SECTOR:

ELECTRONICS

QUALIFICATION:

CONSUMER ELECTRONICS SERVICING NC II

UNIT OF COMPETENCY:

MAINTAIN AND REPAIR AUDIO-VIDEO SYSTEMS AND PRODUCTS

MODULE TITLE:

MAITAINING AND REPAIRING AUDIOPRODUCTS

AND SYSTEMS

Republic of the Philippines

TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AITHORITY
REGIONAL TRAINING CENTER 02
Region 02
 CONSUMER ELECTRONICS SERVICING NC II
SUMMARY OF COMPETENCY-BASED

LEARNING MATERIALS

Unit of Competency Module Title Code

1 Assemble/ disassemble Assembling/ disassembling ELC724322
consumer electronics consumer electronics
products and systems products and systems

2 Maintain and repair Maintaining and ELC724323

audio/ video products repairing audio products
and systems and systems
3 Maintain and repair Maintaining and repairing ELC724324
electronically- controlled electronically- controlled
domestic appliances domestic appliances

4 Maintain and repair cellular Maintaining and repairing ELC724325

phones cellular phones

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 HOW TO USE THISCOMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL (CBLM)

Welcome!

The Module ―Maintaining and Repairing Audio Products and

Systems‖ is one of the competencies of Consumer Electronics Servicing NC
II. This module contains training materials and activities for you to
complete.

The unit of competency ―Maintaining and Repairing Audio Products

and Systems‖” contains the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for a
Consumer Electronic Servicing required to obtain the National Certificate
(NC) level II.

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

complete each of the learning outcomes of the module. In each learning
outcome there are Information Sheets, Operation Sheets, and Activity
Sheets. Follow these activities on your own and answer the Self-Check at
the end of each learning activity.

If you have questions, don’t hesitate to ask your instructor for

assistance.

The goal of this course is the development of practical skills. To gain

these skills, you must learn basic concepts and terminology. For most part,
you get this information from the information sheets, and TESDA
website,[Link]. This module was prepared to help you achieve
the required competenciesin ‖Maintain and Repair Audio Products and
Systems”.

This will be the source of information for you to complete

independently and at your own pace, with minimum supervision or help
from your instructor.

Remember to:
 Work through all the information and complete the activities in each
section.
Read information sheets (if available) and complete the self-check.
Suggested references are included to supplement the materials provided
in this module.
 Most probably your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager.
He/she is there to support you and show you the correct way to do
things.
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 You will be given plenty of opportunity to ask questions and practice on
the job. Make sure you practice your new skills during regular work
shifts. This way you will improve both your speed and memory and also
your confidence.

 Use the Self-checks, Operation Sheets or Job Sheets for each section to
test your own progress.

 When you feel confident that you have had sufficient practice, ask your
Trainer to evaluate you. The results of your assessment will be recorded
in your Progress Chart and Accomplishment Chart.

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

You may already have some of the knowledge and skills covered in
this module because you have:
o been working for some time
o already have completed training in this area.

If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a

particular skill or skills, talk to him/her about having them formally
recognized so you don’t have to do he same training again. If you have a
qualification or Certificate of Competency from previous trainings show it to
your trainer. If the skills you acquired are still current and relevant to this
module, they may become part of the evidence you can present for RPL. If
you are not sure about the currency of your skills, discuss it with your
trainer.

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 DIRECTION FOR USE OF THE CBLM

This module was prepared to help you achieve the required

competency: Maintaining and Repairing Audio Products and Systems.
This will be the source of information for you to acquire the knowledge and
skills in this particular module with minimum supervision or help from your
trainer. With the aid of this material, you will acquire the competency
independently and at your own pace.
Talk to your trainer and agree on how you will both organize the
training of this unit. Read through the module carefully. It is divided into
sections which covers all the skills and knowledge you need to successfully
complete in this module.
Work through all the information and complete the activities in each
section. Do what is asked in the INSTRUCTIONAL SHEET ( TASK SHEET,
OPERATION SHEET, JOB SHEET ) and complete the SELF-CHECK.
Suggested references are included to supplement the materials provided in
this module.
Most probably, your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager.
He is there to support you and show you the correct way to do things. Ask
for help.
Your trainer will tell you about the important things you need to
consider when you are completing activities and it is important that you
listen and take notes.
You will be given plenty of opportunities to ask questions and practice
on the job. Make sure you practice your new skills during regular work
shifts. This way, you will improve both your speed and memory and also
your confidence.
Talk to more experienced workmates and ask for their guidance. Use
the self-check questions at the end of each section to test your own
progress.
When you are ready, ask your trainer to watch you perform the
activities outlined in the module.
As you work through the activities, ask for written feedback on your
progress. Your trainer gives feedback/pre-assessment reports for this
reason. When you have successfully completed each element or learning
outcome, ask your trainer to mark on the reports that you are ready for
assessment.
When you have completed this module (several modules) and feel
confident that you have had sufficient practice, your trainer will arrange an
appointment to qualified trainer to assess/evaluate you. The result of your
assessment/evaluation will be recorded in your COMPETENCY
ACHIEVEMENT RECORD.

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 SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

MODULE CONTENT

QUALIFICATION/PROGRAM CONSUMER ELECTRONICS SERVICING NC II

UNIT OF COMPETENCY MAINTAIN AND REPAIR AUDIO-VIDEO

PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS

MODULE TITLE MAINTAINING AND REPAIRING AUDIO

PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION:

This Module, “Maintaining and Repairing Audio Products and

Systems”, contains training materials and activities for you to complete.

The unit of competency ―Maintaining and Repairing Audio Products and

Systems” contains the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for Consumer
Electronic Servicing required to obtain the National Certificate (NC) level II.

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

complete each of the learning outcomes of the module. In each learning
outcome, there are Information Sheets, Job Sheets and Operation Sheets. Do
these activities on your own and answer the Self-Check at the end of each
learning activity.

If you have questions, don’t hesitate to ask your trainer for assistance.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this module you must be able to:

1. Enumerate, explain and apply OHS policies and procedures in maintaining and repairing
audio/video products and systems

2. Identify and explain the uses/functions of different types of tools and testing instruments
for maintaining and repairing audio/video products and systems

3. Identify and explain or interpret the principles of operation of electronic symbols and block
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 sections of schematic diagram

4. Apply symptoms diagnosis and systematic pre-testing procedures

5. Troubleshoot, repair and maintain audio products and systems

Assessment Criteria
1. Electrical safety precautions are identified, enumerated and explained correctly
2. OHS in maintaining and repairing audio/video products and systems are defined and
explained
3. OHS in maintaining and assembling audio/video products and systems are
demonstrated in accordance to the set procedures/instructions
1. Materials needed for maintenance and repair are identified and prepared and checked
according to the work instructions
2. Tools and equipment types and functions needed for maintenance and repair are
identified and demonstrated according to set standards
3. Testing devices and instruments operations needed for maintenance and repair are
explained and demonstrated according to instruction manual
4. Personal protective equipment are used in accordance with the Occupational Health
and Safety guidelines and policies
1. Electronic symbols are identified and selected according to the schematic diagram
2. Electronic parts value are read and matched correctly as required
3. Schematic diagram sections and functions are identified and explained
4. Electronic symbols are identified and selected according to the schematic diagram
5. Electronic parts value are read and matched correctly as required
6. Schematic diagram sections and functions are identified and explained
1. Materials, tools and instruments needed in troubleshooting repair and cleaning are
selected and checked in accordance with established procedures
2. Isolation of troubles are performed with proper Personal Protective Equipment PPE)
and following the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) practices
3. Troubles are isolated by following the systematic procedures and using proper
instruments in accordance with the prescribed instructions
4. Defective parts/components are replaced with identical or recommended appropriate
equivalent ratings and soldered/mounted in accordance with the current industry
standards
5. Control settings/adjustments of repaired unit are performed in conformity with service-
manual specifications
6. Cleaning of unit is performed in accordance with standard procedures
7. Periodical tests of the repaired unit are maintained and documented according to
standard procedures
8. Repaired units are reassembled completely and waste materials are disposed of in
accordance with environmental requirements
9. Results of troubleshooting and repair are documented properly within the specified
time

PRE-REQUISITE : BASIC AND COMMON COMPETENCIES

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BASIC COMPETENCIES
Participate in workplace communication
Work in team environment
Practice career professionalism
Practice occupational health and safety procedures

COMMON COMPETENCIES

Use Hand Tools

Perform Mensuration and Calculation
Prepare and Interpret Technical Drawing
Apply Quality Standards
Perform Computer Operations
Terminate and Connect Electrical Wiring and Electronic Circuits

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 TECHNICAL TERMS

 Active State - It is a condition of a semiconductor device that is working.

 Alternating Current - It is an electric current that is continually varying
in value and reversing its direction of flow at regular interval.
 Biasing Current - It is a current supply needed by the semiconductor in
order to work properly.
 Capacitance - It is a property that exits whenever two conductors are
separated by insulating material, permitting the storage of electricity.
 Capacitor - A component designed intentionally to have a definite
amount of capacitance.
 Cathode - It is a negative electrode of semi-conductor devices.
 Circuit - An arrangement of one or more complete paths of electron flow.
 Conductor - A wire, cable, or other body or medium that is suitable for
carrying electric current.
 Couple - To connect two circuits so signals are transferred from one to
the other.
 Current - It is the rate of transfer of electricity from one point to another.
 Cut-off State - It is a condition of a semiconductor device that is not
working.
 DC Milli-Ammeter - It is an instrument that measures the amount of
direct current flow in a component or circuit.
 Desoldering - It is a process of unsoldering unwanted parts or
components in the circuit with the support of soldering tool.
 Dielectric Material - A material that serves as insulator because it has
poor electric conductivity.
 Direct Current - It is an electric current that flows in one direction.
 Discrete Components - It is a separated component.
 Ohmmeter - It is an instrument that measures the amount of resistance
in certain component or circuits.
 PCB - It is a Printed Circuit Board or (PCB) which is actually printed
wiring boards that have components inserted into the hole and soldered
to form its circuit connection.
 P-type - Positive type
 Quiescent Point - It is the least amount of operating current of semi-
conductor in order to work properly.
 Resistance - It is the opposition that a component or material offers to
the flow current.
 Resistor - A component designed intentionally to have a definite amount
of resistance.
 Soldering - It is a process of joining two metals caused by heat
 Soldering Technique - It is a right process in which the solder (lead) is
being applied in a connection or in the printed circuit board.
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 Splicing - It is defined as a joint that connect two lengths of conductor.
 Voltage - It is the electrical pressure that existed between two points and
capable of producing a flow of current when a close circuit is connected
between the points.
 Voltmeter - It is an instrument that measures the amount of
electromotive force in a component or circuit.

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LEARNING OUTCOME SUMMARY

ENUMERATE, EXPLAIN AND APPLY OHS

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES IN
LEARNING OUTCOME #1
MAINTAINING AND REPAIRING AUDIO
PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS

CONTENTS:

 Work safety requirements

 Application of 5S
 Handling and disposal of chemicals
 Hazardous and risk assessment mechanisms
 Isolation procedures
 Use of protective equipment and clothing
 Use of codes of practice
 Philippine electrical/electronics code

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Electrical safety precautions are identified, enumerated and explained correctly

2. OHS in maintaining and repairing audio/video products and systems are defined and
explained
3. OHS in maintaining and assembling audio/video products and systems are
demonstrated in accordance to the set procedures/instructions

CONDITIONS:

Trainees must be provided with the following:

 Learning elements and manuals

 Working area/bench
 PPE

EVALUATION METHOD:

 Written test
 Practical test
 Direct observation

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LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

Learning Outcome 1: ENUMERATE, EXPLAIN AND APPLY OHS

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES IN MAINTAINING
AND REPAIRING AUDIO PRODUCTS AND
SYSTEMS
Learning Activities Special Instructions
1. Read Information sheet No. If you have some problem on the
2A.1-1 Work safety content of the information sheets
requirements don’t hesitate to approach your
facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of
the information sheets, you can
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
2. Answer the self check 2A.1-1 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.1-1. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
next information sheet. If not
review the information sheet and
go over the self-check again.

3. Read Information sheet No. If you have some problem on the

2A.1-2 Application of 5S content of the information sheets
don’t hesitate to approach your
facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of
the information sheets, you can
now answer Self Check provide in
the module.
4. Answer the self check 2A.1-2 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.1-2. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
Activity sheet 2A.1-1. If not review
the information sheet and go over
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 the self-check again.

5. Perform Activity sheet No. Ask your trainer to check your

2A.1.1. Application of 5S performance on Activity No. 2A.1-1
Application of 5S

6. Read Information sheet No. If you have some problem on the

2A.1-3Personal Protective content of the information sheets
Clothing and Equipment don’t hesitate to approach your
facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of
the information sheets, you can
now answer Self Check provide in
the module.
7. Answer the self check 2A.1-3 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.1-3. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
next learning outcome. If not
review the information sheet and
go over the self-check again.

8. Perform Activity sheet No. Ask your trainer to check your

2A.1.2. Application of 5S performance on Activity No. 2A.1-
2Application of 5S

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 INFORMATION SHEET NO.2A.1-1

Work Safety Requirements

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the activity, the trainees shall be able to

enumerate work safety requirements.

Work Safety

Safety is everybody’s responsibility:

REMEMBER: ACCIDENTS JUST DO NOT HAPPEN, THEY ARE CAUSED.
 Safety gadgets such as machine, goggles, etc, are provided in the
shop.
 Learn the necessary precautionary measures from your Trainers.
Don’t take chances, report immediately any accident, however, minor
it may be, to the Trainers.
 Trainees should not wear slippers in the shops.
 Smoking is prohibited in the shops.
 Male trainees should sport decent haircuts 2x3 cut.

To be a world Class worker:

S - Speed
P - Procedure
E - Economy
Q - Quality
S - Safety

GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1. Remove power from the circuit or equipment prior to working on
it.
2. Remove and replace fuses only after the power in the circuit has
been de-energized.
3. Make sure all equipment is properly grounded.
4. Use extreme caution when removing or installing batteries
containing acid.
5. Use cleaning fluids only in well-ventilated spaces.
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6. Dispose of cleaning rags and other flammable materials in tightly
closed metal containers.
7. In case of an electrical fire. De-energize the circuit and report
immediately to the appropriate authority.

FEDERAL SAFETY CODE COLORS

Federal safety red Federal safety white
Federal safety yellow Federal safety green
Federal safety black Federal safety orange
Federal safety purple

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 SELF CHECK NO.2A.1-1

Work Safety Requirements

FILL IN THE BLANKS: Write the word or group of words that will make
the WORK SAFETY REQUIEREMENT statements correct on another
sheet of clean paper. DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THIS MODULE.

