2/5/24, 9:24 PM Cooling tower - Wikipedia

Cooling tower
A cooling tower is a device that rejects waste
heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a
coolant stream, usually a water stream, to a lower
temperature. Cooling towers may either use the
evaporation of water to remove heat and cool the
working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature
or, in the case of dry cooling towers, rely solely on
air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb
air temperature using radiators.

Common applications include cooling the

circulating water used in oil refineries,
petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal A typical evaporative, forced draft open-loop
cooling tower rejecting heat from the condenser
power stations, nuclear power stations and HVAC
water loop of an industrial chiller unit
systems for cooling buildings. The classification is
based on the type of air induction into the tower:
the main types of cooling towers are natural draft
and induced draft cooling towers.

Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very

large hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 metres
(660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular
structures that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80
metres (260 ft) long. Hyperboloid cooling towers are often
associated with nuclear power plants,[1] although they are also Natural draft wet cooling
used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large hyperboloid towers at Didcot Power
chemical and other industrial plants. The steam turbine is what Station (UK)
necessitates the cooling tower. Although these large towers are
very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much
smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to
discharge heat from air conditioning. Cooling towers are also
often thought to emit smoke or harmful fumes by the general
public, when in reality the emissions from those towers mostly
do not contribute to carbon footprint, and consist solely of
water vapor.[2][3]

History
Cooling towers originated in the 19th century through the Forced draft wet cooling towers
development of condensers for use with the steam engine. [4] (height: 34 meters) and natural draft
Condensers use relatively cool water, via various means, to wet cooling tower (height: 122
condense the steam coming out of the cylinders or turbines. meters) in Westphalia, Germany
This reduces the back pressure, which in turn reduces the
steam consumption, and thus the fuel consumption, while at
the same time increasing power and recycling boiler-water.[5] However the condensers require an
ample supply of cooling water, without which they are impractical.[6][7] While water usage is not an
issue with marine engines, it forms a significant limitation for many land-based systems.
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By the turn of the 20th century, several evaporative methods of

recycling cooling water were in use in areas lacking an
established water supply, as well as in urban locations where
municipal water mains may not be of sufficient supply; reliable
in times of demand; or otherwise adequate to meet cooling
needs.[4][7] In areas with available land, the systems took the
form of cooling ponds; in areas with limited land, such as in
cities, they took the form of cooling towers.[6][8]
Natural draft wet cooling tower in
These early towers were positioned either on the rooftops of Dresden (Germany)
buildings or as free-standing structures, supplied with air by
fans or relying on natural airflow.[6][8] An American
engineering textbook from 1911 described one design as "a circular or
rectangular shell of light plate—in effect, a chimney stack much
shortened vertically (20 to 40 ft. high) and very much enlarged
laterally. At the top is a set of distributing troughs, to which the water
from the condenser must be pumped; from these it trickles down over
"mats" made of wooden slats or woven wire screens, which fill the
space within the tower."[8]

A hyperboloid cooling tower was

patented by the Dutch engineers
Frederik van Iterson and Gerard
Kuypers in the Netherlands on A 1902 engraving of
"Barnard's fanless self-
August 16, 1916.[9] The first
cooling tower", an early
hyperboloid reinforced concrete
large evaporative cooling
cooling towers were built by the
tower that relied on natural
Dutch State Mine (DSM) Emma in
draft and open sides rather
1918 in Heerlen.[10] The first ones in than a fan; water to be
the United Kingdom were built in cooled was sprayed from
1924 at Lister Drive power station in the top onto the radial
Liverpool, England.[11] On both pattern of vertical wire-
locations they were built to cool water mesh mats.
used at a coal-fired electrical power
station.

According to Gas Technology Institute (GTI) report ([Link]

Van Iterson cooling tower, [Link]/scholar?q=INTEGRATED+INDUSTRIAL+WAS
TEWATER+REUSE+VIA+THE+MAISOTSENKO+CYCLE+HEAT
+RECOVERY+PROCESS), the indirect dew point evaporative
cooling Maisotsenko Cycle (M-Cycle) is a theoretically sound method of reducing a fluid to dew
point temperature which is lower than its wet bulb temperature. The M-cycle utilizes the
psychrometric energy (or the potential energy) available from the latent heat of water evaporating
into the air. While its current manifestation is as the M-Cycle HMX for air conditioning, through
engineering design this cycle could be applied as a heat and moisture recovery device for
combustion devices, cooling towers, condensers, and other processes involving humid gas streams.

