CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

The river Amaravathi is one of the major tributaries of the river Kaveri. It
rises in the hills of Anaimalai in the Western Ghats. It flows down through the
Anjanad valley with combined waters of the Chinnar, the Pambar and the Tennar.
Then it receives jungle stream of Kudiraiyar on the right at Kumaralingam. Another
comparatively bigger stream Sanmuganadi joins with Amaravathi near Dharapuram.
Hereafter, streams Uppar, Kodavanar and Nankanji join with it. Finally, it falls into
Kaveri at Thirumukkudalur in Karur taluk near Karur town.

Study Area

The whole watershed of Amaravathi is considered for the study. This

watershed lies between 10º 35' and 10º 95 N' and 77º 18' and 78º 23 E' and it includes
part of present districts of Idukki (Kerala), Tiruppur, Dindigal and Karur. The major
part of the present study area falls in the Tamil Nadu upland region (Map.1).

Scope of the work

The intensive field survey compounded with well planned excavations at

Porunthal provided good scope to understand the settlement pattern that existed
during Iron Age and Early Historic times and its cultural transformation. It also
helped to test the existing hypothesis and provided better data to understand the nature
of settlement.

Time limit

The present exploration yielded 211 Iron Age and Early Historic sites besides
several medieval temples, sites and inscriptions. In view of the enormous size of the
data, the study is restricted between 1st millennium BC and 3rd cent. AD.

Previous study

The archaeological wealth of Kongu region was brought to light in the mid
part of 19th century by the colonial administrators as part of their official work. The
first archaeological evidence in this part of the region was reported by Breeks in 1837

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and it was followed by the discovery of a Roman coin from a grave packed with
cairns in Nilgiris (Congreve 1847:92). Since then several archaeological findings
were brought to light in pre-Independence era by various explorers like Breeks
(1837), Elliot (1844), Congreve (1847, 1878), William Fraser (1861), Walhouse
(1873-85), Ramavarma (1878), Turner (1879), Little (1883), Harding (1894),
Sandford (1901), Sewell (1904), Hosten (1905), Rea (1910-11), Longhurst (1913-14),
Anglade (1928), Khan (1930-34), Ramakrishna Reddy (1931), Richard (1931) and
Aiyappan (1941). At the initial stage, their works were concentrated in and around hill
resorts like Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Kodaikanal hills. Subsequently, their areas of
observation were extended to plains due to infrastructure developmental activities.
Based on the location of sites that they were discovered, one could perceive that their
areas of exploration fall in line with Nilgiri-Mettupalayam, Coimbatore-
Mettupalayam, Coimbatore-Erode and Coimbatore-Palani railway tracts. Thus, the
documentation of archaeological wealth of this region is more incidental than the
result of any systematic explorations. Irrespective of these lacunae, the basic
characteristic features of Iron Age monuments of this region were recognized.

Systematic explorations and excavations were carried out in the post-

independence era. Among them, the works of Anglade (1954:23-78), Rosner
(1959:169-182), Srinivasa Desikan (1957-58:38; 1958-59:71; 1960-61:18; 1961-
61:26; 1962-63:13), Rajan (1994, 1997, 2009), Subbarayalu (1998), IAR (1970-71:34;
1978-79:100), Shetty (2003), Saranya (2004, 2008) and Anbarasan (2004) could be
cited. Some of the systematic excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of
India, Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, Tamil University and Pondicherry
University at Perur (Shetty 2003), Karur (Nagasamy 1995), Kodumanal (Rajan 1994,
1997, 2009; Subbarayalu 1998), Boluvampatti (Nagasamy 2004), Nedungur
(Sridharan 2008) and Porunthal (Rajan 2009, 2010) provided a good platform to
understand the cultural process that had undergone in this region. Besides,
epigraphical and numismatic studies also received some attention. The chance
discoveries like Pugalur and Arachchalur Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions and a large
number of temple and copper plate inscriptions kindled the interest of many
epigraphists. The discovery of large number of Roman coin hoards turned the
attention of many scholars. Nearly 90% of the Roman coin hoards encountered in
Tamil Nadu came from this region.
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Coins

In post-Independence era, a large quantity of coins was brought to light.