1. Safety ________ such as machine, goggles, etc, are provided in the

shop.
2. Learn the necessary precautionary ________ from your Trainers.
3. Don’t take chances, report immediately any ________, however,
minor it may be, to the Trainers.
4. Trainees should not ________ slippers in the shops.
5. Smoking is ________ in the shops.
6. Male trainees should ________haircuts 2x3 cut.
7. Remove power from the circuit or equipment prior to ________ on it.
8. Remove and replace ________ only after the power in the circuit has
been de-energized.
9. Make sure all ________ is properly grounded.
10. Use extreme caution when removing or installing ________
containing acid.
11. Use cleaning fluids only in ________spaces.
12. Dispose of cleaning rags and other flammable materials in tightly
closed metal ________.
13. In case of an________ fire. De-energize the circuit and report
immediately to the appropriate authority.

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 ANSWER KEY

1. Gadgets
2. Measures
3. Accident
4. Wear
5. Prohibited
6. Sport decent
7. Working
8. Fuses
9. Equipment
10. Batteries
11. Container
12. Electrical

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 INFORMATION SHEET No.2A.1-2

5S Application

Learning Objectives:
After reading this information sheet the trainees are expected to
demonstrate 5S application

The 5S's are:

 Sorting. Refers to the practice of going through all the tools,

materials, etc
 Simplifying. "Orderly" in this sense means arranging the tools and
equipment in an order that promotes workflow.
 Sweeping, Systematic Cleaning, or Shining. Indicates the need to
keep the workplace clean as well as neat.
 Standardizing. Refers to more than standardized cleanliness
(otherwise this would mean essentially the same as "systemized
cleanliness").
 Sustaining. Refers to maintaining and reviewing standards.

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 SELF CHECK No.2A.1-2

5S Application

Define the following terms:

1. Sorting.
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
2. Simplifying.________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________.
3. Sweeping, Systematic Cleaning, or
Shining.____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____.
4. Standardizing._____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________.
5. Sustaining.________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________.

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 ANSWER KEY

1. Sorting. Refers to the practice of going through all the tools,

materials, etc
2. Simplifying. "Orderly" in this sense means arranging the tools and
equipment in an order that promotes workflow.
3. Sweeping, Systematic Cleaning, or Shining. Indicates the need to
keep the workplace clean as well as neat.
4. Standardizing. Refers to more than standardized cleanliness
(otherwise this would mean essentially the same as "systemized
cleanliness").
5. Sustaining. Refers to maintaining and reviewing

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 ACTIVITY SHEET 2A.1-1
5S Application

Instructions:

1. Trainees will be grouped with 10 members by group.

2. Apply 5S in your shop work.
3. You must get a score of 7-9 to get a grade (Very Good) and pass
4. The Trainer – check based on assessment criteria 1-1.

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 TRAINER-CHECK SHEET 2A.1-1
5S Application

Directions: The trainer will prepare a man-made activity for the Trainees
to work on.
5S
Ite Activity 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 Score
m no.
A Sorting
B Simplifying
Sweeping,
C Systematic Cleaning,
or Shining
D Standardizing
E Sustaining

Average
------
Assessment Criteria 1.1

Score Descriptive
Grade
96-100 Excellence
86-95 Very good
81-85 Good
75-80 Fair
70-74 Poor

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 INFORMATION SHEET 2A.1-3

Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment

Learning Objectives:
After reading this information sheet the trainees are expected to
use personal protective clothing and equipment.

Personal safety

Whenever you
perform a task in the
workshop you must use
personal protective
clothing and equipment
(PPE) that is appropriate
for the task and which
conforms to your local
safety regulations and
policies. Among other
items, this may include:

Point
tonote:
If you’re not certain what are appropriate or required, ask your teacher

Safety check

- Do not use flammable cleaners or water on electrical equipment.

- Make sure designated walkways are kept clear of any obstructions.
- Always wear protective clothing and the appropriate safety equipment.
- Make sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal
safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks.

Point
tonote:
If you are unsure of what these are, ask your teacher.

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 Safety Procedure

In many types of work, hand tools are used every day.

They make work easier and allow people to be more
efficient. However, many students often fail to see the
hazards these tools can present. In this module "Hand
Tool Safety" shows workers how accidents can be
significantly reduced and reviews the various hazards
that are associated with specific types of tools.

Safety Requirements

For your protection, observe the following safety requirements:

• Follow all cautions, warnings, and instructions marked on the equipment.

• Ensure that the voltage and frequency rating of the power outlet matches the
electrical rating labels on the system.
•Use properly grounded power outlets

Safety Precautions

To protect both yourself and the equipment, observe the safety precautions

TOOLS UNSAFE DO’S & DON’TS IN USING

EXPERIENCE TOOLS
AC power Grounding Unplug the AC cord from the
cord EC wall socket before working
electric on the power supply.
Wrist strap Discharge (ESD) Wear a wrist strap when
electrostatic handling printed.
Printed Illustrated parts Handle a printed circuit
circuit breakdown board by the edges
boards
Cover System Overheating Replace the cover after
performing service on the
system

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 SELF-CHECK2A.1-3

Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment

Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct answer from the pool below.

1. If you experienced the grounding, the __________ should be unplugged.

2. Replace the cover after performing service on the __________.

3. When the cover system is damaged __________ is likely to happen.

4. You are working on a computer with damaged insulation, you will likely to
experience __________.

5. You should wear a __________ when handling printers circuit boards.

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 ANSWER KEY

1. AC power cord
2. Cover system
3. Overheating
4. Electric shock
5. Wrist strap

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 ACTIVITY SHEET NO.2A.1-2
Use of Protective Equipment and Clothing.

Demonstrate the USE of the following Personal Clothing and Equipment (PPE)

1. Work clothing-
a. coverall/apron
b. rubber shoes

2. Eye protection-
a. Goggles

3. Hand protection-
a. gloves

Performance Criteria:

Directions: The student will be evaluating thru the given criteria:

The student who got;

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LEARNING OUTCOME SUMMARY
Identify And Explain The Uses/Functions Of
Different Types Of Tools And Testing Instruments
LEARNING OUTCOME #2 For Maintaining And Repairing Audio/Video
Products And Systems

CONTENTS:
 Use and function of tools, equipment and testing instruments
 Operation of equipment and testing instruments
 Proper care and use of tools
 Use of protective equipment and clothing

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

a. Materials needed for assembly and disassembly are identified and

prepared and checked according to the work instructions
b. Tools and equipment types and functions needed for assembly and
disassembly are identified and demonstrated according to set standards
c. Testing devices and instruments operations needed for assembly and
disassembly are explained and demonstrated according to instruction
manual
d. Personal protective equipment are used in accordance with the
OccupationalHealth and Safety guidelines and policies

CONDITIONS:

Trainees must be provided with the following:

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 TOOLS EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS
 Long-nosed pliers FACILITIES  Solder lead
 Diagonal cutters  Multimeter  Cleaning brush
 Standard  Oscilloscope  lead free solder
screwdrivers  Function generator  rosin core solder
 Soldering iron, 30w  ESD free work bench  wire stranded, #22,
 Desoldering iron, with mirror back-to-  different colors)
30w back/ one sided  silicon grease
 Screw driver  High grade magnifying  resistors (different
assorted, glass with lamp values)
 Phillips, slotted  PPE  capacitors
 Wrenches assorted  Working area/bench (different
 Allen wrench/key  Sufficient lighting and  values)
 Utility ventilation system  transformer
knife/stripper  Learning materials
 Pliers assorted, long  Books and
 nose, side cutter references
 Test jig

EVALUATION METHOD:

 Written test
 Practical test
 Direct observation

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LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

Learning Outcome 2: Identify and explain the uses/functions of different

types of tools, equipment and testing instruments.
Learning Activities Special Instructions
If you have some problem on the
1, Read Information sheet No. 2A.2-1 content of the information sheets
Use and function of tools, don’t hesitate to approach your
equipment and testing facilitator.
instruments If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
2. Answer the self check 2A.2-1 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.2-1. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
Operation Sheet 1.2-1. If not
review the information sheet and
go over the self-check again.

If you have some problem on the

3. Read Information sheet No. content of the information sheets
2A.2-2. Operation of equipment don’t hesitate to approach your
and testing instruments. facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of
the information sheets, you can
now answer Self Check provide in
the module.
4. Answer the self check 2A.2-2 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.2-2. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
Operation Sheet 2A.2-1. If not
review the information sheet and
go over the self-check again.

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5. Perform Operation Sheet 2A.2-2 Compare your work to the
Operation of Equipment and Testing performance checklist. If you got
Instruments 100% correct answer in this task,
you can now move to the next
Learning Outcome. If not review the
information sheet and go over the
task again.

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 INFORMATION SHEET No.2A.2-1

Use and Function of Tools, Equipment and Testing

Instruments

Learning Objectives:
After reading the Information Sheet the trainees should be able
to identify the use of electronic tools, equipment and testing
instruments.

Introduction:

Before you do any repair work on your PC—in fact, before you even
think about taking off the cover of your computer we recommend that you
furnish yourself with a computer tool kit. In computer application, the
usage of proper hand tools and equipment is very essential. A good
troubleshooter must be knowledgeable in the tools and equipment.

HAND TOOLS

Side Cutter Pliers – a tool used for cutting or trimming of

connecting wires or terminal leads in the circuit board

Long nose Pliers – Used for holding, bending and

stretching the lead of electronics component or
connecting wire.

Crimping Tool- a tool made of metal with plastic-rubber

handle, to press into small folds, to frill, to corrugate.

Tweezers- a tool use to hold small sensitive part of a

computer
.
Cutter- a tool used in cutting wires.

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 Flat Screw Driver – a tool used to drive or fasten
negative slotted screws

Philips Screw Driver- a tool used to drive or fasten

positive slotted screws

Flashlight- a small electric light, a flash of electric light

used to give light in dark conditions.

Paint Brush- a device made of bristles set in handle,

use for cleaning sensitive parts of a computer.

Magnifying glass- a device made

in glass with handle, to
exaggerate or to increase the
apparent size of an object.

Volt-Ohms-Millimeter (VOM) - A measuring

instrument used by technician for measuring: current,
voltage, resistance

LAN Tester- is a device used to test the network

connection.

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 Anti--Static Wrist wrap- is a device used to eliminate
electrostatic discharge in your work area.

Soldering Pencil – a tool used to join two or more metal

conductors with the support of soldering lead melted around
it.

Desoldering Tool – a tool used to unsoldered

unwanted parts or component in the circuit with the
support of soldering pencil

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 SELF CHECK No.2A.2-1

Use and Function of Tools, Equipment and Testing

Instruments

Matching Type: Match the Hand Tools in Column A with its function in
Column B. Write your answer in sheet of paper.

Column AColumn B

__________1.a tool used to hold small

sensitive part of a computer.

__________2.a tool used for holding, bending

and stretching the lead of electronics.

__________3.a tool used to unsoldered

unwanted parts of component

__________4.a tool used to drive or fasten

negative slotted screws.

__________5.a tool used to join two or more

metal conductors with the support of
soldering lead.

__________6.a device used to exaggerate or

to increase the size of an object.

__________7.a tool used to press into small

folds, to frill to corrugate.

__________8. a tool used for cutting wires.

__________9. a tool for cutting or trimming

of connecting wires.

__________10.it absorbs the static electricity

of the material when being hold.

ANSWER KEY
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1. E
2. D
3. C
4. B
5. A
6. J
7. I
8. H
9. G
10. F

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 INFORMATION SHEET NO.2A.2-2

Operation of Equipment and Testing Instruments.

A. CALIBRATING THE VOLT- OHM -MILLIAMMETER

1. Examine the front panel of the VOM assigned to you. Locate the function
switch. This will be a multifunction switch with several positions for
measuring VOLTS, OHMS, & AMPS.
2. Jacks are located on the front panel for insertion of the test lead into the
jack marked ―Common‖, or maybe just ―-‖.
3. Insert the red test lead into the jack marked ―VOLTS/OHMS‖ or simply
―+‖. These leads will be used for connecting to circuitry and/or
components.
4. Examine the meter face. There should be several scales with numbers on
them. (Note: There is usually one scale for resistance, located at the top
of the meter face, and several scales for AC and DC voltages located
below the resistance scale.
5. There may also be a front panel switch for selecting polarity and type of
voltage measurement. This will be labeled ―– DC,‖ ―+DC‖, and ―AC‖. If
your VOM has this type of switch, place it in the ―+ DC‖ position.
6. On the meter face, there will be a screwdriver adjustment for zeroing the
meter movement. Locate this adjustment, and adjust the meter
movement to zero on left side of meter.
7. Place meter function switch on lowest OHMS position (usually Rx1).
Touch both test leads together, and observe movement of needle. It
should move to right side of scale. Adjust for zero on right side using the
―Zero Ohms‖ adjust on meter.
8. When finished, move the function switch to the highest voltage setting.
This will preserve the batteries in the meter as well as protect against
accidental damage to the meter if the next technician forgets to change
the function switch setting.

B. USING THE DIGITAL MULTIMETER

1. Examine the front panel of the digital multimeter assigned to you.

Locate the function switch or switches. This is the switch that selects
whether VOLTS, OHMS, or AMPS are to be read on the meter face.
(Note: Many DMMs have several other functions, such as transistor or
diode testing, capacitor testing, frequency counting, etc. We will
concern ourselves with VOLTS< OHMS and AMPS in this section).
2. Familiarize the selections available in VOLTS, OHMS and AMPS.
3. Insert the black test lead into the jack labeled ―COMMON -‖ on the front
panel. Some meters simply call this jack ―-‖ or ―Common‖.
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 4. Insert the red test lead into the ―VOLTS/OHMS‖ jack to lowest
resistance setting. Some meters simply call this test jack ―+‖.
5. Rotate the function switch to lowest resistance reading.
6. Connect test leads together and observed reading on the meter face.

C. MEASURING RESISTANCE WITH THE VOLT – OHM – MILLIAMMETER

1. Insert the banana plug end of the black test lead into the meter’s front
panel jack labeled ―Common‖. On some meters this jack is simply
labeled ―-‖.
2. Insert the banana plug end of the red test lead into the front panel
jack labeled ―+‖. On some meters this jack is labeled ―Volts/Ohms‖.
3. Observe the position of the meter pointer. The pointer should be
exactly aligned with the ―Infinity‖ symbol on the left side of the meter
face. (Note: this will correspond to the 0 reading on any of the voltage
scales.) The ―Infinity‖ symbol looks like a number eight laying on its
side.
4. If the pointer is not aligned properly, adjust the mechanical zero with
s small screw driver. Be careful not to force the adjustment beyond its
limits, or to be rough in performing the adjustment. The meter
movement could be damaged.
5. Place the function switch on the lowest resistance scale. On most
VOMs this will be RX1. This simply means R times 1, or, in other
words the numbers on the resistance scale are to be read directly. On
most meters the Ohms scale will be the top scale. Zero is to the
extreme right on this scale, and infinity is to the extreme left.
6. Connect the red lead to the black lead.
7. Observe the reading on the VOM meter face. It should be near zero, on
the RIGHT side of the meter face. If the reading of zero Ohms using
the ―Ohms Adjust‖ or ―Zero Ohms Adjust‖ on the front panel of the
meter.
8. Place the meter lead across the leads of the 47 ohm resistor in your
standard parts kit.
9. Repeat step 8 for the 10 ohm resistor.
10. Repeat step 8 for the 150 ohm resistor.
11. Place the meter in a higher scale that will allow you to read a 1 Ohm
resistor
12. Repeat steps 6 and 7 to zero the meter on the new scale.
13. Repeat steps 8 and 9 for the 1 kilo ohm, 4.7 kilo ohm, and 10 kilo
ohm resistors.
14. Repeat this procedure for the 22 kilo ohm, 47 kilo ohm, 150 kilo
ohm, 2.2 mega ohm, and 4.7 mega ohm resistors, changing scale as a
appropriate to obtain the best readings (Note: The best accuracy on

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 the VOM resistance scales will be in the lowest half of the meter face –
the right side of the meter face.

