TRY FOR YEAR 1. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY 1, State Law of Multiple proportion. Who proposed this law? It states that when two elements combine to form more than one compound, the different masses of one of the elements that combine with a fixed mass of the other, is in a simple whole number ratio. This law was proposed by John Dalton. 2. State Law of Definite (Constant) proportion. Who proposed this law? It states that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. Or, the some compound always contains the same elements combined in a fixed ratio by mass. This law was proposed by Joseph Proust. 3. State Law of conservation of mass (matter). Who proposed this law? It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Or, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants is equal to the total mass of products. This law was proposed by Antoine Lavei 4. Define [Link].u 1/12" the mass of a C’’ atom is called atomic mass unit (amu). 5. Define molar mass The mass of one mole of a substance in gram is called its molar thas. 6. Define 1 mole. 1 mole is the amount of substance that contains as matijprartisies as there are atoms in exactly 12 gC isotope. 1 ‘mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 10” atoms. Thi: nuisber is known as Avogadro number or Avogadro constant (Nx oF No). 7. Define mass percentage. it is the percentage of each elements present iti')00r/of a substance. i.e, percentage composition (mass percen’) ofaiyelement = Mass of that element in the compound x 100 ‘Molar mass of the compound Or, Mass percent = Mass of solute, x 100 “Marsef solution 8. What are empirical and moleculai',ormulae? Empirical formula is the simplest formula which gives only the ratio of diferent elements present in the compound. But molecular formula is the actual formula that gives the exact number of different elements present in the sample. 9. Find the number of moles and molecules present in 90 g water. No. of moles(n) = Given mass in gram (w) = 90/18 = 5 moles Molar mass (M) No. of molecules = no, of moles x 6,022x 10” = 5 x 6.022x 10” 10. What is limiting reagent? The reagent which limits @ reaction or the reagent which is completely consumed in a chemical reaction is called limiting reagent or limiting reactant. 411, Define molarity and molality. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of solution. i.e, Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute (n) Volume of solution in litre (V) Molality is defined as the number of moles ofthe solute present per kilogram (ks) of the solvent Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 1[Link] ie. Molality (m) = Number of moles of solute Mass of solvent in kg 12. Find the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 4g of NaOH dissolves in 250 mL solution. Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute (n} Volume of solution in litre (V) No. of moles of NaOH = Given mass/ Molar mass Volume of solution in L = 250/1000 = 0.25 L Molarity = 0.1/0.25 = 0.4M 1/40 = 0.1 mol 2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM 1. Find the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the following. wh ih, Cle ‘ns: No. of Protons & electrons = Atomic number No. of electrons in an ion = Atomic number + charge of the ion (for -ve ions) or, Atomic number — charge on the ion {For +e ions) No. of neutron ‘Mass number — Atomic number Species | No. of Protons | [Link] electrons | No. ofneutrons | vc 17 17, 35-17 = 18 a G17 18 35-17= 15 1 rary 18 3617197 | 2. Give the scattering experiment conducted by Rutherfo. 4. w's.4t are the important observations and conclusions made by Rutherford? Rutherford proposed an atom model baséc:on his a-particle scattering experiment. He bombarded a very thin gold foil with a-particles. The gold foil had a circuiur fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it. Observations: i. Most of the a~ particles passed th’ ousif he gold foil without any deviation. A small fraction of the a-particles was «flected by small angles. iil, A very few a~ particles (~1 in 20,°¢) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly 180°. Conclusions: From the above observations, °utherfr.d made the following conclusions: i. Since most of the a-particles passed ‘‘ivough the foil without any deviation, most space in the atom is empty. ‘A few positively charged a— partici were deflected. This is because the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a very small volume at the centre called nucleus. i. The volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the total volume of the atom. 3. What are the postulates of Rutherford atom model? Rutherford proposed the nuclear model (Planetary model) of atom. According to this model: i. Allthe positive charge and most of the mass of the atom were concentrated in the centre called nucleus. ji. Electrons are revolving round the nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called orbits. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction. 4. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford atom model? 1. He could not explain the stability of the atom. ji, He could not explain the electronic structure of atom, 5. What is photoelectric effect? What are its characteristics? Itis the phenomenon of ejection of electrons by certain metals (like potassium, rubidium, caesium etc.) when light of suitable frequency incident on them. The electrons ejected are called photoelectrons. The important characteristics of photoelectric effect are: i. The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the surface. The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light. Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 2[Link] ili, For each metal, there is a minimum frequency (known as threshold frequency [vs]) below which photoelectric effect isnot observed. iv, The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light. 6. Give the different lines present in the line spectrum of hydrogen atom. The hydrogen spectrum consists of mailnly five series of lines which are Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series. Among these lines, the Balmer series is the only series that we can be visible. Series | Spectral region Lyman _| Ultra violet Balmer | Visible Paschen | Infra red Brackett | Infra red Pfund | Infrared 7. Give the important postulates of Bohr Atom model. i. The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and energy. ‘These paths are called orbits or stationary states or allowed energy states. ji, The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time. il, The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transitivn occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy by AE, is given by: v= OE =£-E hook iv. The angular momentum of an electron is an integrs! maltipié of h/2n. 8. What are the limitations of Bohr atom model? i. It could not explain the fine spectrum of hydrogen! atom. It could not explain the spectrum of atoms cfhiertsa hydrogen. ii, Itwas unable to explain Stark effect and Zeema> effect. iv, Itcould not explain the ability of atoms teform raolecules by chemical bonds. 9. What do you mean by the dual nature of mater? Matter has two types of nature particle 24re jnd wave nature. Ths is known as the dual nature of matter. 10. Give the de Broglies equation and expl:sii the'S F> Br >| Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 6[Link] 16, Chlorine has higher negative electron gain enthalpy than fluorine. Why? Or, Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less negative than chlorine. Why? This is because, when an electron is added to F, it enters into the smaller 2” shell. Due to the smaller size, the electron suffers more repulsion from the other electrons. But for Cl, the incoming electron goes to the larger 3” shell. So the electronic repulsion is low and hence Cl adds electron more easily than F. 17, Electron gain enthalpy values of noble gases are zero. Why? This is because of their completely filled (stable) electronic configuration. 18, Define electronegativity. How does it vary along a group and period? Electronegativity of an atom in a compound isthe ability of the atom to attract shared pair of electron of electrons. It increases across @ period and decreases along a group. So in modern periodic table, F has the maximum electronegativity and Fr has the minimum electronegativity. 4. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE 4. State octet rule. What are its limitations? This rule was proposed by Lewis and Kossel. According to this rule, atoms undergo chemical reaction in order to attain octet of electrons in the valence shell. Or, atoms containing 8 electrons in their valence shell are stable. Limitations of Octet rule 2) It could not explain the stability of compounds containing less {13i¥8 eréctrons around the central atom. E.g, LiCl, BeH,, BCL etc 2) It could not explain the stability of molecules containing ord numer of electrons like NO, NO. ete. 3) It could not explain the stability of molecules containinp’moye than 8 electrons around the central atom (i.e. expanded octet). E.g. PFs, SFe, H:SO,, IF, etc. 4) Octet rule is based upon the chemical inertness of nob gasus, But some noble gases like xenion and krypton form compounds with F and 0. 