SCIENCE 117: WAVES AND OPTICS Restoring Force and the Spring Mass

System
PERIODIC MOTION
OSCILLATORY MOTION In a, block is displaced to the right of x = 0.
➢ Periodic Motion ➢ The position is positive.
➢ Spring Motion ➢ The restoring force is directed to the left
➢ Differential equation of motion (negative).
➢ Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) In b, the block is at the equilibrium position.
➢ Energy of SHM ➢ x=0
➢ Torsional Pendulum ➢ The spring is neither stretched nor
compressed.
PERIODIC MOTION ➢ The force is 0.
➢ Periodic Motion is a motion that In c, the block is displaced to the left of x = 0.
regularly returns to a given position ➢ The position is negative.
after a fixed time interval. ➢ The restoring force is directed to the
➢ A particular type of periodic motion is right (positive).
“simple harmonic motion,” which arises
when the force acting on an object is 1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
proportional to the position of the object Oscillations
about some equilibrium position.
➢ The motion of an object connected to a We assume that the surface is frictionless.
spring is a good example. There is a point where the spring is neither
stretched nor compressed; this is the
Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring equilibrium position. We measure displacement
Oscillations from that point (x = 0 on the previous figure).
The force exerted by the spring depends on the
displacement:

If an object vibrates or oscillates F = - kx [force exerted by spring)

back and forth over the same
path, each cycle taking the same The minus sign on the force indicates that it is
amount of time, the motion is a restoring force—it is directed to restore the
called periodic. The mass and mass to its equilibrium position.
spring system is a useful model
for a periodic system. k is the spring constant.

The force is not constant, so the acceleration is

not constant either.
RECALL HOOKE`S LAW
Hooke`s Law states FS = -kx 1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion—Spring
➢ It is always directed toward the Oscillations
equilibrium position.
➢ Therefore, it is always opposite the Displacement is measured
displacement from equilibrium. from the equilibrium point.
➢ k is the force (spring) constant
➢ x is the displacement Amplitude is the maximum
displacement.

A cycle is a full to-and-fro

motion; this figure shows half
a cycle.

Period is the time required

to complete one cycle.

Frequency is the number of

cycles completed per
second.
Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion Application of Simple Harmonic Motion
Some of the real-world applications of SHM are
as follows:

If the mass is at the limits of its i. Clock

motion, the energy is all ii. Musical Instruments
potential. iii. Car Shock Absorbers
iv. Bungee Jumping
If the mass is at the equilibrium v. Diving Board
point, the energy is all kinetic. vi. The Process of Hearing
vii. Metronome
We know what the potential
energy is at the turning points. Damped Harmonic Motion
➢ Damped harmonic motion is
harmonic motion with a frictional or
drag force. If the damping is small, we
can treat it as an “envelope” that
modifies the undamped oscillation.
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
➢ A simple pendulum consists of a
mass at the end of a lightweight cord.
We assume that the cord does not
stretch, and that its mass is negligible.

In order to be in SHM, the

restoring force ➢ When the motion of an oscillator
must be proportional to the reduces due to an external force, the
negative of the displacement. oscillator and its motion are damped.
Here we have F = ‑mg sin θ ➢ These periodic motions of gradually
which is proportional to sin θ and decreasing amplitude are damped
not to simple harmonic motion.
θ itself. ➢ An example of a damped simple
harmonic motion is a simple pendulum.

There are systems where damping is

unwanted, such as clocks
However, if and watches.
the angle is
small, sin θ ≈ θ. Then there are
systems in
which it is
wanted, and
often needs to
be as close to
critical damping
So, as long as the cord can be considered as possible, such as automobile
massless and the amplitude is small, the period shock absorbers and earthquake
does not depend on the mass. protection for buildings.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION EXAMPLES However, if the damping is large, it no longer

➢ Any object which repeats its motion resembles SHM at all.
over a period of time, to and from about A: underdamping: there are a few small
a mean position, executes simple oscillations before the oscillator comes to rest.
harmonic motion. B: critical damping: this is the fastest way to
get to equilibrium.
Examples: C: overdamping: the system is slowed so
➢ Simple Pendulum much that it takes a long time to get to
➢ Mass Spring System equilibrium.
➢ A steel ball rolling in a curved dish
➢ The motion of a swing
MECHANICAL WAVES There are 2 types of mechanical waves:

What are WAVES?

