chapter/ten Basics of Report Writing Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to prepare well- organized, objective reports. To reach this goal, you should be able to N Oo GO B® one State a problem clearly in writing, List the factors involved in a problem. Explain the common errors in interpreting and develop attitudes and practices conducive to good interpreting. Organize information in outine form, using time, place, quantity, factor, or a combination of these as bases for division. Turn an outline into a table-of contents whose format and wording are logical and meaningful. Write reports that are focused, objective, consicrent in time viewpoint, smoothly connected, and interesciny Prepare reports collaboratively,Presentation of information; others limit :cnorts to only the uestion of ive fe’ days earer, you worked én an ansignn excessive time spent by office workers web surting. A Before that assignment you investigated a su Pervisor’s recommendation to change an evaluation proce: 38. Ye cous continue thelist indefinitely, for investigating problems isa part of ater fou So is report writing, for you must write a firm, reports to the client may Bublsh Bnancial reports to the govemment and to shareholders. Depending on the nature ois business, a compeny ‘may have to write reports to various agencies about ils impact on the environment, it hing practices, crits comp! ance with quality standards. ‘Sometimes reports are written by individuals, Increasingly, however, they are prepared in collaboration with others, Even if one person has primary responsibly for a report, he or she wil often need contributions from many People. Indeed, report writing draws on a wide variety of communi ication skills from getting information to presenting itclearty, : This chapter and the following two chapters describe the structure and writing of this vital form of business ‘communication. How often you write reports in the years ahead will depend on the size and nature of» Reports are vita to lar the organization you work for. If you work for a very small organization (say, one with "ganizations. fewer than 10 employees), you will probably write only a few. But if you work for & midsize or larger organization, you are likely to write many. In fact, the larger the organization, the more reports you are likely to write. The explanation is obvious, The larger the organization, the greater is its complexity; and the greater the complexity, the greater is the need for information to manage the organization. ‘The nature of the business can also influence the number and type of reports you will write, The Securities and Exchange Commission requires all publicly traded busi uses alec deter nesses to write certain financial reports at regular intervals. A consulting firm’s whole OW. epors are. business effort may be directed toward informational and advisory reports to its clients, nosded, A business performing work under government contracts will also havé special report- ing needs. The frequency with which you will write reports, and thg kinds you will “The nature of the waiting is write, will depend on your employer. But you can be fairly certain that report writing Reporting i Rey Will figure significantly in your business career. career DEFINING REPORTS You probably have a good idea of what reports are, Even so, you would be likely to have A.business reports an @ hard time defining them. Even scholars of the subject cannot agree, for their defini- orderly and objective: ‘communication of factual information that serves a tions range from one extreme to the other. Some define repgrts to include almost any fst formal presgatations. business purpose CHAPTER 10 Basics of Report Writiux, . 293 business also determines:The key words are order, o0jective, communeaton, factual information, and serves & business purpose. © Work on a report begins wth a business need (problem). Your first task is to get the problem clearly in mind. * To do this, you should begin by gathering al the information you need to ‘understand the problem, ® Then you should express the problem ciearly, preferably in writing * The problem statement may be (1) an infinitive phrase, (2) a question, oF (3) a declarative statement. 294 For our purposes, this middle-ground defisition is best: A business report is an orderly ‘and objective communication of factual information that serves a business purpose. The key words in this definition deserve emphasis. As an orderly communication, a Teport is prepared carefully. Thus, care in preparation distinguishes reports from casual exchanges of information. The objective quality of a report is its unbiased approach, Reports seek to present facts. They avoid human biases as much as possible. The word communication is broad in meaning. It covers all ways of transmitting meaning: speak- ing, writing, drawing, and such, The basic ingredient of reports is factual information, Factual information is based on events, records, data, and the Tike. Not all reports are business reports. Research scientists, medical doctors, ministers, students, and many Others write them, To be classified as a business report, a report must serve a business Th definon i specif enough tobe meaningful, ye road enough f tak nt account the variations in reports. For example. some reports (information reports) do nothing more than present facts. Others (analytical reports) go a step further by includ. ing interpretations, sometimes accompanied by conclusions. Recommendation reports, 20 further yet, presenting advice for future action. There are reports that are highly for- mal both in writing style and in physical