Power system control

Q/U control

Prof. Tadeusz Skoczkowski, Ph.D., El. Eng.

Electric Power Systems

 Relations between basic parameters in
power system
P – active power
P f f- frequency

(P-f)  (Q-U) (Q-U)  (P-f)

Small impact impact is
noticeable

Q – reactive
power Q U U - voltage

Frequency control system is

In power system there are two main control
much slower than voltage
systems :
control system. Therefore
• Central system of frequency control
impact of the two pairs (P-f)
• Voltage control systems
and (Q-U) is not equal
Increase of Reactive Power Consumption

R  X  Z = Z = X( / 2)

S = P + jQ = V  I
V1 V2 V1 V2
P = ReS  = sin (1 −  2 )  (1 −  2 )
X X
V1 V2
2
 
Q = Im S = (
cos 1 −  2 − ) V2 V2
 (V1 − V2 )
X X X
❑Conclusion:
• The voltage depends on the reactive power
• The angle of transmission depends on the active power
Electrical Power System Essentials
Voltage.
Basic definitions
◼ Voltage drop: The difference between the sending-end and the receiving-
end voltages of a line
◼ Nominal voltage: The nominal value assigned to a line or apparatus or a
system of a given voltage class
◼ Rated voltage: The voltage at which performance and operating
characteristics of apparatus are referred
◼ Service voltage: The voltage measured at the ends of the service-entrance
apparatus
◼ Utilization voltage: The voltage measured at the ends of an apparatus
◼ Base voltage: The reference voltage, usually 230 V
◼ Maximum voltage: The largest 5-min average voltage
◼ Minimum voltage: The smallest 5-min voltage
◼ Voltage spread: The difference between the maximum and minimum
voltages, without voltage dips due to motor starting
Voltage Magnitude
◼ Power systems must supply electric power within a
narrow voltage range, typically with 5% of a nominal
value.
◼ For example, wall outlet should supply
120 volts, with an acceptable range from 114 to 126
volts.
◼ Voltage regulation is a vital part of system operations.
Illustration of voltage spread
on a radial primary feeder:
(a) one-line diagram of a
feeder circuit,
(b) (b) voltage profile at peak-
load conditions,
(c) (c) voltage profile at light-
load conditions

Feeder voltage profle

Voltage Regulation
◼ Voltage regulation is the change in voltage
at the receiving end of the line when the
load varies from no–load to a specified
full–load at a specified power factor, while
the sending end is held constant.

• In practice, transmission line voltages decrease when heavily loaded

and increase when lightly loaded.
• EHV lines are maintained within ±5% of rated voltage, corresponding
to about 10% voltage regulation.
• 10% voltage regulation for lower voltage lines also considered good
operating practice.

7
Voltage Regulation

VR ( NL ) − VR ( FL )
% VR =  100
VR ( FL )

VS
VR ( NL) = VR ( FL) = VR
A

No–load Full–load
receiving–end voltage receiving–end voltage

8
Voltage Regulation
◼ A number of different types of devices participate
in system voltage regulation
 generators: reactive power output is changed
to keep terminal voltage constant.
 capacitors: switched either manually or
automatically to keep voltage within a range.
 load-tap-changing (LTC) transformers: vary
tap ratio to keep voltage within a range.
 static var compensators (SVCs): electronic
devices instantaneously change reactive power
output to keep voltage within range.
 Voltage control
1. Use of generator voltage regulators
2. Application of voltage-regulating equipment in the distribution substations
3. Application of capacitors in the distribution substation
4. Balancing of the loads on the primary feeders
5. Increasing of feeder conductor size
6. Changing of feeder sections from single phase to multiphase
7. Transferring of loads to new feeders
8. Installing of new substations and primary feeders
9. Increasing of primary voltage level
10. Application of voltage regulators out on the primary feeders
11. Application of shunt capacitors on the primary feeders
12. Application of series capacitors on the primary feeders
 Five Bus Example
Home Area
63 MW -61 MW
Bus 1
Bus 2 -8 MVR 15 MVR
1.00 PU
200 MW
100 MVR
1.000 PU
Reactive 100 MW
power being 143 MW 12 MVR
5 MVR
61 MW
Voltage
supplied 406 MW AGC ON
magnitude
-2 MVR 100 MW
96 MVR AVR ON
by gen- being con-
erator -40 MW
Bus 4 24 MVR -60 MW trolled by
0.982 PU Bus 3 5 MVR
100 MW
3 L 0.994 PU
capacitor
10 MVR
0.995 PU 100 MW
Bus 5
100 MW 50 MVR
LTC 0 MVR 79 MVR