➢ Different types of waves carry signals to
televisions and radios.
➢ Sound and light waves move all around you
and enable you to hear and see.
➢ Waves are even responsible for the
damage caused by earthquakes.
➢ Waves can occur whenever a system is
disturbed from equilibrium and when the
disturbance can travel, or propagate, from TRANSVERSE WAVES
one region of the system to another. As a ➢ A transverse wave
wave propagates, it carries energy. causes particles in
matter to move
Waves Carry Energy, not Matter back and forth at
➢ A wave is a disturbance that moves right angles to the
through matter or space. direction in which
➢ Waves carry energy from one place to the wave travels.
another. ➢ High points in the
➢ In water waves, the energy is wave are called crests. Low points are
transferred by water molecules. called troughs.
➢ When waves travel through solids, ➢ The series of crests and troughs forms
liquids, and gases, matter is not carried a transverse wave.
along with the waves.

2 TYPES OF WAVES

COMPRESSIONAL WAVES
➢ Another type of
mechanical wave is a
compressional wave.
➢ A compressional
wave causes
➢ Waves usually are produced by particles in matter to
something moving back and forth, or move back and forth
vibrating. along the same
➢ It is the energy of the vibrating object direction in which the
that waves carry outward. wave travels.
➢ Some waves, known as mechanical
waves, can travel only through matter.
(ex: water waves, earthquake/seismic
waves, sound waves, and the waves
that travel down a rope or spring).
➢ Waves called electromagnetic waves ➢ The places where the coils are
can travel either through matter or squeezed together are called
through empty space. compressions.
➢ The places where the coils are spread
MECHANICAL ENERGY apart are called rarefactions.
➢ is a disturbance that travels through ➢ The series of compressions and
some material or substance called the rarefactions forms a compressional
medium for the wave. As the wave wave.
travels through the medium, the
particles that make up the medium Electromagnetic Waves
undergo displacements of various ➢ Electromagnetic waves are waves that
kinds, depending on the nature of the can travel through matter or empty
wave. space where matter is not present.
(Light, radio waves, microwaves,
 infrared rays, and X rays are examples ➢ The greater the force
of electromagnetic waves.) that produces a wave,
➢ Electromagnetic waves are transverse the greater the
waves. amplitude of the wave
➢ They contain electric and magnetic and the greater the
parts that vibrate up and down energy carried by the
perpendicular to the direction the wave wave.
travels. ➢ In a transverse wave,
the higher the wave,
Properties of Waves the higher the amplitude.
➢ The properties that waves have ➢ Sounds with greater amplitude will be
depend on the vibrations that produce louder. Light with greater amplitude will
the waves. be brighter.
➢ For example, if you move a pencil
slowly up and down in a bowl of water, Amplitude of a Compressional Wave
the waves produced by the pencil’s ➢ The amplitude of a
motion will be small and spread apart. compressional wave
depends on the
Wavelength density of material in
➢ The wavelength of a compressional compressions and
wave is the distance between two rarefactions.
adjacent compressions or rarefactions. ➢ The closer the
compressions, the
larger the amplitude.
➢ The farther apart the compressions, the
smaller the amplitude.

Amplitude and Energy

➢ The vibrations that produce a wave
transfer energy to the wave.
➢ The more energy a wave carries, the
Frequency larger its amplitude.
➢ The frequency of a wave is the ➢ Seismic waves are produced by
number of wavelengths that pass vibrations in Earth’s crust that cause
by a point each second (or earthquakes.
certain amount of time). ➢ The more energy these waves have,
➢ If you were watching a the larger their amplitudes and the
transverse wave on a rope, the more damage they cause as they travel
frequency of the wave would be along Earth’s surface.
the number of crests or troughs
that pass you each second. Wave Speed
➢ The closer the waves are ➢ The speed of an object refers to how
together, the greater the energy fast an object is moving and is usually
carried by the waves. expressed as the distance traveled per
time of travel.
Amplitude of a Transverse Wave ➢ In the case of a wave, the speed is the
➢ The amplitude (largeness or height) of distance traveled by a given point on
a wave is a measure of the distance the wave (such as a crest) in a given
between a line through the middle of a interval of time. In equation form,
wave and a crest or trough. Speed = distance/time
➢ As the distance between crests and
troughs increases, the amplitude EXAMPLE: If the crest of an ocean
(largeness or height) of a transverse wave moves a distance of 20 meters in
wave increases. 10 seconds, then the speed of the
ocean wave is 2.0 m/s.