The consumption of cooling water by inland processing and power plants is estimated to reduce
power availability for the majority of thermal power plants by 2040–2069.[12]

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In 2021, researchers presented a method for steam recapture. The steam is charged using an ion
beam, and then captured in a wire mesh of opposite charge. The water's purity exceeded EPA
potability standards.[13]

Classification by use

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

An HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling

tower is used to dispose of ("reject") unwanted heat from a
chiller. Liquid-cooled chillers are normally more energy
efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower
water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers
must reject heat at the higher dry-bulb temperature, and thus
have a lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness. In
areas with a hot climate, large office buildings, hospitals, and
schools typically use one or more cooling towers as part of their
Two HVAC cooling towers on the
air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers
rooftop of a shopping center
are much larger than HVAC towers. HVAC use of a cooling
(Darmstadt, Hesse, Germany)
tower pairs the cooling tower with a liquid-cooled chiller or
liquid-cooled condenser. A ton of air-conditioning is defined as
the removal of 12,000 British thermal units per hour (3.5 kW).
The equivalent ton on the cooling tower side actually rejects
about 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW) due to
the additional waste heat-equivalent of the energy needed to
drive the chiller's compressor. This equivalent ton is defined as
the heat rejection in cooling 3 US gallons per minute (11 litres
per minute) or 1,500 pounds per hour (680 kg/h) of water by FRP cooling tower installed on roof
10 °F (5.6 °C), which amounts to 15,000 British thermal units top
per hour (4.4 kW), assuming a chiller coefficient of
performance (COP) of 4.0.[14] This COP is equivalent to an
energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 14.

Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have

multiple water source heat pumps that share a common piping
water loop. In this type of system, the water circulating inside
the water loop removes heat from the condenser of the heat
pumps whenever the heat pumps are working in the cooling
mode, then the externally mounted cooling tower is used to
remove heat from the water loop and reject it to the Cell of a cross-flow type cooling
atmosphere. By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in tower with fill material, and
heating mode, the condensers draw heat out of the loop water circulating water visible
and reject it into the space to be heated. When the water loop is
being used primarily to supply heat to the building, the cooling
tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or winterized to prevent freeze damage), and
heat is supplied by other means, usually from separate boilers.

Industrial cooling towers

Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as machinery or
heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat
absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power plants, petroleum refineries,
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petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food

processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other
industrial facilities such as in condensers of distillation
columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc.[15] The
circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MWth coal-
fired power plant with a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600
cubic metres an hour (315,000 US gallons per minute)[16] and
the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of
perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres an hour, equivalent
to one cubic metre every second).

If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-

through cooling water, it would require about 100,000 cubic
metres an hour[17] A large cooling water intake typically kills
millions of fish and larvae annually, as the organisms are
impinged on the intake screens.[18] A large amount of water
would have to be continuously returned to the ocean, lake or
river from which it was obtained and continuously re-supplied
to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot Industrial cooling towers for a power
water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake plant
to an unacceptable level for the local ecosystem. Elevated water
temperatures can kill fish and other aquatic organisms (see
thermal pollution), or can also cause an increase in undesirable
organisms such as invasive species of zebra mussels or algae.

A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the

atmosphere instead, so that wind and air diffusion spreads the
heat over a much larger area than hot water can distribute heat
in a body of water. Evaporative cooling water cannot be used
for subsequent purposes (other than rain somewhere), whereas
surface-only cooling water can be re-used. Some coal-fired and
nuclear power plants located in coastal areas do make use of Industrial cooling towers for fruit
once-through ocean water. But even there, the offshore processing
discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid
environmental problems.

Petroleum refineries may also have very large cooling tower systems. A typical large refinery
processing 40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day (300,000 barrels (48,000 m3) per day)
circulates about 80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its cooling tower system.

The world's tallest cooling tower is the 210 metres (690 ft) tall cooling tower of the Pingshan II
Power Station in Huaibei, Anhui Province, China.[19]

Classification by build

Package type

These types of cooling towers are factory preassembled, and

can be simply transported on trucks, as they are compact
machines. The capacity of package type towers is limited and,
for that reason, they are usually preferred by facilities with low
Field erected cooling tower

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heat rejection requirements such as food processing plants,

textile plants, some chemical processing plants, or buildings
like hospitals, hotels, malls, automotive factories, etc.

Due to their frequent use in or near residential areas, sound

level control is a relatively more important issue for package
type cooling towers.

Field erected type Field-erected cooling towers

Facilities such as power plants, steel processing plants,

petroleum refineries, or petrochemical plants usually install
field erected type cooling towers due to their greater capacity
for heat rejection. Field erected towers are usually much larger
in size compared to the package type cooling towers.

