Fractions

Fractions

Fractions
Fractions were invented thousands of years ago to name
numbers between whole numbers. People probably first
used these in-between numbers for making more exact
measurements.
Today most rulers and other measuring tools have
marks to name numbers that are between whole measures.
Learning how to read these in-between marks is an
important part of learning to use these tools. Here are
some examples of measurements that use fractions:
1 3 7 1
 cup,  hour,  km, and 24 lb. 1
3 4 10 2 The 4-in. marks between
1 and 2 are labeled.
Fractions are also used to name parts of wholes. The whole
might be one single thing, like a stick of butter. Or, the whole
Whole
might be a collection of things, like a box of crayons. The whole
16 Crayons
is sometimes called the ONE. In measurements, the whole is
called the unit. The “whole” box names the
ONE being considered.
To understand fractions you need to know what the ONE is, or
what the unit is. Half a box of crayons might be many crayons
or a few crayons, depending on the number of crayons in the
box. Half a yard is much less than half a mile.
Fractions are also used to show division, in rates and ratios,
and in many other ways.
Naming Fractions
a
A fraction is written as b, with two whole numbers that are
separated by a fraction bar. The top number is called the
numerator. The bottom number is called the denominator.
(The denominator cannot be 0.) In fractions that name parts of
wholes, the denominator names the number of equal parts into
which the whole is divided. The numerator names the number
of parts being considered.
A number can be written as a fraction in many ways. Different
fractions that name the same number are called equivalent. 1

2 3
 10  15  0.2  20%
5
Multiplying or dividing a fraction’s numerator and denominator 1 2 3 1

3  6  9  0.3
  333%
by the same number (except 0) produces an equivalent fraction.
All fractions also have decimal and percent names, which can Fractions have many
be found from any of its fraction names by dividing the equivalent names.

numerator by the denominator.

68 sixty-eight
 Fractions

Fraction Uses

Parts of Wholes Fractions are used to name a part of a whole

object or a part of a collection of objects.
5
 of the hexagon is blue.
6
6
 of the dimes are circled.
10

Points on Fractions can name points on a number

Number Lines line that are between points named by
whole numbers.

“In-Between” Fractions can name measures that are

Measures between whole-number measures.

a
Division The fraction b is another way of saying
Notation a divided by b. a a/b
b
The division problem 24 divided by 3 can
aⴜb 
ba
be written in any of these ways: 24 3, or
24
4
32, or 24 / 3, or 3.

Ratios Fractions are used to compare quantities

with the same unit.

Gage Park won 8 games and lost 10 games

during last year’s basketball season. The
games won 8
games lost  10 compares quantities
fraction   

with the same unit (games and games).

We say that the ratio of wins to losses is

8 to 10.

sixty-nine 69
Fractions

Rates Fractions are used to compare quantities

with different units.
Luke’s car can travel about 36 miles on
36 miles
1 gallon of gasoline. The fraction  
1 gallon 36 miles 324 miles
compares quantities with different units 1 gallon
 9 gallons
(miles and gallons). At this rate, the car can
travel about 324 miles on 9 gallons of gasoline.

Scales Fractions are used to compare the size of

a drawing or a model to the size of the
actual object.
A scale on a map given as 1:10,000 means
1
that every distance on the map is  
10,000 of map distance 1 inch
the real-world distance. A 1-inch distance 
real distance 10,000 inches
on the map stands for a real-world distance
of 10,000 inches, or about 830 feet.

Probabilities Fractions are a way to describe the chance

that an event will happen.
If one card is drawn from a well-shuffled
deck of 52 playing cards, the chance of
1
selecting the ace of spades is 52, or about
4
2%. The chance of drawing any ace is 52,
or about 8%.

Other Uses People use fractions in different ways

every day.
1
A film critic gave the movie 42 stars out of 5.
A half-baked idea is an idea that is not
practical or has not been thought out properly.
1
A shoe size of 62 is recommended for women
1
whose feet are 92 inches long.

70 seventy
 Fractions

Renaming a Mixed or Whole Number

as a Fraction

?
3 4 1
Numbers like 24, 85, and 11
6 are called mixed numbers.
A mixed number has a whole-number part and a fraction part.
Did You Know
3 If the inside band of a
In the mixed number 24, the whole-number part is 2 and the
3
fraction part is 4. A mixed number is equal to the sum of the man’s hat is rearranged
3 3 to form a perfect circle,
whole-number part and the fraction part: 24  2  4.
the circle’s diameter (in
inches) is the hat size.
Hat sizes are given as
mixed numbers, where
the fractions can be
renamed as eighths.
Most men’s hat sizes are
1 7
A mixed number can be renamed as a fraction. Study the between 62 and 78. The
1
following example and its shortcut. most common size is 78.

3
Rename 24 as a fraction. A circle is the ONE.

Shortcut:
• Multiply the whole-number part, 2, by the denominator of the fraction part, 4.
8
2 * 4  8. This is the number of fourths in 2 wholes: 2  4.
• Add the numerator of the fraction part, 3, to the result, 8.
3
8  3  11. This is the number of fourths in the mixed number 24.
3 8 3 11
So, 24  
4  
4  .
4

Rename as a fraction.
1 1 3 5 3
1. 33 2. 12 3. 25 4. 16 5. 34 6. 5
Check your answers on page 416.

seventy-one 71
Fractions

Renaming a Fraction as a Mixed

or Whole Number
An improper fraction is a fraction that is greater than or
4 5 125
equal to 1. Fractions like 3, 5, and 10 are improper fractions.
In an improper fraction, the numerator is greater than or Even though they are
called improper, there
equal to the denominator. A proper fraction is a fraction that
is nothing wrong about
is less than 1. In a proper fraction, the numerator is less than
improper fractions.
the denominator. Do not avoid them.
An improper fraction can be renamed as a mixed number or a
whole number.

23
Rename  as a mixed number. A circle is the ONE.
6

6 6 6 5 5

6  
6  
6  
6  1  1  1  
6
23 5

6  36

Shortcut: Divide the numerator, 23, by the denominator, 6. 3

62
• The quotient, 3, is the whole-number part of the mixed number.  18 3
23 5 3
It tells how many wholes there are in 6.
23 / 6 ∑ 3 R5
• The remainder, 5, is the numerator of the fraction part.
It tells how many sixths there are left that cannot be made into wholes.
23 5

6  36

Some calculators have special keys for renaming fractions as

whole numbers or mixed numbers.

23
Use a calculator to rename  as a mixed number.
6
On Calculator A: Key in: 23 6
On Calculator B: Key in: 23 6
23 5

6  36

Rename each improper fraction as a mixed number or a whole number.

6 21 24 11 15 20
1.  2.  3.  4. 2 5.  6. 
5 8 6 4 3
Check your answers on page 416.

72 seventy-two
 Fractions

Equivalent Fractions
Two or more fractions that name the same number are called
equivalent fractions. Equivalent fractions are equal.
One way to rename a fraction as an equivalent fraction is to
multiply the numerator and denominator by the same number.