Wave Speed
➢ The speed of a wave (how fast is
travels) depends on the medium in
which the wave travels.
 ➢ You can calculate the speed of a wave sound wave is similar in nature to a slinky
if you know its wavelength and wave for a variety of reasons.
frequency using this equation. ➢ First, there is a medium which
carries the disturbance from one
Wave Speed Equation: location to another.
Wave speed (in m/s) = wavelength (in meter) x ➢ Second, there is an original source
frequency (in Hertz) of the wave, some vibrating object
v = λf capable of disturbing the first
particle of the medium.
➢ v is the symbol for wave speed ➢ Third, the sound wave is
➢ f is the symbol for frequency transported from one location to
➢ The SI unit for frequency is the hertz, another by means of the particle
abbreviated Hz. One hertz equals one interaction.
vibration per second, or one wavelength
passing a point in one second. ➢ Since a sound wave is a disturbance,
➢ The wavelength is represented by the which is transported through a medium
Greek letter lambda, λ, and is measured via the mechanism of particle
in meters. interaction, a sound wave is
characterized as a mechanical wave.
Wave Interference
➢ is the phenomenon ➢ Sound waves are longitudinal waves
that occurs when two waves because particles of the medium
meet while traveling along the through which the sound is transported
same medium. The vibrate parallel to the direction, which
interference of waves causes the sound moves.
the medium to take on a shape
that results from the net effect ➢ There are regions of compressions and
of the two individual waves rarefactions. The compressions are
upon the particles of the regions of high air pressure while the
medium. rarefactions are regions of low air
pressure.
Type of Wave Interference
Pitch & Frequency of Sound waves
Constructive Interference ➢ Frequency for any wave can be
➢ is a type of interference that occurs at any defined as the number of cycle of the
location along the medium where the two wave that pass by a given point every
interfering waves have a displacement in second. The sound wave is a
the same direction. longitudinal wave.
➢ Each cycle of the sound wave includes
one compression and one rarefaction.
➢ If, for example, a speaker vibrates back
and forth at a frequency of 500 Hz, then
500 compressions, each followed by a
Destructive Interference rarefaction, is generated every second.
➢ is a type of interference that occurs at any A sound with a single frequency s
location along the medium where the two called a pure tone.
interfering waves have a displacement in ➢ A healthy young person hears all
the opposite direction. sound frequencies from 20 Hz to 20
000 Hz (20 kHz). This audible range of
frequencies is called the audio
spectrum.
➢ Infrasonic sound waves are those
below the range of normal human
hearing. These frequencies occur
below 20 Hz.
SOUND WAVES ➢ Ultrasonic frequencies occur above
➢ Sound is a wave, which is created by the range of normal human hearing and
vibrating objects and propagated through a therefore are above 20 kHz.
medium from one location to another. A ➢ Frequency is an objective physical
property of a sound wave and can be
 measured using an electronic ➢ The decibel (dB) is a measurement
frequency counter. The listener's that is used to compare two sound
perception of sound is subjective. intensities.
➢ The brain interprets the frequency ➢ The threshold of hearing is assigned a
detected by the ear as a subjective or decibel level of 0 dB.
perceived quality called pitch. ➢ A sound that is 10 (10) times more
➢ A pure tone with a high frequency is intense than the threshold is
interpreted as a high-pitched sound. A assigned a sound level of 10 dB.
pure tone with a low frequency is Rustling leaves would have a level
interpreted as a low-pitched sound. of 10 dB.
➢ A sound that is 100 (10') times
Sound Pressure, Amplitude and Loudness more intense than the threshold is
assigned a sound level of 20
dB.This is the sound of a whisper.
➢ A sound that is 100 000 (10') times
➢ In the areas of rarefaction, the air more intense than the threshold
pressure of the sound wave is low. In has a sound level of 50 dB. This is
the areas of compression, the air the sound of an average classroom
pressure is high. with students actively working with
each other.
➢ Other examples of sound levels are
a car without a muffler at 100 dB,a
live rock concert at 120 dB, and the
threshold of pain is at about 130
dB.