5) This theory does not account for the shape of moletvles. 6) It does not explain the relative stability of the’yaolecules. 2. Define Dipole moment. Give its un’ The polarity of a molecule is expressed in .2~11s ¢F dipole moment (u). tis defined as the product of the magnitude of charge at one end (Q) and the distance betwen the-charges (r). Mathematically, H=Qxr. The unit of dipole moment is Coulority nee (Cm). But it is usually expressed in the unit Debye (D).. 3. The dipole moment of Bs zer. Why? Bef, the net dipole moment is zero, since the two equal bond dipoles are in opposite directions and cancel each other. 4. The dipole moment of BF, is zero. Why? In BF;, the net dipole moment is zero. Here the resultant of any 2 bond dipoles is equal and opposite to the third i rootnt (++ t= 0 @ “rp » 5. Ammonia (NH,) has higher dipole moment than NF, eventhough F is more electronegative than H. why? This is because in the case of NH,, the orbital dipole due to lone pair isin the same direction as the resultant dipole moment of the three N ~ H bonds. But in NF,, the orbital dipole is in the opposite direction to the resultant dipole moment of the three N-F bonds. So the dipole moments get partially cancelled, Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 7[Link] 1 l Y! AS ES 6. State Fajan’s rule regarding the partial covalent character of an ionic bond. The partial covalent character of ionic bonds was explained by Fajans in terms of the following rules: 4) The smaller the size of the cation and the larger the size of the anion, the greater the covalent character of an ionic bond. 2). The greater the charge on the cation, the greater the covalent character of the ionic bond, 3) For cations of the same size and charge, the ion with electronic configuration (n-1}d°ns® is more polarising than the ion with a noble gas configuration (ns np’) 7. What are the main postulates of valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory? This theory was proposed by Sidgwick and Powell and later modified by Nyholm and Gillespie, The important postulates ofthis theory are: 1). The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence she! electron pairs (VSEPRs) around the central atom. 2). The valence shell electron pairs repel each other. 3) In order to reduce the repulsion, the electron pairs stay at maxim distance. 4). Presence of lone pairs of electron causes distortion in the expetied geometry of the molecule. 5) The repulsion between two lone pairs of electrons is different from those between two bond pairs or between a lone pair and bond pair. The repulsion decreases in the ord. lone pair - lone pair > lone pair - bond pair > bond pair = bond pair. 6) As the angle between the electron pairs increases, the raulsion decreases. 8. Explain the shape ammonia and water [Link]. on the basis of VSEPR theory. In ammonia, the central atom N has 5 valence electrons (,N ~ 2,5). Among these electrons, three are used for the formation of bonds with hydrogen atoms and the remaining * electrons stay as lone pairs. So there are 4 VSEPs. Hence the expected shape of the molecule is tetrahedral. But due. tue presence of lone pairs, the shape is distorted to triangular pyramid and the bond angle changes to 107°. In water, the central atom O his 6 :a/ance electrons (<0 ~ 2,6). Two of them are used for the formation of bonds with hydrogen atoms and the remaining’ ele: trons stay as lone pairs. So there are 4 VSEPs. Hence the expected shape of the molecule is tetrahedral. But due the presence of 2 lone pairs, the shape is distorted bent or angular or inverted ‘V shape and the bond angle cares to 104.5°. 9. Define Hybridisation. What are the sonportant characteristics of Hybridisation? Its the process of inter mixing of atomic orbitals having slightly different energies to form new orbitals having equivalent energy and identical shape. The new orbitals formed are called hybrid orbitals. The important characteristics of hybridisation are: 1). The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals undergo hybridization. 2). The hybrid orbitals are always equivalent in energy and identical in shape. 3) The hybrid orbitals are more effective in forming stable bonds than the pure atomic orbitals. 4) The hybrid orbitals are directed to some fixed positions in space. So the type of hybridization gives the shape of the molecule. 