A typical field erected cooling tower has a pultruded fiber-

reinforced plastic (FRP) structure, FRP cladding, a mechanical
unit for air draft, and a drift eliminator.

Brotep-Eco cooling tower

Heat transfer methods
With respect to the heat transfer mechanism employed, the main
types are:

Wet cooling towers or open-circuit Cooling Tower or

evaporative cooling towers operate on the principle of
evaporative cooling. The working coolant (usually water) is the
evaporated fluid, and is exposed to the elements.
Closed circuit cooling towers (also called fluid coolers) pass
the working coolant through a large heat exchanger, usually a
radiator, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced
draft applied. The resulting heat transfer performance is close to
that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage of protecting the
working fluid from environmental exposure and contamination.
Adiabatic cooling towers spray water into the incoming air or Package cooling tower
onto a cardboard pad to cool the air before it passes over an air-
cooled heat exchanger. Adiabatic cooling towers use less water
than other cooling towers but do not cool the fluid as close to the wet bulb temperature. Most
adiabatic cooling towers are also hybrid cooling towers.
Dry cooling towers (or dry coolers) are closed circuit cooling towers which operate by heat
transfer through a heat exchanger that separates the working coolant from ambient air, such as
in a radiator, utilizing convective heat transfer. They do not use evaporation.
Hybrid cooling towers or wet-dry cooling towers are closed circuit cooling towers that can
switch between wet or adiabatic and dry operation. This helps balance water and energy
savings across a variety of weather conditions. Some hybrid cooling towers can switch
between dry, wet, and adiabatic modes. Thermal efficiencies up to 92% have been observed in
hybrid cooling towers.[20]

In a wet cooling tower (or open circuit cooling tower), the warm water can be cooled to a
temperature lower than the ambient air dry-bulb temperature, if the air is relatively dry (see dew
point and psychrometrics). As ambient air is drawn past a flow of water, a small portion of the
water evaporates, and the energy required to evaporate that portion of the water is taken from the
remaining mass of water, thus reducing its temperature. Approximately 2,300 kilojoules per
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kilogram (970 BTU/lb) of heat energy is absorbed for the evaporated water. Evaporation results in
saturated air conditions, lowering the temperature of the water processed by the tower to a value
close to wet-bulb temperature, which is lower than the ambient dry-bulb temperature, the
difference determined by the initial humidity of the ambient air.

To achieve better performance (more cooling), a medium called fill is used to increase the surface
area and the time of contact between the air and water flows. Splash fill consists of material placed
to interrupt the water flow causing splashing. Film fill is composed of thin sheets of material
(usually PVC) upon which the water flows. Both methods create increased surface area and time of
contact between the fluid (water) and the gas (air), to improve heat transfer.

Air flow generation methods

With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three
types of cooling towers:

Natural draft — Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney.

Warm, moist air naturally rises due to the density
differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm
moist air is less dense than drier air at the same pressure.
This moist air buoyancy produces an upwards current of air
through the tower.
Mechanical draft — Uses power-driven fan motors to force Access stairs at the base of a
or draw air through the tower. massive hyperboloid cooling tower
give a sense of its scale (UK).
Induced draft — A mechanical draft tower with a fan at
the discharge (at the top) which pulls air up through the
tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge.
This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities,
reducing the possibility of recirculation in which
discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin
arrangement is also known as draw-through.
Forced draft — A mechanical draft tower with a blower
type fan at the intake. The fan forces air into the tower,
creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The
low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to
recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is
more susceptible to complications due to freezing
conditions. Another disadvantage is that a forced draft
design typically requires more motor horsepower than an
equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced
draft design is its ability to work with high static pressure.
Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces
and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fin geometry
is also known as blow-through.
Fan assisted natural draft — A hybrid type that appears
like a natural draft setup, though airflow is assisted by a fan.

Hyperboloid cooling tower

On 16 August 1916,[21] Frederik van Iterson took out the UK Inside views from a natural draft
patent (108,863) for Improved Construction of Cooling Towers cooling tower
of Reinforced Concrete.[22] The patent was filed on 9 August

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1917, and published on 11 April 1918. In 1918, DSM built the first hyperboloid natural-draft cooling
tower at the Staatsmijn Emma, to his design.

Hyperboloid (sometimes incorrectly known as hyperbolic) cooling towers have become the design
standard for all natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength and minimum
usage of material.[23][24][25][26] The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward
convective air flow, improving cooling efficiency.[27][28] These designs are popularly associated
with nuclear power plants. However, this association is misleading, as the same kind of cooling
towers are often used at large coal-fired power plants and some geothermal plants as well. The
steam turbine is what necessitates the cooling tower. Conversely, not all nuclear power plants have
cooling towers, and some instead cool their working fluid with lake, river or ocean water.