3
Rename 4 as an equivalent fraction using multiplication.
The rectangle is divided into 4 equal parts. 3 of the parts are blue.
3
 of the rectangle is blue.
4
If each of the 4 parts is split into 2 equal parts, there are now 8 equal
6
parts. 6 of them are blue. 8 of the rectangle is blue.
3 6 3 6

4 and 
8 both name the same amount of the rectangle that is blue.   
4 8
The number of parts in the rectangle was doubled. You can show this   6
3*2
3 4*2 8
by multiplying the numerator and the denominator of 4 by 2.
3 6 3 6

4 is equivalent to 8. 
4  
8
If each part in the rectangle is divided into 3 equal parts, the number
of parts is tripled. You can show this by multiplying the numerator
3
and the denominator of 4 by 3. 3*3 9
9 3 9 3
 
4*3
 
12

12 is equivalent to .
4

12  
4

Another way to rename a fraction as an equivalent fraction is to

divide the numerator and the denominator by the same number.

6
Rename  as an equivalent fraction using division.
12
Divide the region into
6 2
 of the region is green. groups of 3.  is green.
12 4

6 6 3 2 6 2 6 2

12  
12 3  
4 So, 
12 is equivalent to 4. 
12  
4

Rename each fraction as an equivalent fraction. Use multiplication for

Problems 1–3 and division for Problems 4–6.
1 5 5 8 6 9
1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6. 
4 10 4 12 10 15
Check your answers on page 417.

seventy-three 73
Fractions

Simplifying Fractions
When a fraction is renamed as an equivalent fraction with a
smaller numerator and denominator, the new fraction is in
simpler form. You can simplify a fraction by dividing its
numerator and denominator by a common factor greater than 1.

8
Rename  in simpler form.
12
First, find common factors of the numerator and the
denominator. 2 and 4 are common factors of 8 and 12.
8
Then, divide the numerator and the denominator of  by
12
either 2 or 4.
8 2

12 2  46 4

6 is equivalent to
8

12 and is in simpler form.
8 4 2 2 8
The expression lowest

12 4  
3

3 is equivalent to 
12 and is in simpler form. terms means the same as
simplest form.
4 2 8
 and  are simpler forms of  .
6 3 12 In the example at the
left, 4 is the greatest
A proper fraction is in simplest form if it cannot be renamed common factor of 8
2
in simpler form. You can rename a fraction in simplest form by and 12. Therefore, 3 is
8
dividing its numerator and denominator by the greatest equivalent to 12 and is
in simplest form.
common factor of both the numerator and the denominator.
See page 80 for more
A fraction is in simplest form when 1 is the only common factor
on greatest common
of both the numerator and the denominator. Some calculators factors.
have a special key for renaming fractions in simplest form.

8
Rename  in simplest form.
12
On Calculator A: Key in: 8 12
4
The display shows 6. If, without clearing the display, you press again, the display
2 2
will show 3. If you press one more time, the display will show 3 again.
On Calculator B: Key in: 8 12 .
2
Therefore,  is in simplest form. Try it on your calculator.
3

Write the fractions in Problems 1–3 in simpler form and those in Problems
4–6 in simplest form.
6 16 16 9 12 20
1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6. 
12 20 28 15 28 24
Check your answers on page 417.

74 seventy-four
 Fractions

Comparing Fractions
There are several strategies that can help you compare fractions.

5 5
Use a Common 
7  8 because sevenths are larger
Numerator than eighths and there are 5 of each.

5 5

7  
8

1 4 1
Compare to  
is less than 2,
2 9
3 1
and 5 is more than 2.
3 4
So, 5  9. 3

5 
4

9

3 2 3
Compare to 1 Both 4 and 3 are less than 1. But 4
1 2 1
is 4 away from 1, and 3 is 3 away
3 2
from 1. So, 4 is closer to 1 than 3
3 2
is. This means 4  3. 3

4 
2

3

2 1 1 2
Use an Equivalent To compare 7 and 4, change 4 to 8.
2 2
for One of the Since 8  7 (because eighths are
Fractions smaller than sevenths), you know
1 2
that 4  7. 2

7 
2

8 
1

4

3 5
Use a Common To compare 5 and 8, rename both
3 3 8 24
Denominator fractions with a common denominator. 
5  *
5*8  
40

5 * 8  40 is a common denominator. 5
 
5 5
* 
25

24 25 3 5 8 8*5 40
0  40 , you know that 5  8 .
Since 4   

13 32
Convert to To compare 1 
7 and 41 , use a 13
Decimals calculator to convert both to 
17  13 17 0.7647058
decimals. Since 0.76 …  0.78 …, 32
 32 41 0.7804878
41
13 32
you know that 17  41 .


Compare. Use  or .
5 2 14 10 12 12 4 5 17 67
1.   2.   3.   4.   5.  
9 5 15 11 6 5 5 7 23 93
Check your answers on page 417.

seventy-five 75
Fractions

Fraction-Stick Chart
Each stick on the Fraction-Stick Chart represents 1 whole.
Each stick (except the 1-stick) is divided into equal pieces.
Did You Know ?
Each piece represents a fraction of 1 whole. Use of the symbol  for
“equal to” dates back to
1571. Use of the symbols
 and  for “greater
than” and “less than”
dates back to 1631.

Locating a Fraction on the Fraction-Stick Chart

1. Select the stick shown by the denominator of the fraction.
2. Count the number of pieces shown by the numerator,
starting at the left edge of the chart.

3
Find  on the Fraction-Stick Chart.
4
1
The “fourths” stick is equally divided into 4 pieces, each labeled 4.
This stick can be used to locate fractions whose denominators are 4.
3
To locate the fraction 4, count 3 pieces, starting at the left.

3
 is located at the right edge of the third piece.
4

Locate each fraction on the Fraction-Stick Chart.

3 8 0 5 6 2
1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  6. 
8 12 4 9 6 3
Check your answers on page 417.

76 seventy-six
 Fractions

Finding Equivalent Fractions

2
Find fractions that are equivalent to ᎏ3ᎏ.

Step 1: Place one edge of a straightedge at ᎏ23ᎏ.

Step 2: Find all the pieces whose right edges touch the
edge of the straightedge. The right edge of each
piece shows the location of a fraction that is
2
equivalent to ᎏ3ᎏ.
4 6 8 2
ᎏᎏ, ᎏᎏ, and ᎏᎏ are equivalent to ᎏ3ᎏ.
6 9 12

Comparing Two Fractions

4 3
Compare ᎏᎏ and ᎏ8ᎏ. Which is less?
9
Step 1: Place one edge of a straightedge at ᎏ49ᎏ.
Step 2: Locate ᎏ38ᎏ on the “eighths” stick.
3 4
Step 3: ᎏᎏ
8 is to the left of ᎏ9ᎏ.
3 4
ᎏᎏ is less than ᎏ9ᎏ.
8

Use the Fraction-Stick Chart to find an equivalent fraction for each fraction.
3 2 8 6 3
1. ᎏᎏ 2. ᎏᎏ 3. ᎏᎏ 4. ᎏᎏ 5. ᎏᎏ
9 4 12 16 5

Which fraction is less? Use the Fraction-Stick Chart to decide.

1 1 7 8 3 3 6 13 11 15
6. ᎏᎏ or ᎏᎏ 7. ᎏᎏ or ᎏᎏ 8. ᎏᎏ or ᎏᎏ 9. ᎏᎏ or ᎏᎏ 10. ᎏᎏ or ᎏᎏ
9 8 9 10 7 6 7 16 12 16
Check your answers on page 417.

seventy-seven 77
Fractions

Least Common Multiples

A multiple of a number n is the product of any counting
number and the number n. A multiple of a counting number n
is always divisible by n.

