NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication protocols
over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the
network nodes.
Two computers are said to be inter-connected if they are able to exchange information.
I.Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
1. Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices.
2. Half-Duplex In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. Walkie-talkies and
CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
3. Full-Duplex In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. One common
example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode
is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.

II. Physical Structures

Type of Connections
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible types of connections: point-
to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The
entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-
point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.
Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two
specific devices share a single link.
III. Physical Topologies
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
1.MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology. In a full
mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers in
that network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following
formula (n is the number of computers in the network):n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network have
connections to multiple other computers in that network.
II. STAR:
A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration,
every node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central
network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of
network card used in each computer of the star topology, a fibre, a coaxial cable or an RJ-45
network cable is used to connect computers together or even wirelessly.
III. BUS:
A line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device
are connected to a single cable or backbone.

IV. RING:
A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections creat ea circular data path.
In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their
destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a
unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction, called bi-directional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is broken,
the entire network is affected. Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs)
or wide area networks (WANs).

IV. Types of Network based on size.

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it covers and its physical
architecture. The three primary network categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network
differs in their characteristics such as distance, transmission speed, cables and cost. Basic types:
LAN (Local Area Network) Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room,
building, campus) Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers, applications
and other devices. Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections. Due to short
distances, errors and noise are minimum. Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps. Example: A
computer lab in a school.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) Design to extend over a large area. Connecting number of
LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can be shared. Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.
Owned by organization or individual. Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN. Example:
Organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN (Wide Area Network) Are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple LAN's and
MAN's. Distinguished in terms of geographical range. Uses satellites and microwave relays. Data
transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the location. Best example is the
internet.
V. Transmission Media
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carryinformation from a
source to a destination.

1.Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver,
and the other is used only as a ground reference.
Applications: Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
2. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper)
enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against
noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also
enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

3. Fiber-Optics: A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different
density), the ray changes direction.
Advantages
1. Higher bandwidth.
2. Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of
other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters
every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic
cables.
4. Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual model created by the International
Organization for Standardization which enables diverse communication systems to communicate
using standard protocols. In plain English, the OSI provides a standard for different computer
systems to be able to communicate with each other.

The OSI model can be seen as a universal language for computer networking. It’s based on the
concept of splitting up a communication system into seven abstract layers, each one stacked upon
the last.

Although the modern Internet doesn’t strictly follow the OSI model (it more closely follows the
simpler Internet protocol suite), the OSI model is still very useful for troubleshooting network
problems. Whether it’s one person who can’t get their laptop on the Internet, or a web site being
down for thousands of users, the OSI model can help to break down the problem and isolate the
source of the trouble. If the problem can be narrowed down to one specific layer of the model, a
lot of unnecessary work can be avoided.

The Application Layer

This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user. Software applications like web
browsers and email clients rely on the application layer to initiate communications. But it should
be made clear that client software applications are not part of the application layer; rather the
application layer is responsible for the protocols and data manipulation that the software relies on
to present meaningful data to the user. Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email communications).
The types of threats that the application layer is exposed to will be familiar to any developer who
has worked with web security:

1. DDoS attacks (Such as DNS attacks and HTTP floods that aim to lock up applications and
deny access to legitimate users).
2. SQL injections on applications that have poorly verified user input protocols.
3. Cross-site scripting and parameter tampering.

6. The Presentation Layer

This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used by the application layer;
in other words, layer 6 makes the data presentable for applications to consume. The presentation
layer is responsible for translation, encryption, and compression of data.

Two communicating devices communicating may be using different encoding methods, so layer 6
is responsible for translating incoming data into a syntax that the application layer of the receiving
device can understand.

If the devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer 6 is responsible for adding
the encryption on the sender’s end as well as decoding the encryption on the receiver's end so that
it can present the application layer with unencrypted, readable data.

Finally, the presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it receives from the
application layer before delivering it to layer 5. This helps improve the speed and efficiency of
communication by minimizing the amount of data that will be transferred.
5. The Session Layer

This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication between the two devices. The
time between when the communication is opened and closed is known as the session. The session
layer ensures that the session stays open long enough to transfer all the data being exchanged, and
then promptly closes the session in order to avoid wasting resources.

The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints. For example, if a 100 MB file
is being transferred, the session layer could set a checkpoint every 5 MB. In the case of a disconnect
or a crash after 52 megabytes have been transferred, the session could be resumed from the last
checkpoint, meaning only 50 more megabytes of data need to be transferred. Without the
checkpoints, the entire transfer would have to begin again from scratch.

4. The Transport Layer

Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two devices. This includes
taking data from the session layer and breaking it up into chunks called segments before sending
it to layer 3. The transport layer on the receiving device is responsible for reassembling the
segments into data the session layer can consume.

The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control. Flow control determines
an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a sender with a fast connection doesn’t overwhelm
a receiver with a slow connection. The transport layer performs error control on the receiving end
by ensuring that the data received is complete, and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.

Sync flooding, port scanning, a method by which to identify vulnerable or open network ports,
operates at layer 4 of the OSI model. Implementing effective firewalls and locking down ports
only to those required can mitigate risks at this level.
3. The Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two different networks. If
the two devices communicating are on the same network, then the network layer is unnecessary.
The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller units, called packets,
on the sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on the receiving device. The network layer
also finds the best physical path for the data to reach its destination; this is known as routing.

Protocols consist of the Internet Protocol (IP), packet sniffing and DoS attacks such as Ping floods
and ICMP attacks.

2. The Data Link Layer

The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link layer facilitates data
transfer between two devices on the SAME network. The data link layer takes packets from the
network layer and breaks them into smaller pieces called frames. Like the network layer, the data
link layer is also responsible for flow control and error control in intra-network communication
(The transport layer only does flow control and error control for inter-network communications).

Layer 2 attacks may also include MAC flooding or ARP poisoning.

1. The Physical Layer

This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer, such as the cables and
switches. This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a string of
1s and 0s. The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal convention so that the 1s
can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.

Some attacks at this layer include: Fiber of cable cuts, frequency jammers.

TCP/IP
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite was developed before OSI reference model. The OSI reference model
consists of seven layers whereas TCP/IP protocol suite has only four layers. In comparison to OSI
reference model, TCP Suite has high level of communication traffic awareness between sources
to destination. The TCP/IP Suite has administrative communication controlled and reliable data
processing. It has dozens of layer components and communication set of rules which provide
reliable service performance and data security.
Each layer in TCP/IP suite is responsible for a specific communication service and all these layers
are cascaded and support each other. The main protocols of this suite are TCP and UDP, which
exist in transport layer. TCP is an acknowledgeable protocol that provides reliability in data
transmission while UDP is non acknowledgeable protocol and is used in data streaming services
like video conferencing, VOIP, etc.