➢ The pressure amplitude is the Wave Interference & Production of Beats

magnitude of the maximum change in ➢ Wave interference is the
pressure measured relative to phenomenon, which occurs when two
undisturbed or atmospheric pressure. waves meet while traveling along the
same medium. Recall, there is two
➢ Loudness is a characteristic of sound types of interference; constructive and
that depends primarily on the amplitude destructive.
of the wave. The larger the amplitude, ➢ Sound is a pressure wave, which
the louder the sound. The pressure consists of compressions and
amplitude is an objective property of rarefactions. The interference of sound
the sound wave since it can be waves causes the particles of the
measured with an instrument. medium to behave in a manner that
➢ Loudness, on the other hand, is reflects the net effect of the two
subjective. Each individual determines individual waves upon the particles.
what is loud, depending on the ➢ If a compression (high pressure) of one
acuteness of his or her hearing. wave meets up with a compression
(high pressure) of a second wave at the
Sound Intensity and Decibels same location in the medium, then the
➢ Sound waves carry energy with them net effect is that that particular location
as they move from one place to will experience an even greater
another. pressure. This is a form of constructive
➢ The intensity of a sound wave is the interference.
energy that is transported past a given ➢ If two rarefactions (two low pressure
area per unit of time. disturbances) from two different sound
➢ When the amplitude of a sound wave waves meet up at the same location,
increases, the energy of the wave then the net effect is that that particular
increases and therefore the intensity is location will experience an even lower
also larger. pressure. This is also an example of
➢ As the sound wave travels away from constructive interference.
its source, the surface area is larger ➢ If two sound waves interfere at a given
and the intensity of the wave is less. location in such a way that the
The intensity is less because the wave compression of one wave meets up
is spreading out over a larger area. with the rarefaction of a second wave,
destructive interference results.
 ➢ The net effect of a compression (which ➢ The way our ears separate various
pushes particles together) and a frequencies is based on the principle of
rarefaction (which pulls particles apart) resonance. An object that, when struck,
upon the particles in a given region of can vibrate with a certain frequency,
the medium is to not even cause a will also start vibrating in response to a
displacement of the particles. The sound wave of this frequency.
particles would remain at their rest
position as though there wasn't even a Speed of Sound
disturbance passing through them. ➢ Like any wave, the speed of a sound
This is a form of destructive wave refers to how fast the disturbance
interference. is passed from particle to particle.
➢ Constructive and destructive While frequency refers to the number of
interference occur when the waves are vibrations, which an individual particle
of the same frequency. In this section makes per unit of time, speed refers to
we will study what happens when the distance, which the disturbance
sound waves have slightly different travels per unit of time.
frequencies. This gives rise to a ➢ Always be cautious to distinguish
phenomenon called beats. between the two often-confused
➢ Sound beats are the periodic and quantities of speed (how fast...) and
repeating fluctuations heard in the frequency (how often... ).
intensity of a sound when two sound ➢ Since the speed of a wave is defined as
waves of slightly different frequencies the distance, which a point on a wave
interfere with one another. (such as a compression or a
➢ The beat frequency is the rate at which rarefaction) travels per unit of time, it is
the sound alternates from loud to soft often expressed in units of
and equals the difference in frequency meters/second (abbreviated m/s). In
of the two sounds. If two sound waves equation form, this is
with frequencies of 440 Hz and 442 Hz speed = distance/time
interfere to produce beats, a beat
frequency of 2 Hz will be heard. ➢ The speed of any wave depends upon
➢ The human ear is only capable of the properties of the medium through
hearing beats with small beat which the wave is traveling. Typically,
frequencies (e.g., 8 Hz or less). there are two essential types of
properties which effect wave speed -
Standing Wave Patterns inertial properties and elastic
➢ Recall, a standing wave pattern is properties.
formed when reflected waves interfere ➢ The density of a medium is an example
with incident waves to form a standing of an inertial property. The greater the
wave that appears to be standing in inertia (i.e., mass density) of individual
place. particles of the medium, the less
➢ The frequency at which the standing responsive they will be to the
wave exists is called the resonant interactions between neighboring
frequency. Each resonant frequency is particles and the slower the wave. If all
a whole-number multiple of the lowest other factors are equal (and seldom is
resonant frequency called the it that simple), a sound wave will travel
fundamental frequency. faster in a less dense material than a
more dense material.
Resonance ➢ Elastic properties are those
➢ The word resonance comes from Latin properties related to the tendency of a
and means to "resound" - to sound out material to both maintain its shape and
together with a loud sound. not deform whenever a force or stress
➢ Resonance is a common cause of is applied to it.
sound production in musical ➢ Steel versus plasticine.
instruments. ➢ In general, solids have the strongest
➢ This is known as resonance - when interactions between particles, followed
one object vibrating at the same natural by liquids and then gases.
frequency of a second object forces ➢ For this reason, longitudinal sound
that second object into vibrational waves travel faster in solids than they
motion. do in liquids than they do in gases.
Even though the inertial factor may
 favor gases, the elastic factor has a NEWTON’S CORPUSCULAR THEORY
greater influence on the speed (v) of a ➢ Light is emitted from
wave, thus yielding this general luminous body in the form of
pattern: tiny particles called
V solids > V liquids > V gases CORPUSCLES.
➢ These corpuscles move in
➢ The speed of a sound wave in air straight line.
depends upon the properties of the air, ➢ Velocity of light in a
namely the temperature and the dense medium is GREATER
pressure. The pressure of air (like any than the velocity of light in a
gas) will affect the mass density of the rare medium.
air (an inertial property) and the ➢ Due to different sizes of the
temperature will affect the strength of corpuscles, they produce
the particle interactions (an elastic different colors.
property). At normal atmospheric ➢ Help us to explain phenomenon of
pressure, the temperature dependence reflection, refraction and propagation of
of the speed of a sound wave through light.
air is approximated by the following
equation: WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C)*T ➢ Proposed by Christiaan
where T is the temperature of the air in Huygens
degrees Celsius. ➢ Light travels in the form of
WAVES
Doppler Effect ➢ Light waves require MEDIUM
➢ The Doppler effect is a phenomenon for their propagation.
observed whenever the source of ➢ Velocity of light in a dense
waves is moving with respect to an medium is less than the
observer. velocity of light in a rare
➢ The Doppler effect can be described as medium.
the effect produced by a moving source ➢ Failed to explain
of waves in which there is an apparent phenomenon of reflection,
upward shift in frequency for the refraction and propagation of
observer as the source is approaching light.
and an apparent downward shift in
frequency when the observer and the ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
source is receding. ➢ Proposed by James Clerk
➢ When a vehicle travels faster than the Maxwell
speed of sound, a sonic boom can be ➢ Light are
heard. As the vehicle overtakes its own ELECTROMAGNETIC in
sound, the sound waves spread out- nature
behind in a shockwave, or sonic boom. ➢ Light waves does not
require MEDIUM for their
propagation
➢ Light consists of electric
and magnetic fields.
➢ Both these fields are
perpendicular to each
other and also perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