Transformer
controlling
load voltage
Capacitor bank supplying Note the reactive power
reactive power balance at each bus
Voltage Control
◼ Voltage control is necessary to keep system voltages
within an acceptable range.
◼ Because reactive power does not travel well, it would be
difficult for it to be supplied by a third party.
◼ It is very difficult to assign reactive power and voltage
control to particular transactions.
Voltage Control
and Reactive
Power
General
Reactive Power and Voltage
◼ Reactive power and voltage magnitude are tightly
coupled.
◼ Greater reactive demand decreases the bus voltage,
while reactive generation increases the bus voltage.
Line Loadability
◼ Another important issue that affect
transmission line performance.
◼ 3 major line loading limits are:
 Thermal limit
◼ Short transmission lines [<80 km length]
 Voltage drop limit
◼ Longer line length [ 80–300 km length]
 Steady-state stability limit
◼ Line length over 300 km

15
Loading Capability of a Line
◼ There are four kinds of limitations identified for the
loading of a transmission line.
 thermal limit Thermal limit: This limit depends upon
• Atmospheric condition including ambient temperature and
wind conditions
• Condition of the conductor and
• Ground clearance Sthermal = 3V I rated thermal

 dielectric limit Dielectric limit: Line design on the basis of insulation

requirement is always on the conservative side. Line
voltage can always be increased by 10% for increased
power transfer.
 stability limit
Stability limit: There are several stability considerations for
increased transmission capability.They are:
• Transient stability
• Dynamic stability
 natural loading limit. • Steady state stability
• Frequency collapse
• Voltage collapse
• Sub synchronous resonance
Reactive Power and Voltage Control
Control objectives contributing to efficient and reliable
operation of power system:
◼ Voltage at terminals of all equipment are within acceptable limits
 both utility and customer equipment designed to operate at
certain voltage rating
 prolonged operation outside allowable range could cause them
damage

◼ System stability is satisfactory

 voltage levels and reactive power control have significant impact
on stability

◼ The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce I 2R and I 2X

losses to a practical minimum
 ensures transmission system operates efficiently
 The Concept and Challenges
A transmission system can carry power up to its thermal loading limits. But in practice
the system has the following constraints:

-Transmission stability limits

-Voltage limits
-Loop flows

Transmission stability limits: limits of transmittable power with which a transmission

system can ride through major faults in the system with its power transmission
capability intact.

Voltage limits: limits of power transmission where the system voltage can be kept
within permitted deviations from nominal.

Loop flows: can be a problem as they are governed by the laws of nature which may
not be coincident with the contracted path. This means that power which is to be sent
from point ”A” to point ”B” in a grid will not necessarily take the shortest, direct route,
but will go uncontrolled and fan out to take unwanted paths available in the grid.
18
Transmission Line Efficiency
◼ Total Full–Load Line Losses

S L(3 ) = S S (3 ) − S R (3 )

Sending end
Receiving end
◼ Transmission Line Efficiency
PR (3 ) PR (3 )
= % = 100
PS (3 ) PS (3 )

 Note that only Real Power are taken into account!

19
Voltage Regulation

◼ The higher (worse) voltage regulation occurs for the

lagging pf load where VR(NL) exceeds VR(FL) by the larger
amount.
◼ A smaller or even negative voltage regulation occurs in
leading pf load.
20
 Production and Absorption of Reactive
Power (Q)
◼ Synchronous Generators • Transformers
 can generate or absorb Q depending – absorb Q due to shunt magnetizing
on excitation reactance and series leakage
 capability limited by field current, inductance
armature current, and end-region • Loads
heating limits
– a typical "load bus" is composed of
 automatic voltage regulator
a large number of devices
continuously adjusts excitation to
control armature voltage – composite characteristics are
 primary source of voltage support!
normally such that a load bus
absorbs Q
◼ Overhead lines – industrial loads usually have shunt
 at loads below natural or surge capacitors to improve power factor
impedance load (SIL), produce Q • As power flow conditions vary, reactive
 at loads above SIL, absorb Q power requirements of transmission
network vary
◼ Underground cables • Since Q cannot be transmitted over
 have high SIL due to high capacitance long distances, voltage control has to
 always loaded below SIL, and hence be effected using special devices
generate Q dispersed throughout the system
 Factors Influencing Transfer of Active and
Reactive Power
◼ Consider two sources connected by an inductive reactance as shown in figure
below
 representation of two sections of a power system interconnected by a
transmission system
 a purely inductive reactance is considered because impedances of
transmission elements are predominately inductive
 effects of shunt capacitances do not appear explicitly
(a) Equivalent system diagram

