Production of a magnetic field by a current-carrying wire magnetic field intensity

(magnetizing force)
Production of a magnetic field by a current is Ampere's law:
Current (A)

The magnetic field

intensity H is in a
sense a measure of
the “effort” that a
current is putting into
the establishment of
the magnetic field

The current passing within the path of integration Inet is then Ni, since the coil of wire cuts the
path of integration N times. Ampere's law thus becomes

The units of magnetic field intensity are ampere-

turns per meter

If the core is composed of iron or certain other similar metals (collectively called ferromagnetic
materials) , essentially all the magnetic field produced by the current will remain inside the core,
so the path of integration in Ampere's law is the mean path length of the core lc (l).
The magnetic field intensity H is in a sense a measure of the "effort" that a current is putting
into the establishment of a magnetic field.

The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also depends on the material of the
core.

The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the resulting magnetic flux density
B produced within a material is:

Unit of flux density is

webers per square meter,
known as teslas (T).
magnitude of the flux density

Unit of permeability
is henrys per meter
permeability of free space relative permeability
For a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times more flux is established in a piece of
steel than in a corresponding area of air.

Total flux in a given area

If the flux density vector is perpendicular to a plane of

area A, and if the flux density is constant throughout
the area, then
The current in a coil of wire wrapped around
a core produces a magnetic flux in the core.
Note That: (Ampere Law)
 Magnetic Circuits

The magnetic circuit model of magnetic behavior is often used in the design of electric
machines and transformers to simplify the otherwise quite complex design process
The magnetic circuit analog to
a transformer core.

voltage or electromotive force (F) Magnetomotive force (mmf) (measured in ampere-

turns). The magnetomotive force of the magnetic circuit
is equal to the effective current flow applied to the core

The positive end of the mmf source is the end from which the flux exits, and the negative
end of the mmf source is the end at which the flux reenters.
 The polarity of the mmf from a coil of wire can be determined from a
modification of the right-hand rule:

In an electric circuit, the applied voltage

causes a current I to flow.

In a magnetic circuit, the applied

magnetomotive force causes flux to be
produced.

The relationship between voltage and

current in an electric circuit is
Ohm's law (V = IR); similarly, the
relationship between magnetomotive
force and flux is

The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electrical

resistance, and its units are ampere-turns per weber.
Conductance of an electric circuit is the reciprocal of its resistance,
the permeance P of a magnetic circuit is the reciprocal of its reluctance

The relationship between magnetomotive force and flux

Serial Parallel
Calculations of the flux in a core performed by using the magnetic circuit concepts are
always approximations- at best, they are accurate to within about 5 percent of the real
answer. There are a number of reasons for this inherent inaccuracy:

1. The magnetic circuit concept assumes that all flux is confined within a magnetic core.
Unfortunately, this is not quite true. The permeability of a ferromagnetic core is 2000 to
6000 times that of air, but a small fraction of the flux escapes from the core into the
surrounding low-permeability air. This flux outside the core is called leakage flux, and it
plays a very important role in electric machine design.

2. The calculation of reluctance assumes a certain mean path length and cross-
sectional area for the core. These assumptions are not really very good, especially at
corners.

3. In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with the amount of flux

already in the material. This nonlinear effect is described in detail. It adds yet
another source of error to magnetic circuit analysis, since the reluctances used in
magnetic circuit calculations depend on the permeability of the material.
 4. If there are air gaps in the flux path in a core, the
effective cross-sectional area of the air gap will be larger
than the cross-sectional area of the iron core on either
side. The extra effective area is caused by the "fringing
effect" of the magnetic field at the air gap.

The fringing effect of a

magnetic field at an air gap.
Note the increased cross-
sectional area of the air gap
compared with the cross-
section al area of the metal.

There are many inherent limitations to the concept of a magnetic circuit, but it is still the
easiest design tool available for calculating fluxes in practical machinery design.