NATURE AND PROPAGATION OF

LIGHT
Electromagnetic waves are formed when an
Is Light made in a form of PARTICLES or a form electric field comes in contact with a magnetic
WAVES? field.
QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT Light Frequency and Colors
➢ Proposed by MAX PLANK
➢ Light is emitted in the form of energy
pockets or bundles o QUANTA or
PHOTONS
➢ The energy of these photons is directly
proportional to the frequency of vibration.
➢ E=hf

RADIO WAVES
➢ defined to contain any electromagnetic
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES (SPECTRUM) wave produced by currents in wires
➢ RMIVUXG and circuits. Its name derives from their
most common use as a carrier of audio
information (i.e., radio)
➢ LONGER WAVELENGTH, used for AM
and FM radio, cellular telephones, and
TV.

Calculating wavelengths of Radio Waves

Characteristics of Light

EXAMPLE 1.
Calculate the wavelengths of a 1530-kHz AM
radio signal, a 105.1-MHz FM radio signal, and
a 1.90-GHz cell phone signal.
Use the equation:

➢ The speed of light is a constant, and

equals the product of its frequency and For the AM Radio signal f = 1530 kHz:
wavelength/ λ= 3.00x108 m/s
1530x103 cycle/s
λ= 196 m

c = speed of light = 3.0x108 m/s in a vacuum For the AM Radio signal f = 105.1 MHz:
f = frequency (Hz) λ= 3.00x108 m/s
λ = wavelength (m) 105.1x106 cycle/s
λ= 2.85 m

For the AM cellphone signal f = 1.90 GHz:

λ= 3.00x108 m/s
1.90x109 cycle/s
λ= 0.158 m
MICROWAVES REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF
➢ the highest-frequency electromagnetic LIGHT
waves that can be produced by
currents in macroscopic circuits and NATURE OF LIGHT
devices. ➢ A form of energy which enables us to
USES: see
➢ RADAR – detection system that uses ➢ It travels in a straight line and travels at
radio a very high speed in vacuum (3.00x108
waves to detect and track aircraft, spacecraft, m/s)
and ships at sea ➢ In the electromagnetic spectrum, white
➢ MICROWAVE DIATHERMY – used for light is a mixture of seven different
treating muscular pains, spasms, colors.
tendonitis, and rheumatoid arthritis. ➢ Light is a transverse wave and forms
part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
INFRARED
➢ Infrared radiation is generally LIGHT RAY
produced by thermal motion and the ➢ The path along which light energy
vibration and rotation of atoms and travels is called RAY.
molecules. ➢ Represented by a straight line with an
➢ electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with arow to show the direction of motion.
wavelengths longer than those of
visible light. LIGHT RAY – LIGHT PROPAGATION
REFLECTION and REFRACTION
VISIBLE LIGHT ➢ Reflection involves a change in
➢ Visible light is the narrow segment of direction of waves when they bounce
the electromagnetic spectrum to which off a barrier.
the normal human eye responds. ➢ Refraction of waves involves a change
➢ ROYGBV in the direction of waves as they pass
from one medium to another.
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
➢ Ultraviolet means “above violet.” Reflection
The electromagnetic frequencies of Reflection will occur if the
ultraviolet radiation (UV) extend light falls on a highly
upward from violet, the highest polished surface like
frequency visible light. mirror, then this light is
➢ Solar UV radiation is broadly sent back into the same
subdivided into three regions: UV-A medium.
(320–400 nm), UV-B (290–320 nm),
and UV-C (220–290 nm) LAWS OF REFLECTION OF
LIGHT
X-RAYS a. The angle of incident is equal to the angle of
➢ In the 1850s, scientists (such as incident.
Faraday) began experimenting with b. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
high-voltage electrical discharges in normal to the mirror at the point of incidences
tubes filled with rarefied gases. all lie in the same plane.
➢ penetrating form of very high frequency
electromagnetic radiation. 2 Types of Reflection
➢ X-ray technology in medicine is called ➢ Specular – reflection at definite angle
radiology. from a very smooth surface.
➢ Diffused – scattered reflection from a
GAMMA RAYS rough surface.
➢ The most penetrating nuclear radiation
was called a gamma ray (γ ray) and
found to be an extremely high
frequency electromagnetic wave.
➢ Gamma radiation from radioactive
materials is used in nuclear medicine
and γ-ray technologies are also used in
scanning luggage at airports.
REFRACTION transmitted into the second medium. If
➢ results from a change in speed when the ray’s angle of incidence exceeds a
light passes from one transparent certain critical angle, the light ray will
material into another. undergo TOTAL INTERNAL
➢ Index of Refraction (also called the REFLECTION.
refractive index

NOTE: For monochromatic light and for a given

pair of materials, a and b, on opposite sides of
the interface, the ratio of the sines of the angles ➢ In this equation, na is the refractive
θa and θb, where both angles are measured index of the medium through which the
from the normal to the surface, is equal to the incident ray is traveling, and nb is the
inverse ratio of the two indexes of refraction. refractive index of the medium on the
other side of the boundary. The angle
SNELL`S LAW / LAW OF REFRACTION θcrit is the critical angle. If the angle of
incidence, θa is greater than θcrit, then
total internal reflection will occur; but if
θa is less than θcrit, then total internal
reflection will not occur.

FORMULAS:

PENDULUM:
Period (t) = time / # cycles
Unit: second/s

Frequency = # of cycles / time

Unit: s-1 / Hz

l = Length of the pendulum

T = Period (depend on the length of the
pendulum
T = 2𝝅 √𝒍/𝒈
➢ when a ray passes g = gravitational force of the Earth is
from one material into another 9.8 m/s2
material having a larger index 𝝅 = 3.1415
of refraction will give a slower
WAVE SPEED. Relationship of the ff:
➢ RAY is bend l↑ T↑
TOWARDS THE NORMAL g↑ T↓

Calculate the Frequency:

➢ the second material f = 1/2𝝅 𝒈/𝒍
has a smaller index of number of complete swing that pendulum
refraction makes
than the first material, the
faster WAVE SPEED is. Relationship of the f to g and l:
➢ RAY is bent AWAY g↑ f↑
FROM THE NORMAL l↑ f↓

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

➢ When a light ray traveling in a medium
of high refractive index approaches the
interface to a medium of lower
refractive index, it may or may not be
SAMPLE PROBLEM (frequency & period) • An 85cm simple pendulum makes 30
• What is the period and frequency of a complete swing in 55 seconds on an
simple pendulum that is 56cm long on Earth unknown planet. What is the gravitational
and on the moon? acceleration of the planet?
Given: l = 0.56m Given: l = 0.85cm
gearth = 9.8 m/s2 Period (t) = time / # cycles
gmoon = 1.6 m/s2 T = 55 secs / 30 cycles
T = 1.83 secs
Unknown: T = ?
f=? Unknown: gplanet = ?