δ = load angle
(b) Phasor diagram Φ = power factor angle

Power transfer between two sources

Factors Influencing Transfer of Active and
Reactive Power (cont.)
The complex power at the receiving end is
~ ~
~ ~ ~ * ~  ES − E R 
S R = PR + jQ R = ER I = ER  
 jX 
 ES cos  + jE S sin  − ER 
= ER  
 jX 
Hence,
ES E R
PR = sin 
X
ES ER cos  − ER2
QR =
X
Similarly,
ES E R
PS = sin 
X
ES2 − ES ER cos 
QS =
X
(a) Condition with δ = 0: PR = PS = 0

◼ From Equations we have

E R (ES − E R ) E S (E S − E R )
QR = , QS =
X X
With ES > ER, QS and QR are positive
With ES < ER, QS and QR are negative
As shown in fig.,
 transmission of lagging current through an inductive reactance
causes a drop in receiving end voltage
 transmission of leading current through an inductive reactance
causes a rise in receiving end voltage
◼ Reactive power "consumed" in each case is

QS − QR =
( ES − E R )
2
= XI 2
X

(a) ES>ER (b) ER>ES

(b) Condition with ES = ER and δ  0
◼ From Equations we now have
E2
PR = PS = sin 
X
E2
QS = −QR = (1 − cos  ) = X I
1 2

X 2
◼ With δ positive, PS and PR are positive, i.e., active power flows from
sending to receiving end

◼ In each case, there is no reactive power transferred from one end to

the other; instead, each end supplies half of Q consumed by X.

(a) δ > 0 (b) δ < 0

(c) General case applicable to any condition:
◼ We now have ES cos  + jE S sin  − ER
I =
jX
ES2 + ER2 − 2 ES ER cos 
QS − QR =
X

=
( XI )
2
= XI 2
X
If, in addition to X, we consider series resistance R of the network,
then P 2R + Q 2R
Qloss = X I = X 2

ER2
P 2
+ Q 2
Ploss = RI 2 = R R 2 R
ER
The reactive power "absorbed" by X for all conditions is X I 2. This
leads to the concept of "reactive power loss", a companion term to
active power loss.

◼ An increase in reactive power transmitted increases active as well

as reactive power losses. This has an impact on efficiency and
voltage regulation.
Conclusions Regarding Transfer of Active and
Reactive Power
◼ The active power transferred (PR) is a function of voltage magnitudes
and δ. However, for satisfactory operation of the power system, the
voltage magnitude at any bus cannot deviate significantly from the
nominal value. Therefore, control of active power transfer is achieved
primarily through variations in angle δ.

◼ Reactive power transfer depends mainly on voltage magnitudes. It is

transmitted from the side with higher voltage magnitude to the side with
lower voltage magnitude.

◼ Reactive power cannot be transmitted over long distances, since it

would require a large voltage gradient to do so.

◼ An increase in reactive power transfer causes an increase in active as

well as reactive power losses.
Although we have considered a simple system, the general conclusions are
applicable to any practical system, In fact, the basic characteristics of ac
transmission reflected in these conclusions have a dominant effect on the
way in which we operate and control the power system.
 AC Transmission Fundamentals
(Series Compensation)
E2 / 2
E1 / 1 P&Q
I

X
Changes in X will increase or decrease real power flow for a fixed angle or change angle for a fixed
power flow. Alternatively, the reactive power flow will change with the change of X. Adjustments on the
bus voltage have little impact on the real power flow. Vc Vx I
P1 = E1 . E2 . sin () / (X - Xc)
Vr
Vs Vseff = Vs + Vc

Real Power Angle Curve Xeff = X - Xc

2
2
Vx
Vc
Vxo Vr
P1( x  delta V1) 1
Vs
Vseff I
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
Phase
delta
Angle 3.14

