ZOO 14 U
Lecture 5.!
Adaptation: Nutrition Among
Animals (Part II)
Mary Grace B. Dacuma, Ph.D.
Learning Outcomes
1. To discuss the digestive tract of animals!
2. To explain the process of digestion and
absorption !
3. To discuss the nutritional requirements
essential for survival and growth
Enzyme for Digestion of
Carbohydrates in the Oral Cavity
Salivary amylase !
!
• secreted by salivary glands of some herbivorous
molluscs, insects, and primates (mammals)!
• breaks down disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
starch in the oral cavity!
• absent in saliva of carnivores
Other Secretions in the Oral
Cavity of Animals
• There are venomous animals that wound another animal
using their fangs, stinger or spine to deliver a toxin
The Philippine cobra Naja
philippinensis known in
Tagalog as “ulupong” is a
highly venomous spitting
cobra.
Digestive Tract of
Vertebrates and
Invertebrates
Hickman, Roberts and Larson, 2001
Digestive Tract
• From the receiving segment food is channelled down
to the conducting segment, the esophagus in a
process called deglutition or swallowing.!
!
• Two types of involuntary movement in the digestive,
from esophagus to the large intestine!
a. peristalsis - forward propulsion!
b. segmentation - mixing movement
Esophagus
• is a muscular tube that propels food from the mouth to
the stomach through peristalsis and segmentation!
!
• may be expanded into a crop, which serves as
temporary storage of ingested food!
๏ invertebrates - annelids, insects, octopods!
๏ vertebrates - birds only have crops for storing and
softening food (e.g. grain)
Esophagus
[Link]
Crop in invertebrates
Esophagus
[Link]
Crop in birds
Stomach
• serves for digestion, grinding and storage!
• herbivores !
๏ presence of grinding and crushing devices in the
stomach in addition to microflora that aid in digestion of
cellulose!
๏ muscular gizzard is found in terrestrial oligochaete
worms and in birds!
• insects have tooth-like denticles in their muscular
proventriculus!
• can have one or several chambers
Stomach
[Link]
• The proventriculus of an insect is a muscular organ for grinding food. !
• This is well-developed in orthopteroid insects (cockroaches, crickets,
and termites).
Stomach
[Link]
Gizzard of birds
[Link]
Stomach
Carnivore!
!
• stomach is single-chambered!
• stomach has glands that produce proteolytic enzymes
and strong acids to digest meat!
• secretion of strong acid is an adaptation to kill prey and
bacteria!
!
Ex. Cats are obligate or true carnivores that must ingest
meat to survive. Their diet is dependent on protein.
Stomach
African wildcat Felis silverstris lybica
Stomach
Herbivore!
!
• ruminants have several stomach chambers to assist in
digestion of cellulose from plants!
• chambers in a ruminant’s stomach: rumen, reticulum,
omasum, and the abomasum!
• ruminants like cows regurgitate food and chew this
(ruminating or cud chewing)!
• bacteria assist in the digestion of cellulose!
• rennin is a milk-curdling enzyme found in the stomach of
ruminants!
!
Ex. sheep, cattle, camels, deer, giraffes,
Stomach
[Link]
Chambers of a ruminant’s stomach
Digestive Tract of Omnivores
Primate Rodent
DeSesso and Jacobson, 2001
Stomach
Single-chambered stomach of omnivore (human)
Stomach
• stomach of omnivores like humans is single-chambered!
• parts of the stomach:!
a. cardia - is attached to the esophagus; has cardiac sphincter!
b. fundus - is the part protruding towards the diaphragm!
c. corpus - is the body of the stomach!
d. pylorus - is the distal end attached to the small intestine;
has pyloric sphincter!
!
• inside the stomach are gastric folds called rugae!
• food remains in the stomach for 2-4 hours, afterwhich it turns
into chyme, which is a semi-fluid pulp that will move to the
small intestine!
