AN INTERNSHIP REPORT

ON
COMPONENT IDENTIFICATION AND
CIRCUIT SIMULATION USING ORCAD
SCHEMATIC

Submitted for the partial fulfilment of award of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
Degree In
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
By
RITIK VERMA
(University Roll No.: 2001430310005)

SUBMITTED TO
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

IMS Engineering College, Ghaziabad

(Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow)

February, 2022

1
 Certificate

2
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to place on records my heartfelt and sincere thanks to my

supervisor, Dr. Praveen Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering, IMS Engineering College,
Ghaziabad for his inspiring guidance, motivation, immense knowledge
and continuous support throughout this internship

I express my deep sense of gratitude to the Addl. HOD, ECE, Dr.

Pankaj Goel, for his constant support and encouragement for this
internship. I also thank all the departmental staff for helping me during
these days.

RITIK VERMA
University Roll No.: 2001430310005

3
 CONTENTS

Page No.
Certificate 2
Acknowledgement 3
Contents 4

Module-1: Component Identification and Their Study 5-19

Module-2: Circuits Simulation using ORCAD Schematic 20-46

Electronic circuit Analysis using pSpice. 21

Exp-01 Circuit Simulation of Electric Network to find all Branch

Currents
and all Node Voltage 32
Exp-02 Simulate I-V characteristics for a P-N junction diode
(IN4500) using schematic capture in Pspice
34
Exp-03 Simulate working output of a half wave rectifier using
schematic capture in P-spice.
36
Exp-04 To Simulate Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit 38

Exp-05 Simulation of Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit 40

Exp-06 To simulate the working of CMOS inverter

a) DC analysis
b) Transient analysis 43

CONCLUSION 47

4
5
MINI PROJECT OR INTERNSHIP AS

MODULE 1 Component Ide

IMS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

February 15, 2022

Authored by: RITIK VERMA

6
 MINI PROJECT OR INTERNSHIP ASSESSME
MODULE 1 Component Identification and their study

Resistor R (Ω=ohm)
Special components called resistors are made for the express purpose of creating a
precise quantity of resistance for insertion into a circuit. The primary purpose is to limit
the flow of electrical current; therefore the key parameter is the resistance value.
For high power applications the power rating is important. This specifies the maximum
operating power the component can handle without altering the properties or damage.
The power rating is usually specified in free air at room temperature. Higher power
ratings require a larger size and may even require heat sinks.

The most common schematic symbol for a resistor is a zig-zag line:

TYPES OF RESISTOR
 Variable Resistor
 VARIABLE
 POTENTIOMETER
 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS
 Fixed resistor
 CARBON FILM
 METAL OXIDE
 WIRE WOUND
 SURFACE MOUND RESISTOR

7
 HOW TO CALCULATE THE VALUE OF RESISTOR

8
9
10
 Capacitor C (mF=farad)
 A capacitor is an electronic component that can be used to store an electrical
charge.
 Capacitors are often used in electronic circuits as temporary energy-storage
devices.
 It stores energy
Capacitors can be manufactured to serve any purpose, from the smallest plastic
capacitor in your calculator, to an ultra capacitor that can power a commuter bus.
Here are some of the various types of capacitors and how they are used.
The most common schematic symbol for a capacitor is a 2 vertical parallel
line:

TYPES OF CAPACITOR

Ceramic Capacitors
The most commonly used and produced capacitor out there is the ceramic
capacitor. The name comes from the material from which their dielectric is made.
Aluminum and Tantalum Electrolytic
Electrolytic are great because they can pack a lot of capacitance into a relatively
small volume. If you need a capacitor in the range of 1µF-1mF, you're most likely
to find it in an electrolytic form. They're especially well suited to high-voltage
applications because of their relatively high maximum voltage ratings.

