection 285