Chapter 27 WIND LOADS ON BUILDINGS—MWFRS (DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE) 27.1 SCOPE, 27.1.1 Building Types ‘This chapter applies to the determination of MWERS wind loads on enclosed, partially enclosed, aand open buildings of all heights using the Directional Procedure, 1) Part 1 applies to buildings of all heights where itis necessary to separate applied wind loads onto the windward, leeward, and side walls of the building to properly assess the intemal forces in the MWERS members, 2) Part 2 applies to a special class of buildings designated as enclosed simple diaphragm build: ings, as defined in Section 26.2, with h < 160 ft (48.8 m), 27.1.2 Conditions ‘A building whose design wind loads are deter- ‘mined in accordance with this chapter shall comply with all of the following conditions: 1. The building is a regular-shaped building or structure as defined in Section 26.2 2. The building does not have response characteristics ‘making it subject to across-wind loading, vortex shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter; or it does not have a site location for which channel- ing effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special consideration, 27.1.3 Limitations ‘The provisions of this chapter take into consider- ation the load magnification effeet caused by gusts in resonance with along-wind vibrations of flexible buildings. Buildings not meeting the requirements of Section 27.1.2, of having unusual shapes or response characteristics shall be designed using recognized literature documenting such wind load effeets or shall use the wind tunnel procedute specified in Chapter 31 27.1.4 Shielding ‘There shall be no reductions in velocity pressure ddue to apparent shielding afforded by buildings and other structures or terrain Features. PART 1: ENCLOSED, PARTIALLY ENCLOSED, AND OPEN BUILDINGS OF ALL HEIGH' 27.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS “The steps to determine the wind loads on the MWFRS for enclosed, partially enclosed and open buildings of all heights are provided in Table 27.2-1 User Note: Use Part | of Chapter 27 to determine wind pressures on the MWERS of enclosed, partially enclosed fr an open building with any general plan shape, building height or roof geometry that matches the figures provided. These provisions utilize the traditional “all heights” method (Directional Procedure) by ealeultin wind pressures using specif wind pressure equations applicable to each building surface. 27.2. Wind Load Parameters Specified in Chapter 26 ‘The following wind load parameters shall be determined in accordance with Chapter 26: ~ Basie Wind Speed, V (Section 26.5) ~ Wind directionality factor, K,(Section 26.6) ~ Exposure category (Section 26.7) ~ Topographic factor, K, (Section 26.8) ~ Gusteffeet factor (Section 26.9) ~ Enclosure classification (Section 26.10) ~ Internal pressure coefficient, (GC,) (Section 26-11), 27.3.1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient Based on the exposure category determined in Section 26.7.3, a velocity pressure exposure coefli- cient K. or Ky, a8 applicable, shall be determined from Table 27.3-1, For a site located in a transition zone between exposure categories that is near to a change in ground surface roughness, intermediate values of K. or Ky, Between those shown in Table 27.3-1 are permitted provided that they are determined by a rational analysis method defined in the recognized literature. 259CHAPTER 27 WIND LOADS ON BUILDINGS MWERS (DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE) Table 27.2-1 Steps to Determine MWFRS Wind Loads for Enclosed, Partially Enclosed and (Open Buildings of All Heights ‘Step 1: Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 14-1 Step 9: Determine the basic wind speed, V, forthe applicable risk category, see Figure 26.5-1A, B orc ‘Step 3: Determine wind load parameters > Wind directionality factor, K,, see Section 26.6 and Table 26.6-1 > Exposure category, ee Section 26.7 > Topographic factor, Ky, see Section 26.8 and Table 26.8-1 > Gust Eifect Factor, G, se Section 26.9 > Enclosure classification, see Section 26.10 > Internal pressure coefficient, (GC,), see Section 26.11 and Table 26.11-1 ‘Step 4: Determine velocity pressure exposure coefcient, K, ot Ky, see Table 27.3-1 ‘Step S: Determine velocity pressure q, oF gy Bq. 27.3-1 ‘Step 6: Determine external pressure eoeiceat, C, or Cy > Fig. 274-1 for walls and iat, gable, hip, :monoslope or mansard roofs Fig. 27.42 for domed roots Fig. 27.43 for arched roofs Fig. 27.44 for monoslope roof, open building Fig. 27.45 for pitched roof, open building Fig. 27.46 for coughed roof, open building Fig. 274-7 for along-tidge/valley wind load case for monaslope, pitched or troughed roof, open building ‘Step 7: Calculate wind pressure, p, on each building surface > Eg, 27.41 for rig buildings > Bg, 274-2 for flexible buildings > Bq, 2743 for open buildings 27.3.2 Velocity Pressure Velocity pressure, q, evaluated at height z shall be calculated by the following equation: 4. 