11
 HOW TO CALCULATE THE VALUE OF CAPACITOR

12
 Inductor L [Henry]
An inductor is a passive electrical component that opposes sudden changes in
current. Inductors are also known as coils or chokes. The electrical symbol for an
inductor is L.
Inductors slow down current surges or spikes by temporarily storing energy in an
electro-magnetic field and then releasing it back into the circuit.
Inductors are primarily used in electrical power and electronic devices for these
major purposes:
1. Choking, blocking, attenuating, or filtering/smoothing high frequency noise in
electrical circuits
2. Storing and transferring energy in power converters (dc-dc or ac-dc)
3. Creating tuned oscillators or LC (inductor / capacitor) "tank" circuits
4. Impedance matching
13
 Types of Induction
There are two types of Induction self induction and mutual induction.
Self Induction
When time varying current flows in a coil the time varying flux is produced and
this varying flux will link with that coil itself and as a result there will be emf
induced in the coil itself. This type of Induction is called self induction.
Mutual Induction
When time varying current flows in a coil it produces time varying flux as we have
already told. This time varying flux may link with another nearby coil. Due to this
flux linkage there will be an induced emf in the second coil. This type of electrical
induction is called mutual induction.

P-N junction Diode

A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which
allows the electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in
opposite or reverse direction. ... The p-n junction, which is formed when the p-type and
n-type semiconductors are joined, is called as p-n junction diode.

14
V-I characteristics of PN Junction Diode
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:
 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type
material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has
the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-
type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which
has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

The Zener Diode

A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction, but will suffer from
premature breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across becomes too high

15
 However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too,
are basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but they are specially designed
to have a low and specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any
reverse voltage applied to it.
Zener diode applications
 Voltage regulator
 Zener diode in overvoltage protection

Square Wave Signal

The back to back connected zener diodes can be used as an AC regulator producing
what is jokingly called a “poor man’s square wave generator”. Using this arrangement
we can clip the waveform between a positive value of +8.2V and a negative value of -
8.2V for a 7.5V zener diode.

Breakdown in zener diode

16
  Avalanche breakdown
The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener diodes at high reverse
voltage. When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the free
electrons (minority carriers) gains large amount of energy and accelerated to greater
velocities.

 Zener breakdown
The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of their
narrow depletion region. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is
increased, the narrow depletion region generates strong electric field.

BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is a three-
terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to
amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals
of the BJT are the base, the collector and the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor
that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers.

17
 Transistor Transistor
IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE
type type

n-p-n – + + – + + p–n–p + – – + – –

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three
possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being
common to both the input and output signals.
 Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

18
  Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.

 Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

MOSFET(metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect
Transistor)

19
 The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor
is a semiconductor device that is widely used for switching purposes and for the
amplification of electronic signals in electronic devices. A MOSFET is either a
core or integrated circuit where it is designed and fabricated in a single chip
because the device is available in very small sizes. The introduction of the
MOSFET device has brought a change in the domain of switching in electronics.

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor

is a semiconductor device that is widely used for switching purposes and for the
amplification of electronic signals in electronic devices. A MOSFET is either a
core or integrated circuit where it is designed and fabricated in a single chip
because the device is available in very small sizes. The introduction of the
MOSFET device has brought a change in the domain of switching in electronics.

IC’S (integrated circuits)

An integrated circuit (ICs) is an electronic device comprising numerous
functional elements such as transistors, resistors, condensers, etc. on a piece of

20
 silicon semiconductor substrate, and is sealed inside a package with multiple
terminals.

Types of IC’s
THERE ARE BASICALLY 3 TYPES OF IC’S.

 ANALOG IC’S
• Digital Integrated Circuits handle discrete signals such as binary values (0
and 1). These circuits use digital logic gates, multiplexers, flip flops
[Link] circuits are easier to design and economical.
 DIGITAL IC’S
• Analog Integrated Circuits handle contiguous signals. These are two types:
linear integrated circuits (Linear ICs) and Radio frequency integrated
circuits (RF ICs).
 MIXED IC’S
• Mixed Integrated Circuits are obtained by the combination of analog and
digital integrated circuits. Therefore it have digital to analog (A/D)
converter, digital to analog (D/A) converter, and clock/timing integrated
circuits.