Categorization by air-to-water flow

Crossflow

Typically lower initial and

long-term cost, mostly due
to pump requirements.

Crossflow is a design in
which the airflow is
directed perpendicular to
the water flow (see diagram
at left). Airflow enters one
or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill
material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill Mechanical draft crossflow cooling
by gravity. The air continues through the fill and thus past the tower used in an HVAC application
water flow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan forces the
air out into the atmosphere.

A distribution or hot water basin consisting of a deep pan with

holes or nozzles in its bottom is located near the top of a
crossflow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the
nozzles uniformly across the fill material. Cross Flow V/s
Counter Flow ([Link]
-[Link])
Package crossflow cooling tower
Advantages of the crossflow design:

Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.

Disadvantages of the crossflow design:

More prone to freezing than counterflow designs.

Variable flow is useless in some conditions.
More prone to dirt buildup in the fill than counterflow designs, especially in dusty or sandy
areas.

Counterflow

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In a counterflow design, the

air flow is directly opposite
to the water flow (see
diagram at left). Air flow
first enters an open area
beneath the fill media, and
is then drawn up vertically.
The water is sprayed
through pressurized nozzles
near the top of the tower, Showers inside cooling tower
and then flows downward
through the fill, opposite to the air flow.

Advantages of the counterflow design:

Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-

resistant.
Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more
efficient.

Disadvantages of the counterflow design:

Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to

Forced-draft counter-flow package-
pump requirements.
type cooling tower
Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics
may be negatively affected.
Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill into the cold
water basin

Common aspects

Common aspects of both designs:

The interactions of the air and water flow allow a partial equalization of temperature, and
evaporation of water.
The air, now saturated with water vapor, is discharged from the top of the cooling tower.
A "collection basin" or "cold water basin" is used to collect and contain the cooled water after
its interaction with the air flow.

Both crossflow and counterflow designs can be used in natural draft and in mechanical draft
cooling towers.

Wet cooling tower material balance

Quantitatively, the material balance around a wet, evaporative cooling tower system is governed by
the operational variables of make-up volumetric flow rate, evaporation and windage losses, draw-
off rate, and the concentration cycles.[29][30]

In the adjacent diagram, water pumped from the tower basin is the cooling water routed through
the process coolers and condensers in an industrial facility. The cool water absorbs heat from the
hot process streams which need to be cooled or condensed, and the absorbed heat warms the

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circulating water (C). The warm water returns to the top of the cooling tower and trickles
downward over the fill material inside the tower. As it trickles down, it contacts ambient air rising
up through the tower either by natural draft or by forced draft using large fans in the tower. That
contact causes a small amount of the water to be lost as windage or drift (W) and some of the water
(E) to evaporate. The heat required to evaporate the water is derived from the water itself, which
cools the water back to the original basin water temperature and the water is then ready to
recirculate. The evaporated water leaves its dissolved salts behind in the bulk of the water which
has not been evaporated, thus raising the salt concentration in the circulating cooling water. To
prevent the salt concentration of the water from becoming too high, a portion of the water is drawn
off or blown down (D) for disposal. Fresh water make-up (M) is supplied to the tower basin to
compensate for the loss of evaporated water, the windage loss water and the draw-off water.

Using these flow rates and concentration dimensional

units:

M = Make-up water in m3/h

C = Circulating water in m3/h
D = Draw-off water in m3/h
E = Evaporated water in m3/h
W = Windage loss of water in m3/h
= Concentration in ppmw (of any completely
X
soluble salts ... usually chlorides)
XM = Concentration of chlorides in make-up water
(M), in ppmw
XC = Concentration of chlorides in circulating water
(C), in ppmw
= Cycles of concentration = XC / XM
Cycles
(dimensionless)
ppmw = parts per million by weight
Fan-induced draft, counter-flow cooling
A water balance around the entire system is then:[30] tower

M=E+D+W
Since the evaporated water (E) has no salts, a chloride balance around the system is:[30]

MXM = DXC + WXC = XC (D + W)

and, therefore:[30]

From a simplified heat balance around the cooling tower:

where:
HV = latent heat of vaporization of water = 2260 kJ / kg
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ΔT = water temperature difference from tower top to tower bottom, in °C

cp = specific heat of water = 4.184 kJ / (kg °C)

Windage (or drift) losses (W) is the amount of total tower water flow that is entrained in the flow of
air to the atmosphere. From large-scale industrial cooling towers, in the absence of manufacturer's
data, it may be assumed to be:

W = 0.3 to 1.0 percent of C for a natural draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators
W = 0.1 to 0.3 percent of C for an induced draft cooling tower without windage drift
eliminators
W = about 0.005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators
W = about 0.0005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators and
uses sea water as make-up water.