10. Explain the geometry of PCI, molecule and account for its high reactivity. |n PCls, phosphorus atom is in sp°d hybridisation. So the molecule has trigonal bipyramidal shape with bond angles 120° and 90°. Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 8[Link] Veigona bipyramidal structure of PCL. In PCIs, three P-Cl bonds lie in one plane, at an angle of 120°. These three bonds are called equatorial bonds. The other two P-Cl bonds lie one above and one below this plane. They are called axial bonds. The axial bond pairs suffer more repulsion from the equatorial bond pairs. So the axial bond length is greater than the equatorial bond length. So PCls is highly unstable and is very reactive. 11, Draw the potential energy curve for the formation of « hydrogen molecule on the basis of inter nuclear distance of the hydrogen atoms. Potential Energy ve Internuclear Distance Between Two Atome ‘repulsion Potential Energy (nal) ° £~—* a/@ sg z . oo Tnteoniizey/ Oietonee (pn) 12, Molecular orbitals are formed by the linear c\ mb'viction of atomic orbitals (LCAO). Give the salient features of molecular orbital theory. |) Inmolecules, the electrons are present in sor-87ecial type of orbitals called molecular orbitals ([Link]). ii) The atomic orbitals ([Link]) of comparabls,enerm and proper symmetry combine to form molecular orbitals. ii) Atomic orbitals are monocentric, while moieeular orbitals are polycentric. iv) The number of molecular orbitals formi4 = the number of atomic orbitals combined. ie. if 2 atomic orbitals combined, 2 molecular orbitals are formed. One is called bonding molecular orbital (BMO) and the other is called anti-bonding molecular orbitals (ABMO) V) The BMO has lower energy and greater stability than the corresponding ABMO. vi) The molecular orbitals give the electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei vii) The molecular orbitals are filled according to 3 rules ~ Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s rule 13. Define bond order. How is bond order related to bond length? itis defined as the half of the difference between the number of bonding electrons (N.) and the number of anti- bonding electrons (N,)._\.e. Bond order (B.0) = % [Np~ Nu] {As the bond order increases, bond length decreases. 14, Hezdoes not exist. Why? For He molecule, bond order 15, Ne; does not exist. Why? For Ne» molecule bond order = 0, the molecule cannot exist. 16, Draw the M.0 diagram for oxygen molecule (0,). Give its magnetic character. In O, there are 16 electrons, ‘The M.O configuration for O, is 015° o* 1° 02s? o* 2s? o2p2" n2px' |, the molecule cannot exist Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 9[Link] Here there are 2 unpaired electrons. So itis paramagnetic in nature. 417. Define hydrogen bonding with example. Explain the different types u H-bonding. The weak attractive force between Hydrogen atom of one moloule aii electronegative atom (like F, O or N) of the same or different molecule is termed as Hydrogen bond. e.g. Hydrogen bonding in water HQ os HQ nHQuncHO, AoW cn) There are two types of H bonds- inter molecular '4-bonding and intra molecular H-bonding. a) Inter molecular H bonding: Its the H bond formed by 4 atom of one molecule and the electronegative atom of another molecule. bb) Intra molecular H bonding: Itis the H bond for’néd helween H atom and the electronegative atom of the same molecule. 418, Based on bond order compare the relativ’ stability of O; and 0:*. The M.O configuration of O; is ois’ o* 15° e£S! a 2s” a2p2” n2px"= n2py’ m*2px'= m*2py" B.O = % [Ny—Na] = % [10-6] ps 4 = 2 Since bond order is positive, itis statin The M.O configuration of O; is 01s? 0° 1802s" 0*2s? o2pz" n2px’ = n2py? n*2px'= n*2py* B.O=% [N,—N,]=% [10-7] =%x3= 15 Since bond order is positive, itis stable. STATES OF MATTER 1. State Boyle’s law. Give its mathematical relationship. Draw the graphical representation. It states that at constant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, Mathematically, Palv P=kx I/V, where k is the proportionality constant. Or, PV =k, aconstant Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Koll4m[[Link]] Page 10|[Link] Where P is the pressure of the gas, Vis the volume, R is the universal gas constant, Tis the absolute temperature, n is the no. of moles, ‘a’ and ‘b’ are called van der Wall's constants. 16. Define Boyle point. The temperature at which real gases obey ideal gas equation over an appreciable range of pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle point. 