6 is a multiple of 3 because 3 * 2  6; 6 is divisible by 3.

24 is a multiple of 4 because 4 * 6  24; 24 is divisible by 4.

The least common multiple of two numbers is the smallest

number that is a multiple of both numbers.

Find the least common multiple of 8 and 12.

Step 1: List multiples of 8: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, …
Step 2: List multiples of 12: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, …
24 and 48 are common multiples of 8 and 12.
24 is smaller, so it is the least common multiple of 8 and 12.

Another way to find the least common multiple of two counting

numbers is to use prime factorization.

Find the least common multiple of 8 and 12.

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:
Write the prime Circle pairs of Cross out one factor Multiply the factors
factorization of each common factors. in each circled pair. that have not been
number. crossed out.
82 * 2 * 2 82 * 2 * 2 82 * 2 * 2 2 * 2 * 2 * 3  24
12  2 * 2 * 3 12  2 * 2 * 3 12  2 * 2 * 3
The least common multiple of 8 and 12 is 24.

The least common multiple of the denominators of two fractions

is the least common denominator of the fractions. For
3 5
example, 12 is the least common denominator of 4 and 6
because 12 is the least common multiple of 4 and 6.

Find the least common multiple of each pair of numbers.

1. 6 and 12 2. 4 and 10 3. 3 and 4 4. 6 and 8 5. 6 and 9 6. 9 and 15

Check your answers on page 417.

78 seventy-eight
 Fractions

Common Denominators
When solving problems that involve fractions with different
denominators, rename the fractions so they have the same
denominator. If two fractions have the same denominator, that
denominator is called a common denominator.
There are several methods for renaming fractions so they have
a common denominator.

3 1
Rename  and  with a common denominator.
4 6
Equivalent Fractions Method
3 1
List equivalent fractions for  and 6.
4
3 6 9 12

4 8
      …
12 16
1 2 3 4
6 12  18  24  …
    
3 1
Both 4 and 6 can be renamed as fractions with the common
denominator 12. The Multiplication
3 9 1 2 Method gives what

4  
12 and 
6  
12 Everyday Mathematics
The Multiplication Method calls the quick common
Multiply the numerator and the denominator of each fraction denominator. The quick
by the denominator of the other fraction. common denominator
3 3 6 18 1 1 4 4 can be used with

4  *
4*6  
24

6  *
6*4  
24 variables, so it is
Least Common Multiple Method common in algebra.
Find the least common multiple of the denominators.
Multiples of 4: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, …
Multiples of 6: 6, 12, 18, 24, …
The least common
The least common multiple of 4 and 6 is 12. denominator is usually
Rename the fractions so that their denominator is the least easier to use in
common multiple. complicated calculations,
3 3 3 9 1 1 2 2 although finding it

4  *
4*3  
12 and 
6  *
6*2  
12 can often take
This method gives what is known as the least more time.
common denominator.

Rename each pair of fractions as fractions with a common denominator.

1 5 3 3 7 3 1 3 4 7
1.  and  2.  and  3.  and  4.  and  5.  and 
3 6 4 5 10 2 4 10 6 8
Check your answers on page 417.

seventy-nine 79
Fractions

Greatest Common Factors

The greatest common factor of two counting numbers is the
largest counting number that is a factor of both numbers.

Find the greatest common factor of 20 and 24.

Step 1: List all the factors of 20: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 20.
Step 2: List all the factors of 24: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24.
1, 2, and 4 are common factors of 20 and 24.

4 is the greatest common factor of 20 and 24.

Another way to find the greatest common factor of two counting

numbers is to use prime factorization.

Find the greatest common factor of 20 and 24.

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:
Write the prime Circle pairs of common Cross out the factors Multiply one factor
factorization of each. prime factors. that are not circled. from each pair of
circled factors.
20  2 * 2 * 5 20  2 * 2 * 5 20  2 * 2 * 5
2*24
24  2 * 2 * 2 * 3 24  2 * 2 * 2 * 3 24  2 * 2 * 2 * 3

The greatest common factor of 20 and 24 is 4.

An Interesting Fact
The product of the least common multiple and the greatest
common factor of two counting numbers is the same as the
product of the two numbers themselves.

The least common multiple of 4 and 6 is 12.

The greatest common factor of 4 and 6 is 2.
The product of the least common multiple and the
greatest common factor of 4 and 6 is 12 * 2, or 24,
and the product of 4 and 6 is also 24.

Find the greatest common factor of each pair of numbers.

1. 3 and 5 2. 4 and 10 3. 8 and 24 4. 35 and 28 5. 18 and 12 6. 9 and 15
Check your answers on page 417.

80 eighty
 Fractions

Using Unit Fractions

A unit fraction is a fraction with 1 in its numerator, such as
1 1
2 10
1
, , and . If you know the part of a whole represented by a
25
Did You Know ?
unit fraction, you can find the whole by multiplying the part of Levels of pollution are
the whole by the denominator of the unit fraction. measured in parts per
million (PPM). One
PPM is 1 part out of
1
6 is  of what number? 1,000,000, or 
1

4 1,000,000
1 2 of the whole.
Since  is 6,  must be 2 * 6, or 12;
4 4
3
 must be 3 * 6, or 18;
4
4
and  must be 4 * 6, or 24.
4
1
So, 6 is  of 24.
4

1
Mark owns 2 white shirts. This is 4 of the total
number of shirts he owns. How many shirts
does he own?
1
If 2 shirts are 4 of the total number
of shirts, then the total number of
shirts is 4 times that number.

Since 4 * 2  8, Mark owns a total of 8 shirts.

Unit fractions can be used even when a part is given as a

fraction that is not a unit fraction.

2
Sara lives 8 blocks from the library. This is 3 of the distance from her
home to school. How many blocks is it from Sara’s home to school?

Step 1: Find 13 of the distance to school. 8 blocks

2
is 3 of the distance to school. Therefore,
1
to find 3 of the distance, divide 8 blocks
by 2. 8 / 2  4

Step 2: Find the total distance to school. 4 blocks is 13 of the distance to school.
3
Therefore, to find the total distance to school (or  of the distance),
3
multiply 4 blocks by 3. 3 * 4  12

Sara lives 12 blocks from school.

eighty-one 81
Fractions

Ms. Partee spends $1,000 a month. This amount

4
is 5 of her monthly earnings. How much does
she earn per month?

Step 1: Find 15 of her monthly earnings.

4
$1,000 is 5 of her monthly earnings.
1
Therefore, to find 5 of her earnings,
divide $1,000 by 4.
$1,000 / 4  $250

Step 2: Find her total monthly earnings.

1
$250 is 5 of her monthly earnings.
Therefore, to find her total earnings
5
(or 5 of her earnings), multiply $250 by 5.
5 * $250  $1,250
Ms. Partee earns $1,250 each month.

Solve each problem.

1
1. Natalie collects movie posters. Her 4 posters from Star Wars Episode III are 8
of her collection. How many posters does Natalie have in her whole collection?
3
2. If 12 counters are  of a set, how many counters are in the whole set?
5
3
3. Mr. Hart spends $800 per month on rent. This is  of his monthly earnings.
15
How much does he earn per month?
Check your answers on page 417.