Cycles of concentration

Cycle of concentration represents the accumulation of dissolved minerals in the recirculating

cooling water. Discharge of draw-off (or blowdown) is used principally to control the buildup of
these minerals.

The chemistry of the make-up water, including the amount of dissolved minerals, can vary widely.
Make-up waters low in dissolved minerals such as those from surface water supplies (lakes, rivers
etc.) tend to be aggressive to metals (corrosive). Make-up waters from ground water supplies (such
as wells) are usually higher in minerals, and tend to be scaling (deposit minerals). Increasing the
amount of minerals present in the water by cycling can make water less aggressive to piping;
however, excessive levels of minerals can cause scaling problems.

As the cycles of concentration increase, the water may not be

able to hold the minerals in solution. When the solubility of
these minerals have been exceeded they can precipitate out as
mineral solids and cause fouling and heat exchange problems
in the cooling tower or the heat exchangers. The temperatures
of the recirculating water, piping and heat exchange surfaces
determine if and where minerals will precipitate from the
recirculating water. Often a professional water treatment
consultant will evaluate the make-up water and the operating
conditions of the cooling tower and recommend an appropriate Relationship between cycles of
range for the cycles of concentration. The use of water concentration and flow rates in a
treatment chemicals, pretreatment such as water softening, pH cooling tower
adjustment, and other techniques can affect the acceptable
range of cycles of concentration.

Concentration cycles in the majority of cooling towers usually range from 3 to 7. In the United
States, many water supplies use well water which has significant levels of dissolved solids. On the
other hand, one of the largest water supplies, for New York City, has a surface rainwater source
quite low in minerals; thus cooling towers in that city are often allowed to concentrate to 7 or more
cycles of concentration.

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Since higher cycles of concentration represent less make-up water, water conservation efforts may
focus on increasing cycles of concentration.[31] Highly treated recycled water may be an effective
means of reducing cooling tower consumption of potable water, in regions where potable water is
scarce.[32]

Maintenance
Clean visible dirt & debris from the cold water basin and surfaces with any visible biofilm (i.e.,
slime).

Disinfectant and other chemical levels in cooling towers and hot tubs should be continuously
maintained and regularly monitored.[33]

Regular checks of water quality (specifically the aerobic bacteria levels) using dipslides should be
taken as the presence of other organisms can support legionella by producing the organic nutrients
that it needs to thrive.

Water treatment

Besides treating the circulating cooling water in large industrial cooling tower systems to minimize
scaling and fouling, the water should be filtered to remove particulates, and also be dosed with
biocides and algaecides to prevent growths that could interfere with the continuous flow of the
water.[29] Under certain conditions, a biofilm of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae
can grow very rapidly in the cooling water, and can reduce the heat transfer efficiency of the
cooling tower. Biofilm can be reduced or prevented by using sodium chlorite or other chlorine
based chemicals. A normal industrial practice is to use two biocides, such as oxidizing and non-
oxidizing types to complement each other's strengths and weaknesses, and to ensure a broader
spectrum of attack. In most cases, a continual low level oxidizing biocide is used, then alternating
to a periodic shock dose of non-oxidizing biocides.

Algaecides and biocides

Algaecides, as their name might suggest, is intended to kill algae and other related plant-like
microbes in the water. Biocides can reduce other living matter that remains, improving the system
and keeping clean and efficient water usage in a cooling tower. One of the most common options
when it comes to biocides for your water is bromine.[34]

Scale inhibitors

Among the issues that cause the most damage and strain to a water tower’s systems is scaling.
When an unwanted material or contaminant in the water builds up in a certain area, it can create
deposits that grow over time. This can cause issues ranging from the narrowing of pipes to total
blockages and equipment failures.[34]

The water consumption of the cooling tower comes from Drift, Bleed-off, Evaporation loss, The
water that is immediately replenished into the cooling tower due to loss is called Make-up Water.
The function of make-up water is to make machinery and equipment run safely and stably.