Exact calculations using Maxwell's equations are just too difficult, and they are not
needed anyway, since satisfactory results may be achieved with this approximate
method.
EXAMPLE-1

Figure shows a ferromagnetic core whose

mean path length is 40 cm. There is a small gap
of 0.05 cm in the structure of the otherwise
whole core. The cross-sectional area of the
core is 12 cm2, the relative permeability of the
core is 4000, and the coil of wire on the core
has 400 turns. Assume that fringing in the air
gap increases the effective cross-sectional area
of the air gap by 5 percent. Given this
information, find

(a) the total reluctance of the flux path (iron

plus air gap) and
(b) the current required to produce a flux
density of 0.5 T in the air gap.
0.0012
382,200
EXAMPLE-2

Figure shows a simplified rotor and stator for a

de motor. The mean path length of the stator
is 50 cm, and its cross-sectional area is 12 cm2,
The mean path length of the rotor is 5 cm, and
its cross-sectional area also may be assumed to
be 12 cm2, Each air gap between the rotor and
the stator is 0.05 cm wide, and the crass
sectional area of each air gap (including
fringing) is 14 cm2, The iron of the core has a
relative permeability of 2000, and there are
200 turns of wire on the core.

If the current in the wire is adjusted to be 1 A,

what will the resulting flux density in the air
gaps be?
The slope of the BH curve is actually dependent on the permeability of the magnatic core
 EXAMPLE-3

Find the relative permeability of the typical

ferromagnetic material whose magnetization
curve is shown in Figure
(a) H = 50,
(b) H = 100,
(c) H =500,
(d) H = 1000 A • turns/m.
 EXAMPLE-4

A square magnetic core

has a mean path length of
55 cm and a cross
sectional area of 150 cm2.
A 200-turn coil of wire is
wrapped around one leg
of the core. The core is
made of a material having
the magnetization curve
shown in Figure

(a) How much current is required to produce 0.012 Wb of flux in the core?
(b) What is the core's relative permeability at that current level?
(e) What is its reluctance?
0.012
1.5 FARADAY'S LAW- INDUCED VOLTAGE
FROM A TIME-CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD

Examine the various ways in which an existing magnetic Faraday's law.

field can affect its surroundings. Basis of transformer operation

Faraday's law states that if a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will
be induced in the turn of wire that is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux
with respect to time

voltage induced in the turn of the coil flux passing through the turn

The minus sign is an expression of Lenz's law.

Lenz's law states that the direction of the voltage buildup in the coil is such that if the coil ends
were short circuited, it would produce current that would cause a flux opposing the original
flux change. Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes it, a minus sign
 To understand this concept clearly:
determining the
resulting voltage
polarity

A coil enclosing an increasing magnetic flux

If the flux shown in the figure is increasing in strength, then the voltage built up in the coil will
tend to establish a flux that will oppose the increase.

A flux opposing the increase, so the voltage on the coil must be built up with the polarity
required to drive that current through the external circuit.
Voltage must be built up with the polarity shown in the figure. Since the polarity of the resulting
voltage can be determined from physical considerations, the minus sign in Equations are often
left out. It is left out of Faraday's law in the remainder of this course

Equation assumes that exactly the same flux is present in each turn of the coil. Unfortunately,
the flux leaking out of the core into the surrounding air prevents this from being true.

If the windings are tightly coupled, so that the vast majority of the flux passing through one turn
of the coil does indeed pass through all of them, then Equation will give valid answers.

N turns in the coil of wire

The magnitude of the => the total voltage on the
voltage in the ith turn coil is
of the coil is
 The units of flux linkage are
Flux linkage
weber-turns

Faraday's law is the fundamental property of magnetic fields involved in transformer operation.

The effect of Lenz's law in transformers is to predict the polarity of the voltages induced in
transformer windings.
Faraday's law also explains the eddy current losses:

A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core in just the same manner as it
would in a wire wrapped around that core.