appearance. And there are reports that show a high degree of informality. Our definition permits all of these variations, DETERMINING THE REPORT PURPOSE Your work on a report logically begins with a need, which we refer to generally as the problem in the following discussion. Someone or some group (usually your superiors) needs information for a business purpose. Perhaps the need is for information only; perhaps itis for information and analysis; or perhaps itis for information, analysis, and recommendations. Whatever the case, someone with a need (problem) will authorize ‘you to do the work. Usually the work will be authorized orally. But it could be autho- rized in a written message. Afier you have been assigned a report problem, your first task should be to get your problem clearly in mind. Elementary and basic as this task may appear, all too often it is done haphazardly. And all too often a report fails to reach its goal because of such haphazardness. The Preliminary Investigation Getting your problem clearly in mind is largely a matter of gathering all the informa- tion needed to understand it and then applying your best logic to it. Gathering the right information can involve many tasks, depending on the problem. It may mean gathering material from company files, talking overthe problem with experts, searching through Print and electronic sources, and discussing the problem with those who authorized the report: In general, you should continue this preliminary investigation until you have the information you need to understand your problem. Need for a Clear Statement of the Problem After you understand your problem, your next step is to state it clearly. Writing the problem statement is good practice for several reasons. A written statement serves as a helpful touchstone, keeping you on track as you continue through the project. In ad- dition, a written statement can be reviewed, approved, and evaluated by people whose assistance may be valuable. Most important of all, putting thé problem in writing forces you to think it through, The problem statement normally takes one of three forms: infinitive phrase, question, or declarative statement, To illustrate each, we will use the problem of determining why sales at a certain store have declined: 1. Infinitive phrase: “To determine the causes of decreasing saleé at Store X.” 2. Question: “What are the causes of decreasing sales at Store X?” PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing . weom Cutline view in Word with the Tabie of Contents generator will assure that these are exact matches. Formatting Decisions. Whatever format you used for your outline, you now need to choose a format that your reader will find instructive, readable, instructive format is one that clearly indicates the hierarchy of th mostly on form (font selection, size, style and color as iment (0 distinguish among the levels of your contents, as the sample in Chapter [2 shows. A readable format is one that uses ample vertical white space between topics and enables readers f0 see ata glance how the report is organized. Using Ipaders (dots with intervening spaces) between your topics and your page numbers can also enhance readability. An appropriate format is one that your reader expects. Most business read. nowadays view the conventional outlining system (Roman numerals, letters, and Arabie numbers) and the decimal system (as in 1.2.1) as adding unnecessary clutter to the table of contents. Instead, they prefer the use of form and placement to show twem how the parts relate to each other. However, in the military and some technical cavironments, the decimal system is expected, and in other contexts, your readers may want the full numerals and letters of the conventional system. In our examples, we use format rather than numbering to indicate levels of information, but be sure to get a sense of what your particular “en prefer. Topic or Talking Heading’/n selecting the wording for your table of contents headings, you have a choice of two general forms: topic headings and talking head- ings. Topic headings are short constructions, frequently consisting of one or two words. ‘They merely identify the topic of discussion. Here is a segment of a topic-heading table of contents: Present armor unit Description and output Cost Deficiencies : Replacement effects Space Boiler setting Additional accessories Fuel and appropriate, Af 1c information. Rely well as on effects) and place- Like topic headings, talking headings (or popular headings as they are sometimes called) identify the subject matter covered. But they go a step further. They also in- dicate what is said about the subject. In other words, talking headings summarize the ‘material they cover, as in this illustration: Operation analyses of armor unit Recent lag in overall output Increase in cost of operation Inability to deliver necessary steam Consideration of replacement effects Greater space requirements Need for higher boiler setting Efficiency possibilities of accessories, Practicabilty of fring two fuels ‘The following table of contents excerpt is made up of headings that talk: Orientation to the problem ‘Authorization by board action Problem of locating a woolen mill Use of miscellaneous government data Factors as bases of problem solution CHAPTER 10. Basics of Report Writing Make your format Inatrtve, readable, and sporoprate. @ ou may use topic or king Readings. Topic adings give only the subject of discussion. Talking headings identity the subject and tell wnat ‘is said about it 307You will aac ave done alot of witing when you “start to write” your report {In writing the repon, communicate