82 eighty-two
 Fractions

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

To find the sum of fractions that have the same denominator,
you add just the numerators. The denominator does not change.
Subtraction of fractions with like denominators is done the
same way.

1 2 4 3
Find 
4  4. Find 
5  5.

1 2 12 3 4 3 43 1

4  
4  
4  
4

5  
5  
5  
5

To find the sum of fractions that do not have the same

denominator, first rename the fractions as fractions with a
common denominator. Then proceed as above. Subtraction of
fractions with unlike denominators is done the same way.

3 1 5 1
Find 
4  8. Find 
6  4.

3 1 6 1 7 3 6 5 1 10 3 7 5 10 1 2 3

4  
8  
8  
8  
8 (4  8) 
6  
4  
12  
12  
12 (6  ; 
12 4  
8  )
12

3 1 7 5 1 7
So, 
4  
8  8. So, 
6  
4   .
12

It is possible to add and subtract fractions on some calculators.

See if you can do this on your calculator.

3 1 7 3
Find 
8  3. Find 
8  5.
On Calculator A: On Calculator B:
Key in 3 8 1 3 Key in 7 8 3 5
17 11
Answer:  Answer:  .
24 40

Solve each problem. Check the answers on a calculator.

5 3 7 1 2 1 13 7 3 5
1. 
9  
9 2. 
8  
4 3. 
3  
4 4. 
6  
4 5. 
8  
6
Check your answers on page 417.

eighty-three 83
Fractions

Addition of Mixed Numbers

One way to add mixed numbers is to add the fractions and the
whole numbers separately. This may require renaming the sum.

5 7
Find 48  28.
Step 1: Add the fractions. Step 2: Add the whole Step 3: Rename the sum.
numbers.
5 12 8 4
4
5

8
4 
8 6 
8 6 
8  
8
7 4

7
2 8  2 8 61 
8
12 4
12

8
6 8 7 
8
1
5 7 1 7 
48  28  72 2

If the fractions do not have the same denominator, first rename

the fractions so they have a common denominator.

3 2
Find 34  53.
Step 1: Rename and add Step 2: Add the whole Step 3: Rename the sum.
the fractions. numbers.
17 12 5
3
3
  3
9
 3
9
 8 
12  8  
12  
12
4 12 12
5
5
2
  5
8
 5
8
  8  1  
12
3 12 12
5
17
 8
17
  9 
12
12 12

3 2 5
34  53  912

Some calculators have special keys for entering mixed numbers.

3 2
Solve 34  53 on a calculator.
On Calculator A: Key in 3 3 4 5 2 3
On Calculator B: Key in 3 3 4 5 2 3

Solve Problems 1–3 without a calculator. Solve Problem 4 with a calculator.

1 7 4 1 2 3 4 6
1. 28  78 2. 35  22 3. 63  34 4. 149  87
Check your answers on page 417.

84 eighty-four
 Fractions

Subtraction of Mixed Numbers

If the fractions do not have the same denominator, first rename
them as fractions with a common denominator.

7 3
Find 38  14.
Step 1: Rename the Step 2: Subtract the Step 3: Subtract the whole
fractions. fractions. numbers.
7
3 7  3 7 3 8 3 7
8 8 8
1 3  1 6 1 6 1 6
4 8 8 8
1
 2 1
7 3 1 8 8
38  14  28

To subtract a mixed number from a whole number, first rename

the whole number as the sum of a whole number and a fraction
that is equivalent to 1.

2
Find 5  23.
Step 1: Rename the whole Step 2: Subtract the Step 3: Subtract the whole
number. fractions. numbers.

5  4 3 4 3 4 3

3 3 3
2 2  2 2  2 2  2 2
3 3 3 3
1
 2 13
2 1 3
5  23  23

When subtracting mixed numbers, rename the larger mixed

number if it contains a fraction that is less than the fraction in
the smaller mixed number.

1 3
Find 75  35.
Step 1: Rename the larger Step 2: Subtract the Step 3: Subtract the whole
mixed number. fractions. numbers.

7 1  6 6 6 6 6 6

5 5 5 5
 3 3  3 3  3 3  3 3
5 5 5 5
3
 3 35
1 3 3 5
75  35  35

eighty-five 85
Fractions

1 2
The example below shows three methods of solving 46  23.

1 2
Find 4 6  2 3 .

Method 1: This is the method shown on page 85.

Step 1: Rename the Step 2: Rename the larger Step 3: Subtract.
fractions. mixed number.
1
4 1  4 1 4   3 7 3 7
6 6 6 6 6
4
 2 2   2 4  2   2 4  2 4
3 6 6 6 6
3
1 6  112

Method 2: Work with the fraction names for the mixed numbers.
Step 1: Rename the mixed Step 2: Rename the Step 3: Rename the result
numbers. fractions. Subtract. as a mixed number.
1 25 25 25 9 3
4 6  
6

6  
6

6
 16  112
2 8 8 16
 2 3   3  3   6
9

6

Method 3: Use the partial-differences method. 4 1

6
 2 2
3
Subtract the whole numbers. 42 ∑ 2
1 2 1 4 3
Subtract the fractions. 
6  
3  
6  
6 ∑  
6
3 3 1
Find the total. 2 
6 ∑ 1 6  12
1 2 1
4  2  1
6 3 2

You can also subtract mixed numbers on calculators that have

keys for entering mixed numbers. Try it.

Subtract. Check your answers on a calculator.

2 1 7 7 5 1 2
1. 55  13 2. 6  28 3. 49 

9 4. 82  33
Check your answers on page 417.

86 eighty-six
 Fractions

Finding a Fraction of a Number

Many problems with fractions involve finding a fraction of
a number.

2 2
Find  of 24. “3 of 24” has the same
3 2
meaning as “3 * 24.”
Model the problem by using
When you find the
24 pennies. Divide the
fraction of a number, you
pennies into 3 equal groups.
can replace the word “of”
1
Each group has 3 of the by the multiplication
1
pennies. So, 3 of 24 pennies symbol.
is 8 pennies.
Other examples:
1 2

3 of 24  8, so 
3 of 24  16. 1 1
 of 18 means 6 * 18.
6
2 2

3 of 24  
3 * 24  16 3

3
of 40 means 4 * 40.
4
3 3
 of 2.8 means 4 * 2.8.
4

2
A jacket that sells for $45 is on sale for 3 of
the regular price. What is the sale price?
2
To find the sale price, you have to find  of $45.
3
Step 1: Find 13 of 45. 45 3  15, so
1

3 of 45 is 15.
Step 2: Use the answer from Step 1 to find 23 of 45.
1 2
Since 
3 of 45 is 15, then 
3 of 45 is 2 * 15  30.
1
45 3  15, so 3 of 45 is 15.
The sale price is $30.
2 2

3 of $45  
3 * $45  $30

Solve each problem.