17. What is mean by normal boiling point and standard boiling point? At 1 atm pressure the boiling point is called normal boiling point. If pressure is 1 bar then the boiling point is called standard boiling point. The normal boiling point of water is 100 °C (373 K) and its standard bolling point is 99.6 °C (372.6 K), 18, At high altitudes a pressure cooker is used for cooking food. Why? At high altitudes (heights) atmospheric pressure is low. Therefore liquids at high altitudes boll at lower temperatures than at sea level. Since water boils at low temperature on hills, the pressure cooker is used for cooking food. 19. Liquid drops assume spherical in shape. Why? Every liquid tries to reduce their energy by decreasing the surface area. For a given volume sphere has the minimum surface area. So liquid drops assume spherical shape. 20. Define surface tension. What is its SI unit? Its defined as the force acting per unit length perpendicular to thé /n@ Grawn on the surface of liquid. Its SI unit is Nm 21. What are the factors affecting viscosity of a liquid? Viscosity depends on temperature and molar mass of the/Substance. It decreases with temperature and increases with molar mass. 6. THERMODYNAMICS 1. What are extensive and intensive properties? Give e:anipi Extensive properties are properties which depention the amount of matter present in the system, Eg: Volume (v), length (I), breadth (b), height (h), itvarnsl eneray (U), enthalpy (H), entropy (S), Gibb’s energy (6), heat capacity ete Intensive properties are properties which a»eindendndent of the amount of matter present in the system. Eg. : Temperature (T), Pressure (P), Volun {4}, Jensity, refractive index, molar heat capacity, viscosity, surface tension ete. 2. Define state function and path functi ‘A function or a property that depends only on the initial and final state of a system and not on the path followed is called a state function. E.g.:T, P, V, U,H, 5, G etc. Path functions are properties which depend on the path followed also. €.g. heat (q) and work (w) 3. State the first law of thermodynamics. Give its mathematical form. It states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. Or, the total energy in the universe is always a constant. Mathematically AU = q+ w 4. Give the relationship between BH and AU. AHisrelated to AU as AH= AU + PAV 5. Define std. enthalpy of formation. Give the std. enthalpy of formation of O; molecule. The enthalpy of formation in the standard state (298K T, 1 bar P and at stable state of aggregation) is called std. enthalpy of formation. 8y convention, standard enthalpy for formation, AH’, of an element in its reference state is taken 4s zero. So the std. enthalpy of formation of O2is zero. 6. State Hess’s law of constant summation. Give any 2 applications. Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 13,[Link] The law states that the total enthalpy change for a physical or chemical process is the same whether the reaction taking place in a single step or in several steps. Or, the total enthalpy change for a process is independent of the path followed. It is used for determining std. enthalpy of combustion and bond enthalpy. 7. Define lattice enthalpy. The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic compound dissociates into gaseous ions. 8. Construct an enthalpy diagram for the determination of lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride. Lattice enthalpy of NaCI is determined by Born-Haber cycle. Na(s) +% Cla(g) > Naci(s) This involves the following steps: i. Conversion of solid sodium atom to gaseous sodium atom. The energy change involved in this process is called sublimation energy. Na(s) > Na(g); Bal? il. Conversion gaseous sodium atom to gaseous sodium ion. The energy change in this process s called ionisation enthalpy. Nay Na‘; AH? il, Conversion of gaseous chlorine molecule to gaseous chlorine atom. The energy change during this process is called bond dissociation enthalpy. Cligr> 2Clig; Bronatl? Y% Claig) > Cli, ¥ Bond? iv. Conversion of chlorine atom to chloride ion. The energy change iiialved in this process is called electron gain enthalpy (AH) Cy) Clg Beg? v. Packing of Na’ yand Cl to form NaCi(s). the energy change this process is called lattice enthalpy (AisuesH) Na‘ig + Clg) > NaCl; Brice” The different steps can be represented in a cyclic for as follows: OH? Nayt % Chyy———=-P “tela pH? Yabo 5! Nag Clas He fhe AnH! honed Naty Cy) By applying Hess's law we can write: OH” = QasH’ + AH? + % Bron? + Dag? + Form this lattice enthalpy can be determined as: BastscsH” = BeH® ~ [BounH® + BH? +% BeordH” + Dog’) Lattice enthalpy of NaCl is determined using Born-Haber cycle as follows: BusecH® = BHP [BuaH? + HP + % Bes? + Bog] 9. What are spontaneous processes? Give examples. Its a process that takes place without the help of any external agency. All natural processes are spontaneous. E.g. flow of water from high level to low level, flow of heat from hot body to cold body, inter mixing of gases, burning of fuels, melting of ce, evaporation of water etc. 10. What are the criteria for spontaneous process? Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 14|[Link] Decrease in energy and increase in disorderness. 11. Define entropy. What is its unit? It is a measure of degree of disorderness or randomness of a system. The unit of entropy and entropy change is, J/k/mol. 12. Define Gibb’s energy. Give the criteria for spontaneity of a process in terms of free energy change (AG). Itis defined as the maximum amount of available energy that can be converted to useful work. For a process to be spontaneous, its AG should be negative. 413. What are the conditions for AG to be negative? |) If OH is negative and AS is +ve, AG is always ~ve and the process is always spontaneous. ji) If both BH and AS are positive, 46 will be —ve when TAS > OH. This is possible at high temperature. i) both BH and AS are negative, AG will be -ve when TAS < AH. This is possible at low temperature. 7. EQUILIBRIUM 1. Write the expression for equilibrium constant for the reaction i) H, + Iz ==2HI and il] N+ 3H; ==2NH,. i Ke= [HIP allel ii) Ke= [NEA]? UNallHal™ 2. What is the relation between Ke and Kp? Kp = Ke(RT) 3. Give any 3 characteristics of equilibrium constant. i. Equilibrium constant is applicable only when tie cvsyntrations ofthe reactants and products have attained their equilibrium state. ii, The value of equilibrium constant is indefiendent Of the initial concentrations of reactants and products. il, The value of equilibrium constant depends on emperature 4, State Le-Chatlier Principle. It states that whenever there [Link] in concentration, pressure or temperature of a system at equilibrium, the system will try to rea justin such a way so as to cancel the effect of that change. 5. How do the effect of change in conentratic a, temperature and pressure affect the rate of chemical reaction? ‘An increase in concentration of rzectants increases the rate of forward reaction (i.e. the equilibrium is shifted to the forward direction) and an itiv'ease in concentration of products increase the rate of backward reaction. ‘According to Le Chatlier’s principie, increase in temperature favours endathermic process and decrease in temperature favours exothermic process. When the pressure increases, the equilibrium is shifted to that direction in which no. of moles decreases. 6. Write the Arrhenius concept of acids and bases. According to this concept acids are substances which give hydrogen ion (H’) or hydronium ion (H:0") in ‘aqueous solution and bases are substances which give hydroxyl ion (OH) in aqueous solution, e.g. HClis an acid since it produces H:0" in aqueous solution. HCl + H0))= H30 “es + Cling 7. Write Bronsted concept of acids and bases? According to this concept acids are proton (H’) donors and bases are (H') acceptors. For example in the reaction NHay + HO) =NHs'pc)+ OH es) Here NHsis a base since it accepts an H" jon to form NH," and H,0 is an acid since it donates an H’ ion to form OH In the reverse reaction, NH," is an acid and OH'is a base. What are conjugate acid - base pairs? Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 15,|[Link] ‘Acid- base pair that differs by only one proton is called a conjugate acid ~ base pair. ‘An acid formed from a base is called conjugate acid and a base formed from an acid is called conjugate base. In general Acid ~ H+ > Conjugate base Base + H+ > Conjugate acid 9. State Lewis concept of acids and bases. ‘According to this concept acids are electron pair acceptors and bases are electron pair donors. Substances which donate electron pair are called Lewis bases and substances which accept electron pair are called Lewis acids Example for Lewis acids are BF, AICls, H’, Co™, Mg” ete, Example for Lewis bases are NH,, HO, OH, CI, Br ete. 410. Define ionisation constant of water or ionic product of water. What is its value at 298K? Its defined as the product of the molar concentration of hydrogen ian (hydronium ion) and hydroxyl ion in water or in any aqueous solution. At 298K, Ky = 10" 11, Define P". Its defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion or hydronium ion concentration in moles per litre (ce, molarity). or p= og{}.0"] 12. Define common ion effect. Itis the suppression of the dissociation of a weak electrdljte by the addition ofa strong electrolyte containing a common ion, (13. What is Buffer solution? Solution which resists the change in pH on dilution or with te addition of small amount of acid or alkali is called Buffer solution. There are two types of buffer solutions —acidic buffer and basic buffer. 