2.
1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
Elements: These are pure substances that consist of only one type of
atom. Each element is represented by a unique atomic symbol on the
periodic table. For example, Oxygen is represented as O and Iron as Fe.
Elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
means.
Compounds: These are substances formed when two or more elements
chemically combine. The resulting compound has properties that are
different from the individual elements. For example, water (H2O) is a
compound formed by the combination of Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Another example is carbon dioxide (CO2), which is formed by the
combination of Carbon and Oxygen.
Mixtures: These are combinations of two or more substances where
each substance retains its own chemical identity. The substances are
not chemically bonded together and can be separated by physical
means. Examples of mixtures include air (a mixture of mainly nitrogen,
oxygen, and small amounts of other gases) and sea water (a mixture of
water, salt, and other substances).
2.2 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
Atomic structure: An atom consists of a central nucleus containing
protons and neutrons, and electrons in shells around the nucleus.
Protons have a relative charge of +1 and a relative mass of 1, neutrons
have a relative charge of 0 and a relative mass of 1, and electrons have
a relative charge of -1 and a negligible relative mass. The proton
number or atomic number is the number of protons in an atom, and the
mass number or nucleon number is the sum of protons and neutrons in
an atom. The electronic configuration of an atom or ion shows how
many electrons are in each shell, and can be determined from the
proton number. For example, sodium has 11 protons and 11 electrons,
so its electronic configuration is 2,8,1.
Periodic Table: The Periodic Table arranges elements in order of
increasing proton number, in periods (rows) and groups (columns). The
group number indicates the number of outer shell electrons, and the
period number indicates the number of occupied shells. The Group VIII
noble gases have a full outer shell of eight electrons, except for helium
which has two. The elements in the same group have similar chemical
properties because they have the same number of outer shell electrons
and the same electronic configuration in the outer shell.
2.3 Isotopes
Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes have the same chemical
properties because they have the same number of electrons, but different
physical properties because they have different masses. The relative atomic mass
of an element is the average mass of its isotopes compared to 1/12th of the mass
of a carbon-12 atom. The relative atomic mass can be calculated from the relative
masses and abundances of the isotopes using a weighted average formula.
Symbols and equations: Symbols are used to represent elements, ions, and
compounds. A symbol consists of one or two letters, where the first letter is
always capitalized and the second letter is always lowercase. For example, H is the
symbol for hydrogen, O is the symbol for oxygen, and Na is the symbol for sodium.
An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained electrons, and has a
positive or negative charge. A cation is a positively charged ion, and an anion is a
negatively charged ion. For example, Na+ is a sodium cation, and Cl- is a chlorine
anion. A compound is a substance that is made up of two or more different
elements chemically combined. For example, H2O is the formula for water, which
is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. A word equation shows the names of the
reactants and products in a chemical reaction. For example, hydrogen + oxygen →
water. A symbol equation shows the symbols and formulas of the reactants and
products in a chemical reaction. For example, H2 + O2 → H2O. An ionic equation
shows the symbols and charges of the ions that are involved in a chemical
reaction. For example, Na+ + Cl- → NaCl. State symbols indicate the physical state
of the substances in a chemical reaction. The common state symbols are (s) for
solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas, and (aq) for aqueous solution. For example, NaCl(s)
→ Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq).