D. MEASURING RESISTANCE USING DIGITAL MULTIMETER

1. Insert the banana plug end of the black test lead into the meter’s
panel jack, labeled ―Common‖.
Insert the banana plug end of the red test lead into the front panel jack
labeled ―+‖.
2. Place the function switch on the lowest resistance scale.
3. Connect the red lead to the black lead.
4. Observe the reading on the DMM meter face. It should be near zero. If
it is not, check your set up. Some DMMs include a ―Zero Adjust‖ on
the front panel. Most do not, choosing instead to set the meter for zero
internally. If no problem is found (dead battery, blown fuse, defective
meter lead, etc.) notify the instructor. Most DMM will read a few
tenths of an ohm of resistance. This simply represents the resistance
of the test leads, and should be considered ―zero‖ for your meter.
5. Place the meter leads across the leads of the 47 ohm resistor in your
standards parts kit. Refer to the resistor color code to aid in
identifying each resistor.
6. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for the 10 ohm resistor.
7. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for the 150 ohm resistor.
8. Place the meter on a higher scale that will allow you to read a 1 kilo
ohm resistor.
10. Repeat step 5 to zero the meter on the new scale.
11. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for the 1 kilo ohm, 4.7 kilo ohm, and 10m kilo
ohm resistor.
12. Repeat this procedure for the 22 kilo ohm, 47 kilo ohm, 150 kilo
ohm, 2.2 mega ohm and 4.7 mega ohm resistors, changing scales as
appropriate to obtain the best readings.

E. MEASURING DC CURRENT WITH VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMETER

1. Insert the banana plug end of the black test lead into the meter’s front
panel jack, labeled ―Common‖.
2. Insert the banana plug and of the red test lead into the front panel
jack labeled ―+‖.
3. Observe the position of the meter pointer. The pointer should be
exactly aligned with the 0 on the left side of the meter face. If the
meter has a mirrored meter face, align the needle (pointer) with its
image in the mirror for best accuracy.

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 4. If the pointer is not aligned properly, adjust the mechanical zero with
a small screw driver. Be careful not to damage the meter face cover or
the small plastic screw. Do not force the adjustment beyond its limit.
5. Calculate the value of current that will flow in the circuit depicted and
schematic one and record it. Place the function switch on a high
enough scale to measure calculated current.
6. Connect the circuit showed in the schematic 1. Connect the red lead
to the bottom end of the 100 ohm resistor in schematic 1. and the
black lead to ―-― end of the battery.
7. Observe the reading on the VOM meter face. Record the reading.
8. Repeat steps 5, 6 and 7 for schematic 2.
9. Repeat procedure for schematic 3

F. MEASURING DC CURRENT WITH DIGITAL MULTIMETER

1. Insert the banana plug end of the black test lead into the meter’s front
panel jack, labeled ―Common‖.
2. Insert the banana plug end of the red test lead into the front panel
jack labeled ―AMPS‖ or ―mA‖.
3. Calculate the value of current that will flow in the circuit depicted in
schematic 1. Place the function switch on a high enough scale to
measure calculated current.
4. Connect the circuit shown in schematic 1. Connect the read lead to
the bottom end of the 100 ohm resistor in schematic 1, and the black
lead to ―-― end of the battery.
5. Observe the reading on the DMM meter face.
6. Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 for schematic 2.

G. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS WITH THE VOM

1. Insert the banana plug in of the black test into the meter’s from panel
jack, labeled ―Common‖. On some meters this jack maybe labeled ―-‖.
2. Insert the banana plug in of the red test lead into the front panel jack
labeled ―+‖. On some meters this jack maybe labeled ―Volts/Ohms‖.
3. Observe the position of the meter pointer. The pointer should be
exactly aligned with the 0 on the left side of the meter face.
4. If the pointer is not aligned properly, adjust the mechanical zero with
a small screw driver. Be certain to use care with this adjustment,
since this is rather an easily damaged part.
5. Place the function switch on a high enough scale to measure 1.5 volts.
This varies from meter to meter, and will depend on the make and
model of your meter.
6. Connect the red lead to ―+‖ and of the D battery, and the black lead to
―-‖ and of the battery.
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7. Observe the reading of the VOM meter face. Record the reading.
8. Repeat the procedure for the C cell, and record the results in the
blanks indicated.
9. Place the function switch on a high enough scale to allow a reading of
at least 9 volts.
10. Repeat the procedure for the transistor radio battery, and record the
results in the blanks indicated.

H. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS WITH A DIGITAL MULTIMETER

1. Insert the black test lead of the digital multimeter into the ―common -‖
test jack.
2. Insert the banana plug end of the red test lead into the front panel
jack labeled ―+‖.
3. Place the function switch on a high enough scale to measure 1.5 volts.
4. Connect the red lead to ―+‖ end of the D battery, and black lead ―-‖
end of the battery. Reversing the test leads will result in a ―-‖ reading
on the meter.
5. Observe the reading on the DMM meter face.
6. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for the C cell.
7. Place the function switch on a scale that will allow reading of at least
9 volts, if the presence scale will not handle 9 volts.
8. Measure the voltage across the terminals of the 9 volt battery.

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 SELF-CHECK 2A.2-2
Operation of Equipment and Testing Instruments.

General Directions: Write your answer on another sheet of paper.

I. Directions: Write true if the statement is correct and false if the

statement is wrong.

1. Do not reverse the leads (polarity) on the analog meter because you may
bend the pointer and cause it to be inaccurate.
2. Be careful to observe polarity when measuring DC.
3. Be certain the function switch is properly set (i.e. DC, AC, volts, amperes,
milliamperes, resistance).
4. When measuring an unknown voltage, always start at the highest range
available on the meter. Lower the range until the meter reading is
approximately in the center of the scale.
5. Always connect voltmeters in parallel with the potential difference being
measured.
6. Multimeters should be stored in the highest DC range when not in use.
This is a safety precaution to protect the meter. If someone tries to
measure voltage while the range switch is set too low or on a resistance
range, the meter will be damaged.
7. Use the proper function, range and polarity to protect the meter.
8. Never connect an ammeter into a circuit when the power switch is on.
9. Always be certain that the ammeter is inserted in series.
10. Be certain that the range is high enough for the current being measured.
If the current to be measured is unknown, start at the highest range and
work down until the meter reads approximately in the center of the
range.
11. Observe proper polarity when measuring DC, especially when using an
analog meter.
12. Turn the power off when measuring resistance.
13. Reset the range switch to the highest voltage range when you have
finished making resistance measurements.
14. Never measure resistance with the power on.
15. The measuring instrument cover is treated with antistatic coating. Do
not wipe it hard or clean it with volatile solvent. Use a soft brush to
remove dust.
16. Clean the measuring instrument before and after using.
17. Avoid giving the tester any exercise shock or vibration by loading it on
the motorbike and the like.
18. Keep off dust and moisture from the tester.

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19. Do not leave the tester for a long time in places of high temperature
(higher than 55°C) high humidity (higher than 80%), and dew
condensation.
20. Replace the same voltage and current ratings of fuse, when replacing
.burned-out or defective fuse of measuring instrument.

ANSWER KEY
1. F
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. F
9. T
10. T
11. T
12. T
13. F
14. T
15. T
16. T
17. T
18. T
19. T
20. T

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 OPERATION SHEET 2A.2-1

Title: Operation of Equipment and Testing Instruments

Performance Objective: Given the necessary tools and materials you are going to operate
equipment and testing instrument

Supplies/Materials : Ruler & Protractor

Equipment :

Steps/Procedure:
Given a ruler and protractor, measure the length, width, height and distance
of a hole from edge to center and the opening of angle as indicated in the drawing
below. Use both the English and Metric system. Write your answers on another
sheet of paper.

A. Reading Linear Measurements

B. Measuring the Resistance of Resistors

PROCEDURE: Given 5 assorted carbon resistors and a multi-tester, measure

the resistance of each resistor.

Steps:
1. Set the pointer of the tester to infinity using zero connector.
2. Turn the selector knob to the desired range in the ohmmeter for easy
and accurate reading
3. Short the two tests prods and adjust the pointer to zero ohm using
the zero ohm adjuster.
4. Connect one test prod to one terminal lead of the resistor
5. Connect the other test prod to one terminal of the resistor. Note:
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 Connection in step 5 must be touched by bare hands. The body
resistance is always included in the measurement especially in high
resistance resistor.
6. Read the measurement in the ohmmeter scale and multiply it with
the equivalent of the minor division. After computing, record the
reading in a separate sheet of paper

First Resistor
Second Resistor
Third Resistor
Fourth Resistor
Fifth Resistor

C. Measuring AC Voltage

PROCEDURE: Given an AC voltmeter and power transformer, with multiple

outputs, measure the AC voltage at the different test points using the diagram
below as a guide. Record the measurement on another sheet of paper.

1. Set the pointer of the tester to infinity using the zero connector. Note: this
is only done if the pointer of the tester is not at infinity.
2. Turn the selector knob to the desired range in the ACV for easy and
accurate reading. Note: The desired range must be always higher than the
voltage to be measured to avoid damage in the tester. This means that if
the voltage to be measured is about 6 volts, the range must be 10 V AC.
3. Connect the two test prods of the tester to the designated test points. Note:
Do not hold the metal part of the test prods to avoid electrocution or shock.
4. Read the measurement in the ACV scale and multiply it by the equivalent
of the minor division. Record the measurement on another sheet of paper.

D. Measuring DC Voltage

PROCEDURE: Given a DC voltmeter and an AC-DC converter, measure the

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DC voltage at the designated test points. Record the measurements on another
sheet of paper.

1. Check if the pointer is set at infinity. If not, set it to infinity by using zero
corrector.
2. Turn the selector knob to the desired range. Note: The desired range must
be always higher than the expected voltage.
3. Connect the negative test prod (black) to the negative (ground) of the circuit
and the positive test prod (red) to the designated test points as labeled in
the circuit.
4. Read the measurement in the DCV scale. Disconnect the test prods.
Multiply the reading in the minor division by the equivalent of the minor
division
5. Record the measurements on another sheet of paper.

E. Measuring DC mA Current

PROCEDURE:

Given a DC mA (multi-tester) and a simple electronic circuit, measure the

DC mA at the designated test points using the attached schematic diagram as a
guide. Record the reading on another sheet of paper.

1. Check if the pointer is set at infinity. If not, set it to infinity by using zero
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 corrector.
2. Turn the selector knob to the desired range in the DC mA.
3. To measure the collector current of the circuit, connect the negative test
prods to point A and the positive test prods to point B
4. Read the measurement in the DCV scale. Disconnect the test prods.
5. Multiply the reading by the equivalent

of the minor division.

6. Record the measurement in the attached record sheet.
7. To measure the total current in the circuit, connect the negative test prod
to point C and the positive test prod to point D.
8. Read the measurement in the DCV scale. Disconnect the test prods.
Multiply the reading in the minor division by the equivalent of the minor
division.
9. Record the measurement on another sheet of paper.

Assessment Method:

Performance Criteria Checklist

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 OBSERVATION CHECKLIST FOR PERFORMANCE TEST 2A. 2.1

Trainee’s name:
Trainer’s name:
Name of School:
Competency standards
Unit of competency:
Instructions for the Trainers:
1. Observe the Trainee (insert description of activity being observed)
2. Describe the assessment activity and the date on which it was undertaken
3. Place a tick in the box to show that the Trainee completed each aspect of the
activity to the standard expected in the enterprise
4. Complete the feedback sections of the form
Date of observation
Description of assessment activity
Location of assessment activity
The Trainee can… Tick
measure length, width, height of an ACDC converter case
measure the opening of angles
measure diameter of hole and the distance from center to the edge
observe proper use of linear measuring tools and instruments
select the appropriate range of the ohmmeter when measuring resistance
make resistance measurements with analog/digital ohmmeter
read accurately the resistance values of the given resistors
observe the safety precaution when measuring resistance
select the appropriate range of the Ac voltmeter when measuring AC
voltage
make AC voltage measurements with analog/digital AC voltmeter
read accurately the AC voltage values
select the appropriate range of the DC voltmeter when measuring DC
voltage
make DC voltage measurements with analog/digital DC voltmeter
read accurately the DC voltage values
observe the concept of polarity with reference to DC voltage measurement
select the appropriate range of a DC milliammeter when measuring DC
current
make DC current measurements with analog/digital DC milliammeter
read accurately the DC current values in milliampere/microampere
observe the concept of polarity with reference to DC current measurements
follow safety tips when measuring DC current
Did the Trainee’s overall performance meet the standard? Yes No
Feedback to Trainee:
Trainer’s signature: Date:
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 Document No.
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LEARNING OUTCOME SUMMARY

LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

Identify And Explain Or Interpret The Principles Of

LEARNING OUTCOME #3
Operation Of Electronic Symbols And Block Sections Of
Schematic Diagram

CONTENTS:

 Electronic devices and symbols

 Resistor and capacitor color codes
 Classes and types of electronic parts/devices
 Drawing and interpreting schematic diagrams

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Electronic symbols are identified and selected according to the

schematic diagram
2. Electronic parts value are read and matched correctly as required
3. Schematic diagram sections and functions are identified and explained

CONDITIONS:

Trainees must be provided with the following:

 Drawing instruments and materials

 Working area/bench
 Sufficient lighting and ventilation system
 Complete electronic supplies

EVALUATION METHOD:

 Written test
 Practical test
 Direct observation

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Learning Outcome 3: Identify And Explain Or Interpret The Principles Of
Operation Of Electronic Symbols And Block Sections Of
Schematic Diagram
Learning Activities Special Instructions

1. Read Information sheet No. If you have some problem on the

2A.3-1 Electronic devices and content of the information sheets
symbols don’t hesitate to approach your
facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
2. Answer the self check 2A.3-1 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.3-1. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
Operation Sheet 1.2-1. If not
review the information sheet and
go over the self-check again.

3. Read Information sheet No. 2A.3- If you have some problem on the
[Link] and Interpreting content of the information sheets
Schematic Diagrams don’t hesitate to approach your
facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
4. Answer the self check 2A.3-2 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.3-2. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
Operation Sheet 1.2-1. If not
review the information sheet and
go over the self-check again.

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5. Perform Operation Sheet No. 2A
.3-1 Drawing and interpreting Ask your trainer to check your
schematic diagrams performance on Operation Sheet
No. 2A.3-1 Drawing and
interpreting schematic diagrams

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 INFORMATION SHEET NO.2A.3-1

Electronic Devices and Symbols

Learning Objectives:
After reading this learning outcome you will be able to identify
electronic devices and symbols.