21
 DIGITAL IC'S

ANALOG IC’S

22
23
 MODULE-2

Circuits Simulation using

ORCAD Schematic

24
 TUTORIAL 1
ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING PSPICE.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit
Emphasis) is a computer simulation and modeling program used by
engineers to mathematically predict the behavior of electronic circuits.
PSpice is a member of the SPICE family of circuit simulators. In the
following exercises you will use PSpice (OrCAD 16.0 Demo version)
to solve some circuits and to determine the quantities of interest.
SPICE can do several types of circuit analysis. They are

 Non linear DC analysis: calculates DC transfer curve

 Non linear transient analysis: calculates voltages and currents as a function of
time when a signal is applied
 Linear AC analysis: calculates the output as afunction of frequency.
 Noise analysis
 Sensitivity analysis
 Distortion analysis
 Fourier analysis: calculates and plots the frequency spectrum.
 Monte Carlo Analysis.

Pspice has analog and digital libraries of standard components. All analyses
can be done at different temperatures. The default temperature is 300K. The
circuit can contain the following components: Independent and dependent
voltage and current sources, Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Mutual Inductors,
Tramsmission lines, Operational amplifiers, Diodes, Bipolar transistors, MOS
transistors, JFETS, MESFETS, Digital gates.

1.2.1 File Types Used and Created by PSpice

The basic input file for PSpice is a text (ASCII) file that has the file type
"CIR". The output file always generated by PSpice is a text (ASCII) file that has
the file type "OUT. The output results in *.OUT file if you are running a DC
analysis. If you are running a transient analysis or a frequency sweep analysis,
there will be too much data for the *.OUT file. In these cases, we add a
command called .PROBE to the *.CIR file that tells PSpice to save the
numerical data in a *.DAT file.
A companion file to the *.DAT file is the *.PRB file which holds
initializing information for the PROBE program. Another file called *.INC
(include) files, these enable us to store frequently used sub-circuits that have not

25
 yet been added to a library. Then we access these *.INC files with a single
command line in the
*.CIR file. Other files used with PSpice are *.LIB files where the details of
complex parts are saved
When we begin using the schematic capture program that is bundled with
PSpice, we will encounter some additional file types. These are the *.SCH (the
schematic data, itself), *.ALS (alias files) and *.NET (network connection files).

ANALYSIS BY USING CIRCUIT FILE EDITOR

Some Facts and Rules about PSpice
 PSpice is not case sensitive.
 All element names must be unique.
 The first line in the data file is used as a title. It is printed at the top of each
page of output. PSpice will ignore this line as circuit data. Do not place any
actual circuit information in the first line.
 There must be a node designated "0." (Zero) This is the reference node
against which all voltages are calculated.
 Each node must have at least two elements attached to it.
 The last line in any data file must be ".END"
 All lines that are not blank (except for the title line) must have a character in
column 1, the leftmost position on the line.
o Use "*" (an asterisk) in column 1 in order to create a comment line.
o Use "+" (plus sign) in column 1 in order to continue the previous line (for
better readability of very long lines).
o Use "." (period) in column 1 followed by the rest of the "dot command" to
pass special instructions to the program.
o Use the designated letter for a part in column 1 followed by the rest of
the name for that part (no spaces in the part name).
 Use "whitespace" (spaces or tabs) to separate data fields on a line.
 Use ";" (semicolon) to terminate data on a line if you wish to add
commentary information on that same line.

How to Specify the Circuit Topology and Analysis

A PSpice input file, called source file, consists of three parts.

26
  DATA STATEMENTS:description of the components and
the interconnections.
 CONTROL STATEMENTS: tells spice what type of analysis to perform
on the circuit.
 OUTPUT STATEMENT: specifies what outputs are to be printed or plotted.
The order of statements:
TITLE STATEMENT
ELEMENT
STATEMENTS
.
.
COMMAND (CONTROL)
STATEMENT OUTPUT
STATEMENTS
.END
Node Designations in PSpice
In the SPICE program, users were expected to designate nodes by number or
ordinary text. E.g. "Pbus," ”1.” The only restriction is you can't embed spaces in a
node name. Use the underscore ("_") character to simulate spaces.
Large and Small Numbers in PSpice
PSpice is a computer program used mostly by engineers and
scientists. Accordingly, it was created with the ability to recognize the typical
metric units for numbers.
 Number Prefix Common Name
 1012 - "T" or "t" tera
 109 - "G" or "g" giga
 106 - "MEG" or "meg" mega
 103 - "K" or "k" kilo
 10-3 -"M" or "m" milli
 10-6 -"U" or "u" micro
 10-9 -"N" or "n" nano
 10-12 - "P" or "p" pico
 10-15 - "F" or "f" femto