• in humans, inner lining of the stomach (mucosa) is renewed
every 3 to 5 days
Stomach
Secretion Cell Responsible Function
converts inactive pepsinogen to
Hydrochloric acid parietal cells pepsin; maintains acidity of the
stomach
protein-digesting enzyme;
Pepsin chief cells converted from pepsinogen
(inactive form or zymogen)
coats the wall of the stomach
Mucus mucus neck cells
against HCl and pepsin action
binds to Vit. B
Intrinsic factor parietal cells
for its absorption
G cells
stimulates HCl secretion of parietal
Gastrin (enteroendocrine
cells
cell)
Small Intestine
• site of final digestion and absorption!
!
Invertebrates!
!
• structures to increase surface area are generally absent!
• typhlosole is an inward infolding of the dorsal intestinal
wall found in some invertebrates to increase surface
area because body space is lacking for coiled intestine!
๏ this is found in bivalve mollusks, some annelids and
echinoderms
Small Intestine
Typhlosole in an invertebrate
[Link]
Small Intestine
Vertebrates!
!
• lampreys and sharks have longitudinal or spiral folds
in the small intestine to augment surface area!
• amphibians and reptiles developed elaborate folds!
• birds and mammals have minute finger-like projections,
villi (singular: villus), on the wall of the small intestine!
• microvilli - are found on the surface of each cell lining
the mucosa of each villus; further augment surface
area for digestion and absorption
Small Intestine
Villi and microvilli
Hickman, Roberts and Larson, 2001
Small Intestine
• Three segments of small intestine among vertebrates!
a. duodenum - connected to the stomach!
b. jejunum - middle segment and usually the longest!
c. ileum - distal segment connected to the cecum!
!
• food enters the duodenum upon opening/relaxation of the
pyloric sphincter!
• secretions of accessory glands, liver and pancreas aid in final
digestion of food!
• site of absorption of digested food such as monosaccharides
(simple sugars like glucose, fructose, galactose), amino acids,
fatty acids and monoglycerides
Small Intestine
• the duodenum is stimulated by entry of acidic chyme to
produce two hormones into the blood!
!
a. Secretin - stimulates the exocrine pancreas to
secrete a large volume of fluid with high bicarbonate
(HCO3-) content!
b. Cholecystokinin (CCK) - stimulates the exocrine
pancreas to secrete proenzymes or zymogens
Accessory Organs for Digestion in
Vertebrates
1. Pancreas - secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which
neutralises the acidity of food coming in from the stomach!
2. Liver - secretes bile, which is temporarily stored and
concentrated at the gall bladder
Accessory Gland for Digestion:
Pancreas
Exocrine pancreas!
• produces secretions that are released into the duodenum!
• secretions include zymogens (aka. inactive form) of
digestive enzymes and bicarbonate!
!
Endocrine pancreas!
• the islet of Langerhans in the pancreas produces the
hormone insulin, which is directly secreted to blood!
• insulin controls blood sugar by allowing entry of blood
glucose into the cell
Pancreatic Enzymes
Zymogen Active Form Function
Trypsinogen* trypsin digests proteins
Chymotrypsinogen chymotrypsin digests proteins
Procarboxypeptidase carboxypeptidase digests proteins
Proaminopeptidase aminopeptidase digests proteins
• enterokinase secreted by the mucosa of the small intestine
converts trypsinogen to trypsin !
• trypsin then catalyses activation of other protein-digesting
enzymes
Pancreatic Enzymes
Active Form Function
alpha amylase digests carbohydrates
lipases digests lipids
deoxyribonuclease digests DNA
ribonuclease digests RNA
• these enzymes are active upon secretion into the duodenum
Liver
(Note: the description given below is that of a primate, particularly human
liver)!
!
• largest mass of glandular tissue in the body!
• this has right and left lobes, quadrate and caudate lobes!
!
• Functions:!
a. secretes bile!
• emulsifies lipids to be digested by lipases and promotes absorption
of digested lipids!
• means of excreting cholesterol!