1 3 3 5
1.  of 32 2.  of 32 3.  of 30 4.  of 72
4 4 5 6

5. Gina and Robert earned $56 raking lawns, but Gina did most of the work.
3
They decided that Gina should get 4 of the money. How much does each
person get?
Check your answers on page 417.

eighty-seven 87
Fractions

Multiplying Fractions and Whole Numbers

People usually think that “multiplication makes things bigger.”
But multiplication involving fractions can lead to products that are
1
smaller than at least one of the factors. For example, 10 * 2  5.
Number-Line Model
One way to multiply a fraction and a whole number is to think
about “hops” on a number line. The whole number tells how
many hops to make, and the fraction tells how long each hop
2
should be. For example, to find 5 * 3, imagine taking 5 hops on
2
a number line, each 3 of a unit long.

2 1
5* 
3  33
Addition Model
You can use addition to multiply a fraction and a whole
2 2
number. For example, to find 4 * 3, draw 4 models of 3.
Then add up all of the fractions.
2 2 2 2 2 8
4*           
Area Model 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2
Think of the problem  * 4 as “What is 3 of an area that has
3
4 square units?”
Draw 4 squares, each with an area of
1 square unit. The rectangle has an area
of 4 square units. 4 square units

Divide the rectangle into 3 equal strips and shade 2 strips

2 8
(3 of the area). The shaded area equals 3 (8 small rectangles,
1
each with an area of 3).
2 8 2 8
So, 
3 of 4 square units equals 
3 square units. 
3 *4 
3
2 2 8

3 of 4  
3 * 4  3

Multiply.
3 2 4 2 3
1. 5 *  2.  *6 
3. 4 * 4. 6 * 5 5.  *6
4 3 5 4
Check your answers on page 417.

88 eighty-eight
 Fractions

Multiplying Fractions
When both numbers to be multiplied are fractions, addition and
number-line hopping are not helpful in finding the answer.
Fortunately, the area model does help.

3 2

4 * 3  ?
2
 of the rectangular region is shaded this way:
3

3
 of the region is shaded this way:
4

3 2
 of  of the region is shaded both ways:
4 3

6 1
That’s , or , of the whole region.
12 2
3 2 6 1
 *     
4 3 12 2

Multiplication of Fractions Property

The problem above is an example of this general pattern:
To multiply fractions, simply multiply the numerators and
multiply the denominators.
This pattern can be expressed as follows:
a c a*c

b * 
d 
b*d
(b and d may not be 0.)

3 2 3*2 6 1 5 6 5*6 30 15 1

4 * 3       
4*3 12 2

4 * 7        1
4*7 28 14 14

The Multiplication of Fractions Property can be used to

multiply a whole number and a fraction. First, rename the
whole number as a fraction with 1 in the denominator.

2 5 2 5*2 10 1 2 2 4 2*4 8
5* 
3  
1 * 3      3
1*3 3 3

11 * 4  11 * 1     
11 * 1 11

Multiply.
1 3 3 5 4 20 6 0 10 6
1.  * 5 2.  * 6 3.  *  4. 7 * 7 5.  * 25
2 4 5 3 3
Check your answers on page 417.

eighty-nine 89
Fractions

Multiplying Mixed Numbers

One way to multiply two mixed numbers is to rename each
mixed number as an improper fraction and multiply the
fractions. Then rename the product as a mixed number.

Find 3 14 * 1 56 .

The remainder in a
Rename the mixed numbers as Rename the product as a
division problem can be
fractions and multiply. mixed number.
rewritten as a fraction.
3 14 * 156  13 11 The remainder is the
 * 
4 6 4
2413

 120 5 143
numerator and the divisor
 13 * 11
  
143

24
 5 2234 is the denominator.
4*6 24 23 5
For example,
So, 314 * 156  5 22
3
4
. 143 24 ∑ 5 R23
23
so 143 24  524 .

Another way to multiply mixed numbers is to find partial

products and add them.

Find 6 12 * 3 35 .

Step 1: Find all the partial products.
6 * 3  18
3 6 3 18 3
6 *    *     3 
5 1 5 5 5
1 1 3 3 1
 * 3   *     1
2 2 1 2 2
1 3 3
 *   
2 5 10

Step 2: Add the partial products.

3 1 3 3 1 3
18  35  12  10  22  5  
2  
10
6 5 3
 22  
10  
10  
10
14 4 2
 22  
10  23 10  23 5
1 3 2
So, 62 * 35  235.

Multiply.
1 1 2 2 1
1.  * 12 2. 23 * 5 3. 35 * 22
4
Check your answers on page 417.

90 ninety
 Fractions

Division of Fractions
Dividing a number by a fraction often gives a quotient
1
that is larger than the dividend. For example, 4 2  8.
To understand why this is, it’s helpful to think about what
division means.
Equal Groups
A division problem like a b  ? is asking “How many bs
are there in a?” For example, the problem 6 3  ? asks,
6 32
“How many 3s are there in 6?” The figure at the right shows
that there are two 3s in 6, so 6 3  2.
1 1
A division problem like 6 3  ? is asking, “How many 3s
are there in 6?” The figure at the right shows that there are 1
1 6   18
18 thirds in 6, so 6 3  18. 3

1
Scott has 5 pounds of rice. A cup of rice is about  pound.
2
How many cups of rice does Scott have?

1 1
This problem is solved by finding how many 2s are in 5, which is the same as 5 .
2

So, Scott has about 10 cups of rice.

Missing Factors
A division problem is equivalent to a multiplication problem
with a missing factor.
1 1
A problem like 6 
2  ■ is equivalent to 
2 * ■  6.
1 1

2 * ■  6 is the same as asking “2 of what number equals 6?”
1 1
Since 
2 * 12  6, you know that 6 
2  12.

2 2
Find 10 .
3 Write 10 
3  .
2
This problem is equivalent to 
3 *  10, which means
2
“3 of what number is 10?”
2
The diagram shows that 3 of the missing number is 10. 2
2 1 1 
3 of ?  10
Since 3 of the missing number is 10, 3 must be 5. Since 3 of
the missing number is 5, the missing number must be 3 * 5  15.
2 2
So, 
3 of 15  10, which means that 
3 * 15  10.
2
10 
3  15

ninety-one 91
Fractions

Common Denominators
One way to solve a fraction division problem is to rename both
the dividend and the divisor as fractions with a common
denominator. Then divide the numerators and the denominators.

2
Find 6 .
3
2 18 2
Rename 6 as
18
. 6    
3 3 3 3
Divide the numerators 18 2
 
and the denominators. 3 3
9
 , or 9
1
2
So, 6 
3  9.
To see why this method works, imagine putting the 18 thirds
2
into equal groups that have 3 in each group. There would be
18
9 groups. There are 9 two-thirds in 3.

Julia has 6 pounds of modeling clay. She wants

3
to put it in packages that hold 4 of a pound
each. How many packages can she make?
3 24 3 24 3
To solve 6 4, rename 6 as .
4 6 
4  
4

4
Then divide.
24 3
 
4 4
The 24 fourths can be put
3
into 8 groups of 4 each. 8
 1, or 8
So, Julia can make 8 packages of modeling clay.

Solve. Then write a division number model for each problem.

1. Regina has 9 pizzas. If each person 2. Selena has 10 yards of plastic

1
can eat 2 of a pizza, how many strips for making bracelets. She
1
people can Regina serve? needs 3 yard for each bracelet. How
1 many bracelets can she make?
3. 7 is 4 of a number. What is
the number?
Check your answers on page 417.