Electronic Symbols

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 Document No.
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 Document No.
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 Types and function of electronic components

Resistor

A resistor is a device with a known value of resistance. Its main

function is to reduce voltage and to limit the flow of current in a circuit. This
resistance is actually the opposition that a component or material offers to
the flow of current.
Resistance may or may not be useful in circuit/s. When too much
current passes through a conductor,( solid, liquid, gas through which
electrons pass easily) the resistance of the conductor may cause it to
become hot. This, in turn, can create a fire hazard or cause the conductor to
burn out. In this case, it is not desirable. In other cases, when it is placed
intentionally in the circuit, it performs its specific task.

Symbol of Resistor

Fixed Variable

Fixed Resistors

It is a single value resistance, which remains the same under the

normal condition. The two common kinds of fixed resistors are film resistor
and wire-wound resistor.

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 Film Resistor Wire-wound Resistor

Variable Resistor

Variable resistors are used when it is necessary to change the amount of

resistance in a circuit. There are two common variable resistors, the
potentiometer and rheostat. Generally a potentiometer is generally has
carbon resistive element while the rheostat is generally made of resistance
wire.

Three
Terminals

Carbon Composition Resistor Wire Wound Resistor

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 Both devices,have a sliding arm that brings into contact with the
resistance element. In most variable resistors,
The arm is attached to the shaft that can be adjusted Element changes.

A potentiometer is commonly used as control device. It can be used

to vary the value of voltage applied to a certain circuit such as in the
amplifier, television, and different kinds of meter circuit.

Resistor Power Rating

Power rating of resistors changes with their sizes, the bigger the
resistor the greater the wattages and thesmaller the resistor the lesser
the wattage. Different sizes of resistors are shown below which are drawn
to the exact proportion. (See figure no. 23).

1 1/ 1 1 2
/8W 4W /2W W W

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Capacitor
A capacitor is a device that consists essentially of two conducting
surfaces separated by a dielectric material like air, paper, mica, ceramic,
glass, or mylar. It makes it possible to store electric energy. Electrons are
detained within a capacitor. This, in effect, is stored electricity. It is known
as electrical potential or an electrostatic field. Electrostatic field hold
electrons. When the increase of electrons becomes great enough, the
electrical potentials are now ready to be discharged.

The component is designed intentionally to have a definite amount

of capacitance. This capacitance is a property that exists whenever
insulating material permits the storage of electricity. It is measured in Farad
(F) micro Farad (uF), nano Farad (nF), and picoFarad (pF).

Characteristics of Capacitor:
1. It can store electric charge even though the voltage source is
already disconnected.
2. It can discharge electrical voltages.

Symbols of Capacitor

OR

Fixed Variable Polarized

Common Types of Fixed Capacitor

Ceramic Disk Mica

Electrolytic

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Common Types of Variable Capacitor

Mica

Gang
ed Air Air Capacitor Ganged Air Capacitor
Capacito
r
Semiconductor Diode

It is a semiconductor device that contains two-electrode p-n junction.

This diode is made of N-material and P-material (Positive and Negative
devices) that are joined in a single package.

A = Anode
A K
K=
Cathode Junction
P+++ ------
++++++ N-------
+++++ -------

Note:
Observe closely the positive, the negative materials and the barrier (junction)
size when it is at rest.

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Operation of Diode

Junction
A. Reverse-Biased

P+ -N
++ --
++ --
--

Figure
By applying DC voltage to the No. 59 (the two terminals), negative to the P-
electrodes
materials and positive to the N-materials, causes the attraction. In this operation
the diode is not conducting because of the polarity applied to it. This operation is
called reverse-biased. The barrier is so large that the resistance becomes greater.
The diode becomes an insulator.
B. Forward-Biased

Junction

P N
+ -- -
+ --
+
+
+

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 By applying DC voltage to the electrodes, negative to the N-materials and
positive to the P-materials, causes the repulsion. Pushing the N-materials
and the P-materials to the junction, causing it to become thin.

Junction

Because the barrier is so thin, it collapses, releasing the electrons to flow.

In this operation the diode is conducting because of the polarity applied to it.
This operation is called forward-biased. When barrier is thin, so the
resistance become lesser. (The diode becomes a conductor, because we apply
the right bias causing it to be in active state.)

Active State – It is the triggering voltage supply of all semiconductors.

 0.7V for silicon diode

 0.3V for germanium diode (crystal)

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Types of Diode, their symbol and their Uses

1. Signal Diode – It is used for high frequency range.

 Mostly for radio

2. Rectifier Diode - It is used for low frequency range.

 Mostly for power supply

3. Zener Diode - It is used for reference voltage.

 Mostly for regulator’s reference

4, Light Emitting Diode (LED) - It is used for light indictor.

 Mostly for running light effects

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Semiconductor

It is a material which resists between the insulator and the conductor.

The resistance is often changed by light, heat, or magnetic field. The
particular characteristic of the semiconductor materials depend on its
atomic structure, (It is the number and arrangement of electron) which allow
their conductivity to be increased by adding impurity elements(It is the
adding of foreign electrons, ions, or holes), the process is called doping.
Doping is the intensified number of electron charges, ion charges, or
hole charges that can be moved by an external supply voltage. For example
when the amount of free electron (It is a result of a single loose electron that
acquires energy and collides with the other planetary electrons that causes
them to break away from the attraction of the nucleus and becomes free.) is
increased, the doped semiconductor is N-type or negative; and when it is
decreased the amount of free electron forms the P-type or positive.

The Discovery of Semiconductor Devices

The semiconductor was discovered in late 1873 when a certain rod or

wire called selenium was used and it changes its electrical resistance when
it was struck by light.

Next in 1906 the first semiconductor crystal detector was invented. It

consisted of a piece of crystalline galena and was used in a tune circuit and
earphone that would permit reception of radio signal. Therefore, the first
solid-state radio receiver, called the crystal set was invented. The
achievement of the said device was short-lived, because of the invention of
vacuum tube in 1920 that put the further studies into halt. Throughout, the
vacuum tubes are more reliable because of the ability to amplify the detector
output signal.

Bardeen and Brattain invented the first transistor in 1947 and Bell
laboratory produced the first successful transistor in 1948.

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Samples of Semiconductor Components

1. Semiconductor Diode

2. Semiconductor Transistor

3. Integrated Circuit I.C

Self Check # 3-1-1

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 SELF CHECK NO.2A.3-1
Electronic symbols
Direction: Answer the following question below, and draw the schematic
symbol of each of the components given below.

SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

1._______________________________

RESISTOR

2.________________________________

DIODE

3._______________________________

CAPACITOR

4.________________________________

TRANSISTOR

5._________________________________

IC

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 ANSWER KEY

SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

1._________________________________
RESISTOR _

2._________________________________

DIODE

OR

3._________________________________
CAPACITOR _

4._________________________________
TRANSISTOR _

IC 5._________________________________
_
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 INFORMATION SHEET NO.2A.3-2

Drawing and Interpreting Schematic Diagrams

Standard Diagrams in Electronics

WIRING DIAGRAM PICTORIAL DIAGRAM

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM BLOCK DIAGRAM

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 Guidelines in Drawing Diagrams

Recommended practices to be used in the application of

symbols to a circuit diagram are listed below. These practices are
adapted from the United States of America Standard Institute
publication, Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronic diagrams.

1. The position of a symbol on a diagram does not affect its

meaning.

2. The weight of a line used in drawing does not affect its meaning.
In some cases a heavier line may be used to emphasize a
particular symbol.

3. A given symbol may be drawn in any size that is suitable for use
in any particular symbol.

4. If necessary for contrast, some symbols may be drawn smaller

or larger than the other symbols on a diagram.

5. In general, a connecting line should be brought to a symbol

either vertically or horizontally, but a connecting line brought to
a symbol at an angle has no particular significance unless noted
otherwise.

6. The arrowhead symbol may be open (→) or closed (→) unless

otherwise.

7. The standard symbol for a terminal ( 0 ) may be added to any

symbol but when this is done, the terminal symbol should not
be considered a part of the symbol itself.

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 SELF CHECK NO.2A.3-3

Drawing and Interpreting Schematic Diagrams

Direction:
Identify the following. Write your answer on aseparate sheet of clean
paper
1. _____________________________ 2._____________________________

3.______________________________ 4.________________________________

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 ANSWER KEY 2A.3-2
Standard Diagrams in Electronics

1. Wiring Diagram

2. Schematic Diagram

3. Pictorial Diagram

4. Block Diagram

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LEARNING OUTCOME SUMMARY

LEARNING OUTCOME #4 APPLY SYMPTOMS DIAGNOSIS AND SYSTEMATIC PRE-

TESTING PROCEDURES

CONTENTS:

 Principles of electrical circuits

 Fundamentals of direct current circuits
 Fundamentals of alternating current circuits
 Fundamentals of electronic components and circuits
 Fundamentals of digital logics, components & circuits
 Fundamentals of microprocessor circuits and programming
 Analysis of troubles and isolation techniques
 Principles of sound and acoustics
 Fundamentals of audio amplifiers
 Fundamentals of audio source & noise reduction system
 Fundamentals of AM & FM Receivers
 Principles of vision and color
 Fundamentals of color television
 Application of work safety practices and time management
 Application of substitution technique

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Electronic symbols are identified and selected according to the schematic diagram
2. Electronic parts value are read and matched correctly as required
3. Schematic diagram sections and functions are identified and explained

CONDITIONS:

Trainees must be provided with the following:

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 TOOLS EQUIPMENT MATERIALS
 Long-nosed pliers  Multimeter  Solder lead
 Diagonal cutters  Oscilloscope  Cleaning brush
 Standard screwdrivers  Function generator  Lead free solder
 Soldering iron, 30w  Audio unit(s) and  Resin core solder
 Desoldering iron, 30w accessories  Wire stranded, #22,
 Screw driver assorted,  Video unit(s) and different colors)
Phillips, slotted accessories  Silicon grease
 Wrenches assorted  ESD free work bench with  Resistors (different
 Allen wrench/key mirror back-to-back/one values)
 Utility knife/stripper sided  Capacitors (different
 Pliers assorted, long  High grade magnifying values)
nose, side cutter glass with lamp  Transformer
 Test jig  TV pattern generator
 Working area/bench  High voltage probe Learning materials
 Sufficient lighting and  Books and
ventilation system References
 Technical manuals
 Documentation forms
 Report forms

EVALUATION METHOD:

 Written test
 Practical test
 Direct observation

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LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

LEARNING OUTCOME 4 APPLY SYMPTOMS DIAGNOSIS AND

SYSTEMATIC PRE-TESTING PROCEDURES
Learning Activities Special Instructions
1. Read the attached
Information sheet No. If you have some problem on the content
2A.4-1. Principles of of the information sheets don’t hesitate to
electrical circuits approach your facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
2. Answer the self check Compare your answer to the answer key
2A.4-1 2A.4-1. If you got 100% correct answer in
this self-check, you can now proceed to
next information sheet. If not review the
information sheet and go over the self-
check again.

3. Read Information sheet If you have some problem on the content

No. 2A.4-2. Block of the information sheets don’t hesitate to
Diagram of Super- approach your facilitator.
heterodyne AM Radio If you feel that you are now
Receiver knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now answer
Self Check provide in the module.
4. Answer the self check Compare your answer to the answer key
2A.4-2 2A.4-2. If you got 100% correct answer in
this self-check, you can now proceed to
next information sheet. If not review the
information sheet and go over the self-
check again.
5. Read Information sheet If you have some problem on the content
No. 2A .4-3. Block of the information sheets don’t hesitate to
Diagram of Super- approach your facilitator.
heterodyne FM Radio If you feel that you are now knowledgeable
Receiver on the content of the information sheets,
you can now answer Self Check provide in
the module.
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6. Answer the self check Compare your answer to the answer key
2A.4-3 2A.4-3. If you got 100% correct answer in
this self-check, you can now proceed to
next information sheet. If not review the
information sheet and go over the self-
check again.

7. Read Information sheet If you have some problem on the content

No. 2A .4-4. The Audio of the information sheets don’t hesitate to
Amplifier Principles approach your facilitator.
If you feel that you are now knowledgeable
on the content of the information sheets,
you can now answer Self Check provide in
the module.
8. Answer the self check Compare your answer to the answer key
2A.4-4 2A.4-4. If you got 100% correct answer in
this self-check, you can now proceed to
next information sheet. If not review the
information sheet and go over the self-
check again.

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 INFORMATION SHEET No.2A.4-1
Principles of Electrical Circuit

Learning Objectives :

After reading the information sheet, the trainees are expected :

1. to state and explain the principles of electrical circuit

2. operate a simple circuit,
3. value the importance of electrical circuit

Components of a Simple Circuit

A Simple circuit contains the minimum things needed to have a

functioning electric circuit. A simple circuit requires the following:

 AC/DC source
 Equipment that will operate on either an AC or DC power
source
 Battery – a dc voltage source containing two or more cells
that convert chemical energy to electrical energy.
 Cell- Single unit used to convert chemical energy into a DC
electrical voltage.

 FUSE
Once you design a simple circuit on
electronics, it is important to include a fuse
in the primary or secondary of a transformer.
 Fuse is a safety device used to protect
an electrical circuit from the effect of
excessive current. It’s essential
component is usually a strip of metal
that will melt at a given temperature.
A fuse is so designed that the strip of
metal can easily be placed in the electric circuit. If the
current in the circuit exceed a predetermined value, the
fusible metal will melt and thus break, or open the circuit.
 A fuse is usually rated in Amperes, which represent the
maximum continues current it could handle without
blowing.
 The most popular type of fuse in Electronics is 3AG type.
This code describes the case size and material with the ―G‖
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 indicates a glass materials and ―A‖ indicates that intended
for automotive application. A 3AG fuse measures
approximately 32mm x 6mm.

 Wires and Cable

 A wire is a single slender rod or
filament of drawn metal. This definition
restricts the term to what would ordinarily
be understood as solid wire. The word
―slender‖ is used because the length of a
wire is usually large when compared to its
diameter. If a wire is covered with
insulation, it is an insulated wire.
Although the term ―wire‖ properly refers to
the metal, it is also includes the
insulation.
 A conductor is a wire suitable for
carrying an electric current.
 A stranded conductor is a conductor composed of a group of
wire or of any combination of group of wires. The wires in a
stranded conductor are usually twisted together and not insulated
from each other.
 A cable is either a stranded conductor (single-conductor cable)
or a combination of conductors insulated from one another
(multiple-conductor cable). The term ―cable‖ is a general one and
usually applies only to the large sizes of conductor. A small cable is
more often called a stranded wire or cored (such as that used for
an iron or a lamp cord). Cables may be bare or insulated. Insulated
cables may be sheathed (covered) with lead, or protective armor.