However, the find spots were mostly restricted to a single site namely Karur, the
capital city of Sangam Age Cheras. The excavations of the above said sites hardly
provided any coins in stratigraphical context except at Karur, Kodumanal and
Porunthal, that too with one or two coins. The limited occurrence of Roman coins,
Punch–Marked coins and Chera coins in archaeological context poses a problem in
understanding their role in a given social context. However, the Tamil-Brahmi
inscribed coins, late Roman coins and Satavahana coins collected from Amaravathi
river bed at Karur provided a new dimension to the study of Early Historic period. All
the coin hoards were reported close to trade centres or on trade routes. This locational
aspect provides a clue to understand the trade dimension.

Epigraphy

Since the discovery of famous Tamil-Brahmi cave inscriptions at Pugalur in

1927 (ARE 1927-28: 342-349), only two more inscriptions were noticed in this
region, namely the one at Arachchalur and another at Ayyarmalai. The Arachchalur
Tamil-Brahmi inscription was discovered in 1961-62 by S. Raju (ARE 1962-62:2780-
281; IAR 1961-62: 81). In 1973, Ayyarmalai Tamil-Brahmi inscription was reported
after ten years (ARE: 1973-73:b.231; IAR 1973-74:40; Venkadasamy 1981: 142-144;
Mahadevan 2003:387). Unlike the Vaigai river valley (Pandya country), the
occurrence of cave inscriptions is limited to three places in the study area. The Kongu
region is known for later day Jainism but endowment made to Jain monks during
Early Historic times are very limited. In contrast to this scenario, the Kongu region
provided the highest number of Tamil-Brahmi inscribed potsherds. In this region,
Tamil-Brahmi inscribed potsherds were reported at Kodumanal, Perur, Boluvampatti
and Porunthal. Majority of the inscribed potsherds carry the personal names with
Prakrit affiliation. The combined study of cave inscriptions, inscribed potsherds, coins
and rings provides a better picture on literacy, religion, trade and inter/intra regional
cultural contacts.

As for medieval times, several temple inscriptions, a few hero stones

inscriptions, oil-press inscriptions and trade guild inscriptions were reported. Among
the inscriptions, the occurrence of oil-press and trade guild inscriptions (particularly
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Ainurruvar inscriptions) is very interesting. All these trade-related inscriptions were
reported on ancient trade routes and in many occasions close to trade or industrial
centres. There is a similarity between the Early Historic and Medieval trade centres
and trade routes.

Irrespective of the availability of material evidence in Kongu region, the

Amaravathi river valley was not explored systematically till 2005. The solitary
excavation carried out by State Archaeology Department at Karur could not be taken
as a representative site of the region as Karur lies at the confluence of the river
Amaravathi with Kaveri. The excavation carried out at Nedungur in 2007 is also
limited in nature. The limited and controlled excavations however provided clues to
generalize the data.

The integration of archaeological, epigraphical and numismatic data

compounded with intensive micro-regional study enriched our understanding on the
cultural pattern that emerged in the region during Iron Age and Early Historic times.
Therefore, the study of this region is entirely based on present intensive explorations
and the subsequent excavations at Porunthal. Keeping in view of this, the present
researcher explored this region to a maximum extent and more than 180
archaeological sites were brought to light. Porunthal is, one among the several sites,
identified as a potential site for excavation.

In the present work, an attempt is made to study the material culture of the
Iron Age and Early Historic period with the following objectives:

1. To identify the Iron Age, Early Historic and Medieval sites on ground

2. To locate trade centres and trade routes

3. To study the settlement pattern and their distribution

4. To estimate the cultural transformation process that had taken place from
the Iron Age to Early Historic

5. To test the existing theories pertaining to Iron Age and Early Historic

The Amaravathi river valley, particularly the basin part, occupies a position of
greater importance in serving as a connecting link between the West Coast and Kongu
region. This geographical location has favoured the growth of a distinct cultural
landscape. This is one of the regions where one could observe the continuous
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archaeological records since the Iron Age. Iron Age sepulchral monuments and the
Early Historic sites were located in large numbers. But still there is hardly any
excavation to prove inter and intra cultural relationship both stratigraphically and
chronologically.