14. Define solubility product. It is defined as the product of the molar conceiitration of ions ofa sparingly soluble salt or ina saturated solution. For a general salt A.,, its dissocintion vance denoted as: A,By(s) =xA" (aq) + yB" (aq); Ksp = (AY PLT 15. If the concentration of hydrogen ion in-= soft +-ank is 3x 10° M, calculate its pH (H.0" 3x10°M JoglHs0') -log(3 x 10%) = 2.5229 16. Consider the equilibrium, Ag. "/s) Ag’ (aq) + CI aa). The solubility of AgC! is 1.06 x 10° mol/L at 298K. Find out its Ksp at this temperature. Ans: AgCl{s) == Ag’(aq) + CI{aq). Let S be the solubility of AgCl. s s s Ksp = [Ag’]ICI] =SxS=S° Since S = 1.06 x 10°, Ksp = (1.06 x 10°)? = 1.1236 x10" M? 8. REDOX REACTIONS 1 Define the electronic concept of oxidation and reduction. According to this concept oxidation is the process of removal (losing) of electron and reduction is the process of addition (gaining) of electron. 2. Define the oxidation number concept of oxidation and reduction. Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 16|[Link] ii) CHs-CHy-CH=CH-CHs-COOH Ans: i) 6 Methyloctan-3-01 ii) Hex-3-en-1-oic acid 3. Draw the structures of the following compounds. i) 2,3-Dibromo-1-phenylpentane 4-Ethyl-1-fluoro-2-nitrobenzene F ‘Ans: i) CH,-CH(Br]-CH(Br)-CH,-CH, ce No, CHs 4, Write the complete, condensed and bond line structural formulae of 2-bromobutane. fRRE ‘Ans: Complete structural formula: H- im GcGH HerHH Condensed structural formula: CHs-CHBr-CH;-CH3, AE Bond line structure: 5. Write the structures of the following organic compounds. a) 2,5,6~Trimethyloctane b) Hexane-2,4-dione ©) S-oxohexanoic acid Ans: a) CH3-CH(CHs)-CH-CHy-CH(CHs)-CH(Ui42)- b) CHs-CO-CH2-CO-CHs-CHs ¢) CHs-CO-CH,-CH,-CH,-COOH 6. The IUPAC names of alkanes are k 16d on their chain structure. a) Give the IUPAC name of (CH, ~ CH, ~ CH- CHa ~ © CHy-CH, CH; b)_ Represent 1-Methyl-3-propylcyclohexane using bond line notation. c) What is the type of hybridization of C in CH3'? Also predict its shape. d) Name the type of bond fission resulting in the formation of free radicals? ‘Ans: a) 3-Ethyl-5-methylhexane b) Ou. ) Hybridisation: sp* shape: planar triangular d) Homolysis or homolytic bond fission ~ CH, ~ CH 7. Give the IUPAC names of the following: Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 25,|[Link] H Hs a) CH, ~ CH— CH, CH, - - CH, CHy-CHy b) CHs~CH2~CH2—¢-CHs ° 9 oH ar Ans: a) 5,5-Dimethyl-2-heptanol b) 2-pentanone c) 2,4,6-trinitrophenol 8, The bond line representation of cyclopropan’\. _. Write the bond line structures of a) cyclohexane b) CH; — CH(OH) - CH2- CHBr—CH3 ans: a) CJ HBr b) AA 9. Write the IUPAC name of the following: Hy CHa i) CH)—C-CH2— CH - CHs CH li) CHs-CH = CH- CH, - CH. — OSH Ans: i) 2,2,4-trimethylpentire ii) Hex-4-en-1-oic ats 10, Give the structures of the following compounds: i) 3-€thyl-4,4-dimethylpentane ii) 6-Methyloctan-3-ol “~S il) CHy-CHy-CH(CH)-CHy-CHy-CH(OH)-CHy-CHs 111, Write the IUPAC name of the following compounds : CH CHrCHs i) CHy-CH-CH)-CH-CHs (CHs)2CH CHa CH- CH a Ans: Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 26|[Link] iii) OH Ans: i) 2,4-dimethylhexane il) 2-chloro-4-methylpentane ili) Cyclohexenol 12, Draw the structure of the molecules represented by the IUPAC names : a) pent-4-en-2-ol b) 3-nitrocyclohexane. ‘Ans: a) CH=CH-CH-CH(OH)-CHs NO2 6) 13. How many ‘o’ and ‘n’ bonds are present in the following comyounds? (CH, = C= CH-CHs Ans. 9.0 bonds and 2 bonds. 14, Write the IUPAC name of the following compound: (CH- CHa CH - CHa- CHO and CH3~ CH = Cl'- C-CHs OH Ans: 3-hydroxypentanal and hept-2-en-5-yne 15, Give the IUPAC name of the following coisoound: CH3-CH,-CO-CH2-CHy-COOH ‘Ans: 4-oxohexanoic acid 16. What is homologous series? ‘Ans: A series or group of organic c¢mptnds in which adjacent members are differed by a ~CH. group is called a homologous series. 