 Switch and its function

 Switch is a device used to break an electric current or transfer it
to another conductor. Switches are commonly used to open or
close a circuit. Closed is the ON position, while open is OFF
position. Normally, switch is installed in series with the line
carrying current from the power
source to the load.
 A switch is a mechanical device
used to connect and disconnect a
circuit at will. Switches cover a
wide range of types, from
subminiature up to industrial
plant switching megawatts of
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 power on high voltage distribution lines.
 Switch is a manually operated device capable of making,
breaking, or changing the connection in an electronics or
electrical circuit. A switch connected in series with one of the
connecting wires of simple circuit affords a means of controlling
the current in the circuit.
 Switched function
o When the switch is closed, the electron finds an interrupted
path in the circuit.
o Open is the OFF position of the switch, while closed is the ON
position.
o When the switch is opened, the current delivered by the power
supply is normally insufficient to jump the switch gap in the
form of an arc and the electron flow in the circuit is blocked.

 Load – a source drives a load. Whatever component or piece or piece of

equipment is connected to a source and draws current from a source is a
load on that source.
 The following are examples but not limited to:
 Bulb
 Appliances

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 ELECTRONIC SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS

Wires and connections

Component
Circuit Symbol Function of Component

To pass current very easily

Wire from one part of a circuit to
another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where
wires are connected (joined), but it
is sometimes omitted. Wires
Wires joined connected at 'crossroads' should
be staggered slightly to form two
T-junctions, as shown on the
right.
In complex diagrams it is often
necessary to draw wires crossing
even though they are not
connected. I prefer the 'bridge'
Wires not joi
symbol shown on the right
ned
because the simple crossing on
the left may be misread as a joint
where you have forgotten to add a
'blob'!
Power Supplies/Source
Compon
Circuit Symbol Function of Component
ent
Supplies electrical energy.
The larger terminal (on the left) is
positive (+).
Cell
A single cell is often called a battery,
but strictly a battery is two or more
cells joined together.
Supplies electrical energy. A
battery is more than one cell.
Battery
The larger terminal (on the left) is
positive (+).

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 Supplies electrical energy.
DC supply DC = Direct Current, always flowing
in one direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
AC supply AC = Alternating Current,
continually changing direction.
A safety device which will 'blow'
Fuse (melt) if the current flowing through
it exceeds a specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron
core. Transformers are used to step
up (increase) and step down
Transform (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is
er transferred between the coils by the
magnetic field in the core. There is
no electrical connection between the
coils.
A connection to earth. For many
electronic circuits this is the 0V (zero
volts) of the power supply, but for
Earth mains electricity and some radio
(Ground) circuits it really means the earth. It
is also known as ground.

Output Devices/Loads: Lamps, Heater, Motor

Component
Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transducer which converts

electrical energy to light. This
Lamp (lightin symbol is used for a lamp
g) providing illumination, for
example a car headlamp or torch
bulb.
A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light. This
Lamp (indica
symbol is used for a lamp which is
tor)
an indicator, for example a
warning light on a car dashboard.

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 A transducer which converts
Heater
electrical energy to heat.
A transducer which converts
Motor electrical energy to kinetic energy
(motion).

A transducer which converts

Bell
electrical energy to sound.

A transducer which converts

Buzzer
electrical energy to sound.

A coil of wire which creates a

magnetic field when current
passes through it. It may have an
iron core inside the coil. It can be
Inductor
used as a transducer converting
(Coil, Solenoid)
electrical energy to mechanical
energy by pulling on something.

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 Switches
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Push
A push switch allows current to flow
Switch
only when the button is pressed. This is
(push-to-
the switch used to operate a doorbell.
make)
This type of push switch is normally
Push-to-
closed (on); it is open (off) only when the
Break Switch
button is pressed.
On-Off SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.
Switch An on-off switch allows current to flow
(SPST) only when it is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch directs the
2-way
flow of current to one of two routes
Switch
according to its position. Some SPDT
(SPDT)
switches have a central off position and
are described as 'on-off-on'.
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.
Dual On- A dual on-off switch which is often used
Off Switch to switch mains electricity because it can
(DPST) isolate both the live and neutral
connections.

 PART OF A SIMPLE CIRCUIT

A simple circuit contains the minimum things needed to have a

functioning electric circuit
 Source- a device used to supply AC or DC voltage
 Consuming- any device that consumes voltage, whatever
component or piece of equipment that is connected to a source and
draws current from a source is a load on that source.
 Controlling- any device having two states, on (closed) or off (open).
Ideally having zero impedance when closed and infinite impedance
when open.

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  Protecting-a component used to open the circuit when current
exceeds a predetermined maximum value.
 Connecting- a material that conducts electric current very well and
used to connect a complete path for current.

CONTROLLI
NG

source CONSUMIN
G

Connecting
device

 Procedure in Circuit Designing

1. Prepare all the tools and materials needed.
2. By using
(insertschematic
a figure ofsymbol, make a circuit)
simple complete simple circuit with
the following :
a. load
b. consuming device
c. protecting device
d. consuming device
e. connecting device
3. Make sure that the circuit has the following requirement
that a simple circuit must have:
a. A source of electrical potential difference or
voltage.
b. A conductive path which would allow for the
movement of charges.
c. An electrical resistance which is loosely
defined as any object that uses electricity to
do work.
4. Test the designed circuit by comparing it with the
sample circuit produced by your Trainer.

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 SELF-CHECK 2A.4-1

A. Complete the table below:

Identify each of these symbols:
COMPONENTS SYMBOLS
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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 ANSWER KEY

COMPONENTS SYMBOLS
1. Cell

2. Fuse

3. Lamp (lighting)

4. Wires not joined

5. On-Off Switch
(SPST)

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 INFORMATION SHEET No.2A.4-2

Block Diagram of Super-heterodyne AM Radio Receiver

A. What is Super-heterodyning?

When you use the lower side-band (the difference between the two
frequencies), you are super-heterodyning. Strictly speaking, the term
super-heterodyne refers to creating a beat frequency that is lower than
the original signal.

Super-heterodyning is simply reducing the incoming signal is

frequency by mixing. In a radio application we are reducing the AM or
FM signal which is centered on the carrier frequency to some
intermediate value, called the IF (intermediate frequency). For practical
purposes, the super-heterodyne receiver always reduces to the same
value of IF. To accomplish this requires that we be able to continuously
vary the frequency being mixed into the signal so as to keep the
difference the same. Here's what the super-heterodyne receiver looks
like:

BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

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 SUPER-HETERODYNE AM RECEIVER

A super-heterodyne receiver works on the principle the receiver has

a local oscillator called a variable frequency oscillator or V.F.O. This
is a bit like having a little transmitter located within the receiver. Now
if we still have our T.R.F. stages but then mix the received signal with
our V.F.O. we get two other signals. (V.F.O. + R.F) and (V.F.O. - R.F).
In a traditional A.M. radio where the received signal is in the range
540 Khz to 1650 Khz the V.F.O. signal is always a constant 455 Khz
higher or 995 Khz to 2105 Khz.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AM RECEIVER

FUNCTION OF EACH STAGE

 The RF filter selects the desired station from the many. It is

adjustable so that the selection frequency can be altered. This is
called TUNING.
 The selected frequency is applied to the mixer.
 The output of an oscillator is also applied to the mixer.
 The mixer and oscillator form a FREQUENCY CHANGER circuit.
The output from the mixer is the intermediate frequency (I.F.)
 The I.F. is a fixed frequency of about 455 [Link] matter what the
frequency of the selected radio station is, the I.F. is always 455
kHz.
 The I.F. signal is fed into the I.F. amplifier. The advantage of the
I.F. amplifier is that its frequency and bandwidth are fixed, no
matter what the frequency of the incoming signal is. The amplified
I.F. signal is fed to the demodulator. Also called detector.
 This circuit recovers the audio signal and discards the R.F. carrier.
It usually incorporates a diode in the circuit.

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 Some of the audio is fed back to the I.F. amplifier as an
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL voltage. This ensures that when
tuning from a weak station to a strong one, the loudness from the
loudspeaker stays the same.
 The audio signal voltage is increased in amplitude by a voltage
amplifier.
 The power level is increased sufficiently to drive the loudspeaker by
the power amplifier

Sample Schematic Diagram

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 Self Check 2A.4-2

Direction: Label the name of each stage in the block diagram of an AM

Radio Receiver

2 3 4 5 6 7

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 Answer key for Self Check 2.2-1A

1. Power supply
2. RF Amplifier
3. Mixer
4. IF amplifier
5. Detector
6. Audio Preamplifier
7. Audio Power Amplifier
8. Oscillator

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 INFORMATION SHEET2A.4-3
Block Diagram of Super-heterodyne FM Radio Receiver

The function of each stage for FM receiver is the same with that of
an AM receivers except for some changes in the stage name. A limiter
is added to in conjunction with the frequency demodulator. The
detector stage in AM is equivalent to the frequency demodulator.

FUNCTION OF EACH STAGE

 The F.M. band covers 88-108 MHz there are signals from many
radio transmitters in this band inducing signal voltages in the
aerial.
 The RF amplifier selects and amplifies the desired station from
the many.
It is adjustable so that the selection frequency can be altered.
This is called TUNING.
 The selected frequency is applied to the mixer. The output of an
oscillator is also applied to the mixer.
 The mixer and oscillator form a FREQUENCY CHANGER circuit.
The output from the mixer is the intermediate frequency (I.F.)
 The I.F. is a fixed frequency of 10.7 MHz the I.F. signal is fed
into the I.F. amplifier.
 The amplified I.F. signal is fed to the demodulator. This circuit
recovers the audio signal and discards the R.F. carrier.
 Some of the audio is fed back to the oscillator as an
AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL voltage. This ensures that
the oscillator frequency is stable in spite of temperature
changes.
 The audio signal voltage is increased in amplitude by a voltage
amplifier.
 The power level is increased sufficiently to drive the loudspeaker
by the power amplifier.

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 Self Check 2.2-2A

Direction: Label the name of each stage in the block diagram of FM

Radio Receiver

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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 Answer key for Self Check 2.2-2A

1. RF Amplifier
2. Mixer
3. Filter
4. IF Amplifier
5. Limiter
6. Frequency Demodulator
7. AF Amplifier
8. Oscillator

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 INFORMATION SHEET NO.2.2-3A
The Audio Amplifier Principles

A. Functional Block of an Audio Amplifier

All power amplifiers have a power supply, an input stage, and an output
stage.

1. Power Supply: The primary purpose of a power supply in a power

amplifier is to take the 220 VAC power from the outlet and convert it to a
DC voltage (VAC is an abbreviation for Volts Alternating Current, and
DC is an abbreviation for Direct Current). Many different types of power
supplies are used in power amplifiers, but in the end they all basically
aim to generate DC voltage for the transistor circuits of the unit.
2. Input stage: The general purpose of the input stage of a power amplifier
(sometimes called the "front end") is to receive and prepare the input
signals for "amplification" by the output stage. Most professional quality
amplifiers have various input connectors; typically they will have XLR
inputs, ―quarter inch" inputs, and sometimes a simple terminal strip
input (although these tend to be found on amplifiers intended primarily
for public address systems).
3. Output stage: The output stage of an amplifier is the portion which
actually converts the weak input signal into a much more powerful
"replica" which is capable of driving high power to a speaker. This portion
of the amplifier typically uses a number of "power transistors" (or
MOSFETs) and is also responsible for generating the most heat in the
unit (unless the amplifier happens to have a very bad power supply
design, in which case it too generates a lot of heat). The output stage of
an amplifier interfaces to the speakers.

Illustration:
AMPLIFIER

INPU OUTP
T UT

Power Supply
Circuit

B. Basic of Amplification

The term "amplify" basically means to make stronger. The strength of a

signal (in terms of voltage) is referred to as amplitude, but there is no
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equivalent for current. This in itself is confusing, because although
"amplitude" refers to voltage, it contains the word "amp",
To understand how any amplifier works, you need to understand the two
major types of amplification, and a third "derived" type:

 Voltage Amplifier - an amp that boosts the voltage of an input signal

 Current Amplifier - an amp that boosts the current of a signal
 Power Amplifier - the combination of the above two amplifiers

C. Types of Amplifier Devices

There are three different types of amplifying devices. Each has its
strengths and weaknesses, but all have one common failing - they are not
perfect.

A perfect amplifier or other device (known generally as "ideal") will

perform its task within certain set limits, without adding or subtracting
anything from the original signal. No ideal amplifying device exists, and as a
result, no ideal amplifier exists, since all must be built with real-life (non-
ideal) devices.

The amplifying devices currently available are:

 Vacuum Tube (Valve)
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 Field Effect Transistor (FET)

D. Bipolar Junction Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically

three possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one
terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of
connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as
the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit
arrangement.

1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current

Gain.
2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage
Gain.
3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no
Voltage Gain.

1. The Common Base (CB) Configuration

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 As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base
configuration, the BASE connection is common to both the input signal
and the output signal with the input signal being applied between the
base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is
taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown
with the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference
voltage point.

1. The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input

signal is applied between the base, while the output is taken from
between the collector and the emitter as shown. This type of
configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based
amplifiers and which represents the "normal" method of bipolar
transistor connection. The common emitter amplifier configuration
produces the highest current and power gain of all the three bipolar
transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance
is LOW as it is connected to a forward-biased PN-junction, while the
output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse-biased PN-
junction.

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 2. The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the

collector is now common through the supply. The input signal is
connected directly to the base, while the output is taken from the
emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly known
as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit. The emitter
follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching
applications because of the very high input impedance, in the region
of hundreds of thousands of Ohms while having relatively low output
impedance.

E. Amplifier Coupling

Whether an amplifier is one of a series in a device or a single stage

connected between two other devices, there must be some way for the
signal to enter and leave the amplifier. The process of transferring
energy between circuits is known as COUPLING. There are various
ways of coupling signals into and out of amplifier circuits. The
following is a description of some of the more common methods of
amplifier coupling.

1. Direct Coupling

The method of coupling that uses the least number of circuit

elements and that is, perhaps, the easiest to understand is direct
coupling. In direct coupling the output of one stage is connected
directly to the input of the following stage. Figure 2.13 shows direct-
coupled transistor amplifiers.

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 Direct-coupled transistor amplifiers.

Notice that the output (collector) of Q1 is connected directly to the

input (base) of Q2. The network of R4, R5, and R6 is a voltage divider
used to provide the bias and operating voltages for Q1 and Q2. The
entire circuit provides two stages of amplification.

Direct coupling provides a good Frequency response since no

frequency-sensitive components (inductors and capacitors) are used.
The Frequency response of a circuit using direct coupling is affected
only by the amplifying device itself.

2. RC Coupling

The most commonly used coupling in amplifiers is RC coupling. An

RC-coupling network is shown in figure 1.14.

RC-coupled transistor amplifier.

The network of R1, R2, and C1 enclosed in the dashed lines of

the figure is the coupling network. You may notice that the
circuitry for Q1 and Q2 is incomplete. That is intentional so that
you can concentrate on the coupling network.

R1 acts as a load resistor for Q1 (the first stage) and develops

the output signal of that stage. Do you remember how a capacitor

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 reacts to ac and dc? The capacitor, C1, "blocks" the dc of Q1's
collector, but "passes" the ac output signal. R2 develops this
passed, or coupled, signal as the input signal to Q2 (the second
stage). This arrangement allows the coupling of the signal while it
isolates the biasing of each stage.