• adult human liver secretes on average 1L of bile/day!
b. secretes most of the body’s circulating plasma proteins!
c. degrades drugs and toxins (hepatic clearance)!
d. modifies actions of some hormones like vit. D, thyroxine, growth
hormone, insulin, and glucagon
Digestion and Absorption
Food
Enzyme(s) Product of Digestion Route of Absorption
Component
amylose and
Starch alpha-amylase -
amylopectin
Amylose! glucose is absorbed
alpha-amylase glucose, maltose
Amylopectin into blood
! Disaccharidases:! !
glucose, fructose and
Maltose! Maltase! glucose!
galactose are
Sucrose! Sucrase! glucose + fructose!
absorbed into blood
Lactose Lactase glucose + galactose
Fats 3 fatty acids and lacteals then
lipase
(emulsified glycerol lymphatic system
with bile) trypsin, chymotrypsin,
amino acids are
Proteins carboxypeptidase! amino acids
absorbed into blood
aminopeptidase
DNA! deoxyribonuclease! deoxyribonucleotides!
absorbed into blood
RNA ribonuclease ribonucleotides
Large Intestine
• region that receives undigested remnants to form a semisolid or solid
faeces that is removed by defecation!
• site of water re-absorption!
!
Vertebrates!
• Herbivores (rabbits, cows, carabao, giraffe, etc.) have large cecum
for cellulose digestion!
• Carnivores and omnivores have smaller cecum with a small
appendix attached to it!
• After the cecum is the colon, which in primates is divided into
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and sigmoid
colon!
• the colon is connected to the rectum, where faeces is temporarily
stored prior to its release through the anus in a process called
defecation
Nutritional Requirements
Nutritional Requirement Functions
Source of energy “ATP”!
Carbohydrates
For synthesis of other biomolecules
Source of energy “ATP”!
Lipids
For synthesis of other biomolecules
Synthesis of species-specific proteins
Proteins
and nitrogen-containing molecules
Solvent and major component of all
Water
body fluids
often built into the structure of many
Vitamins
enzymes
supply required cations and anions in
Mineral salts
the body
Nutritional Requirements
Vitamin Functions
for synthesis of visual pigments, normal
A (carotene) development of bones and teeth, and maintenance
of skin
part of coenzyme needed for oxidation of
B1 (thiamin)
carbohydrates
part of coenzyme needed for oxidation of glucose
B2 (riboflavin)
and fatty acids; and for cellular growth
part of coenzyme needed for oxidation of glucose,
B3 (niacin)
and synthesis of proteins, fats and nucleic acids
helps convert carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to
B5 (pantothenic acid)
energy; support production of red blood cells
Nutritional Requirements
Vitamin Functions
essential cofactor in protein and amino acid
B6 (pyridoxine)
metabolism
coenzyme needed for metabolism of amino acids
B7 (biotin)
and fatty acids, and for synthesis of nucleic acids
promotes production of normal red blood cells;
B9 (folic acid) coenzyme for metabolism of certain amino acids and
for synthesis of DNA
promotes proper red blood cell formation and normal
B12 (cyanocobalamin)
neurological functions; cofactor in DNA synthesis
required to produce acetylcholine (neurotransmitter),
Choline cell-membrane signalling, lipid transport, and methyl
group metabolism
Nutritional Requirements
Vitamin Functions
Antioxidant; growth and repair of tissues; promotes
C (ascorbic acid) absorption of iron, proper functioning of immune
system; maintains cartilage, bone and teeth
promotes absorption of calcium and phosphorus;
D (cholecalciferol)
promotes development of bones and teeth
antioxidant; protects the body from damaging effects
of free radicals; prevents oxidation of vit. A and
E (tocopherol)
polyunsaturated fatty acids; maintain stability of cell
membranes
K (phylloquinone) needed for synthesis of prothrombin; essential for
blood clotting
New Terminologies
Antioxidant - a substance that protects the cell from
damaging effects of free radicals!
!
Coenzyme - is an organic non-protein compound that
binds with enzyme to catalyse reactions.!
!
Cofactor - is a non-protein chemical that assists in a
biological reaction. This can be metal ion, organic
compound, or other chemicals.!
!
Zymogen - is the inactive form of an enzyme
Assignment
Answer the following and submit your answers in the
Google classroom portal on Tuesday Oct. 27, 2020!
!
1. Why do ruminants need a four-chambered stomach? (5
points)!
2. Why are protein-digesting enzymes secreted as
zymogens? (5 points)!
3. Is the vermiform appendix functional? Yes/No? Explain
your answer. (5 points)!
!
You may cite up to three (3) references to support your
answers for each number.