92 ninety-two
 Fractions

Division of Fractions and Mixed Numbers

a b
The reciprocal of any fraction  is the fraction a. For example,
b
3 4
the reciprocal of 4 is 3.
n 1
If n is a whole number, n  1. So the reciprocal of n is n.
1 0
For example, the reciprocal of 9 is 9. 0 can be written as 1,
1
but 0 does not have a reciprocal, because 0 is not defined.
(Division by 0 is never allowed.)
a b
The product of a number and its reciprocal is always 1. 
b * a  1

4 7 4*7 28 120 3 360 1 29 1 29


7 * 4      1
7*4 28

3 120  360  1
*   29 * 
29  
1 * 29  29  1

Reciprocals are useful when dividing fractions.

Division of Fractions Property
a c a d
To find the quotient of two fractions, multiply the first fraction 
b

d  
b * c
by the reciprocal of the second fraction.

4 2 4 3 3 1 11 4

5

3   * 
5 2 24 13  
4

3
12 11 3
 
10   * 
4 4
2 1 33 1
 110, or 15  , or 2
16 16

1
Roger has 64 pounds of ground hamburger. He wants to
make 5-ounce hamburger patties. How many can he make?
1 5
1 pound  16 ounces. So, 1 ounce  
16 pound, and 5 ounces  
16 pound.
5 1 1 5
Think: How many s are in 64? This is a division problem: 6 4 .
16 16
1 25
Rename the mixed number 64 as 4 and use the Division of Fractions Property:
25 5 25 16 400

4

16  
4 * 
5  
20  20

Roger can make 20 hamburger patties.

Divide.
3 1 5 1 3 2 1 1
1.   2. 5  3.   4. 23 4 5. 32 14
5 4 3 7 7
Check your answers on page 417.

ninety-three 93
Fractions

Positive and Negative Numbers

Positive and negative numbers are used on temperature scales
Did You Know ?
In golf, the par score for
and thermometers. They express temperatures with reference to
a course is the average
a zero point (0 degrees). number of strokes that
Many other real-world situations have zero as a starting point. an expert golfer should
Numbers go in opposite directions from zero. The numbers take to complete the
course. A score of 5
greater than zero are called positive numbers; the numbers
indicates that the player
less than zero are called negative numbers. took 5 fewer strokes than
Situation Negative () Zero (0) Positive () par. A score of 11
bank account withdrawal no transaction deposit indicates that the player
weight loss no change gain took 11 more strokes
time past present future than par. The winners
games behind even ahead of most professional
elevation below sea level at sea level above sea level tournaments have
negative scores.
Notation
A positive number may be written using the “” symbol, but is
usually written without it. For example, 10  10 and π  π.
The symbol “” is written before a positive number to show that
it represents a negative number. For example, 5 is read as Sometimes people say
5 5
“negative 5,” 12.3 as “negative 12.3,” and 8 as “negative 8.” “minus” instead of
“negative,” reading 5
Relations as “minus 5.” This is
Two numbers are opposite numbers if they are the same less correct than saying
distance from 0 on the number line, but on opposite sides of 0. “negative 5,” but it is
For example, the opposite of 1.5 is 1.5 and the opposite of usually acceptable.
1.5 is 1.5. The opposite of 0 is 0 itself.
When two numbers are shown on a number line, the number
that is farther to the right is the larger number. Thus, 3  1
and 2.435  3.627.

4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

3.627 2.435
Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number is the distance between the
Absolute value is shown
number and 0 on the number line. The absolute value of any
by vertical lines before
number is either positive or 0. The absolute value of a positive
and after a number.
number is the number itself; for example, the absolute value of
absolute value of 4.5:
4.5 is 4.5. The absolute value of a negative number is the
|4.5|  4.5
opposite of the number; for example, the absolute value of 6 is
6. The absolute value of 0 is 0. absolute value of 6:
|6|  6
94 ninety-four
 Fractions

Addition and Subtraction of Positive and

Negative Numbers When a negative number
One way to add positive and negative numbers is to imagine follows an operation
symbol, the negative
walking along a number line.
number appears in
♦ The first number tells you where to start. parentheses. For example,
♦ The operation sign ( or ) tells you which way to face: 8  (7) tells you to add
8 and negative 7.
 means face the positive end of the number line.
 means face the negative end of the number line.
♦ If the second number is negative (has a  sign),
walk backward. Otherwise, walk forward.
♦ The second number tells you how many steps to take.
♦ The number where you end is the answer.

Find 3  5.
Start at 3.
The operation sign is , so face the positive direction.
The second number is positive, so walk forward 5 steps.
You will end at 2.

So, 3  5  2.

Find 1  (4).
Start at 1.
The operation sign is , so face the positive direction.
The second number is negative, so walk backward 4 steps.
You will end at 5.

So, 1  (4)  5.

Add.
3
1. 4  (5) 2. 4  (5) 3. 3  8 4. 3  
2
Check your answers on page 417.

ninety-five 95
Fractions

Find 1  4.
Start at 1.
The operation sign is , so face the negative direction.
The second number is positive, so walk forward 4 steps.
You will end at 3.

So, 1  4  3.

Find 2  (4).
Start at 2.
The operation sign is , so face the negative direction.
The second number is negative, so walk backward 4 steps.
You will end at 2.

So, 2  (4)  2.

Changing Subtraction to Addition

Another way to think about subtraction of numbers is to change
the subtraction problem to an addition problem.
For any numbers a and b, a  b  a  (the opposite of b),
or a  b  a  (b).

1  4  1  (4)  3 3  (4)  3  4  7
2  (4)  2  4  2 3  4  3  (4)  7

Subtract.
1. 4  2 2. 5  (8) 3. 4  (3) 4. 2  6
1 3
5. 8  (25) 6. 5.3  5.7 7. 14  (14) 8. 2  
2
Check your answers on page 417.

96 ninety-six
 Fractions

Multiplication and Division of Positive

and Negative Numbers
Did You Know ?
It was not until
To multiply or divide two numbers, calculate the answer as if the 1700s that most
mathematicians accepted
both numbers were positive. Then use one of the following rules
negative numbers
to decide whether the answer is a positive or a negative number. as actual numbers.
♦ If the signs on both numbers match, the result is a positive Before then, they were
number. called defective and
false and absurd.
♦ If the signs on both numbers do not match, the result is a
negative number.
Study the examples below.

Multiplication Division Result

Signs match
• both positive 8 * 3 ⫽ 24 51 ⫼ 17 ⫽ 3 positive
• both negative ⫺2 * (⫺3) ⫽ 6 ⫺81 ⫼ (⫺3) ⫽ 27

Signs don’t match

• one positive and 12 * (⫺6) ⫽ ⫺72 ⫺75 ⫼ 25 ⫽ ⫺3 negative
one negative
⫺25 * 8 ⫽ ⫺200 10 ⫼ (⫺2) ⫽ ⫺5

One way to understand why the above rules are correct is to

look at patterns in products of positive and negative numbers. a b a*b

The first table begins with a positive number times a positive 5 2 10

number. Each time the second factor gets smaller, the product 5 1 5
is reduced by 5. When the second factor is negative, the product 5 0 0
must be negative to keep the pattern going.
5 ⫺1 ⫺5
The second table begins with a negative number times a 5 ⫺2 ⫺10
positive number. Each time the second factor gets smaller, the
product is increased by 5. When both factors are negative, the
a b a*b
product must be positive to keep the pattern going.
⫺5 2 ⫺10

⫺5 1 ⫺5

⫺5 0 0

Multiply or divide. ⫺5 ⫺1 5
1. ⫺7 * 9 2. 10 * (⫺32) 3. 9 * (⫺7) ⫺5 ⫺2 10

4. 48 ⫼ (⫺12) 5. ⫺42 ⫼ 6 6. ⫺100 ⫼ (⫺25)

Check your answers on page 417.

ninety-seven 97
Fractions

Multiplication and Division with Zero

Multiplication with Zero: a * 0  0
If one (or more) of the factors in a multiplication problem is 0,
the product is 0.