RC coupling does have a few disadvantages. The resistors

use dc power and so the amplifier has low efficiency. The capacitor
tends to limit the low-Frequency response of the amplifier and the
amplifying device itself limits the high-Frequency response. For
audio amplifiers this is usually not a problem

3. Impedance Coupling

Impedance coupling is very similar to RC coupling. The difference

is the use of an impedance device (a coil) to replace the load resistor of
the first stage.

Figure 2.15 shows an impedance-coupling network between two

stages of amplification. L1 is the load for Q1 and develops the
output signal of the first stage. The amount of signal developed in
the output of the stage depends on the inductive reactance of L1.

Impedance-coupled transistor amplifier.

The rest of the coupling network (C1 and R1) functions just as
their counterparts (C1 and R2) in the RC-coupling network. C1
couples the signal between stages while blocking the D.C. and R1
develops the input signal to the second stage (Q2).

4. Transformer Coupling

Figure 2.16 shows a transformer-coupling network between two

stages of amplification. The transformer action of T1 couples the
signal from the first stage to the second stage. In figure 1.16, the
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 primary of T1 acts as the load for the first stage (Q1) and the
secondary of T1 acts as the developing impedance for the second stage
(Q2). No capacitor is needed because transformer action couples the
signal between the primary and secondary of T1.

Transformer-coupled transistor amplifier.

Transformer coupling is very often used for the final output

(between the final amplifier stage and the output device) because of
the impedance-matching qualities of the transformer.

F. Complete Block Diagram of Audio Amplifier

Diff. 2nd Driv Pow

I Input Stage er Stage er
NPU
T Stage Output
Stage

Bias Circuit

Complete Schematic Diagram of Audio Power Amplifier (75WATTS)

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 +30 volts

R12 R1 R8
1
33K 33K 82E

Q5
Q8

Q4

R9
100K R1
680 SPEAKER
C1
Q2 Q1
Q3
220u
R17 R2 8ohm
R13 R14
56K R10 680
100 100
5K6

C2

Q6
R15 10u

390K R3
5K

C3 Q7
10u
R16 R4 R5
330K 10K 82E

-30 volts

Key Component Component Function

Q1 & Q2 Differential Input Stage

Transistor

Q8 Second Stage Transistor

Q3 Bias Transistor

Q4 & Q6 Driver Transistor

Q5 & Q7 Power Output Stage

Transistor

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 Self Check 2A.4-4

Application and Analysis

Direction: Using the diagram in figure 18 identify the following
components or stage of the circuit in terms of configuration, coupling
methods & classification. Answer the column with a mark of letter X. Use
the table below.

Component/St Configuration Coupling

age Method

1. Q2 X

2. Q4 X

3. Q6 X

4. Q7 X

5. Q8 X

6. Q2 & Q8 X

7. Q8 & Q4 X

8. Q6 & Q7 X

9. Q7 & Q8

10. Q4 & 6

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 Answer key for Self Check

Component/St Configuration Coupling

age Method

1. Q2 X Common

Emitter

2. Q4 X Common

Emitter

3. Q6 X Common

Collector

4. Q7 X Common

Emitter

5. Q8 X Common

Emitter

6. Q2 & Q8 X Direct

Coupling

7. Q8 & Q4 X Direct

Coupling

8. Q6 & Q7 X Direct

Coupling

9. Q7 & Q8

10. Q4 &
Q6

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 LEARNING OUTCOME SUMMARY

Troubleshoot Repair and Maintain audio

LEARNING OUTCOME #5
Products

CONTENTS:

 Application of work safety practices and time management

 Use and maintenance of test instruments, tools, & equipment
 Schematic diagram reading skills
 Troubleshooting and maintenance
 Analysis of troubles and isolation techniques
 Application of troubleshooting technique
 Application of substitution technique
 Soldering/desoldering and wiring/cabling techniques
 Application of work safety practices and time management
 Application of substitution technique

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Materials, tools and instruments needed in troubleshooting repair and cleaning are
selected and checked in accordance with established procedures
2. Isolation of troubles are performed with proper Personal Protective Equipment PPE) and
following the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) practices
3. Troubles are isolated by following the systematic procedures and using proper instruments
in accordance with the prescribed instructions
4. Defective parts/components are replaced with identical or recommended appropriate
equivalent ratings and soldered/mounted in accordance with the current industry standards
5. Control settings/adjustments of repaired unit are performed in conformity with service-
manual specifications
6. Cleaning of unit is performed in accordance with standard procedures
7. Periodical tests of the repaired unit are maintained and documented according to standard
procedures
8. Repaired units are reassembled completely and waste materials are disposed of in
accordance with environmental requirements
9. Results of troubleshooting and repair are documented properly within the specified time

CONDITIONS:

Trainees must be provided with the following:

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 TOOLS FACILITIES MATERIALS
 Long-nosed pliers  Working area/bench  Solder lead
 Diagonal cutters  Sufficient lighting and  Cleaning brush
 Standard ventilation system  Lead free solder
screwdrivers  Resin core solder
 Soldering iron, 30w Learning materials  Wire stranded, #22,
 De-soldering iron,  Books and references different colors)
30w  Technical manuals  Silicon grease
 Screw driver  Report forms  Resistors (different
assorted, Phillips,  Self-paced learning values)
slotted  elements  Capacitors (different
 Wrenches assorted values)
 Allen wrench/key  Transformer
 Utility
knife/stripper
 Pliers assorted, long
nose, Side cutter
 Test jig

EVALUATION METHOD:

 Written test
 Practical test
 Direct observation

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LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

Learning Outcome 5: TROUBLESHOOT, REPAIR AND MAINTAIN

AUDIO PRODUCTS AND SYSTEMS

Learning Activities Special Instructions

1. Read Information sheet No. If you have some problem on the

2A.5-1. Methods in content of the information sheets
Troubleshooting don’t hesitate to approach your
facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
2. Answer the self check 2A.5-1 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.5-1. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
Operation Sheet 2A.5-1. If not
review the information sheet and
go over the self-check again.

3. Perform Operation Sheet 2A.5-1 Compare your work to the

Troubleshooting Procedure performance checklist. If you got
through Signal Tracing 100% correct answer in this task,
you can now move to the next
Operation sheet. If not review the
information sheet and go over the
task again.

4. Perform Operation Sheet 2A.5-2 Compare your work to the

Troubleshooting Procedure performance checklist. If you got
through Signal Tracing 100% correct answer in this task,
you can now move to the next
Operation sheet. If not review the
information sheet and go over the
task again.

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5. Perform Operation Sheet 2A.5-3 Compare your work to the
Troubleshooting Through performance checklist. If you got
Voltage Measurement 100% correct answer in this task,
you can now move to the next
Operation sheet. If not review the
information sheet and go over the
task again.

6. Read Information sheet No. 2A.5-2. If you have some problem on the
Methods in Troubleshooting content of the information sheets
SERVICING GUIDE FOR AM & don’t hesitate to approach your
AM-FM RADIO RECEIVER facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
7. Answer the self check 2A.5-2 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.5-2. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
next activity. If not review the
information sheet and go over the
self-check again.

8. Read Information sheet No. 2A.5-3. If you have some problem on the
Methods in Troubleshooting content of the information sheets
Troubleshooting an Audio don’t hesitate to approach your
Amplifier facilitator.
If you feel that you are now
knowledgeable on the content of the
information sheets, you can now
answer Self Check provide in the
module.
9. Answer the self check 2A.5-3 Compare your answer to the
answer key 2A.5-3. If you got
100% correct answer in this self-
check, you can now proceed to
next activity. If not review the
information sheet and go over the
self-check again.

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 INFORMATION SHEET NO.2A.5-1
Methods in Troubleshooting

Learning Objectives:

After reading the Information Sheet the trainees should be able

to follow method in troubleshooting.

Troubleshooting is a step-by-step logical approach of locating and

correcting any defect in the operation of equipment. In this case, regardless
of what system is to be troubleshoot there are five important requirements
are needed.
First, you must be familiar with the equipment. You must be able to
distinguish between its normal operating condition and its defective
condition.
Second, you must be familiar with the different components used in
the equipment and their individual operations and functions. Also, you must
be capable of recognizing defective components like transistors, capacitors,
resistors, etc.
Third, you must be capable of applying systematic and logical
procedure in order to locate the trouble.
Fourth, you must be able to analyze the information provided (by a
defective or malfunction equipment) to determine the possible cause(s) of the
malfunction.
Fifth, you must have necessary test equipment and must also be
capable of using them effectively.
In radio or amplifier troubleshooting, there are two methods of detecting
a faulting stage from a block diagram standpoint: signal injection and
signal tracing.

1. SIGNAL TRACING. Is the process of examining the presence of a signal

at a certain stage of a signal system through an oscilloscope.

2. SIGNAL INJECTION. Is the process of examining the functionality of a

certain stage by injecting an artificial signal through an RF or AF
generator.

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 Other Methods of Troubleshooting

1. VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS

Always use a high-impedance meter for voltage measurement.

Remember, a voltmeter has a resistance. When you place it across a
component to measure the voltage drop, it is the same as attaching a
resistor in parallel with the component. The effect is to lower the total
effective resistance and the voltage reading. This effect is called meter
loading.

There’s practically no meter loading when transistor voltages are

measured with a DVOM, which stands for digital volt-ohm-milli-ammeter.
This meter has the advantage of very high input resistance, usually 10m
ohm, the same on the ranges.

Voltage drop across any resistance is directly proportional to the

resistance. For example, if two resistors are connected in series, and if one
have two times the resistance of the other, then it will also have two times
the voltages.

When you are troubleshooting, you won’t have the time to use a
calculator to figure voltage drops. Use proportion instead. If there are three
series resistors totaling in 39k ohms, and one resistor is 10k ohms, it is
approximately one-fourth the total resistance. It will, therefore, have
approximately one-fourth of the circuit voltage across it.

1. TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS

A transistor is a current-controlled device, so extremely small change

in the bias voltage can cause it to go from saturation to cut-off. For this
reason, the measurement of the base-emitter voltage mat not determined the
conducting state of a transistor.

Instead, measure the collector emitter-collector voltage. This voltage

will usually be half, or a little more, of the source voltage.

1. Measure the voltage across the emitter-collector to determine a fault

category.
a. If the voltage reads near the source, the problem is an open or cut-
off transistor.
b. If the voltage reads near zero, the problem Is a shorted or saturated
transistor.

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 2. Determine the exact problem.
c. If the transistor is suspected to be open or cut-off, try to turn it on
by connecting a 10k ohms resistor between collector and base. If
the voltage drop, the transistor is good: the problem is with the
bias circuit.
d. If the transistor is suspected to be shorted or saturated, try to turn
it off by shorting the base to the emitter. If the voltage increases,
the transistor is good: the problem is with the bias circuit.

2. PARALLEL-CIRCUIT THEORY AND MEASUREMENT

1. When measuring resistors in parallel, the total resistance will always

be less than the resistance of the smallest of the resistor.
2. The greater the difference in resistances, the closer the resistance will
be to the value of the smallest resistance.
3. There are only two ways that the total resistance can be greater than
the marked value of the smallest resistance. The resistor could have
increased in resistance, or the resistor could have an open circuit
(such as a broken PC trace).
3. When making resistance measurement in thus circuit, use the low
ohms range or a meter with an ohmmeter voltage output that is less
than 0.2V. this method will ensure that solid-state junctions that
maybe in the circuit will not be forward-biased. To determine the
voltage output of the ohmmeter, simply attach a voltmeter to its leads
in measure the voltage.

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 Self Check No. 2.3-1A
Methods in Troubleshooting

Analysis & Application

Direction: Use the diagram below to answer the questions below the
diagram.

1. Granting that no signal that is trace in step 5, what is the possible

defect?

2. Give at least two reasons assuming that there is no VC at Q1.

3. Give at least three causes when there is no signal trace at step 3.

4. Using signal injecting methods of troubleshooting, where do you connect

a signal injector to test the functionality of the whole circuit?

5. What method of troubleshooting is use when verifying the supply of the

entire circuit?

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 ANSWER KEY FOR SELF CHECK NO. 2.3-1A

1. Open C1

2. Open R3, Shorted EC of Q1

3. Open C3, Defective Q1 or Inoperative Q1 due to defective bias

resistors

4. Base of Q1

5. Voltage measurement across positive and negative supply line

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 OPERATION SHEET 2A.5-1

Title: Troubleshooting Procedure through Signal Tracing

Performance Objective: Given the necessary tools and materials you are going to perform
Troubleshooting Procedure through Signal Tracing.

Supplies/Materials :
1. Assorted components
2. Wires
3. Soldering Lead
Equipment
1. Oscilloscope
2. RF Generator
3. Multi-meter
4. Radio receiver (AM or AM/FM)
5. Power supply
6. Soldering Iron
7. De-soldering Tools
8. Set of Pliers
Assume a super-heterodyne receiver having detective stage so that no sound
is coming from the speaker. When troubleshooting using the signal tracing
method only a multi-tester and an oscilloscope are needed.

The procedure is as follows:

1. Check the power supply using a voltmeter. If the power supply is not
functioning properly, then nothing on the receiver stages will work
correctly.
2. Go to the ―middle‖ of the system and see if the system is present at the
output of the IF amplifier. If there is, then this tells you that all the stages
to the left of the IF amplifier output. This means that the problem must be
in one of the stages to the right of the IF amplifier. But if you do not see a
signal here (output of IF amplifier), then the problem must be to the left of
the IF amplifier.
3. Continue checking each stages until you find a stage with an input signal
but no output signal. This stage is the defective one.
4. To check the local oscillator, simply look for an output signal.

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Illustration:

Assessment Method:

Performance Criteria Checklist

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 Performance Criteria Checklist

CRITERIA Yes No
Did you…
Checked the power supply using a voltmeter.
Checked the ―middle‖ of the system and see if the system is
present at the output of the IF amplifier.
Continued checking each stages until you find a stage with
an input signal but no output signal
checked the local oscillator, simply look for an output
signal
Completed the troubleshooting process
Applied OHS procedures

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 OPERATION SHEET 2A.5-2
Title: Troubleshooting Procedure through Signal Injecting

Performance Objective: Given the necessary tools and materials you are going to perform
Troubleshooting Procedure through Signal Injecting.

Supplies/Materials :
2. Assorted components
2. Wires
3. Soldering Lead
Equipment
3. Oscilloscope
4. RF Generator
3. Multi-meter
4. Radio receiver (AM or AM/FM)
5. Power supply
6. Soldering Iron
7. De-soldering Tools
8. Set of Pliers
To troubleshoot using signal injection method, use an RF generator that can
be modulated by an audio tone. The output frequency of the RF generator must
be variable and can be turned to present that of a radio station, LO, or IF
amplifier. A typical RF generator such as the RF-100 has an audio signal output
for injecting audio signal into the audio amplifier.