0.00256K.K,K,V* (Ib/f?) 273-1) [In Sk: g, = O.613K.K,KeV* (Nim’); Vin mis] where K,= wind directionality factor, see Section 26.6 K, = velocity pressure exposure coefficient, see Section 27.3.1 K, = topographic factor defined, see Section 26.8.2 V = basic wind speed, see Section 26.5 260 4g. = velocity pressure calculated using Eq. 27.3-1 at height z 44 = velocity pressure calculated using Eg. 27.3-1 at ‘mean roof height h The numerical coefficient 0.00256 (0.613 in SI) shall be used except where sufficient climatic data are available to justify the selection of a different value of this coeflicient for a design application. 27.4 WIND LOADS—MAIN WIND. FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM 27.4.1 Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Rigid Buildings Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of buildings of all heights shall be determined by the following equation: P= QGC,— g(GC,) (bite) (Nim') 27.41) where 4 = 4s for windward walls evaluated at height above the ground for leeward walls, side walls, and roofs, evaluated at height h = gy for windward walls side walls, leeward walls, and roofs of enclosed buildings and for negative internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings = 4, for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings where height zis defined as the level of the highest opening in the building that could affect the positive internal pressure. For buildings sited in ‘wind-borne debris regions, glazing that is not impact resistant or protected with an impact resistant covering shall be treated as an ‘opening in accordance with Section 26.10.3. For positive intemal pressure evaluation, 4g, may conservatively be evaluated at height hg. = 4) G = gust-effect factor, see Section 26.9 G,= extemal pressure coeflicient from Figs. 274-1, 274-2 and 274-3 (GC,) = internal pressure coeflicient from Table 26.111 ae and q, shall be evaluated using exposure defined in Section 26.7.3. Pressure shall be applied simultaneously on windward and leeward walls and ‘on roof surfaces as defined in Figs, 27.4-1, 27.4-2 and 274-3.MINIMUM DE: IN LOADS Main Wind Force Resisting S) Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Ky and Ky Table 27.31 ‘All Heights Height above Exposure ‘ground level, z t (m) OA, G) (7.6) 1 (122) (15.2) as) 13) (24a) G74) G05) (G66) (a2 (88) (G49) (61.0) (76.2) ‘OL (106-77 (21.9) (37.2) (52.4) Notes: L. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient K, may be determined from the following formula: For 15. <2<2, ‘orn < 1S t K,=201 @z" K,=201 15i2,™ «1 and 2, are tabulated in Table 26.9.1 Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height zis acceptable Exposure categories are defined in Section 26.7. 261CHAPTER 27 WIND LOADS ON BUILDINGS MWERS (DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE) 27.4.2 Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Flexible Buildings Design wind pressures for the MWFRS of flexible buildings shall be determined from the following equation: P= 9G, —4hGC,) (Ubite) (Nim!) 27.4.2) where 4, da Cp and (GC) are as defined in Section 27.4.1 and G; (gusteffeet factor) is deveined in accordance with Section 26.9.5. 27.4.3 Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed Free Roofs The net design pressure for the MWERS of open buildings with monoslope, pitched, or troughed roofs shall be determined by the following equation: P=4QGCy 2743) where velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height Jr using the exposure as defined in Section 26.7.3, 4 that resulls in the highest wind loads for any Wind direction atthe site G = gust-effect factor from Section 26.9 G net pressure coefficient determined from Figs. 274-4 through 274-7 Net pressure coefficients, Cy, include contribu: tions from top and bottom surfaces. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated. Plus and minus signs signify pressure acting toward and away from the top surface of the roof, respectively For free roofs with an angle of plane of roof from horizontal 6 less than or equal to 5° and containing fascia panels, the fascia panel shall be considered an inverted parapet. The contribution of loads on the fascia to the MWERS loads shall be determined using Section 27.4.5 with q, equal t0 qu 27.44 Roof Overhangs The positive external pressure on the bottom surface of windward roof overhangs shall be deter ‘mined using C, = 0.8 and combined with the top surface pressures determined using Fig. 27.4-1 274 Parapets The design wind pressure for the effect of parapets on MWERS of rigid or flexible buildings with fat, gable, or hip roofs shall be determined by the following equation: Pe = ay{GCy) (Hb?) 74-4) 262 where pp = combined net pressure on the parapet due to the combination of the net pressures from the front and back parapet surfaces. Plus and minus) signs signify net pressure acting toward (and away from) the front (exterior) side of the parapet y= velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet = combined net pressure coefficient = +15 for windward parapet = -1.0 for leeward parapet CG, 27.46 Design Wind Load Cases ‘The MWERS of buildings of all heights, whose wind loads have been determined under the provisions ‘of this chapter, shall be designed for the wind load ceases as defined in Fig. 27.48, EXCEPTION: Buildings meeting the require- ‘ments of Seetion DI.1 of Appendix D need only be designed for Case 1 and Case 3 of Fig. 27.48, “The eccentricity e for rigid structures shall be measured from the geometric center of the building face and shall be considered for each principal axis (ex, ey). The eccentricity ¢ for flexible structures shall, be determined from the following equation and shall be considered for each principal axis (ex, €) foi Tey gp0eo) +(enRen) T+L.TeV( G00) +(e0R) e745) where €o = eccentricity ¢ as dotermined for rigid structures inFig. 2748 x= distance between the elastic shear center and center of mass of cach floor es 80», and R shall be as defined in Section 26.9 ‘The sign of the eccentricity e shall be plus or minus, whichever causes the more severe load effect. 27.4.7 Minimum Design Wind Loads The wind load (o be used in the design of the -MWERS for an enclosed or partially enclosed building shall not be less than 16 Ib/ (0.77 kNim?) ‘multiplied by the wall area of the building and 8 B/N? (0.38 N/m?) multiplied by the roof area of the building projected onto a vertical plane normal to the assumed wind direction, Wall and roof loads shall be applied simultaneously. The design wind force for open buildings shall be not less than 16 Tet? (0.77 N/m?) multiplied by the area AyMINIMUM DESIGN LOADS Main Wind Force Resisting System — Part 1 All Heights Figure 2741 External Pressure Cocflicients, G Enclosed, Partially Enclosed Buildings Walls & Roofs ma HAI b—1._4 PLA 18 a ELEVATION GABLE, HIP ROOF — ELEVATION ELEVATION MONOSLOPE ROOF = (NOTE4) 100, AS 120, aS TT a, a 4k ELEVATION MANSARD ROOF (NOTE 6) 263CHAPTER 27 WIND LOADS ON BUILDINGS MWERS (DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE) 264 Main Wind Force Resisting System — Part I All Heights Figure 27-41 (cont) J External Pressure Cocfticients, G Enclosed, Partially Pncloved Buildings ‘Walls & Roofs Wall Pressure Coefficients, Surface LB G Use With Windwarel Wall ‘All values 08 © 1 0s Leoward Wall 2 03 % Ba 02, Side Wall ‘All values “07 ry Roof Pressure Cocflicient, Cp for use with gy Windward Leeward Angle, 8 (degrees) Anales 8 seree) ws os Boe | DT] Us] os | o2 | v2] 007 v3 |os |06 Normal | 10 100,93 samp LO for all 8 > 250,32 sam os he 07,018 F-57900 92.5 5g mp os Note Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from th surfaces, respectively 2. Linear interpolation is permite for values OF 1/8, W/L-and® other than shown, Interpolation shall only be carried aut Between values of the same sign. Where no vale ofthe same sigh is given, assume 0.0 for interpolation purposes, 3, Where two vals of C ae listed; this indicates thatthe windward roof slope is subjected to ither positive ornegative pressures and the roof stricture shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for intermediate ratios of WL in this case shall only be carried out bet cs of lke sign. 4. Formonoslope roo, : 5, Forflexible buildings use appropriate Gas determined by Section 26.9.4 66. Refer to Figure 27:42 for domes and Figure 27:43 for arched roofs 7. Notation 5: Horvontal dimension of building in feet (meter, measured normal o wind direction. LE: Horizontal dimension of building it feet (eter), measured parale to wind direction fe Mean roothsight in feet (meters), excep thal eave height shall be used for 0 10 degrees 4 Height above ground, in fel (meles) G: Gust feet factor dua Velocity pressure, in pounds per square foot N/m’), evaluated at respective height 6°"Angle of plane of roof ftom horizontal, in degrees 8, For mansard roos, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward surfaces From the table. 