38 * 0  0 5 * 12 * 0 * 4  0 0*00

Division of Zero: 0 / a  0
When 0 is divided by any number (except 0), the answer is 0.
To understand this, think about multiplication. Any division
Did You Know ?
The problem 0 / 0  ■
problem can be rewritten as a multiplication problem with a is interesting. It can
missing factor. And here the missing factor must be 0. be rewritten as the
multiplication problem
Division Problem Multiplication Problem Missing Factor
0 * ■  0.
0/8■ 8*■0 0
Since any number at all
1
0 / 75  ■ 75 * ■  0 0 (5, 73, 245, 2, and so
on) will make 0 * ■  0
0 / a  ■ (if a  0) a*■0 0
true, there are too many
answers. So, people
Division by Zero: a / 0  ? usually say 0 / 0 is
Division by 0 is not allowed. not allowed.

Again, thinking about multiplication can help you understand If you study calculus in
high school or college,
this fact. Any division problem can be rewritten as a
you may learn about
multiplication problem with a missing factor. special cases when
0 / 0 is allowed, but for
Division Problem Multiplication Problem Missing Factor
elementary mathematics,
8/0■ 0*■8 no solution division of 0 by 0 is
75 / 0  ■ 0 * ■  75 no solution
not allowed.

a / 0  ■ (if a  0) 0*■a no solution

Any number multiplied by 0 is 0, so there are no solutions to

the multiplication problems above. This means none of the
division problems have answers either. This is why we say
division by 0 is not allowed: There is no answer.

Multiply or divide.
1. 0 * (1,234) 2. 4 * 12 * 10 * 0 3. 0 / 100 4. 32 / 0
Check your answers on page 418.

98 ninety-eight
 Fractions

Different Types of Numbers

Counting is almost as old as the human race and has been used
in some form by every human society. Long ago, people found
that the counting numbers (1, 2, 3, and so on) did not meet
all their needs.
♦ Counting numbers cannot be used to express measures
1
between two consecutive whole numbers, such as 22 inches
and 1.6 kilometers.
♦ With the counting numbers, division problems such as 8 / 5
and 3 / 7 do not have an answer.
Fractions were invented to meet these needs. Fractions can
also be renamed as decimals and percents. And most of the
1 1
numbers you have seen, such as 2, 56, 1.23, and 25%, are
either fractions or can be renamed as fractions. With the
invention of fractions, it became possible to express rates and
Every whole number can
ratios, to name many more points on the number line, and to
be renamed as a fraction.
solve any division problem involving whole numbers (except For example, 0 can be
division by 0). 0
written as 1 and 8 can
8
However, even fractions did not meet every need. For example, be written as 1.
3 1
problems such as 5  7 and 24  54 have answers that are less
than 0 and cannot be named as fractions. (Fractions, by the
way they are defined, can never be less than 0). This led to the
invention of negative numbers. Negative numbers are
1 Since every whole
numbers that are less than 0. The numbers 4, 3.25, and
number can be renamed
100 are negative numbers. The number 3 is read as as a fraction, every
“negative 3.” negative whole number
Negative numbers serve several purposes: can be renamed as a
negative fraction. For
♦ to name locations such as temperatures below zero on a example, 7  1.
7
thermometer and depths below sea level
♦ to show changes such as yards lost in a football game and
decreases in weight
♦ to extend the number line to the left of zero

♦ to calculate answers to many subtraction problems

ninety-nine 99
Fractions

The opposite of every positive number is a negative number.

And the opposite of every negative number is a positive number.
The diagram below shows this relationship. The number 0 is
neither positive nor negative. 0 is its own opposite.

A Summary of Different Types of Numbers

The counting numbers are 1, 2, 3, and so on.

The whole numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on. The whole

numbers include all the counting numbers, together with 0.
The integers are 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, and so on. So the
integers include all the whole numbers, together with the
opposites of all the whole numbers.
a
The fractions are all numbers written as b, where a and b can
be any whole numbers (b  0).
♦ Every whole number can be renamed as a fraction. For
5 0
example, 5 can be renamed as  and 0 can be renamed as 1.
1

♦ Every fraction can be renamed as a decimal and as a percent.

3 9
For example, 4 can be renamed as 0.75 and as 75%, and 
8
can be renamed as 1.125 and as 112.5%.
The rational numbers are all numbers that are written or can
be renamed as fractions or their opposites.
♦ Counting numbers, whole numbers, integers, fractions, and
the opposites of these numbers are all rational numbers.
♦ Every number shown on the Probability Meter at the right is
a rational number.
There are other numbers that are called irrational numbers.
Some of these, like the number , you have used before.
An irrational number cannot be renamed as a fraction or its
opposite. You will learn more about irrational numbers when
you study algebra.

100 one hundred

 Fractions

Notation
Any fraction can always be renamed as a decimal. Sometimes
the decimal will end after a certain number of places. Decimals
that end are called terminating decimals. Other times the
decimal will have one or more digits that repeat in a pattern
forever. These are called repeating decimals. If the decimal
name for a fraction is not a terminating decimal, then it is a
repeating decimal.
The rational numbers are all numbers that are written or can
be renamed as fractions or their opposites. Just as for fractions,
the decimal name for a rational number is either terminating
or repeating.

5 1

8  0.625 
3  0.3
  0.3333…
1

7  0.1
4
2
8
5
7
  0.142857142857142857142857142857142857…

An irrational number can be written as a decimal, but not as a

terminating or repeating decimal. An irrational number cannot
be renamed as a fraction or the opposite of a fraction.

 3.141592653… The decimal continues without a repeating pattern.

2
  1.414213562… The decimal continues without a repeating pattern.

1.010010001… There is a pattern in the decimal, but it does not repeat.

Refer to The Real Number Line on page 102 to answer these questions.
1. Which counting numbers are labeled 2. Which integers are labeled on the
on the number line? number line?
3. Can 0.2 be written as a fraction? 4. Is 1.333... a rational number?
5. Is 101 a positive rational number? 6. Is 16
 a rational number?
7. Which rational numbers between 1 8. Can 1.1666... be written as a
and 2 are labeled? fraction?
9. Which numbers labeled on the number line cannot be
written as either terminating or repeating decimals?
Check your answers on page 418.

one hundred one 101

Fractions

The Real Number Line

All of the numbers shown in

black are rational numbers.
All of the numbers shown in
red are irrational numbers.
The collection of all rational
numbers and all irrational
numbers is called the
real numbers.