These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core, much like the eddies seen at
the edges of a river.

It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy currents.

These eddy currents are flowing in a resistive material (the iron of the core), so energy is
dissipated by them. The lost energy goes into heating the iron core.
Faraday law 1 states that if a flux passes through a turn of a coil of a wire, a
voltage will be induced in the wire that is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux with respect to time.

This “time changing flux” induces voltage WITHIN a ferromagnetic core in just the
same manner as it does in a wire wrapped around the core !!!! They act exactly like
when current passes through a resistance and causes heat losses and they depend on
the resistivity of material in which the current swirls and the size of the swirl.
we reduce eddy currents by making the core of
thin laminations OR use high resistivity
material. Thin laminations will cause current
swirl to be reduced, thus lower emf induced
and lower current will circulate.
The amount of energy lost (eddy currents) depends on:

a) size of the current swirls and

b) resistivity of the material current flows.

b1)The larger the size of the swirl, the greater the resulting induced voltage will be
(larger flux inside the swirl).

b2) The larger the induced voltage, the larger the current flow that resuits, and
therefore the greater the I2R losses will be.

c)the greater the resistivity of the material containing the currents, the lower the current flow will
be for a given induced voltage in the swirl.

Two possible approaches to reduce the eddy current losses in a transformer or an

electric machine:
(1) If a ferromagnetic core that may be subject to alternating fluxes is broken up into many
small strips. or laminations, then the maximum size of a current swirl will be reduced,
resulting in a lower induced voltage, a lower current, and lower losses.

This reduction is roughly proportional to the width of these laminations, so smaller

laminations are belter.

The core is built up alit of many of these laminations in parallel. An insulating resin is used
between the strips, so that the current paths for eddy currents are limited to very small areas.
Because the insulating layers are extremely thin, this action reduces eddy current losses
with very little effect on the core's magnetic properties.

(2) Increase the resistivity of the core material:

adding some silicon to the steel of the core.
If the resistance of the core is higher, the eddy currents will be smaller for a
given flux, and the resulting I2R losses will be smaller.
Example :

The flux in the core is

given by the equation

If there are 100 turns on the core:

-what voltage is produced at the terminals of the coil?

-what polarity is the voltage during the time when flux is increasing in the reference
direction shown in the figure?

Assume that all the magnetic flux stays within the core (i.e.,assume that the flux leakage is zero).
The direction of the voltage while the flux is increasing in the reference direction must be
positive to negative. The magnitude of the voltage is given
1.6 PRODUCTION OF INDUCED FORCE ON A WIRE

A second major effect of a magnetic field on

its surroundings is that

it induces a force on a current carrying wire

within the field

The force induced on the conductor is

uniform magnetic field

conductor
of flux density B
The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule:
a) If the index finger of the right hand points in the direction of the vector I
and
b) the middle finger points in the direction of the flux density vector B,
then the thumb points in the direction of the resultant force on the wire.

The magnitude of the force is given by the equation

Example

The magnetic flux density is 0.25 T,

directed into the page. If the wire is
1.0 m long and carries 0.5 A of current
in the direction from the top of the page
to the bottom of the page, what are the

a) magnitude and
b) direction of the force induced on
the wire?

The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule as being to the right.

Induction of a force in a wire by a current in the presence of a magnetic field is the basis of motor
action.

Almost every type of motor depends on this basic principle for the forces and torques which make
it move.
1.7 INDUCED VOLTAGE ON A CONDUCTOR MOVING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Third major way in which a magnetic

field interacts with its surroundings. If a
wire with the proper orientation moves
through a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced in it.

Vector I points along the direction of the

wire toward the end making the smallest
angle with respect to the vector v X B.

The voltage in the wire will be built up so

that the positive end is in the direction of the
vector v X B.
 Conductor moving with a velocity of
Example 5.0 m/s to the right in the presence of a
magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5 T
into the page, and the wire is 1.0 m in
length, oriented as shown.

a) What are the magnitude and polarity

of the resulting induced voltage?