9, Except for MWFRS's at the roof consisting of moment resisting famses, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces, ‘iF roof slopes greater than 80°, use G, = 0.8(CHAPTER 29 WIND LOADS ON OTHER STRUCTURES AND BUILDING APPURTENANCES—MWERS, ‘Table 29.1-1 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWERS Rooftop Equipment and Other Structures ‘Step 1: Determine risk category of building or other structure, see Table 15-1 ‘Step 2: Determine the basie wind speed, V, for applicable risk catogory, soe Figure 26.5-1A, B or C ‘Step 3: Determine wind load parameters > Wind directionality factor, K,, see Section 2666 and Table 26.6-1 > Exposure eategory B, C or D, see Section 26.7 > Topographic factor. K, see Section 26.8 and Figure 268-1 > Gust Bifect Factor, G, see Section 26.9 ‘Step 4: Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K, of Ky, see Table 29.2-1 ‘Step §: Determine velocity pressure q, oF gy. See By. 293-1 ‘Step 6: Determine force coeficient,C; > Solid freestanding signs or solid freestanding walls, Fig. 294-1 > Chimneys. ns,rotop equipment Fg. 295-1 > Open signs, lice frameworks Fig. 2 > Trussed towers Fig. 29.3, ‘Step 7: Calculate wind force, F > Bq, 29.41 for signs and walls > Bq, 29-6-1 and Eq, 29.62 for rooftop structures and equipment > Eq, 29.5-1 for other structures velocity pressure calculated using Eq. 29.3-1 at height h The numerical coefficient 0.00256 (0.613 in SI) shall be used except where sufficient climatic data are available to justify the selection of a different value of this factor for a design application, 29.4 DESIGN WIND LOADS—SOLID FREESTANDING WALLS AND SOLID SIGNS. 29.4.1 Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Freestanding Signs The design wind force for solid freestanding ‘walls and solid freestanding signs shall be determined by the following formula: P= q.GCA, db) (S) 2941) where the velocity pressure evaluated at height h (defined in Fig. 29.4-1) as determined in accor- dance with Section 29.3.2 % 308 G= gusteffect factor from Section 26.9 = net force coefficient from Fig. 29.4-1 = the gross area of the solid freestanding wall or freestanding solid sign, in ft (m’) 29.4.2 Solid Attached Signs The design wind pressure on a solid sign attached to the wall of a building, where the plane of the sign is parallel to and in contact with the plane of the wall, ‘and the sign does not extend beyond the side or top ‘edges of the wall, shall be determined using proce- dures for wind pressures on walls in accordance with Chapter 30, and setting the internal pressure coefti- cient (GCq) equal to 0, This procedure shall also be applicable to solid signs attached to but not in direct contact with the wall, provided the gap between the sign and wall is ‘no more than 3 ft (0.9 m) and the edge of the sign is, at least 3 ft (0.9 m) in from free edges of the wall, ice., side and top edges and bottom edges of elevated walls 298 DESIGN WIND LOADS— OTHER STRUCTURES ‘The design wind force for other structures (chimneys, tanks, rooftop equipment for h > 60°, and similar structures, open signs, lattice frameworks, and trussed towers) shall be determined by the following equation: F = g.GCA;(lb) ®) 95-1) where 4.= velocity pressure evaluated at height z as defined in Section 29,3, of the centroid of area Ay G = gust-effect factor from Section 26.9 C= force coefficients from Figs. 29.5-1 through 29.5: A;= projected area normal to the wind except where Gris specified for the actual surface are in f€ (my 29.5.1 ROOFTOP STRUCTURES AND EQUIPMENT FOR BUILDINGS WITH S60 ft (18.3 m) ‘The lateral force F, on rooftop structures and ‘equipment located on buildings with a mean roof height JS 60 (18.3 m) shall be determined from Eq, 29.5.2. Fy = quGC)Ay (lb) (N) (295.2)MINIMUM DE: IN LOADS ‘Other Structures All Heights Open Signs & Rounded Members Fiatsided I = maSided | pa. <25 | Dg. >25 essa) | war >53) <0 08 0.1 00.29 09 031007 1 Notes: Signs with openings comprising 30% or more of the gross area are classified as open signs, ‘The calculation ofthe design wind forces shall be based on the area of all exposed members and elements projected on a plane normal tothe wind direction, Forces shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction. ‘The area Az consistent with these force coe!ficients isthe solid area projected normal tothe wind direction. Notation: ratio of solid area to gross area; diameter of a typical round member, in eet (meters); ‘velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground in pounds per square foot (Nim. Lattice Frameworks 313