28
AC Transmission Fundamentals
(Voltage-Series and Shunt Comp.)
E1 / 1 P&Q E2 / 2
I
X
P

Injected Voltage
E1

E1 - E2

E2
Integrated voltage series injection and bus voltage regulation (unified)
will directly increase or decrease real and reactive power flow.
29
 Methods of Voltage Control
◼ Control of voltage levels is accomplished • Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series
by controlling the production, absorption, capacitors provide passive compensation
and flow of reactive power at all levels in – are either permanently connected to the
the system transmission and distribution system, or
switched
◼ Generating units provide the basic means – contribute to voltage control by modifying
of voltage control the network characteristics
 generators: reactive power
output is changed to keep • Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide
terminal voltage constant active compensation; the reactive power
◼ Additional means are usually required to absorbed/ supplied by them are automatically
control voltage throughout the system: adjusted so as to maintain voltages of the
 sources or sinks of reactive power, buses to which they are connected
such as shunt capacitors, shunt – together with the generating units, they
reactors, synchronous condensers, establish voltages at specific points in the
and static var compensators (SVCs) system
 line reactance compensators, such – voltages at other locations in the system
as series capacitors are determined by active and reactive
 regulating transformers, such as tap- power flows through various circuit
changing transformers and boosters elements, including the passive
compensating devices
Voltage Regulation
◼ A number of different types of devices participate
in system voltage regulation
 generators: reactive power output is changed
to keep terminal voltage constant.
 capacitors: switched either manually or
automatically to keep voltage within a range.
 Load-tap-changing (LTC) transformers: vary
tap ratio to keep voltage within a range.
 Static var compensators (SVCs): electronic
devices instantaneously change reactive power
output to keep voltage within range.
Voltage Control and Reactive Power
◼ Generator automatic voltage regulator control (AVR)
◼ Transformer regulation (tap-changing transformers)
◼ Reactive power injection
 Static shunt capacitors and reactors

 Synchronous compensators
 Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
Objectives of Reactive Power
Compensation
◼ To control voltage and/or improve maximum power transfer
capability
◼ Achieved by modifying effective line parameters: ZC = L
C

 characteristic impedance,

 electrical length, θ = βl

◼ The voltage profile is determined by ZC

◼ The maximum power that can be transmitted depends on ZC
as well as β
Reactive Power
◼ Reactive power is supplied by
 generators, capacitors, transmission lines
◼ Reactive power is consumed by
 loads
 transmission lines and transformers (very high
losses)
◼ Reactive power doesn’t travel well - must be
supplied locally.
◼ Reactive must also satisfy Kirchhoff’s law - total
reactive power into a bus MUST be zero.
Generator automatic
voltage regulator
control (AVR)
The Synchronous Machine (1)

Electrical Power System Essentials

The Synchronous Machine (2)
Generator Types

Two-pole cylindrical rotor Four-pole salient-pole rotor

Electrical Power System Essentials

The Synchronous Machine (3)
Equivalent Circuit

No power exchange with the grid

Electrical Power System Essentials

The Synchronous Machine (4)
Grid interaction

No power exchange Generator injects power into the grid

Electrical Power System Essentials

The Synchronous Machine (5)
Equivalent Circuit

Generator injects power into the grid

Electrical Power System Essentials

The Synchronous Machine (6)
Generator Heating Limits

Electrical Power System Essentials

The Synchronous Machine (8)
Example of a Loading Capability Curve

Electrical Power System Essentials

Voltage Control and Reactive Power (1)
Automatic generator voltage control

AVR control

Electrical Power System Essentials

 Generator control (example)
◼ Figure shows AVR/PSS response to a fault in the transmission
system near the generator terminals.
◼ Note the important role played by limits.
 Interactions between continuous dynamics and discrete events
(caused by limits) imply hybrid system behaviour.

45
Synchronous Condenser
◼ A synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a
mechanical load

◼ Depending on field excitation, it can either absorb or generate vars

◼ With a voltage regulator, it can automatically adjust vars to maintain

constant voltage

◼ Started as an induction motor and then synchronized

◼ Normally connected to tertiary windings of transformers

◼ Unlike a SVC, a synchronous condenser has an internal voltage

◼ Speed of response not as fast as that of an SVC

Generator Voltage
Control

47
 Automatic Generation and Voltage Control
◼ In modern large interconnected systems, manual regulation is not
feasible and therefore automatic generation and voltage regulation
equipment is installed on each generator. Figure below gives the
schematic diagram of load frequency and excitation voltage regulators of
a turbo-generator.
◼ The controllers are set for a particular operating condition and they take
care of small changes in load demand without frequency and voltage
exceeding the prescribed limits. With the passage of time, as the change
in load demand becomes large, the controllers must be reset either
manually or automatically.
◼ Excitation voltage control is fast acting in which the major time constant
encountered is that of the generator field; while the power frequency
control is slow acting with major time constant contributed by the turbine
and generator moment of inertia – this time constant is much larger than
that of the generator field. Thus, the transients in excitation voltage
control vanish much faster and do not affect the dynamics of power
frequency control.
Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of a
synchronous generator
 Generator control