Since v is perpendicular to B and since v

X B is parallel to I, the magnitude of the
induced voltage reduces to
Example
A conductor moving with a velocity of 10 m/s to the
right in a magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5 T, out
of the page, and the wire is 1.0 m in length, oriented as
shown.

What are the magnitude and polarity of the resulting

induced voltage?

The direction of the quantity v x B is down. The wire

is not oriented on an up-down line, so choose the
direction of I as shown to make the smallest possible
angle with the direction of v X B. The voltage is
positive at the bottom of the wire with respect to the
top of the wire. The magnitude of the voltage is

The induction of voltages in a wire moving in a magnetic field is fundamental to the operation of
all types of generators. For this reason, it is called generator action.
1.8 THE LINEAR DC MACHINE-A SIMPLE EXAMPLE

A linear dc machine is about the simplest and easiest-to-understand version of a dc machine,

yet it operates according to the same principles and exhibits the same behavior as real generators
and motors.

Battery and a resistance connected through a switch to a pair of smooth, frictionless rails.

Uniform-density magnetic field directed into the page. A bar of conducting metal is lying across
the tracks
How does such a strange device behave? Its behavior can be determined from an application of
four basic equations to the machine. These equations are

1. The equation for the force on a wire in the presence of a magnetic field
Starting the Linear DC Machine

To start this machine, simply close the switch. Now a current flows in
the bar, which is given by Kirchhoff's voltage law

The current flows down through the bar across the tracks. But a current flowing through a
wire in the presence of a magnetic field induces a force on the wire. Because of the geometry
of the machine, this force is
 Therefore, the bar will accelerate to the right (by Newton's law). However,
when the velocity of the bar begins to increase, a voltage appears across the bar.
The voltage is given by

The voltage now reduces the current flowing in the bar, since by Kirchhoff's voltage law

The result of this action is that eventually the bar will reach a constant steady-state speed
where the net force on the bar is zero. This will occur when eind has risen all the way up to equal
the voltage VB' At that time, the bar will be moving at a speed given by
Velocity v(r) as a function of time; current i(t);

induced voltage eind(t) induced force Find.

To summarize, at starting, the linear dc machine behaves as follows:
 The Linear DC Machine as a Motor
Assume that the linear machine is initially runing at the no-load steady-state conditions
described above. What will happen to this machine if an external load is applied to it?

Here, a force Fload applied to the bar opposite the direction of motion. Since the bar was initially
at steady state, application of the force Fload will result in a net force on the bar in the direction
opposite the direction of motion (Fnet = Fload - Find).

The effect of this force will be to slow the bar. But just as soon as the bar begins to slow down,
the induced voltage on the bar drops (eind = v↓BI). As the induced voltage decreases, the current
flow in the bar rises:
Therefore, the induced force rises too (Find= i↑IB). The overall result of this chain of events is
that the induced force rises until it is equal and opposite to the load force , and the bar again
travels in steady state, but at a lower speed.

Velocity V(I) as a function of time

current i(t)

Velocity V(I) as a fu nction

of time

induced voltage eind induced force Find

 There is now an induced force in the direction of motion of the bar, and power is being
converted from electrical form to mechanical form to keep the bar moving. The power being
converted is

An amount of electric power equal to eind is consumed in the bar and is replaced by mechanical
power equal to FindV. Since power is converted from electrical to mechanical form, this bar is
operating as a motor.
A real dc motor behaves in a precisely analogous fashion when it is loaded:

As a load is added to its shaft, the motor begins to slow down, which reduces its internal
voltage, increasing its current flow.

The increased current flow increases its induced torque, and the induced torque will equal the
load torque of the motor at a new, slower speed.