27
 An alternative to this type of notation, which is in fact, the default for PSpice
output data, is "textual scientific notation." This notation is written by typing an
"E" followed by a signed or unsigned integer indicating the power of ten. Some
examples of this notation are shown below:
 656,000 = 6.56E5
 -0.0000135 = -1.35E-5
1.4 ANALYSIS BY USING SCHEMATIC FILE EDITOR INTRODUCTION
This tutorial will introduce Orcad PSPICE. It will take you through the steps
of entering a schematic diagram, specifying the type of analysis, running the
simulation, and viewing the output file. The Orcad PSPICE software allows the
user to input their circuits using a schematic capture program (called "Capture" or
“Capture CIS”). The software creates a SPICE input file from this diagram and
performs the analysis. In this course, we will utilize the Capture program.

Starting a New PSPICE File

To learn the fundamental steps of running a PSPICE simulation we will begin with
the simple resistive circuit shown in figure 1.

1. On the computer's Desktop screen, click on Start, move the cursor to all
Programs > Orcad 16.0 demo >Orcad Capture CIS demo
2. The Orcad Capture window should open. Click on File > New > Project..
3. The New Project dialog box should open.
4. Type the name of your circuit in the "Name" box, and indicate the path to
the directory in which you want to store your file under "Location".
5. Click on the radio button next to: Analog or Mixed A/D, then click OK.
6. The Create PSPICE Project dialog box will appear. Select "Create a blank
project", and click OK.
7. A schematic entry window will appear. The screen should now look
similar to that in Figure

28
 Figure 2. Schematic Entry Window

Figure 3. Place Part Dialog Box

Placing the Parts

1. Select Place > Part. The place part dialog box will open as shown in
figure 3 (again, it may have a different appearance). In the lower left-
hand corner a list of the libraries that have been loaded will appear.
Your list may be different that the one shown in the figure. If this is
the first time you are running PSPICE on a particular computer all of
the libraries may not appear. At a minimum you should install the
libraries: analog, eval, source, and special. To add a Library, click on
the Add Library Icon (a small square above the library list in version

29
 16.2). The libraries listed above can be found in the following
directory:
../tools/capture/library/pspice/demo (or something
similar) Add each of the four libraries listed above.
2. In the Place Part dialog box, click on the "Analog" library, then click
on the "R" in the Part List. A drawing of a resistor should appear in
the lower right corner. Press Enter/Return.
3. Move your mouse pointer over the schematic window. A resistor
should be following the pointer. Drag the resistor to the desired
location and click once to place it.
4. Drag to the next location to place the second resistor and click to place it.
5. Since we want the third resistor to be vertical, right-click the mouse
button and select "Rotate" from the popup menu. Then click to place
the third resistor (see figure 4).

Figure 4. Resistor Placement

6. Once all of the resistors have been placed, right-click the mouse button
and select "End Mode" from the pop-up menu. This will cause the
resistor to disappear. Alternatively, you may enter “ESC”.
7. Next, we need to add the DC voltage source. Select the "Source"
library from the Place Part window and the part "VDC." Place this on
the schematic as you did with the resistors.
8. Every circuit that is simulated on PSPICE must have a ground node
indicated. This is done by entering the ground symbol. To place the
ground, select Place>Ground (or click on the ground symbol on the
toolbar). Select the "Source" library and the ground part labeled "0". It
is very important that you use this particular ground or your
simulation will not run. The first time you use this ground you may
need to add the Source library from the Place Ground window. Place

30
 the ground as shown in figure 5.