Legionnaires' disease

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Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling

towers is to prevent the growth of Legionella, including species
that cause legionellosis or Legionnaires' disease, most notably
L. pneumophila,[35] or Mycobacterium avium.[36] The various
Legionella species are the cause of Legionnaires' disease in
humans and transmission is via exposure to aerosols—the
inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common
sources of Legionella include cooling towers used in open
recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot
Legionella pneumophila (5000 ×
water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap
magnification)
into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater
ponds and creeks.[37][38]

French researchers found that Legionella bacteria travelled up

to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) through the air from a large
contaminated cooling tower at a petrochemical plant in Pas-de-
Calais, France. That outbreak killed 21 of the 86 people who
had a laboratory-confirmed infection.[39]

Drift (or windage) is the term for water droplets of the process
flow allowed to escape in the cooling tower discharge. Drift
A multitude of microscopic
eliminators are used in order to hold drift rates typically to
organisms such as bacterial
0.001–0.005% of the circulating flow rate. A typical drift colonies, fungi, and algae can easily
eliminator provides multiple directional changes of airflow to thrive within the moderately high
prevent the escape of water droplets. A well-designed and well- temperatures present inside a
fitted drift eliminator can greatly reduce water loss and cooling tower.
potential for Legionella or water treatment chemical exposure.
Also, about every six months, inspect the conditions of the drift
eliminators making sure there are no gaps to allow the free flow of dirt.[40]

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) does not recommend that health-care
facilities regularly test for the Legionella pneumophila bacteria. Scheduled microbiologic
monitoring for Legionella remains controversial because its presence is not necessarily evidence of
a potential for causing disease. The CDC recommends aggressive disinfection measures for
cleaning and maintaining devices known to transmit Legionella, but does not recommend
regularly-scheduled microbiologic assays for the bacteria. However, scheduled monitoring of
potable water within a hospital might be considered in certain settings where persons are highly
susceptible to illness and mortality from Legionella infection (e.g. hematopoietic stem cell
transplantation units, or solid organ transplant units). Also, after an outbreak of legionellosis,
health officials agree that monitoring is necessary to identify the source and to evaluate the efficacy
of biocides or other prevention measures.[41]

Studies have found Legionella in 40% to 60% of cooling towers.[42]

Terminology

Windage or Drift — Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust
air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering the tower.
The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators,
through which the air must travel after leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower. Drift can
also be reduced by using warmer entering cooling tower temperatures.

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Blow-out — Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower

by wind, generally at the air inlet openings. Water may also
be lost, in the absence of wind, through splashing or
misting. Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash
deflectors and water diverters are used to limit these
losses.

Plume — The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the

cooling tower. The plume is visible when water vapor it Fill plates at the bottom of the Iru
contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient air, like Power Plant cooling tower (Estonia).
the saturated air in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under Tower is shut down, revealing
certain conditions, a cooling tower plume may present numerous water spray heads.
fogging or icing hazards to its surroundings. Note that the
water evaporated in the cooling process is "pure" water, in
contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown out of the air inlets.

Draw-off or blow-down — The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed (usually
discharged to a drain) in order to maintain the amount of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and
other impurities at an acceptably low level. Higher TDS concentration in solution may result
from greater cooling tower efficiency. However the higher the TDS concentration, the greater
the risk of scale, biological growth, and corrosion. The amount of blow-down is primarily
regulated by measuring by the electrical conductivity of the circulating water. Biological growth,
scaling, and corrosion can be prevented by chemicals (respectively, biocide, sulfuric acid,
corrosion inhibitor). On the other hand, the only practical way to decrease the electrical
conductivity is by increasing the amount of blow-down discharge and subsequently increasing
the amount of clean make-up water.

Zero bleed for cooling towers, also called zero blow-down for cooling towers, is a process
for significantly reducing the need for bleeding water with residual solids from the system by
enabling the water to hold more solids in solution.[43][44][45]

Make-up — The water that must be added to the circulating water system in order to
compensate for water losses such as evaporation, drift loss, blow-out, blow-down, etc.

Noise — Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given distance
and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the movement of air by
fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, vibration of the structure, and the motors,
gearboxes or drive belts.

Approach — The approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-water

temperature and the entering-air wet bulb temperature (twb). Since the cooling towers are
based on the principles of evaporative cooling, the maximum cooling tower efficiency depends
on the wet bulb temperature of the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a type of temperature
measurement that reflects the physical properties of a system with a mixture of a gas and a
vapor, usually air and water vapor

Range — The range is the temperature difference between the warm water inlet and cooled
water exit.

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Fill — Inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as contact time
between air and water, to provide better heat transfer. The efficiency of the tower depends on
the selection and amount of fill. There are two types of fills that may be used:
Film type fill (causes water to spread into a thin film)
Splash type fill (breaks up falling stream of water and interrupts its vertical progress)

Full-flow filtration — Full-flow filtration continuously strains particulates out of the entire
system flow. For example, in a 100-ton system, the flow rate would be roughly 300 gal/min. A
filter would be selected to accommodate the entire 300 gal/min flow rate. In this case, the filter
typically is installed after the cooling tower on the discharge side of the pump. While this is the
ideal method of filtration, for higher flow systems it may be cost-prohibitive.