The procedure is as follows:

1. Similar to the signal tracing method, the first thing to check is the power
supply. If it is working, continue as follows;
2. Inject an auto tone at the input of the audio amplifier. If you hear a tone at
the speaker, then the problem must be to the left of the audio amplifier.
3. If a tone is not heard, then the problem must be from the audio amplifier
to the speaker. Figure below illustrates the signal injection troubleshooting
method.

Similar to the tracing method, each section is checked to determine if it is

functioning. The only difference is that a signal is injected to a particular
section’s input and the output is monitored.

Illustration:

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Assessment Method:

Performance Criteria Checklist

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 Performance Criteria Checklist

CRITERIA Yes No
Did you…
Checked the power supply if it is working using a
voltmeter.
Injected an auto tone at the input of the audio amplifier.
Traced the problem
Applied troubleshooting techniques
Completed the troubleshooting process
Applied OHS procedures

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 OPERATION SHEET 2A.5-3
Title: Troubleshooting Through Voltage Measurement

Performance Objective: Given the necessary tools and materials you are going to perform
Troubleshooting Procedure through Voltage Measurement.

Supplies/Materials :
3. Assorted components
2. Wires
3. Soldering Lead
4. Circuit module
Equipment
1. Multi-meter
2. Radio receiver (AM or AM/FM)
3. Power supply
4. Soldering Iron
5. De-soldering Tools
6. Set of Pliers
Procedure: A single stage preamp is used for this illustration.

1. 1. Verify the VCC and ground connection of the circuit. Connect the voltmeter as
shown in the diagram. Check the power supply if zero volt is measured.

2. 2. Check the base, emitter and collector supply as shown in the diagram. If one of
the terminal of transistor is missing in supply then check for a possible open
bias resistor.

3. 3. Check also the VBC,VBE, and VCE. Any unusual reading might cause a defective
transistor itself or the biasing resistor connected to electrode.

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 Note: This voltage measurement procedure is applicable not only to
simple circuit as shown above but also to multi stage circuits or a
complicated circuit of audio power amp diagram, radio receiver diagram or
television circuit diagram.

Assessment Method:

Performance Criteria Checklist

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 Performance Criteria Checklist

CRITERIA Yes No
Did you…
Verified the VCC and ground connection of the circuit.
Checked the power supply if zero volt is measured.
Checked the base, emitter and collector supply
Checked for a possible open bias resistor.
Checked the VBC,VBE, and VCE.
Applied troubleshooting techniques
Completed the troubleshooting process
Applied OHS procedures

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 INFORMATION SHEET NO.2A.5-2
SERVICING GUIDE FOR AM and AM-FM RADIO RECEIVER

Learning Objectives:
After reading this Information Sheet, the trainees should
be able to follow the servicing guide for AM and Am-FM radio receiver.

SERVICING GUIDE FOR AM RADIO RECEIVER

Trouble Symptoms Possible Cause
1. Completely in operation a. Dead or weak batteries
or dead receiver: b. Poor battery contacts
c. Broken printed wiring
d. Defective on-off switch
e. Shorted battery filter capacitor (Tuner
Stage)
f. Shorted detector driver coupling capacitor
g. In operative oscillators
h. Shorted bypass capacitor
i. Open antenna coil primary
j. Open IF transformers windings
k. Open oscillator trimmer
l. Defective speaker, earphone jack, volume
control, transistors or diode detectors.
2. Distorted Sound: a. Weak batteries
b. Defective speaker
c. Shorted AF coupling capacitor
d. Shorted AGC Filter capacitor
e. Shorted emitter bypass capacitor
f. Defective audio transistor (usually on power
transistor)
g. Loose speaker terminal or defective speaker
h. Leaky detector driver coupling capacitor
i. Defective bias resistor (base bias)
j. Shorted in output transformers
k. Open overload diode
l. Shorted turns in primary windings of
output transformer
m. Change value of emitter resistor
3. Excessive Heat of the a. Open or increased resistance of base
Power Transistors: resistor of the power transistor.
b. Leaky power transistors (about to short)
c. Excessive power supply
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4. No Radio Stations but a. No tuner section VEC supply
Audio Amplifiers: b. Open IF transformer pins
c. Open volume control
d. Shorted or open tuner transistor
e. Shorted RF coupling capacitor
f. Open detector diode
5. MIXED STATION: a. Not connected antenna secondary terminal
b. Open antenna coupling capacitor
c. Loose ground in RF stage
d. Defective variable capacitor (tuning
capacitor)
6. Weak Sound: a. Weak battery
b. Defective detector
c. Defective audio transistor
d. Open bypass capacitor
e. Cracked antenna coil core
f. Misalignment
g. Leaky AGC overload diode
h. Defective transistor or diode detector
i. Leaky tuner transistor
j. Defective IF transformer
k. Excessive AGC voltage
l. Defective RF bypass capacitor
7. Complete station but too a. Inverted detector diode
much noise and whistle: b. Open bypass capacitor
c. Antenna primary not connected to variable
capacitor
d. Misalignment
e. Improper antenna coil connection
f. Defective tuning capacitor
g. Corrosion in transformer windings
h. Leaky capacitor
i. Dirty on-off switch
j. Worn out volume control
k. Defective transistor
8. Radio Operates a. Dirty switch contacts
Intermittently: b. Dirty volume control
c. Corroded battery terminal
d. Poor phone jack contact
e. Dirty tuning capacitor wiper contact
f. Dirty between plates of tuning capacitor
g. Poor solder connections
h. Defective earphone jack
i. Loose IF transformer slag
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 j. Intermittent open coils
k. Cracked printed wiring
l. Leaky RF or IF bypass capacitor
9. Sound Fades After Short a. Weak battery
Period of Time/Station
Drift
10. Heterodyning on all a. Weak battery
Stations: b. Defective supply filter capacitor
c. Defective AGC filter capacitor
d. Defective IF neutralizing capacitor
e. Misalignment
11. Motor boating: a. Weak battery
b. Open supply filter capacitor
c. Defective audio decoupling capacitor
d. Open AGC filter capacitor
e. Open neutralizing capacitor
f. Cracked antenna coil core
g. Open bypass capacitor in IF stage
h. Poor battery contacts
i. Misalignment
j. Change value of feedback resistor
12. Poor Sensitivity at a. Weak battery
the Low Frequency End: b. Defective mixer, converter transistor
c. Defective IF Amplifier
d. Poor oscillator adjustment
13. Poor Sensitivity at a. Defective mixer, converted or oscillator
the High Frequency End: transistor
b. Misalignment of antenna circuit
c. Broken or cracked antenna coil core
14. Change in Volume as a. No AGC voltage
Radio is Turned to b. Low AGC voltage
Different Stations: c. Shorted AGC filter capacitor
d. Shorted detector RF bypass capacitor
e. Defective diode detector
15. Short Battery Life: a. Defective switch or transistor
b. Shorted or leaky supply filter
16. Cut out at the High a. Open emitter bypass capacitor
Frequency End of Tuning b. Defective oscillator or converter transistor
Range: c. Misalignment of Antenna circuit
d. Misalignment of IF stage
e. Warped or shorted tuning capacitor plates
17. One station over the a. Oscillator or converter not functioning
entire tuning range: b. Misalignment of the IF stage
18. Cut off at the low a. Warped or shorted tuning capacitor plates
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 frequency end of the b. Mis-adjustment of oscillator coil
tuning range
19. Noise on all Stations a. Dirt between plate of tuning capacitor
b. Dirty wiper contacts on tuning capacitor
c. Shorted tuning capacitor
d. Defective mixer or converter transistor
defective IF transformer (corroded)
20. Inoperative tuner a. Shorted bypass capacitor
b. Shorted mixer or converted base coupling
capacitor
c. Defective mixer, oscillator, or converter
transistor
d. Open oscillator coil winding
e. Change value of base bias resistor
f. Open antenna primary winding
21. Distortion of strong a. Low or no AGC voltage
signal: b. Low collector voltage
c. Defective transistor
d. Change value of base bias resistor
22. Oscillations (Squelch) a. Open neutralizing capacitor
IF stage b. Change values of neutralizing capacitor or
resistors
c. Open AGC filter capacitor
23. No AGC Voltage a. Defective diode
b. Open RF bypass capacitor

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 Servicing Guide for AM/ FM Radio Receiver
Servicing FM tuner is no different from servicing AM tuner except for
few considerations. Understanding the fundamental block diagram of
combined AM/FM tuner can help locate a defective stage easily. From the
point of view of practical servicing, it is important to identify the different
stages and their functions so that checks could be done right at the
suspected stage.

A
A
NT.
M DET.
AM AM AM AM AM
CONVERTE AM
RF RF RF RF
R OUT

A
NT. FM FM FM FM
AM FM
CONVERTE RF RF RF LIM
RF
R ITER

FM
OUT

Figure 3.5 AM/FM tuner (block diagram)

There are two sets of intermediate frequency (IF) transformers used in
the combination tuner, one for AM frequency and other for FM. The
frequencies in which they are tuned are far part: 450 KHZ for AM and 10.8
KHZ for FM. In the IF amplifier stage, a single transistor amplifies both AM
and FM signals. The IFtransformers are connected in series to the
[Link] numbers of IF transformers depend on how many amplifier
stages are in the tuner. AM and FM signals not interfere with each other. FM
IF transformers do not affect AM, signal because the frequency of FM
transformer is very high while AM signal passes the IF transformers as a low
pass filter. FM signals also pass the AM IF transformers as high pass filters.

Similarly, there are two sets of local oscillators. Each oscillator’s

works independently from the other, each having a transistor oscillator of its
own. Likewise, two tuning capacitors ganged together handle AM and FM
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signals. A ferrite bar with an antenna coil is used to pick up MA signals
whereas an aerial or whip antenna picks up FM signals.

There are two different types of detectors in the combination tuner. A

single diode detects AM signals and two the diodes facing opposite directions
detect FM signals. Separate AM and FM output signals are picked up after
passing the detectors.

Trouble Symptoms

A detective stage in AM/FM tuner can be located through its

symptom. The most common trouble symptoms are as follows:

1. No reception both in AM and FM;

2. Good FM reception but no AM or vice-versa;
3. Poor sensitivity or weak reception;
4. Twit-twits and whistle;
5. Distorted sound with hum.

1. No Reception Both on AM and FM

No reception both on AM and FM is probably caused by the failure

of an IF amplifier. Both AM and FM signals pass the IF amplifiers. Thus,
a defective IF stage breaks the signal path. A defective IF, either AM or
FM, causes both signals to stop because the signals pass the IF
transformers in series. Similarly, malfunctioning IF amplifier transistor
cuts off both signals resulting in this symptom. A low supply voltage or
its complete loss will bring about the same symptom of no reception in
both frequencies. The AGC does not constitute a signal path. It controls
the signal strength at the IF amplifiers. If defective, it can partly or totally
block out both receptions. A shorted signal or zener diode is used to
regulate the voltage in some points of the supply line in the circuit.
Summarizing the possible causes of no reception both on AM and FM is:

a. Defective IF transformer
b. Defective IF amplifier transistors
c. Low or zero supply voltage
d. Defective AGC
e. Shorted signal diode
f. Shorted zener diode

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2. Good FM reception but no AM or vice-versa

The trouble symptom of good FM reception but no AM or vice-

versa maybe traced to their corresponding detectors as well as to their
respective converters or mixers/oscillators. Defective RF amplifiers
preceding the oscillators are likewise good suspects. Often, the selector
can be the cause of failure of one if not both receptions. Knowledge about
AM tuner is helpful in pinpointing the defective components.

3. Poor sensitivity or weak reception

Poor sensitivity of both AM and FM signals is caused by the

trouble in the AGC. Other causes are misaligned IF transformers and low
supply voltage. Touch-up IF alignment and check AGC filter capacitors.
Check by-pass capacitors. A defective aerial can cause poor sensitivity of
the tuner. Touch-up the sensitivity coil adjustment.

4. Twit-twits and whistle

Twit-twits and whistle are caused by misaligned IF transformers and

defective AGC. Touch-up alignment and check AGC filter capacitors.
Check also AFC circuit. A defective or detuned IF transformers is
indicated by whistle and howling when it is tuned to a radio station.
Replace defective or detune IF transformers.

5. Distorted sound with hum

Poor filtering of the supply to the tuner can cause

distorted sound with hum. Check electrolytic capacitors in the supply of
the tuner.

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 SELFCHECK 2A.5-2
Give the possible causes of the following trouble symptoms.
1. Completely in operation or dead receiver
2. Distorted Sound
3. Excessive Heat of the Power Transistors

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 ANSWER KEY
Trouble Symptoms Possible Cause
1. Completely in operation a. Dead or weak batteries
or dead receiver: b. Poor battery contacts
c. Broken printed wiring
d. Defective on-off switch
e. Shorted battery filter capacitor (Tuner Stage)
f. Shorted detector driver coupling capacitor
g. In operative oscillators
h. Shorted bypass capacitor
i. Open antenna coil primary
j. Open IF transformers windings
k. Open oscillator trimmer
l. Defective speaker, earphone jack, volume
control, transistors or diode detectors.
2. Distorted Sound: a. Weak batteries
b. Defective speaker
c. Shorted AF coupling capacitor
d. Shorted AGC Filter capacitor
e. Shorted emitter bypass capacitor
f. Defective audio transistor (usually on power
transistor)
g. Loose speaker terminal or defective speaker
h. Leaky detector driver coupling capacitor
i. Defective bias resistor (base bias)
j. Shorted in output transformers
k. Open overload diode
l. Shorted turns in primary windings of
output transformer
m. Change value of emitter resistor
3. Excessive Heat of the a. Open or increased resistance of base resistor
Power Transistors: of the power transistor.
b. Leaky power transistors (about to short)
c. Excessive power supply

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 INFORMATION SHEET 2A.5-3
Troubleshooting an Audio Amplifier

After reading this Information Sheet, the trainees should be able to

Troubleshoot an Audio Amplifier
The Circuit Diagram

Key Component Function

Q1,Q2 – MD8003 NPN Differential input

Transistor Short circuit protection
Q3 – MPSA70 PNP Transistor Voltage amplifier
Q4 – NSDU57 PNP transistor Short circuit protection
Q5 – MPSA20 PNP transistor Constant current
Q6 – NSDU07 PNP transistor generator
Q7 – MJE243 NPN Driver transistor
Q8 – MJE253 PNP Driver transistor
Q9 – MJ15016 NPN Power output transistor
Q10 - MJ15015 NPN Power output transistor
Q11 – MPSL01 NPN transistor Short circuit protection
Q12 – MPSL01 NPN transistor Short circuit protection
Q13 – MJE3440 NPN Bias and thermal
compensation
transistor

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 Troubleshooting Procedures
There are three major steps involved in the troubleshooting of the
100W power amplifier.
 Determine the trouble symptom.
 Localize the trouble.
 Determine the possible cause.

1. Determine the Trouble Symptom

By using your power of observation, you can easily determine

whether an amp is (or has been) operating normally or not. Visual
inspections can easily pin-point a burned out resistor or faulty
connection. Listening tests can easily check the quality of the sound
output. Overheating can be detected by touching a device. Of course,
you can do these things only if you are familiar with the normal
operations of the amp’s component.