◼ AVR provides voltage

regulation
◼ Governor provides
speed regulation

◼ Typical AVR/PSS
structure:

50
The Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
system of a generator
Schematic diagram of load frequency and
excitation voltage regulators of a turbo-generator
Schematic diagram of alternator voltage regulator
scheme
Block diagram of alternator voltage regulator
scheme
Transformer
regulation
 P
I cos  =
VR
Q
I sin  =
VR
PR + QX
VS = VR +
VR

VS = V1  t S ; VR = V2  t R

PR + QX
t S V1 = t R V2 +
t R V2
V R = V S + I ( R + jX )
1 PR + QX 
VS cos  = VR + IR cos  + IX sin  t S =  t R V2 + 
V1  t R V2 
 0 VS = VR + IR cos + IX sin  tS  tR = 1

P = VR I cos  V  −1 1/ 2

PR + QX 
Q = VR I sin  t S =   t R V2 −
2
 
 V1  V1 V2  
 Voltage Control and Reactive Power (2)
Tap-changing transformer

Off-load tap changing transformer

Electrical Power System Essentials

Voltage Control and Reactive Power
Tap-changing transformer
◼ On-load (or under-load) tap-changing
(OLTC or ULTC) transformers.
 Transformer tap ratio is varied (in discrete
steps) to regulate bus voltage.
 Voltage regulators involve deadbands and
timers.

On-load tap changing transformer

 Booster Transformers
(Regulating Transformers)
Voltage magnitude control

Van = Van + Van

'

Booster transformer for voltage magnitude control

 Booster Transformers
(Regulating Transformers)
Phase angle control

Booster transformers for voltage phase angle control

Van = Van + Vbc

'

Vbc =   Vbc =   3Van  − 90 0

'
( )
Van = 1 − j 3 Van

Vbc = − j 3Van
 Tap-Changing Transformers
◼ Transformer with tap-changing facilities • The highest allowable operating voltage
constitute an important means of of the transmission network is governed
controlling voltages throughout the power by
system – requirement that insulation levels of
◼ Control of a single transformer will cause equipment not be exceeded
changes in voltages at its terminals – need to take into consideration
 in turn this influences reactive power possible switching operations and
flow outage conditions
 resulting effect on the voltages at other • During light load conditions, it is usually
buses will depend on network required to lower network voltages
configuration and load/generation – reduce line charging
distribution – avoid underexcited operation of
◼ Coordinated control of the tap changers of generators
all transformers interconnecting the • Transformers with under-load tap-
subsystems required to achieve overall changers (ULTC) are used to take care
desired effect of daily, hourly, and minute-by-minute
◼ During high system load conditions, variations in system conditions
network voltages are kept at highest • Off-load tap-changing transformers used
practical level to to take care of long-term variations due
 minimize reactive power requirements to system expansion, load growth, or
 increase effectiveness of shunt seasonal changes
capacitors and line charging
Modelling of Transformer ULTC Control
Systems
◼ Functional block diagram of ULTC control system shown in Fig.
11.79 and block diagram suitable for system studies
◼ Line drop compensator regulates voltage at a remote point along the
line or feeder
◼ Measuring element consists of adjustable dead band relay with
hysteresis. The output of the measuring element is Vm; which takes
a value of 0, 1, or -1, depending on input Verr
◼ Time delay element prevents unnecessary tap changes
Distribution System Voltage Regulation
◼ Substation bus regulation
 substation transformer equipped with ULTC facilities to control
secondary voltage
 alternatively, substation may have a separate voltage regulator
◼ Feeder regulation
 feeder regulators control the voltage of each feeder
 older units are the induction type - provide accurate and
continuous control; however, they are costly and have been
superseded by step type regulator
 step voltage regulator (SVR) is basically an autotransformer with
taps or steps in the series winding; however, it is purely a
voltage control device and not used for voltage transformation
curve 1 shows voltage with distributed
loads along the line, without any
regulation
the addition of voltage regulator R1,
capacitor C and voltage regulator R2,
brings the voltage profile along the entire
feeder (from the first consumer to the
last) to within max and min limits
Voltage Control
and Reactive
Power
Fixed capacitor
Voltage Control and Reactive Power
Reactive Power Injection

Fixed capacitor
where the load does not change or where the capacitor
is switched with the load.
Ideally suited for power factor correction in applications
with motor contactor. It is suitable for locations using
induction motors, like food processing plants, or
where small multiple loads require reactive power
compensation.
Each Fixed Capacitor Bank is designed for high reliability
and long life. These products are designed for
applications that do not contain harmonic generating

65
Voltage Control and Reactive Power (3)
Reactive Power Injection
Capacitor banks

Courtesy of TenneT TSO B.V.