The region has six rock-shelters with Jain beds. Of these six rock-shelters,
three were engraved with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Attempts should be made to link
these rock-shelter inscriptions with visible nearby habitation mounds. The preliminary
investigations conducted in this valley show some remarkable evidence on the linkage
between the Jain beds and the nearby Early Historic habitation. Therefore, an attempt
is made to situate a site in a given cultural context.

The excavation of an Early Historic site at Karur, the Chera capital, located on
the mouth of Amaravathi river yielded data on cultural linkages between Tamil Nadu
and other parts of the country. The trade goods that were exchanged at this place were
brought in from several places. Likewise Roman coins were also unearthed in large
quantity. However, the archaeological context of the coins is yet to be satisfactorily
discerned. It is necessary to locate archaeological sites, trade centres and trade routes
in Amaravathi river valley based on coin hoards, inscriptions and mineral resources.
Thus, a methodology is designed to achieve this goal.

Methodology

The area of study primarily falls between the Iron Age and Early Historic
period. The former period does not have any written records. This deficiency is
tackled by making an intensive village-to-village survey. The later period holds three
types of data namely archaeological, epigraphical and numismatics that are integrated
to understand the cultural process that took place during Early Historic time. The
habitation mounds, graves, sites yielding archeological artifacts, Tamil-Brahmi
inscriptions, Roman coins and Sangam Age coins are some of the available records.
Each primary source is not seen in isolation rather an attempt is made to see cultural
context in a given landscape.

The data from the State Archaeology Department, Archaeological Survey of

India, and Geological Survey of India and from individual scholars were used. A
village-to-village survey was undertaken to obtain full information of the sites like

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location, geo-coordination, geological wealth, flora, fauna, cultural items, etc. On
collecting all this information, computerized data base was created. The field data was
transformed on to a digital map by using GIS platform. Several theme based maps
were prepared for clarity and authenticity.

The excavations at Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, Kanchipuram, Alagankulam,

Korkai, Mangudi, Kodumanal and Uraiyur yielded a comprehensive view on the
archaeological wealth of Tamil Nadu. But, there is hardly any excavation in this
valley except the Karur and Nedungur. Therefore, Porunthal a potential
archaeological site was identified and this site was excavated for two seasons in the
years 2009 and 2010. The results of the excavations are integrated with the existing
data to draw a comprehensive picture of this river valley.

Scheme of Chapters

I Introduction
II Physiography
III Archaeological Explorations in Amaravathi River Valley
IV Archaeological Excavations in Amaravathi River Valley
V Iron Age in Amaravathi River Valley
VI Early Historic Archaeology of Amaravathi River Valley
VII Conclusion

This thesis comprises seven chapters including the introduction and

conclusion. In the introductory chapter, area of the study, scope of the study, aims and
objectives of the study, available primary sources and their limitations are explained.

In the second chapter, the Physiography of Tamil Nadu in brief and

Amaravathi river valley in detail are discussed to understand their geological and geo-
morphological features, along with rainfall, forest cover, drainage system, flora and
fauna. The terrain played a great role in the formation of settlements. Nearly 80% of
the archaeological sites are found on the banks of small streams and major tributaries
of Amaravathi river valley.

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 The third chapter deals with previous explorations carried out by various
scholars in pre and post-Independence era in addition to the present explorations
carried out by the researcher. The archaeological and historical sites discovered by the
researcher are mostly situated in the plains and a few sites in stunted rainy forests.
Nearly 175 sites ranging from Iron Age to Historic period were discovered during the
course of explorations. The Iron Age sepulchral monuments like cairn circles or stone
circles entombing urns, simple cists, double cists, transepted cists, cist with urns,
menhirs and dolmens found in this river valley are discussed. The antiquities like
semi-precious stone beads, shell bangles, iron objects, iron furnaces, ceramics, etc
unearthed in the course of exploration are placed in proper archaeological context.
Thus, this chapter provides a brief note on all archaeological sites. The digital maps
were prepared based on geo-coordination using Arc GIS platform.