clearly ang auicky. When crafting, get the Fight things in the right otder. Do not strive for a Perlect fst draft * Your finished report should communicate Clearly and quickly > Also give it tess characierstics objectivity, time consistency transition, and intrest The beginning and ending of your report wi) probably be the most ‘important and most frequently read parts, Early on, your report Should convey wnat you Studied, how you studied ft, and what out you found nly descriptive of the material they cover woul OHdnteal information, headings relly descriptive of te PETE not be likely to use the same word improved simply by making them talk: Texas leaus in oll production California holds runner-up position. ng Louisiana ranks third. : : ees hat make for an informative, logical, and interesting me guidelines tha ea + As we say, the : table of contents also apply to the headings fo wnurwe mie nevont J — Snr wile Your repof. you will ave a problem statement to guide you through will have written—and probably rewritten—a Feed your findings in notes, Your research You wll have collected writen daa or recorded you a login ete and you wil have organized your interpretations of the Reeeeee ee centered structure. Now it is time to flesh out your outline with clearly xP observations. | "hone or pr you it pry oh sit hig wisn te Fight order. As Chapter 5 advises, you do not need to strive for a perfect draft the fire aa arund. Understand that some pieces will seem to write themselves, while oth. ers will be much more difficult, Allow. yourself to move along, stitching together the Pieces. Once you have a draft to work with, you can perfect it later When revising, let the advice in the previous chapters be your guide. As business messages previously discussed, reports should communicate as clearly and Auickly as possible. Your readers’ time is valuable, and you risk having your report Dott ena ret shored if you do not keep a healthy respect for this fae mind. Use both words and formatting to get your. contents across efficiently, You can help Jour reader receive the reports message clearly by giving your report some specific qualities of well-written reports. Two critical ingredients are a reader vinntted beginning and ending. Such characteristics as Objectivity, consistency in time revpboint transition, and interest can also enhance the reception of your report. We review these topics in the following pages. Beginning and Ending Arguably the most critical parts of your Teport will be the be; y ‘ginning and ending, In fe, 1D aches agree that these are the moet Frequently read paris of report. Chapters order here 2° iM? detail about beginnings and endings, but some general advice is in Whatever other goals it may achieve the of r ied it eins Of Your report should convey ‘hat problem you studied, how you Studied it, and (at least generally) What you found Gut. Why? Because these are the acts that the she it hak te a reader most wants to know when he or Here is a simple introduction that follows this pattern: In order to find out why sales rt, i about the mact Sections may precede thig statement of purpose (for example, tigation Of the study), and there might be extensive Tol eae mye, letter of {rarsmittal, table of contents, and ex- onthe size unl comet S the care Problem statement can also vary depending ort (Lor example: it I fl 7 (may or may not be appropri: ‘about the feseurch methods’ and limitations, or to announce PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Wriejspecifically how the following sections will be organized). oe Tid of data ies based upon, and is likely significance tothe reas ‘Your ending will provide a concise statement of the reports main payoft—whe facm interpretations, or recomendations. Ina shor report you toes spy sue tharize your findings with a brief paragraph, since the specific Andings wil te easy to avin ine body of the report. {na longer ropor, you should make thee section ¢ nore thorough restatement of your main findings, formatted in an easy-lo-digest way, The ee report should come through loud and clear. y should I eare?”) of your Requirement of Objectivity Good report writing presents facts and interprets them logically. I avoids presentin the water's opinions, bse, and atituds, In ther words, iis objective. You can make your report objective by putting aside your prejudices and biases, by approach- ing the problem with an open mind and looking at all sides of every issue, and by fairly reviewing and interpreting the information you have uncovered. Your role should be much like that of a fair-minded judge presiding over a court of law. You will leave no stone unturned in your search for the best information and the most reasonable interpretations. Objectivity as a Basis for Believability. An objective report has an ingredient that is essential to good report writing—believability. Biased writing in artfully decep- tive language may at first glance be'believable. But if bias is evident at any place in a report, the reader will be suspicious of the entire report, Maintaining objectivity is, therefore, the only sure way to make report writing believable, Objectivity and the Question of Impersonal versus Personal Writing. Recognizing the need for objectivity, the early report writers worked to develop an objective style of writing. Since the source of bias in reports was people, they reasoned that objectivity was best attained by emphasizing facts rather than the people involved in writing and reading reports. So they tried to take the human beings out of their re- that is, writing in the third person—without ports. The result was impersonal writ T's, we's, of