Figure 5. Circuit Element Placement

Wiring the schematic

1. Select the Place Wire button from the toolbar.
2. Drag the cross-hair pointer to the positive end of the VDC source. Click
on it.
3. Move the cross-hair pointer to the left terminal marker of the first resistor.
Click on it.
4. Repeat the procedure until all components are connected.
5. Click the right mouse button. Select End Wire and click on it. Your schematic
should now appear as the one in figure 6.

31
 Figure 6. Wired Circuit

Setting the component values

1. All of the resistor values default to 1KΩ. To change a resistor value,
double click on the resistor value. The Display Properties box appears.
2. In the Value box, type in the desired resistance. Make sure to use the
appropriate suffix as listed in the PSPICE introduction. Click on OK.
3. Repeat for all resistors.
4. Using the same procedure change the value of the dc voltage source to
10V. The circuit should now appear as the one in figure 7.

Figure 7. Circuit with Component Values

Specifying the type of analysis

1. In this simple DC circuit there are no time varying voltages or currents.
Thus, we only need to find the values of the dc voltages and currents
throughout the circuit. This is referred to as a DC Bias analysis.
2. Choose the menu option: PSPICE a New Simulation Profile. A
dialog box will open. Type in the name of the simulation as "DC Bias".
Click Create.
3. The Simulations Settings dialog box opens. Under Analysis Type, select
Bias Point and click OK.
4. Save your circuit.

Running the Simulation

1. Select the menu option: PSPICE >Run. The simulation will run
and the simulation window will open as shown in figure 8.
2. In the lower left corner of the window is an output text section
that displays the progress of the simulation and any errors that
were encountered.
3. In this example, we will view the results of the simulation as a

32
 SPICE output file. Select the menu option: View >Output File.
A text file will appear in the upper window. Figure 9 shows the
output and describes each section. Note that the default output
includes the voltage at each node and the current flowing through
each voltage source. For example, the initial circuit listing in the
output shows us that the 3K resistor is connected between nodes
N00132 and N00159. The output indicates that the voltages at
those two nodes are 8 and 5 volts respectively. Thus, this resistor
has 3 volts across it.
Figure 8. Simulation Window

**** 03/29/01 [Link] ************** PSpice Lite (Mar 2000) *****************

** Profile: "SCHEMATIC1-dc bias" [ C:\Program Files\OrcadLite\project1-SCHEMATIC1-
dc [Link] ]
**** CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
******************************************************************************
** Creating circuit file "project1-SCHEMATIC1-dc [Link]"
** WARNING: THIS AUTOMATICALLY GENERATED FILE MAY BE
OVERWRITTEN BY SUBSEQUENT
SIMULATIONS
*Libraries:
* Local Libraries :
* From [PSPICE NETLIST] section of C:\Program Files\OrcadLite\PSpice\[Link] file:
.lib "[Link]"
*Analysis directives:
.PROBE V(*) I(*) W(*) D(*) NOISE(*)
.INC ".\[Link]"
**** INCLUDING [Link] ****
* source PROJECT1
R_R1 N00102 N00132
2K R_R2 N00132
N00159 3K R_R3 0
N00159 5K

33
 V_V1 N00102 0 10V
**** RESUMING "project1-SCHEMATIC1-dc [Link]" ****
.END
**** 03/29/01 [Link] ************** PSpice Lite (Mar 2000) *****************
** Profile: "SCHEMATIC1-dc bias" [ C:\Program Files\OrcadLite\project1-SCHEMATIC1-
dc [Link] ]
**** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
******************************************************************
************ NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE
NODE VOLTAGE
(N00102) 10.0000 (N00132) 8.0000 (N00159) 5.0000
VOLTAGE SOURCE CURRENTS
NAME
CURRENT
V_V1 -1.000E-
03
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 1.00E-02
WATTS JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME .13
Figure 9. PSPICE Output File

4. Return to the window with your schematic. Select PSPICE > Bias Points>
Enable Bias>Voltage Display (if it is not already selected). The dc bias
voltages will now be displayed directly on your diagram eliminating the
need to view the output file at all. See figure 10. Experiment with
displaying the current and power values.