Side-stream filtration — Side-stream filtration, although popular and effective, does not
provide complete protection. With side-stream filtration, a portion of the water is filtered
continuously. This method works on the principle that continuous particle removal will keep the
system clean. Manufacturers typically package side-stream filters on a skid, complete with a
pump and controls. For high flow systems, this method is cost-effective. Properly sizing a side-
stream filtration system is critical to obtain satisfactory filter performance, but there is some
debate over how to properly size the side-stream system. Many engineers size the system to
continuously filter the cooling tower basin water at a rate equivalent to 10% of the total
circulation flow rate. For example, if the total flow of a system is 1,200 gal/min (a 400-ton
system), a 120 gal/min side-stream system is specified.

Cycle of concentration — Maximum allowed multiplier for the amount of miscellaneous

substances in circulating water compared to the amount of those substances in make-up water.

Treated timber — A structural material for cooling towers which was largely abandoned in the
early 2000s. It is still used occasionally due to its low initial costs, in spite of its short life
expectancy. The life of treated timber varies a lot, depending on the operating conditions of the
tower, such as frequency of shutdowns, treatment of the circulating water, etc. Under proper
working conditions, the estimated life of treated timber structural members is about 10 years.

Leaching — The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the water
flowing through a wood structure cooling tower.

Pultruded FRP — A common structural material for smaller cooling towers, fibre-reinforced
plastic (FRP) is known for its high corrosion-resistance capabilities. Pultruded FRP is produced
using pultrusion technology, and has become the most common structural material for small
cooling towers. It offers lower costs and requires less maintenance compared to reinforced
concrete, which is still in use for large structures.

Fog production
Under certain ambient conditions, plumes of water vapor can be seen rising out of the discharge
from a cooling tower, and can be mistaken as smoke from a fire. If the outdoor air is at or near
saturation, and the tower adds more water to the air, saturated air with liquid water droplets can
be discharged, which is seen as fog. This phenomenon typically occurs on cool, humid days, but is
rare in many climates. Fog and clouds associated with cooling towers can be described as
homogenitus, as with other clouds of man-made origin, such as contrails and ship tracks.[46]

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This phenomenon can be prevented by decreasing the relative

humidity of the saturated discharge air. For that purpose, in
hybrid towers, saturated discharge air is mixed with heated low
relative humidity air. Some air enters the tower above drift
eliminator level, passing through heat exchangers. The relative
humidity of the dry air is even more decreased instantly as
being heated while entering the tower. The discharged mixture
has a relatively lower relative humidity and the fog is invisible.

Cloud formation Fog produced by Eggborough

power station
Issues related to applied meteorology of cooling towers,
including the assessment of the impact of cooling towers on the
cloud enhancement were considered in series of models and experiments. One of the results by
Haman's group indicated significant dynamic influences of the condensation trails on the
surrounding atmosphere, manifested in temperature and humidity disturbances. The mechanism
of these influences seemed to be associated either with the airflow over the trail as an obstacle or
with vertical waves generated by the trail, often at a considerable altitude above it.[47]

Salt emission pollution

When wet cooling towers with seawater make-up are installed in various industries located in or
near coastal areas, the drift of fine droplets emitted from the cooling towers contain nearly 6%
sodium chloride which deposits on the nearby land areas. This deposition of sodium salts on the
nearby agriculture/vegetative lands can convert them into sodic saline or sodic alkaline soils
depending on the nature of the soil and enhance the sodicity of ground and surface water. The salt
deposition problem from such cooling towers aggravates where national pollution control
standards are not imposed or not implemented to minimize the drift emissions from wet cooling
towers using seawater make-up.[48]

Respirable suspended particulate matter, of less than 10 micrometers (µm) in size, can be present
in the drift from cooling towers. Larger particles above 10 µm in size are generally filtered out in
the nose and throat via cilia and mucus but particulate matter smaller than 10 µm, referred to as
PM10, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. Similarly, particles smaller
than 2.5 µm, (PM2.5), tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, and very small
particles (less than 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Though the
total particulate emissions from wet cooling towers with fresh water make-up is much less, they
contain more PM10 and PM2.5 than the total emissions from wet cooling towers with sea water
make-up. This is due to lesser salt content in fresh water drift (below 2,000 ppm) compared to the
salt content of sea water drift (60,000 ppm).[48]

Use as a flue-gas stack

At some modern power stations equipped with flue gas purification, such as the Großkrotzenburg
Power Station and the Rostock Power Station, the cooling tower is also used as a flue-gas stack
(industrial chimney), thus saving the cost of a separate chimney structure. At plants without flue
gas purification, problems with corrosion may occur, due to reactions of raw flue gas with water to
form acids.