you's. iin recent years, some writers have questioned impersonal report writing, They argue that personal writing is more forceful and direct than impersonal writing. Phe) point but that writing is more conversational and, therefore, more interesting if i: orings both the reader and the writer into the picture. They contend "hai objectivity is pe ftude-—not a matter of person—and that @ report writin personal style can be Just fs objective as a report written in impersonal sti. these writers argue Hat impersonal seeing frequently leads to an overuse of the passive voice and a dull wating style. He ie ina claim may be :-ue, impersonal writing need not be boring, Any dullness Qt impersonal waiting may have i the fault ofthe writer. As proof, one has only to passant lively style of writers for newspapers, newsmagazines, and journals. Most of this writing is impersonal—but itis usually not dull aa arrpost controversies, the arguments of both sides have merit. In some sss tion reonal writing is beter. nother situations, impersonal writing is beer And in till ther situations, either type of writing is good. He ejon should be based onthe Inet of each report situation, Firs, you should come the expectations of those for whom you are preparing the report. More that aoa wl find a preference for impersonal writing foe businesspeople have RED slow to break tradition, Then yrs should consider the formality of the situation. You se dove personal waiting fo informal stuauons and impersonal weting for formal situations. CHAPTER 10. Basics of Report Writing ‘Make sure the ending (of your report provides efficient answers tothe, reader questions "what id you tind out?” and Swny should | care” ‘Goo report writing is objective Objective writing is believable, Historically, objective ‘writing has meant wring impersonally (r0 5, wwe's, you's). Recent, some writers have argued that personal writing is more interesting than impersonal writing and just as objective, There is merit 0 both sides, You would be wise fo do what your reader ‘expects of YOU: Good advice is 1 use personal sive fr routine Pops ang impersonal sie for more formal fepons.An Example of Objective Reponine The : ae : 1 ok mete arunk on duly A mian ofthe old schoo}, the captain du lay cares he cen ese oe oe otuny Pena Caton Spe ane The first siete, unhappy ubout he n ees cia ae irva sie Goat as low in charg rice eaten tpt hy Sey ov At the end of the cay 4 was ‘Sperty’s duty to waite the daily report. This is what he wrote ae The woros were iterally tive, of course. But a second meaning they carried! Perhaps the distinction between imperson: illustration, # and personal writing is best made by Impersonal Having studied the advantages andi A study ofthe advantages and disadvantages of using coupons, | disadvantages of using coupons conclu tat your company shoud supports the conclusion thatthe Mis not adopt this practic. you use he Company should not adopt hs practice, coupons, you would have To pay out ‘The Coupons themselves woul cost money for them. You also would have to extra money. Also, use of coupons would Ike atonal employees to take care of fequie addtional peraovra tee eee the nea in eles veume. of the increase in sales voume Consistency in Time Viewpoint * Wenpecogsistett me Presenting information in te right place in time is essential to your report's clay repore, MOVIMeUt the Not doing so confuses the readee Thos tie important that you maintain a proper time viewpoint. © There are two time You have two,choices of ti viewpomts: past and ties favor one or the other, eid Besent Select one, and is a eonotchange thing is to be consist ime viewpoint: past and present, Although some authori- her viewpoint can produce a good report. The important rent-to select one time viewpoint and stay with it, In other words, you should view all similar information in the report from the same position in time. Het adr the pastime viewpoint, you treat the research the findings, and the You would report the results of a recent survey in the managers favored a change.” You would write mecerence 10 another part ofthe report this way: “la Past Il ive conclusion was Present reruled™ Nour use of the pasttime viewpoint would have ae cane et {2 future happenings. It would be proper to write» senieeee like this: “Af the eurrent pend Continues, 30 percent will favor a change by 2009." Prevailing concepts and Proven conclusions are also exceptions, You Would present them in present tense. For examples, you would waite: “Solar nergy is a major potential source of energy” and “The findings show conclusiv © The pastime viewpoint teteange ae pectsoa Writing ofthe report as past. Thus, Brevaiing concepts and past Lense: “Twenty-two percent of Proven conclusions as, ely that managers are not adequately trained.” * Te pasenime Writing in the present-time viewpoint presente current all information that can Gira etftomaion Bally be assumed to he cu thatcan bo ussumod to Sented ints proper place in th be current atthetimeof — recent Survey in these words: wating ‘T\Wventy-two percent of the managers favor achange.” uh another part of the text like this: “Tn Part LU, this conclusion is reached.” In teter Survey, you wonld write: “In 2003 only 12 percent held this opinion.” And in. making a tature reference, “If this tend continues, 30 percent will hold i PART 4 Fundamentals of Report, Weiting‘The first benefit of group work iy the classroom is tha it teachy wor ‘environment. Business organizations repeatedly indicate thatthe increased uso of tea Students’ need for exposure and experience with teams. Companias {raining individuals to work in teams and training