Current Sources
A DC independent current source can be found in the parts list as IDC. This is similar to
the voltage source used above except the current is held at a specified value.

34
 Figure 10. Schematic with Bias Voltage Display

Displaying Currents and Power

In addition to displaying voltages, current and power values found in the bias
point analysis can also be displayed. Enter the schematic shown in Figure 11.
Perform the DC bias point analysis. Select PSPICE> Bias Points >Enable Bias
Power Display . Confirm that the power values displayed are correct.

Figure 11. DC Analysis Problem

35
 EXPERIMENT 1
AIM
Circuit Simulation of Electric Network to find all Branch Currents and
all Node Voltages

SOFTWARE TOOL USED

1. PC loaded with OR-CAD 16.0 P Spice Software.
THEORY
Nodal Voltage Analysis complements the previous mesh analysis in that it is
equally powerful and based on the same concepts of matrix analysis. As its name
implies, Nodal Voltage Analysis uses the “Nodal” equations of Kirchhoff’s first
law to find the voltage potentials around the circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
R2 R4

2 6

V1 V2
7Vdc R1 R3 12Vdc
5 10

36
 EXPECTED RESULTS

1. NODAL CURRENT
R2 R4

86.96m A 804.3m A
2 6

V1 1.400A 717.4m A V2
7Vdc R1 R3 12Vdc
5 10

1.313A 804.3m A

0
2. BRANCH VOLTAGE

RESULT
Nodal Current Branch Voltage
Node(A-E) - 1.313 A at E = 0 V
Node(B-E) - 1.4 A at A=B= 7 V
Node(B-C) - 86.96 mA at C = 7.174 V

37
 Node(C-E) - 717.4 mA at D = 12 V
Node(C-D) - 804.3 mA

EXPERIMENT 2
AIM
Simulate I-V characteristics for a P-N junction diode (IN4500) using
schematic capture in Pspice.

SOFTWARE TOOL USED

1. PC loaded with OR-CAD 16.0 P Spice Software.
THEORY
Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to
positive terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the
battery then junction is said to be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the
forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V
for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward
bias voltage, at which the forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage
or threshold voltage.
Reverse bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to
negative terminal of high voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to
positive terminal of the same battery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

38
 GRAPH

39
 EXPERIMENT 3
AIM
Simulate working output of a half wave rectifier using schematic
capture in P-spice.

SOFTWARE TOOL USED

1. PC loaded with OR-CAD 16.0 P Spice Software.
THEORY
A half wave rectifier is the simplest form of rectifier available. We will look
at a complete half wave rectifier circuit later – but let’s first understand exactly
what this type of rectifier is doing.
The diagram below illustrates the basic principle of a half-wave rectifier. When a
standard AC waveform is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half of the AC
waveform remains. Half-wave rectifiers only allow one half-cycle (positive or
negative half-cycle) of the AC voltage through and will block the other half-cycle
on the DC side,

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
D1
2 1

1N 4500
V1
VOFF = 0 R1
VAMPL = 5 1k
AC = 8
F R EQ = 100

40
 RESULT
GRAPH

41
42
 V

V
0s
SEL>>
0V

0V
5.0V

5.0V
-5.0V

-5.0V
EXPERIMENT 4
AIM
To Simulate Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit
SOFTWARE TOOL USED
1. PC loaded with OR-CAD 16.0 P Spice Software.
THEORY
A semiconductor device that is used to change the complete AC cycle into
pulsating DC is known as a full-wave rectifier. This circuit uses the full wave of
the i/p AC signal whereas the half-wave rectifier uses the half-wave. This circuit is
mainly used to overcome the drawback of half-wave rectifiers like low-efficiency
drawback.
Full Wave Rectifier Theory
In this circuit, we use two diodes, one for each half of the wave. A
multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into
two halves with a common center-tapped connection. Configuration results in each
diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the
transformer center point C produces an output during both half-cycles. The
advantages of this rectifier are flexible compared to that of a half-wave rectifier.

This circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load

resistance (RL) with each diode taking it, in turn, to supply current to the load
resistor. When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point A, diode
D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows. When point B is
positive in the negative half of the cycle with respect to C point, the diode D2

43
 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in
the same direction for both half-cycles of the wave.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

RESULT

GRAPH

44
 EXPERIMENT 5
SIMULATION OF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
CIRCUIT
AIM
1. To simulate the Common Emitter amplifier in Pspice and study the transient
and frequency response.
2. To determine the phase relationship between the input and output voltages
by performing the transient analysis.
3. To determine the maximum absolute gain, maximum gain in dB, 3dB gain,
lower and upper cutoff frequencies and bandwidth of CE amplifier by performing
the AC analysis.

SOFTWARE TOOL USED

PC loaded with OR-CAD 16.0 P Spice Software.
THEORY

45
 The Common-Emitter (CE) is the most frequently used configuration in
practical amplifier circuits, since it provides good voltage, current, and power gain.
The input to the CE is applied to the base-emitter circuit and the output is taken
from the collector-emitter circuit, making the emitter the terminal "common" to
both input and output. The CE is set apart from the other configurations, because it
is the only configuration that provides a phase reversal between input and output
signals.
When positive half of the signal is applied, the voltage between base and
emitter (Vbe) is increased because it is already positive with respect to ground. So
forward bias is increased i.e., the base current is increased. Due to transistor action,
the collector current IC is increased β times. When this current flows through RC,
the drop IC RC increases considerably. As a consequence of this, the voltage
between collector and emitter (Vce) decreases. In this way, amplified voltage
appears across RC. Therefore the positive going input signal appears as a negative
going output signal i.e., there is a phase shift of 180° between the input and output.
The gain from the base to the collector can be approximated by the
collector resistance over the emitter resistance (RC’/RE).where RC’ is the AC
resistance seen by the collector, RC|| RL, and RE’ is the AC resistance seen by the
emitter, RE. The emitter resistance controls the DC bias. The gain can be increased
by choosing a smaller RE.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

46
 EXPECTED GRAPHS
1. TRANSIENT RESPONSE

2. FREQUENCE RESPONSE

47
 RESULT
1. From the transient analysis the phase relationship between input and
output voltage signals is degrees.
2. From the frequency response curve the following results are
calculated:

EXPERIMENT 6
AIM
To simulate the working of CMOS inverter
a) DC analysis
b) Transient analysis

SOFTWARE TOOL USED

PC loaded with OR-CAD 16.0 P Spice Software.

THEORY (for DC analysis)

DC analysis is one of the standard analysis that we can perform using Microsim.
Other standard analysis include transient. Under DC analysis, there are two kind of
simulation : DC nodal analysis and DC Sweep. Where is dc nodal analysis to be
performed on source with an attributes of the form DC = value and provides the dc

48
 voltage at each node of the circuit and dc branch currents is required. To view dc
nodes voltage you can use the VIEWPOINT or IPROBE. While the dc sweep
provides more flexibility in that allows the calculation of nodes voltage and branch
current of a circuit when a source is swept over a range of values
DC ANALYSIS

RESULT

49
 THEORY (for transient analysis)
Transient analysis calculates a circuit's response over a period of time defined by
the user. The accuracy of the transient analysis is dependent on the size of internal
time steps, which together make up the complete simulation time known as the
Run to time or Stop time. For every time step, the node voltages and currents are
calculated and compared to the previous time step DC solution. Only when the
difference between two DC solutions falls within a specified tolerance (accuracy)
will the analysis move on to the next internal time step. The time step is
dynamically adjusted until a solution within tolerance is found. The value for the
maximum internal time step can be defined by the user. There are some circuits,
where a DC solution cannot be found, as in the case of oscillators.

50
 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS RESULT

51
52
 CONCLUSION
This internship is divided into two modules. In Module-I, the study of different
Active and Passive Components are studied in details. Passive Components
Value’s calculation using color code & Multimeter is also learnt in this Module
In Module-II, the circuit semiconductor using ORCAD schematic is studied . Some
of electronics circuits are simulated and their results are analysed and compared
with theoretical values

53