Formula & Solution: Formula & Solution:

a. gearth g = 4𝝅2 × l / T2
T = 2𝝅 √𝒍/𝒈 g = 4 (3.1415)2 × 0.85cm / (1.83secs)2
T = 2 (3.1415) × √0.56𝑚 / 9.8m/s2 g = 10.02 (Earth)
T = 1.50 seconds
Planet: Gravitational Force / g = m/s2
f = 1/T Mercury = 3.7 m/s2
f = 1 / 1.50 seconds Venus = 8.87 m/s2
f = 0.67 Hz Earth = 9.8 m/s2
Mars = 3.71 m/s2
b. gmoon Jupiter = 24.78 m/s2
Saturn = 13.4 m/s2
T = 2𝝅 √𝒍/𝒈
Uranus = 8.87 m/s2
T = 2 (3.1415) × √0.56𝑐𝑚 / 1.6m/s2 Neptune = 11.15 m/s2
T = 3.72 seconds
MASS SPRING SYSTEM:
f = 1/T SAMPLE PROBLEM:
f = 1 / 3.72 seconds
• How much force is required to stretch a
f = 0.27 Hz
400N/m spring by 40cm?
Given: k = 400N/m
• A pendulum makes 50 cycles in 68 x = 40cm or 0.40m
seconds.
a. What is the period and frequency of Unknown: F = ?
the pendulum?
b. What is the length of the pendulum Formula & Solution:
on Earth? F = - kx
F = -400Nm × (0.40m)
Given: 68 seconds F = -160N
50 cycles
Period (t) = time / # cycles
• The spring has k value equal to 600 N/m.
T = 68 secs / 50 cycles
How much force is necessary to stretch a
T = 1.36 secs
spring by 120cm?
Given: k = 600N/m
Unknown: l = ?
x = 120cm or 1.2m
Formula & Solution:
Unknown: f = ?
f = 1/T
f = 1 / 1.36 seconds
Formula & Solution:
f = 0.74 Hz or 1/s
F = - kx
F = -600N× (0.40m) × (1.2m)
l = gt2 /4𝝅2
F = -720N
l = 9.8 m/s2 (1.36 secs) / 4 (3.1415)2
l = 0.46 m
Period (T) = time / # of cycles
Frequency (f) = # of cycles / time

Relationship of Period (T) and

Frequency (f):
F = 1/T
T = 1/f
ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION c. Fr = -kx
• Motion has Energy Fr = -400 N/m (0.30m)
Kinetic Energy Fr = -120N
KE = ½ mv2
When compressed its KE is minimum. DOOPLER EFFECT:
At equilibrium, the KE will be maximum is a phenomenon where the frequency
because velocity is max at this point. of that is detected by an observer
changes because either source is
Potential Energy moving or the observer is moving.
PE = ½ kx2
+
PE is maximum when full 𝐕 𝐕𝐨
−
fo = fs +
stretched or compressed 𝐕 𝐕𝐬
−
But at equilibrium PE = 0. fo = observer`s frequency
Fr = 0 fs = source`s frequency
x=0 = greater than 400 hz

GETTING THE TOTAL ENERGY when to use + or – Vo or Vs

Mechanical Energy Vo is the velocity of the observer
ME = KE + PE Vs is the velocity of the source
½ kA2 = ½ mv2 + ½ kx2
A = amplitude The source is stationary; the observer is moving
𝐕+ 𝐕𝐨
fo = fs
If x=0 or at equilibrium position, 𝐕 − 𝐕𝐬
Find the maximum Velocity:
√𝒌 The observer is stationary; the source is moving
Vmax = .𝑨 𝐕 − 𝐕𝐨
𝒎 fo = fs
𝐕+ 𝐕𝐬

Find the maximum Acceleration:

𝒌 QUANTITIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
Amax = .(x) WAVES
𝒎
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
SAMPLE PROBLEM: • A mechanical wave moves in a string with
• A massless spring (k=400N/m) is a speed of 125m/s. If the frequency of the
compressed by 40cm from its original wave is 250 Hz, what is the wavelength?
length then released the spring oscillates Given: v = 125m/s
across a horizontal frictionless surface f = 250 Hz
while being fastened to a 0.50kg block.
Calculate the following: Unknown: λ = ?
a. Max Velocity
b. Max Acceleration Formula & Solution:
c. Restoring Force at 30cm from its λ = v/f
natural length. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎/𝒔
λ=
𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑯𝒛
λ = 0.5m
Given: A = 0.40m
k = 400N/m
• A tension of 1200N is applied to a 0.40kg
m = 0.50kg
wire that is 20m long. The wavelength of
the wave produced is 0.10m.
Unknown: Vmax , Amax , Fr
a. What is the speed of the wave?
b. What is the frequency?
Formula & Solution:
√𝒌
a. V = 1200N / 0.40kg
a. Vmax = .𝑨 V = 3000 m/s or 3x103 m/s
𝒎
√400N/m b. f = v/λ
Vmax = . (0.40m)
0.50kg f = 3000m/s / 0.10m
Vmax = 17.89 m/s f = 30,000 1/s Hz or 3x104m/s
𝒌
b. Amax = .(x)
𝒎
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵/𝒎(𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝒎)
Amax =
𝟎.𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈
Amax = 320 m/s2
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION REFRACTION AND REFLECTION
SAMPLE PROBLEM: SAMPLE PROBLEM (Refraction):
• Ultraviolet radiation has a frequency • What is the speed of light in water. The
of6.8x1015 Hz. Calculate the energy, in Index of Refraction of water is 1.33. Use the
joules, of the photon. formula:
Given: f = 6.8x1015 Hz Given: c = 3.0x108 m/s
𝒌𝒈 . 𝒎𝟐 n = 1.33
h = 6.63x10-34
𝒔
Unknown: v = ?
Unknown: E = ?
Formula & Solution:
Formula & Solution: n = c/v → v = c/n
E = hf v = 3.0x108 m/s / 1.33
𝒌𝒈 . 𝒎𝟐
E = 6.63x10-34 × 6.8x1015 Hz v = 2.26x108 m/s
𝒔
E = 4.51x10-18 J
• The speed of light in Diamond is 1.24x108
• Find the energy, in joules per photon, of m/s. What is the Index of Refraction in
microwave radiation with a frequency of Diamond?
7.91x1010 Hz. Given: v = 1.24x108 m/s
Given: f = 7.91x1010 Hz c = 3x108 m/s
𝒌𝒈 . 𝒎𝟐
h = 6.63x10-34 Unknown: n = ?
𝒔
Unknown: E = ?
Formula & Solution:
Formula & Solution: n = c/v
E = hf n = 3.0x108 m/s / 1.24x108 m/s
𝒌𝒈 . 𝒎𝟐 n = 2.40 (Index of Refraction of
E = 6.63x10-34 × 7.91x1010 Hz
𝒔 Diamond)
E = 5.24x10-23 J

• A ray of light travelling through air is

• A sodium vapor lamp emits photons with a incident on piece of glass whose refractive
wavelength of 5.89x10-7m. What is the index is 1.5. If the sine of angle incidence is
energy of these photons? 0.6. What is the sine of the angle of
Given: λ = 5.89x10-7m refraction?
c = 3.0x108 m/s Given:
𝒌𝒈 . 𝒎𝟐
h = 6.63x10-34 𝑛𝑎 Index of Refraction (air) = 1.000277
𝒔
𝑛𝑏 Index of Refraction (glass) = 1.5
Unknown: E = ? sin𝜃𝑎 = 0.6
f=?
Unknown: sin𝜃𝑏
Formula & Solution:
c = fx → f = c/λ Formula & Solution:
f = 3.0x108 m/s / 5.89x10-7m 𝒏𝒂 sin𝜽𝒂 = 𝒏𝒃 sin𝜽𝒃
f = 5.09 Hz 𝒏𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽𝒂
sin𝜽𝒃 =
𝒏𝒃
E = hf 𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟕 (𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟎.𝟔°)
𝒌𝒈 . 𝒎𝟐
sin𝜽𝒃 =
𝟏.𝟓
E = 6.63x10-34 × 5.09 Hz sin𝜽𝒃 = 0.4 (Sine of the Angle of
𝒔
E = 3.37X10-33 J Refraction)

𝜽𝒃 = 0.4 (arc sin)

= 23.58° (Angle of Refraction)
SAMPLE PROBLEM (Reflection and
Refraction):
• Material `a` is water and material `b` is
glass with index of refraction 1.52. The
incident ray makes an angle of 60° with the
normal; Find the angle of reflection; angle
of refraction.
a. Angle of Reflection
Law of Reflection
𝜽𝒂 = 𝜽 𝒃
60° = 60°

b. Angle of Refraction
Given:
𝑛𝑎 Index of Refraction (water) = 1.33
𝑛𝑏 Index of Refraction (glass) = 1.52
Sin𝜃𝑎 = 60°

Unknown: sin𝜃𝑏

Formula & Solution:

𝒏𝒂 sin𝜽𝒂 = 𝒏𝒃 sin𝜽𝒃

𝒏𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽𝒂
sin𝜽𝒃 =
𝒏𝒃
𝟏.𝟑𝟑 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝟎°)
sin𝜽𝒃 =
𝟏.𝟓𝟐
sin𝜽𝒃 = 0.76 (Sine of the Angle of
Refraction)

𝜽𝒃 = arc sin (0.76)

= 49.46° (Angle of Refraction)
Note: remove the sin by pressing the shift & sin
in the calculator.
Shift + sin (value)