Electrical Power System Essentials

Motivations
➢ Power factor correction
➢ Feeder-Loss Reduction
➢ Release of System capacity
➢ Voltage- Stabilization/Regulation
➢ Efficient Power Utilization
➢ Power Quality Enhancement
➢ Power Harmonic Filtering

67
Series Capacitors

➢ Series capacitors are used on transmission lines

to compensate for inductive reactance/ Enhance
Power Transfer.
➢ It is best to think of series capacitor as voltage
regulator which regulate Series voltage
(Boost/Buck) based on polarity and Bank Size.
➢ Series capacitor can be used as a blocking filter
for offending harmonics

68
Series Capacitors

➢ For steady state Power Flow and transient state

stability, the real power flow (P) over a transmission
line is given by formula

ES  E R
P=  sin 
X

where Es is the sending end voltage, ER is the

receiving end voltage, X is the line reactance and
δ is the angle between Es and ER .

69
Static series capacitors
Series Capacitors

➢ The power transfer can be increased

considerably by the use of series capacitor
banks.
➢ Series capacitors are suited practically to circuits
where light flicker is encountered due to
dynamic load fluctuations, such as frequent
inrush motor starting, electric welders and arc-
furnaces.

71
Static shunt capacitors
• Switched capacitors/inductors (shunts)
2
– Switching seeks to (coarsely) regulate voltage V
Q = R = CVR
2

−X

VR  Q 

Shunt capacitors are used for lagging power factor circuits

Shunt Capacitors

➢ The shunt capacitors are used to supply a

Capacitive type-Leading VAR reactive power to
the AC Power system at the point of Connection,
in order to:
➢ Reduce the lagging component of the circuit current
➢ Increase the voltage of the load bus
➢ Improve bus-voltage regulation and/or power factor
➢ Reduce Transmission losses
➢ Reduce Electricity Billing cost based on KVA Demand

73
Relative Performance of Shunt and Series
Capacitors (600 km line)
Compensation chosen • With shunt capacitor
to keep midpoint compensation
voltage Vm at 1.0 pu – maximum power
when P = 1.4 Po
Po = natural load
transfer capability
increased to 1.58 pu of
natural power (SIL);
represents an increase
of 0.16 pu over the
uncompensated case
– voltage regulation is
poor, i.e., the voltage
magnitude is very
sensitive to variations in
power transfer
• With series capacitor
compensation
– maximum power
transfer capability
increased to 2.65 pu
– voltage regulation
significantly improved
Compensation Requirements
◼ In all cases it is not required to satisfy both the objectives of:
 increasing the power level at which the voltage profile is flat; and
 decreasing electrical length θ in order to improve power transfer
level

◼ Short lines may require voltage support, i.e., increase natural load
 This may be achieved by shunt capacitors, provided θ does not
become excessive as a result

◼ Lines longer than 500 km cannot be loaded up to natural load

because of excessive θ
 In such cases, reduction of θ is the first priority
Shunt reactors
Shunt Reactors
◼ Used to compensate the undesirable voltage effects associated with line
capacitance
 limit voltage rise on open circuit or light load
◼ Shunt compensation with reactors:
 increases effective ZC
 reduces the effective natural load , i.e., voltage at which flat voltage
profile is achieved
◼ They are connected either:
 directly to the lines at the ends, or
 to transformer tertiary windings; conveniently switched as var
requirements vary
◼ Line reactors assist in limiting switching surges
◼ In very long lines, at least some reactors are required to be connected to
lines
 SCADA
◼ SCADA is “Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition”
– realtime industrial process control systems used to
centrally monitor and control remote or local industrial
equipment such as motors, valves, pumps, relays,
etc.Thank you very much for your attention!
◼ Any questions
SCADA or remarks?
is used to control chemical plant processes,
oil and gas pipelines, electrical generation and
transmission equipment, manufacturing facilities,
water purification and distribution infrastructure, etc.
◼ Industrial plant-scale SCADA is often referred to as a
“Distributed Control System” or DCS
◼ SCADA nuzzles up to embedded system issues, too.

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