The fourth chapter deals with the excavations conducted in this region by
various institutions. Karur was excavated by Tamil Nadu State Department of
Archaeology in 1984. This site is having archaeological evidence from Iron Age to
Medieval period. Urn burials, brick structures, Roman artifacts, graffiti marks, Punch-
Marked coins, Tamil-Brahmi inscribed coins, inscribed pot sherds, etc, were
discovered from the excavations. Besides, several scholars collected important
artifacts from the Amaravathi river bed at Karur. Nedungur site was excavated by
Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology in 2007. Much emphasis is given to the
artifacts collected from recent excavations conducted at Porunthal, in the years 2009
and 2010 by the Department of History, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry. The
present researcher actively participated in the excavation programme.

This site is having Iron Age and Early Historic habitation and graves. In total,
three trenches were laid on the habitation mound. The southern and western parts of
the mound yielded brick structures and glass beads. The central part of the mound is
having strong evidence of glass polishing furnace and several associated important
cultural material like glass and paste beads, glass bangles, a gold pendent, a copper
bell, terracotta ear lobes, hopscotches, terracotta figurines, gamesmen, stoppers,
spouts, glass slag, bones, brick structure, ivory dice, etc., The occurrence of more than
2000 beads from 50 sq. m area speaks of it importance.

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 The burial site was excavated further 2 km west of the habitation mound.
Four graves were opened within the burial complex. The excavation yielded several
important grave goods. More than 16,000 beads made of steatite, carnelian, agate,
quartz and paste were collected in association with legged jars and pots of red
polished ware, bowl of black-and-red ware and plates of black slipped ware and iron
objects like swords, arrow heads and stirrups. Other interesting and important findings
were Tamil-Brahmi inscribed ring stand and paddy grains kept in a four-legged jar.
The historical and cultural significance of these findings are discussed in this chapter.

The fifth chapter deals on Iron Age culture of Amaravathi river valley. The
Iron Age monuments are analyzed in greater details along with the works of previous
explorers and excavators who had done tremendous work in this field. A
comprehensive study of this culture is also attempted to understand the situation with
more clarity, because in most of the cases, the burial system is not uniform and does
not express homogenous cultural tracts due to varied environmental settings. The
restricted nature of the excavation also augmented the problem. This is due to the
concentration of excavations on burials rather than the habitation mound. Further, the
features of sepulchral monuments in Tamil Nadu based on the architectural
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development and C dates are discussed. A detailed analysis is made on the
settlement pattern, size of the settlement and distribution of habitation sites in
Amaravathi river valley. The habitation mounds are analyzed based on soil and
drainage matrix. General architectural features of the Iron Age monuments of the
Amaravathi river valley are discussed. A detailed study on the distribution of Iron
Age and Early Historic burials is also attempted. Apart from this, a comparative
study based on special features of the sepulchral monuments of Amaravathi region is
made. The cultural materials encountered in the excavations in the form of ceramics,
iron and copper objects and beads are discussed.

The sixth chapter deals with the Early Historic period. The archaeological
material like graffiti marks, Tamil-Brami inscribed potsherds, coins and Jain beds,
brick structures, beads, earlobes, shell bangles, terracotta figurines, glass polishing
furnace, inscribed coins, Roman coins, inscribed rings, etc., collected from
exploration and excavations were integrated and analyzed to provide a comprehensive

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picture on Early Historic period. The social, cultural and economic conditions are
discussed based on literary, epigraphical, numismatic and archaeological evidences.

The seventh chapter summarizes the important findings of Amaravathi river

valley and situates them in broader cultural context of South India. It also explains the
merits and demerits of the study. The future course of action required for further
advancement of the knowledge is addressed.