managers to manage ‘SequelineK, Eastman and Cathy Owens Swit, “Enencing Collaborative Lea Jacqueline K. Eastman, Valdosta Slate Unversiy. + Cathy Owens Swit. Georgia Sotiern Univers ion Soars and Ghat Booms és Project Communication Tools.” Business Communication Quarter 6.3 2002) 30. a 7 Collaborative report reparation is common ‘or good reasons, * Groups should have five or fewer members and include all pertinent Specialization araes, © Preferably. the group has a leader. but there are exceptions, © Leaders and participants have clear duties to make the procedure work. Groups often experience results that are less than ideal, Consult references ooh effective grou 316 OLLABORATIVE REPORT WRITING In your business career, you ate likely to participate in collaborative writing projects That is, you will work on ateport with others. Group involvement in report preparation * is becoming increasingly significant for a number of reasons. For one. the specialized knowledge of different people can improve the quality of the work. For another. the combined talents of the members are likely to produce a document better than any one of the members could produce alone. A third reason is that dividing the work can reduce the time needed for the project. And fourth, new software tools allow groups to collaborate from different places, Determination of Group Makeup As a beginning step, the ‘membership of the group should be determined. In this de- termination, the availability and competencies of the people in the work situation in- volved are likely to-be the major considerations, As a minimum, the group will consist of two. The maximum wil depend on the number atually needed todo the project. As a practical matter, however, a maximum of five is a good rule, for larger groups tend to Jose efficiency. More important than size. however, is the need to include all major areas of specialization involved in the work to be done. Jn most business situations the highest ranking! administrator inthe group serves a8 leader. In groups made up of equals, a leader usvally is appointed or elacted. When no leader is so designated, the group works togetiter informally. In such cases, however: aan informal leader usually emerges. Techniques of Participation ‘The group's work should be conducted much the way 4 meeting should be conducted. As described in Chapter 14, leaders and members of meetings have clear roles and dlties, Leaders must plan the sessions and follow the plan, They must move the work along. They must contro! the discussion, limiting those who talk too much and en- couraging input from those who are reluctant to Participate. Group members should actively participate, taking care not to monopolize. ‘They should be both cooperative and courteous in their work with the group, All too often, groups experience results that vary from these patterns. Although 3 “iscussion of group development and processes is beyond the scope ofthis book, YOU PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing‘might want to consult one of the many Teférences on the subjest.' Group members should recognize that effective groups do not just happen. They have unique charactes- istics and processes that aze planned for and imanaged explicily Procedure of the Work eral rule, groups working together on repott projects need a minimum of two ings with a work period between meetings. Butthe number of meetings required. will vary with the needs of the project. For a project in which data gathering and other preliminary w t be done, additional meetings may.be necessary. On the other hand, if only the writing of the report is needed, two meetings may be adequate. Activities Involved Whatever number of meetings is scheduled, the following activities typically occitr. usually in the sequence shown. As you review them, it shoutd be apparent that becavse of the differences in report projects, these activities vary in their implementation, Determine the Purpose. As in all report projects, the participants must determine just what the report must do, Thus, the group should follow the preliminary steps of problem determination discussed previously. They also need to develop a coherent, shared sense of the report's intended readers and their needs. ‘wo espcily good resources ar Allan R. Cohen an Stephen L Fink, Eft ehavior in nists “hed (New York MeGraw-HllMewin 200) and Gerald Le Wilk, Groups i Conte Leveersiy and Partipation Smal Groups, ted New York McGraw Mil, 2001), CHAPTER 10. Basics of Report Writing, Some reports written in ‘business are produced in collaboration with others, Although you wit Jo some work indiwiiuatly, you can expect to plan, organize. ‘and ravise the report as, a group, Atleast two meetings and a work period aro needed. The following activities normally occur. usually in this sequence. he tte roport purpose. 37to Your Documents he dete te ad Lh an Plan for gathering the Information needed, ‘The members interpret the information, applying itto the problem: ‘They organize the information for presentation in the report: They plan the writing of the report. 