There are two broad categories into which trouble symptoms of an

amplifier can be subdivided – amp failure and degraded performance.

Amplifier failure refers to trouble symptoms produced by an amp

whose functional parts are either totally or partially malfunctioning.
For example, a completely dead amplifier set, or the presence of a
large dc voltage across the speaker terminals of the 100W amp.

TABLE 1
Trouble Symptom Possible Cause
1. Dead Set  No power supplied to the amplifier
 Defective transistor(s)
2. Overheating Power  Oscillation
Transistors / No  R12 not properly adjusted.
Input Signal  Power transistor case (collector) is
shorted to heat sink.
 Chassis body and heat sink not properly
grounded.
3. R18 and R23 burn  Oscillation
out quickly  Q1 and Q2 are either defective or not
properly matched.
4. Unbalanced  D1 interchanged with either D2 or D3.
Output

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 Degraded performance occurs whenever the equipment is working
but does not correspond to its normal operation, such as slow gain or
excessive hum in the output.

Different amplifier trouble symptoms require different procedures

of troubleshooting. Therefore, an evaluation of the trouble symptoms
must be done. However, always remember that recognition of trouble
symptoms does not in itself provide enough information to determine
the probable cause of the defect. This is because many faults or
defects produce similar symptoms.

For example, the presence of an unbalanced output may be a sign

that the differential transistors are not properly matched or are
defective. Another possibility is shorted power transistor body (Q3,
Q13 or Q10) to its heat sink, or simply one supply line is open. Of
course there are other possibilities. The technique here is to check all
possibilities until you arrive at the possible trouble. Here you can use
the process of elimination. Start with the simplest and most probable
and work your way up to the more complicated. Table 1 lists some of
the most common problems encountered with the said amplifier.

As you can see from the table, we can generalize the common
causes of the amplifier’s malfunction in two. The first is construction
error and the second, oscillations caused by improper impedance
match between the pre-amp and the power amp. Note that a good
indication of a construction error or defect in the amplifier is if it fails
to satisfy the requirements stated in the ―testing and calibration‖ part
of its construction procedure.

2. Localize the Trouble

The amplifier can be subdivided into different stages like the

differential amplifier, voltage amplifier, symmetrical output stage, etc.
Each of these stages provides a unique function of its own. (see figure
3.6 for more details). You must be familiar with functional units of the
amplifier and correlate the symptoms associated with their
malfunction. This will help you localize the trouble systematically.

The first thing you must do is a visual inspection of the

components to look for burned or over-heated components and wrong
parts placement.

Next, use available test equipment like VOM or the oscilloscope

and apply your knowledge in circuit testing methods.
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 The most commonly used methods in circuit testing are DC voltage
measurement, signal tracing are in=circuit measurement of resistance
values.

DC voltage measurement and signal tracing are good methods for

in-circuit testing, however, this method is recommended to those who
have a 110v source available instead of the required 220v. A lower
voltage source would minimize the possibility of additional damage the
current flowing through this amplifier will be considerably less. If you
prefer using 220v, use the voltage readings shown in Figure 1 as
guide.

A trouble symptom distorted output could be caused by a defective

transistor, a leaky capacitor or an improper bias resistor. Any of these
defects will disturb the DC voltage distribution with one exception –
an open capacitor. However, a suspected capacitor can be checked by
bridging across it a known capacitor to determine if normal operation
is restored. Do not forget to turn off the amplifier before bridging the
suspected capacitor.

If the trouble is serious (most of the major components are burned

or charred) in-circuit resistance measurements are an alternative.
This method is more tedious but a lot safer. Defective transistors,
resistors, PCB foil paths and connections can easily be checked using
this method. When checking for possible construction errors, the
construction procedures and schematic diagram can be used as a
guide.

3. Determine the Possible Cause

After you have located and corrected the defect, the amplifier
must be subjected to the same ―testing and calibration‖ procedures
for same newly constructed amplifiers. This must be done to make
sure that no other defect is present.

The next thing you must do is to make sure that the cause of the
amplifier trouble is not external like oscillations caused by the pre-
amplifier. This is difficult to detect because the frequency of
oscillation is far above the audio range. However, you can make use
of an ordinary VOM to detect this. The procedure is as follows.

Connect the circuits as shown in Figure 2 one at a time. Figure

2a is used to check the pre-amplifier, Figure 2b the power amplifier,
and Figure 2c the whole system. In each of the circuits, do not apply
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 any input signal. The reading of the ac meter should be negligible in
each test. If the amplifier or pre-amplifier is not oscillating, the meter
reading should not exceed 0.5 Vac. The power must not be left on for
more than a few seconds in Figures b and c if the meter reading
shows otherwise.

To safeguard against possible oscillations, add 1K ohm resistor at

the space allotted for R1 (Figure 1) and connect a 0.002 µF capacitor
across R3. This would eliminate possible oscillations triggered by the
mismatch between the pre-amplifier and the power amplifier, and
excessive noise. However, if the pre-amplifier section is the source of
the oscillation, the addition of 1K ohm resistor and 0.002 µF
capacitor is not enough to cure the problem. The pre-amplifier unit
must be repaired.

The diagram below show the test point during troubleshooting

Voltage reading at the different test points with respect to

chassis/power supply under no signal condition

POINT VOLTAGE (GND

ref.)
1 +49.35
2 +49.75V
3 +49.95V
4 +0.65V
5 +49.4V
6 +50V
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 7 +0.03V
8 +6.8V
9 +0.8V
10 +49.75V
11 -10V
12 ±0.02
13 -49.75
14 -49.95
15 -0.65
16 -49.4
17 -50V
18 -0.05V
19 -6.8V
20 -0.8V
21 -49.75

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 SELF CHECK

Give the possible cause of the following trouble symptoms

Trouble Symptom Possible Cause

1. Dead Set

2. Overheating Power
Transistors / No
Input Signal

3. R18 and R23 burn

out quickly

4. Unbalanced
Output

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 ANSWER KEY

Trouble Symptom Possible Cause

1. Dead Set  No power supplied to the amplifier
 Defective transistor(s)
2. Overheating Power  Oscillation
Transistors / No  R12 not properly adjusted.
Input Signal  Power transistor case (collector) is
shorted to heat sink.
 Chassis body and heat sink not properly
grounded.
3. R18 and R23 burn  Oscillation
out quickly  Q1 and Q2 are either defective or not
properly matched.
4. Unbalanced  D1 interchanged with either D2 or D3.
Output

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 ASSESSMENT PLAN
Competency standard: CONSUMER ELECTRONIC MECHANIC NC II
Unit of competency: MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF AUDIO/VIDEO
PRODUCTS AND SYSTEM
Title of Module MAINTAINING AND REPAIRING AUDIO PRODUCTS
AND SYSTEMS
Ways in which evidence will be collected:

Demonstration
[tick the column]

Questioning

Written
The evidence must show that the Trainee …

Oral
Cleaned work station for repair activities in line with the x x x
company requirements.
Prepared necessary tools, test instruments and Personal x x
Protective Equipment in accordance with their application or
use.
Required service manuals and service information for repair x x x
and maintenance are acquired.

Acquired service manuals and service information required for x x x

repair and maintenance are.
Observed systematic pre-testing procedure in accordance with x x
manufacturer’s instructions.
Identified System defects/fault symptoms using appropriate X x
tools and equipment and in accordance with safety
procedures.
Documented results of diagnosis and testing. x x

Explained identified defects and faults to the Trainers. x

Replaced defective parts/components with their recommended x x

appropriate counterparts.
Soldered repaired parts/components. x

Made substitutions of parts in accordance with the

manufacturer’s specification.
Performed repair activity within the required time frame. x
Observed care and extreme precaution in handling the x
unit/product .
NOTE: Critical aspects of competency

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 Prepared by: Date:
Checked by: Date:
DEMONSTRATION CHECKLIST

Trainee’s name:
Trainer’s name:
Assessment Center
Competency standards
Unit of competency:
Instructions for trainee:
Given the necessary tools, supplies and materials you are going to:
1. Troubleshooting an Audio Amplifier (100watts)

The Circuit Diagram

Key Component Function

Q1,Q2 – MD8003 NPN Differential input

Transistor Short circuit protection
Q3 – MPSA70 PNP Transistor Voltage amplifier
Q4 – NSDU57 PNP transistor Short circuit protection
Q5 – MPSA20 PNP transistor Constant current
Q6 – NSDU07 PNP transistor generator
Q7 – MJE243 NPN Driver transistor
Q8 – MJE253 PNP Driver transistor
Q9 – MJ15016 NPN Power output transistor
Q10 - MJ15015 NPN Power output transistor
Q11 – MPSL01 NPN transistor Short circuit protection
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 Q12 – MPSL01 NPN transistor Short circuit protection
Q13 – MJE3440 NPN Bias and thermal
compensation
transistor
Date of observation
The Trainee…. If yes, tick
the box
Cleaned work station for repair activities in line with the
company requirements.
Prepared necessary tools, test instruments and Personal
Protective Equipment in accordance with their application or
use.
Required service manuals and service information for repair
and maintenance are acquired.
Acquired service manuals and service information required for
repair and maintenance are.
Observed systematic pre-testing procedure in accordance with
manufacturer’s instructions.
Identified System defects/fault symptoms using appropriate
tools and equipment and in accordance with safety
procedures.
Documented results of diagnosis and testing.
Explained identified defects and faults to the Trainers.
Replaced defective parts/components with their recommended
appropriate counterparts.
Soldered repaired parts/components.
Made substitutions of parts in accordance with the
manufacturer’s specification.
Performed repair activity within the required time frame.
Observed care and extreme precaution in handling the
unit/product .
Did the Trainee’s overall performance meet the standard? Yes No

Feedback to Trainee’s:
Trainer’s signature: Date:

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 INTERVIEW QUESTION CHECKLIST
QUESTIONS Satisfactory
response
YES NO
1. Give some general safety precautions
2. What is trouble shooting

3. Explain parallel-circuit theory and measurement

Feedback to the Candidate:

The trainee’s overall performance was:

Satisfactory Not Satisfactory

Trainee’s Signature Date

Facilitator signature Date

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 Written Test

Matching Type: Match the Hand Tools in Column A with its function in
Column B. Write your answer in sheet of paper.

Column AColumn B

__________1.a tool used to hold small

sensitive part of a computer.

__________2.a tool used for holding, bending

and stretching the lead of electronics.

__________3.a tool used to unsoldered

unwanted parts of component

__________4.a tool used to drive or fasten

negative slotted screws.

__________5.a tool used to join two or more

metal conductors with the support of
soldering lead.

__________6.a device used to exaggerate or

to increase the size of an object.

__________7.a tool used to press into small

folds, to frill to corrugate.

__________8.a tool used for cutting wires.

__________9.a tool for cutting or trimming of

connecting wires.

__________10.it absorbs the static electricity

of the material when being hold.

II. Directions: Write true if the statement is correct and false if the
statement is wrong.
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_____1. Do not reverse the leads (polarity) on the analog meter because
you may bend the pointer and cause it to be inaccurate.
_____2. Be careful to observe polarity when measuring DC.
_____3. Be certain the function switch is properly set (i.e. DC, AC, volts,
amperes, milliamperes, resistance).
_____4. When measuring an unknown voltage, always start at the highest
range available on the meter. Lower the range until the meter
reading is approximately in the center of the scale.
_____5. Always connect voltmeters in parallel with the potential difference
being measured.
_____6. Multimeters should be stored in the highest DC range when not
in use. This is a safety precaution to protect the meter. If
someone tries to measure voltage while the range switch is set too
low or on a resistance range, the meter will be damaged.
_____7. Use the proper function, range and polarity to protect the meter.
_____8. Never connect an ammeter into a circuit when the power switch is
on.
_____9. Always be certain that the ammeter is inserted in series.
_____10. Be certain that the range is high enough for the current being
measured. If the current to be measured is unknown, start at the
highest range and work down until the meter reads
approximately in the center of the range.
_____11. Observe proper polarity when measuring DC, especially when
using an analog meter.
_____12. Turn the power off when measuring resistance.
_____13. Reset the range switch to the highest voltage range when you
have finished making resistance measurements.
_____14. Never measure resistance with the power on.
_____15. The measuring instrument cover is treated with antistatic
coating. Do not wipe it hard or clean it with volatile solvent. Use a
soft brush to remove dust.
_____16. Clean the measuring instrument before and after using.
_____17. Avoid giving the tester any exercise shock or vibration by loading
it on the motorbike and the like.
_____18. Keep off dust and moisture from the tester.
_____19. Do not leave the tester for a long time in places of high
temperature (higher than 55°C) high humidity (higher than 80%),
and dew condensation.
_____20. Replace the same voltage and current ratings of fuse, when
replacing .burned-out or defective fuse of measuring instrument.

COMPETENCY EVALUATION RESULT SUMMARY

TRAINEES NAME
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 FACILITATORS NAME
QUALIFICATION
DATE OF EVALUATION
TIME OF EVALUATION
The Performance of the Trainee in the following assessment Satisfactory Not
methods [ Please Tick appropriate box] Satisfactory
A. Written Exam

B. Interview
Facilitator

C. Demonstration

Did the trainees overall performance meet the required

evidences/standards?
Recommendation

For re-evaluation ________________________________

Qualified to take the Next Competency

General comments [Strengths/Improvement Needed]

Trainee’s Signature Date:

Facilitator’s Signature: Date:

ANSWER KEY
I.
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 1. E
2. D
3. C
4. B
5. A
6. J
7. I
8. H
9. G
10. F

II. TRUE OR FALSE

1. F
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. T
7. T
8. F
9. T
10. T
11. T
12. T
13. F
14. T
15. T
16. T
17. T
18. T
19. T
20. T

Interview questions possible answers

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 A. Generals safety precautions:
1. Remove power from the circuit or equipment prior to working on it.
2. Remove and replace fuses only after the power in the circuit has
been de-energized.
3. Make sure all equipment is properly grounded.
4. Use extreme caution when removing or installing batteries
containing acid.
5. Use cleaning fluids only in well-ventilated spaces.
6. Dispose of cleaning rags and other flammable materials in tightly
closed metal containers.
7. In case of an electrical fire. De-energize the circuit and report
immediately to the appropriate authority.

B. Troubleshooting is a step-by-step logical approach of locating and

correcting any defect in the operation of equipment.

C. PARALLEL-CIRCUIT THEORY AND MEASUREMENT

1. When measuring resistors in parallel, the total resistance will always

be less than the resistance of the smallest of the resistor.
2. The greater the difference in resistances, the closer the resistance will
be to the value of the smallest resistance.
3. There are only two ways that the total resistance can be greater than
the marked value of the smallest resistance. The resistor could have
increased in resistance, or the resistor could have an open circuit
(such as a broken PC trace).
4. When making resistance measurement in thus circuit, use the low
ohms range or a meter with an ohmmeter voltage output that is less
than 0.2V. this method will ensure that solid-state junctions that
maybe in the circuit will not be forward-biased. To determine the
voltage output of the ohmmeter, simply attach a voltmeter to its leads
in measure the voltage.

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