Sometimes, natural draft cooling towers are constructed with structural steel in place of concrete
(RCC) when the construction time of natural draft cooling tower is exceeding the construction time
of the rest of the plant or the local soil is of poor strength to bear the heavy weight of RCC cooling
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towers or cement prices are higher

at a site to opt for cheaper natural
draft cooling towers made of
structural steel.

Operation in
freezing weather Flue gas stack connection into a
natural draft wet cooling tower
Some cooling towers (such as
smaller building air conditioning
systems) are shut down seasonally,
drained, and winterized to prevent
freeze damage.
Flue gas stack inside a
natural draft wet cooling During the winter, other sites
tower continuously operate cooling
towers with 4 °C (39 °F) water
leaving the tower. Basin heaters,
tower draindown, and other freeze protection methods are
often employed in cold climates. Operational cooling towers Large hyperboloid cooling towers
with malfunctions can freeze during very cold weather. made of structural steel for a power
Typically, freezing starts at the corners of a cooling tower with plant in Kharkiv (Ukraine)
a reduced or absent heat load. Severe freezing conditions can
create growing volumes of ice, resulting in increased structural
loads which can cause structural damage or collapse.

To prevent freezing, the following procedures are used:

The use of water modulating by-pass systems is not recommended during freezing weather. In
such situations, the control flexibility of variable speed motors, two-speed motors, and/or two-
speed motors multi-cell towers should be considered a requirement.
Do not operate the tower unattended. Remote sensors and alarms may be installed to monitor
tower conditions.
Do not operate the tower without a heat load. Basin heaters may be used to keep the water in
the tower pan at an above-freezing temperature. Heat trace ("heating tape") is a resistive
heating element that is installed along water pipes to prevent freezing in cold climates.
Maintain design water flow rate over the tower fill.
Manipulate or reduce airflow to maintain water temperature above freezing point.

Fire hazard
Cooling towers constructed in whole or in part of combustible materials can support internal fire
propagation. Such fires can become very intense, due to the high surface-volume ratio of the
towers, and fires can be further intensified by natural convection or fan-assisted draft. The
resulting damage can be sufficiently severe to require the replacement of the entire cell or tower
structure. For this reason, some codes and standards[49] recommend that combustible cooling
towers be provided with an automatic fire sprinkler system. Fires can propagate internally within

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the tower structure when the cell is not in operation (such as for maintenance or construction), and
even while the tower is in operation, especially those of the induced-draft type, because of the
existence of relatively dry areas within the towers.[50]

Structural stability
Being very large structures, cooling towers are susceptible to wind damage, and several spectacular
failures have occurred in the past. At Ferrybridge power station on 1 November 1965, the station
was the site of a major structural failure, when three of the cooling towers collapsed owing to
vibrations in 85 mph (137 km/h) winds.[51] Although the structures had been built to withstand
higher wind speeds, the shape of the cooling towers caused westerly winds to be funneled into the
towers themselves, creating a vortex. Three out of the original eight cooling towers were destroyed,
and the remaining five were severely damaged. The towers were later rebuilt and all eight cooling
towers were strengthened to tolerate adverse weather conditions. Building codes were changed to
include improved structural support, and wind tunnel tests were introduced to check tower
structures and configuration.

See also
List of tallest cooling towers
Alkali soils
Architectural engineering
Deep lake water cooling
Evaporative cooler
Evaporative cooling
Fossil fuel power plant
Heating, ventilating and air conditioning
Hyperboloid structure
Mechanical engineering
Nuclear power plant
Power station
Spray pond
Water cooling
Willow Island disaster

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External links
What is a cooling tower? ([Link] Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20100507124703/[Link] 7 May
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2010 at the Wayback Machine – Cooling Technology Institute

"Cooling Towers" – includes diagrams ([Link] – Virtual
Nuclear Tourist
Wet cooling tower guidance for particulate matter, Environment Canada. ([Link]
g/web/20150403110105/[Link]
Striking pictures of Europe’s abandoned cooling towers ([Link]
17/02/15/photographer-europes-abandoned-cooling-towers/) by Reginald Van de Velde, Lonely
Planet, 15 February 2017 (see also excerpt from radio interview ([Link]
v/world-europe-38029636/see-inside-giant-cooling-towers), World Update, BBC, 21 November
2016)

Retrieved from "[Link]

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