318 Comment and Review Tools Help Track Others’ Changes The commenting and reviewing tools in most word processors help poopla work together on documents asynchronously. When othors review content and edt your document electronically, the commenting tool allows them to express opinions and concerns while the tracking toot maxes their editing changes clearly visible. In fact, the tools alow you to accept or reject their suggestions incividually or en masse. In the example shown here, the reviewer turned on the reviewing toolbarto put trequenty used to's athand Using this tool on a Tablet PC enabled the reviewer to. choose from a variety of input metheds—keyboard, digital ink, or voice. The tracking system allows reviewers to use a variety of colors, 80 that others can easily determine whom in the changes belong to. The commenting tool inserts identiying information, too. Wa reviewer had entered a voice comment, tne user would have simply clicked on the speaker icon to listen to the comment Identify the Factors. The group next determines what is needed to achieve the Purpose. This step involves determining the factors of the problem, as described earlier in the chapter. An advantage of collaboration is that several minds are available for the critical thinking that is so necessary for identifying the factors of the problem Gather the Information Needed. Before the group can begin work on the report, it must get the information needed. This activity could involve condueting any of the research designs mentioned earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 19. In some cases, group work begins after the information has been assembled, thus eliminating this step. Interpret the Information. Determining the meaning of the information gathered isthe next logical step forthe group. In this step, the participants apply the findings to the problem, thereby selecting the information to be used in the report. In applyins the findings to the problem, they also give meaning to the facts collected. The facts do not speak for themselves. Rather, group participants must think through the facs, apply the facts to the problem, derive logical meaning from the facts, and see them from the TRG points of view. Interpretations are no better than the thinking of the people in the group, Organize the Material. Just as in aoy other eport-writing project, the group next -Organizes-the material selected for presentation. They will base the report's structure 6n the time, place, quantity, factor, or other relationships in the data, Plan the Writing. A next logical step is that of planning the makeup of the report. In this step the formality ofthe situation and the audience involved determine the deci- sion, In addition, matters of writing such as tone, style, and formality are addressed. Needs for coherence, time consistency, and interesting writing are usually reinforced. PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writingassign Parts to Be Written. After the planning has been done, the group next he assign themselves tune is attention f0 the writing. The usual practice is to assign cach person a part of ~ Teper pars 0 write the report Write Parts Assigned, Following comes a period of individual work. Each partici. _/ The members then write punt writes his or her part Each will apply the ideas in Chapters 2 and 3 about word ~ 'P¥ Pats {cleotion, sentence design, and paragraph construction to writing the assigned parts, Revise Collaboratively. The group mects and reviews each person's contribution ¢/The group members ind the full report. This should be a give-and-take session with each person actively Solaboralively review the participating. It requires that every person give keen attention to the work of each . participant, making constructive suggestions wherever appropriate. It requires courte~ fous but meaningful criticisms. It also requires that the participants be open-minded, . remembering that the goal is to construct the best possible document. In no case should the group merely give automatic approval to the work submitted. In cases of contro- versy, the majority views of the group should prevail. dit the Final Draft. After the group has done its work, one member usually is / Aselected member ects assigned the task of editing the final draft. This gives the document consistency. In ad- ‘the final draft dition, the editor serves as a final proofreader. Probably the editor should be the most ‘competent writer in the group. If all the work has been done with care and diligence, this final draft shauld be report better than anyone in the group could have prepared alone. Those who study groups use the word synergistic to refer to groups that function this way. The final report is better than the sum of the individual parts SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Your work on a report begins with a problem (purpose, goal, objective) “ + Get the problem in mind by gathering all the information you need about it. Sree ite + ‘Then develop a problem statement from the information, + Phrase this statement as an infinitive phrase, a question, or a declarative statement. Understand that you may need to revise your problem definition as you proceed with your research. 2. From the problem statement, determine the factors involved. + ‘These may be subtopics in information reports. List the factors involved ‘: ina problem. + ‘They may be hypotheses (possible explanations) in problems requiring a solution, + They may be bases of comparison in problems requiring evaluations. 3. After you have gathered the information needed, interpret it as itapplies to the problem. Explain the common Interpret the information in light of your problem and your readers’ needs, ‘errors in interpreting ened velop attitudes and + Heed this advice for avoiding human error: practices conducive to — Report the facts as they are. (990d Interoreting. Do not think that conclusions are always necessary. — Do not interpret a lack of evidence as proof to the contrary, — Do not compare noncomparable — Do not draw illogical cause-effect conclusions. — Beware of unreliable and unrepresentative data, — Do not oversimplify — Tailor your claims to your data. Oooo errr 7