102 one hundred two

 Fractions

General Patterns and Special Cases

Many rules involving numbers can be described with the help of
variables, such as n or ■. For example, the rule “The sum of a
Did You Know ?
number and its opposite is 0” can be expressed as a  (a)  0, The general pattern
below may be used to
where a stands for any number. This is sometimes called a
add all of the counting
general pattern. A special case of this general pattern can numbers from 1 up to,
be given by replacing the variable a with any number. For and including, n.
1 1
example, 5  (5)  0 and 272  (272)  0 are special cases
123…n
of the general pattern a  (a)  0. n * (n  1) / 2
In the special case where
Express the following rule with variables: n  100, the sum of the
“The square of a number is the number multiplied by itself.” numbers 1 through 100
equals 100 * 101 / 2,
Give three special cases of the general pattern.
or 5,050.
General pattern: n2  n * n
Special cases: For n  3: 32  3 * 3
For n  7: (7)2  7 * (7)
2 2
For n  3: (23) 
2

3
2
* 3

Use variables to describe the general pattern for the following special cases.
3 3
Special cases: 8/81 0.5 / 0.5  1 24 / 24  1
Step 1: Write everything that is the same for all the special cases.
Use blanks for the parts that change. _____ / _____  1

Step 2: Fill in the blanks. Use a variable for the number that varies.
(Use 2 different variables if there are 2 different numbers that vary.) b/b1
The general pattern is b / b  1. (Division by 0 is not allowed, so b may not equal 0.)

Write three special cases for each general pattern.

1. 2 * r  r  3 * r 2. b  (b  1)  (b  2)  3 * (b  1)

Use variables to express the general pattern for these special cases.
3 2
3. 3  6  6  3 4. 
2 * 3  1
7 1
0.25  0.75  0.75  0.25 
1 * 7  1
2 1 1 2 3 5

4  
5  
5  
4

5 * 3  1
Check your answers on page 418.

one hundred three 103

Fractions

Properties of Numbers
The following properties are true for all numbers. The variables
a, b, c, and d stand for any numbers (except 0 if the variable
stands for a divisor).

Properties Examples
Binary Operations Property 5  7  12
When any two numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied, or 3  8  523
3
divided, the result is a single number. 0.5 * (4)  2
a  b, a  b, a * b, and a b are equal to single numbers. 235 83  3490

Commutative Property 7  8  8  7  15
The sum or product of two numbers is the same, regardless of 5 * (6)  6 * (5)  30
the order of the numbers. 3 4 4 3 3
abba

4 * (5)  5 * 
4  5
a*bb*a

Associative Property (7  5)  8  7  (5  8)
The sum or product of three or more numbers is the same, 12 87 13
regardless of how the numbers are grouped. 20  20
a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c
a * (b * c)  (a * b) * c 212 * (2 * 3)  (212 * 2) * 3
212 * 6  5 *3
15  15

Distributive Property 5 * (8  2)  (5 * 8)  (5 * 2)
When a number a is multiplied by the sum or difference 5 * 10  40  10
of two other numbers, the number a is “distributed” to each of 50  50
these numbers.
a * (b  c)  (a * b)  (a * c) 2 * (8  3)  (2 * 8)  (2 * 3)
a * (b  c)  (a * b)  (a * c) 2 * 5  16  (6)
10  10

Addition Property of Zero 5.37  0  5.37

The sum of any number and 0 is equal to the original number. 0  (6)  6
a00aa

Multiplication Property of One 2 *1 2

3 3
The product of any number and 1 is equal to the original number.
1 * 19  19
a*11*aa

104 one hundred four

 Fractions

Properties Examples
Opposites Property
The opposite of a number, a, is usually written a. OPP(8)  8
In Everyday Mathematics, we sometimes write OPP(a)
OPP(34)  34
for the opposite of a.
If a is a positive number, then OPP(a) is a negative number. OPP(7)  7

If a is a negative number, then OPP(a) is a positive number. OPP(0)  0

If a  0, then OPP(a)  0. Zero is the only number that is its

own opposite.

Opposite of Opposites Property

The opposite of the opposite of a number is equal to the OPP(OPP(23))  OPP(23)  23
original number.
OPP(OPP(9))  OPP(9)  9
OPP(OPP(a))  OPP(a)  a

Sum of Opposites Property

The sum of any number and its opposite is 0. 15  (15)  0

a  (a)  (a)  a  0 2  2  0

Multiplication of Reciprocals Property

The product of any number and its reciprocal is 1. 20 * 1  1
20
a b b a
a* 1  1a * a  1  *   a * b  1 2 5
  1
a b a 5 * 2

Addition Property of Positive and Negative Numbers

The sum of two positive numbers is a positive number. 7  8  15

The sum of two negative numbers is the opposite of the sum 7  (8)  (OPP)(7  8)  15
of the “number parts” of the addends.
3  (14)  12
The sum of a positive number and a negative number may be 4
positive or negative or zero. 2.5  1.5  1

Multiplication Property of Positive and Negative Numbers

The product of two positive numbers or two negative numbers is a 6 * 3  18
positive number. 6 * (3)  18
The product of a positive number and a negative number is a
1 4 4
negative number. 3 * (5)  15

Subtraction and Division Properties

15  7  15  (7)  8
All subtraction problems can be solved by addition.
All division problems can be solved by multiplication. 9  (6)  9  6  3
a  b  a  (b) 25 (5)  25 * (51)  255  5
a ba* 1 12 1
b 
4  12 * 4  3
a a* 1
b b

one hundred five 105

Fractions

Properties Examples
Equivalent Fractions Property
If the numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied or 2 2∗5 1
0

divided by the same number, the resulting fraction is equal to the 3 3∗5 15
original fraction.
6 2
6  3
8 2 4
a ∗c a c 
a   a  8
b b ∗c b b c

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions Properties

The sum or difference of fractions with like denominators is the sum 3 1
3  51     4
or difference of the numerators over the denominator. 5 5 5
a 
a  bc   b
c c 5 5 
a 
  1   6
1
 4  2
a  bc  b 6 6 6 3

c c
2 10  3
To add or subtract fractions with unlike denominators, rename the   1  1
0
 3
  
15
 1
3
3 5 15 15 15
fractions so that they have a common denominator.
a ad  bc 83

b
 dc  
bd
2
3
 41  182  132   5
  
12 12
a ad  bc
  c  
b d bd

Multiplication of Fractions Property

The product of two fractions is the product of the numerators over
the product of the denominators.
a ∗c ∗
a ∗ dc    5 ∗ 43  
5
 15
3
b b ∗d 8 8 4 ∗ 32

Division of Fractions Property

The quotient of two fractions is the product of the dividend and the 9 2  9 ∗ 23  227, or 1321
3
reciprocal of the divisor.
a c
a ∗d
 ab ∗ dc    5 1  65 ∗ 14  260, or 331
6 4
b d b ∗c

Powers of a Number Property

If a is any number and b is a positive whole number, then ab is the
product of a used as a factor b times. 52  5 ∗ 5  25
a b a ∗ a ∗ a ∗ ... ∗ a (23)4  23 ∗ 23 ∗ 23 ∗ 2  1861
3
b factors
a0 is equal to 1.
40  1
If a is any nonzero number and b is a positive whole number, then
ab is 1 divided by the product of a used as a factor b times. 1
1 32    1  19
32 3∗3
ab    1
ab a ∗ a ∗ a ∗ ... ∗ a

b factors

106 one hundred six