Note that the power converted from electrical form to mechanical form by this linear motor was
given by the equation Pconv = FindV. The power converted from electrical form to mechanical
form in a real rotating motor is given by the equation

where the induced torque τind is the rotational analog of the induced force Find, and
the angular velocity w is the rotational analog of the linear velocity v.
 The Linear DC Machine as a Generator
Suppose that the linear machine is again operating under no-load steady-state conditions.
This time, apply a force in the direction a/motion and see what happens

applied force
Fapp in the
direction of
motion.

Applied force will cause the bar to accelerate in the direction of motion, and the velocity v of the
bar will increase.

As the velocity increases, eind = v↑Bl will increase and will be larger than the battery voltage VB
With eind > VB the current reverses direction and is now given by
Since this current now flows up through the bar, it induces a force in the bar given by

The direction of the induced force is given by the right-hand rule. This induced (force
opposes the applied force on the bar.

Finally, the induced force will be equal and opposite to the applied force, and the bar will
be moving at a higher speed than before. Notice that now the battery is charging. The linear
machine is now serving as a generator, converting mechanical power FindV into electric
power eindi .
Again, a real de generator behaves in precisely this manner: A torque is applied to the shaft in
the direction a/motion, the speed of the shaft increases, the internal voltage increases, and
current flows out of the generator to the loads. The amount of mechanical power converted to
electrical form in the real rotating generator is again given by

The same machine acts as both motor and generator.

The only difference between the two is whether the externally applied forces are in the direction
of motion (generator) or opposite to the direction of motion (motor).

Electrically, when eind > VB the machine acts as a generalor, and when eind < VB the machine acts
as a motor.

Whether the machine is a motor or a generator, both induced- force (motor action) and induced
voltage (generator action) are present at all times.

This is generally true of all machines- both actions are present, and it is only the relative
directions of the external forces with respect to the direction of motion that determine whether the
overall machine behaves as a motor or as a generator.

This machine was a generator when it moved rapidly and a motor when it moved more slowly,
but whether it was a motor or a generator, it always moved in the same direction. Many
beginning machinery students expect a machine to turn one way as a generator and the other way
as a motor. This does not occur.
 Starting Problems with the Linear Machine

This machine is supplied by a 250-V dc source, and its internal resistance R is given as about
0.10Ω (The resistor R models the internal resistance of a real dc machine, and this is a fairly
reasonable internal resistance for a medium-size de motor.)

Providing actual numbers in this figure highlights a major problem with machines (and their
simple linear model). At starting conditions, the speed of the bar is zero, so eind = O. The current
flow at starting is
This current is very high, often in excess of 10 times the rated current of the machine. Such
currents can cause severe damage to a motor. Both real ac and real dc machines suffer from
similar high-current problems on starting.

How can such damage be prevented? The easiest method for this simple linear machine is to
inserlt an extra resistance into the circuit during starting to limit the current flow until eind
builds up enough to limit it.

a starting resistance inserted into the machine circuitry.

Example

The linear dc machine shown

in Figure has a battery
voltage of 120 V, an internal
resistance of 0.3Ω, and a
magnetic flux density of 0.1
T.

(a) What is this machine's maximum starting current? What is its steady-state velocity at no
load?

(b) Suppose that a 30-N force pointing to the right were applied to the bar. What would the
steady-state speed be? How much power would the bar be producing or consuming? How much
power would the battery be producing or consuming? Explain the difference between these two
figures . Is this machine acting as a motor or as a generator?

(c) Now suppose a 30¥N force pointing to the left were applied to the bar. What would the new
steady-state speed be? Is this machine a motor or a generator now?

(e) Assume that the bar is unloaded and that it suddenly runs into a region where the magnetic
field is weakened to 0.08 T. How fast will the bar go now?
Thus, when the flux in the linear motor weakens, the bar speeds up. The same behavior
occurs in real dc motors: When the field flux of a dc motor weakens, it turns faster. Here,
again, the linear machine behaves in much the same way as a real de motor.