17. Classify the following into hos e/ogous series and name the series. GsHe, CoHsCl, CcHse, CaHeCl, GGHsOH, CHs-CH2-CHy-Cl, CHs-CHOH-CHs Ans: Alkane ~ CaHs and CeHie Alkyl halides ~ CsHsCl, CaHCl and CHy-CH3-CHy-Cl Alcohols ~ CHsOH and CHs-CHOH-CH; 18, Write the general formulae of the following homologous series. i) Alkynes ii) Alcohols _iii) Chloroalkanes Ans: Alkynes: i) CyHar-2, fi) Alcohols: C)HansOH hloroalkanes - C,HaneaCl 19, Write all the possible chain isomers of the compound with molecular formula CsHia- ‘Ans: CH3-CHs-CHz-CHz-CHs, CHs-CH(CHs)-CHo-CHs, (CHs)2CH-CHz-CHs and (CHs)aC 20. Give any three types of structural isomers. Give examples. ‘Ans: i) Position isomerism: CHs-CHy-CH,-CH,-OH (CHs-CHOH-CH,-CH 1-Butanol 2-Butanol Functional group isomerism: ethanol (CHs-CH2OH) or an ether methoxy methane (CHs-O-CHs) Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 27|[Link] Chain isomerism: CHs-CH2-CH3-CH3-CHs CHs-CH(CHs)-CH2-CHs n-pentane isopentane 21. Write the metamers corresponding to the molecular formula CsHi00. Ans; CH3-O-CH2-CH2-CHs and CHs-CH2-O-CH2-CH3_ 22. What do you mean by the following terms? 2) Homolytic fission b) Heterolytic fission _—_¢) Nucleophiles 4) electrophiles Ans: Homolysis: it is a type of bond fission in which each of the bonded atoms gets one of the electrons of the shared pair. Heterolysis: It is a type of bond fission in which the shared pair of electrons remains with one of the parts. Nucleophile: A reagent that brings an electron pair is called a nucleophile. Electrophile: A reagent that takes away an electron pair is called an electrophile. 23. Explain the different types electron displacement effects in covalent bonds. Ans: Inductive effect (I effect): tis the shifting of sigma electron through a carbon chain in presence of an atom or group of atom attached to a carbon chain. It is a permanent effect. Electromeric effect (E effect): Its the shifting of n-Zlerirons of a multiple bond in presence of an attacking reagent. It is a temporary effect. Resonance Effect (R effect): It is defined as ‘the nolerity (charge) produced in the molecule by the interaction of two m-bonds or between a r-bori*and lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom Hyper conjugation: It is a permanent effet Here the o electrons of C—H bond of the alkyl group enter into partial conjugation with the unsaturated system or with the unshared p orbital 24, Hyper conjugation is a general stabilizing in‘eraction. Write the hyper-conjugative structures of CHs-CH," (ethyl cation) Ans: 4 # WoW 4 vu H eae 23 Rae ee > H—C=¢ HH HH HH How 25, Arrange the following carbocations in the increasing order of stability: (CHs),CH*, CHs’, (CHs)3C", CHs-CH," ‘Ans: CHa" < CHy-CHa" < (CH3)2CH" < (CH3)3C” 26. Categorize the following functional groups into those having +R effect and -R effect: -NHz, -(NO2, COOH, -OH Ans: -4R effect: -NHz,-OH -R effect: -NO2, COOH Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 28|[Link] mixture is then heated with excess of sodium hydroxide. The liberated ammonia gas is absorbed in an excess of standard solution of sulphuric acid. The amount of ammonia produced is determined by estimating the amount of sulphuric acid consumed in the reaction. It is done by estimating unreacted sulphuric acid left after the absorption of ammonia by titrating it with standard alkali solution. 13. HYDROCARBONS 1. What is Wurtz reaction? Alkyl halides react with metallic sodium in dry ether to form alkanes. This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction, 2RX+2Na dryethey R-R+2NaX CHs-Br + 2Na + Br-CHy dry etheg CH3-CHs 2.8 Bromomethane Ethane 2. How will you convert sodium acetate to methane? Sodium acetate on heating with soda lime (a mixture af N2OH and CaO), it undergoes decarboxylation to form methane. CHsCOONa + NaOH CaO, CHa + [Link]; Sodium acetate methane 3. How will you convert sodium acetate to ethane? ‘An aqueous solution of Sodium acetate i Kolbe’s electrolysis, we get ethane ‘2CH3COONa + 2Hz0 © /ils— CHs + 2CO + 2NaOH + Hy Sod. Acetate ethane 4. What are conformations? The different spatial arrafizemaris of atoms arising due to free rotation around a C-C single bond are called conformations or conforiners. 5. Which are the different types 0) “anformations of ethane? Among these which is most stable Ethane has mainly two types of conformations ~ Eclipsed conformation and staggered conformation. Among these, staggered conformation is more stable. This is because here the electron clouds of carbon-hydrogen bonds are very far apart. So there is minimum repulsive forces and maximum, stability. 6. Draw the Newman projection formula for the conformations of ethane? nn H QD . : i HOH u t Weenpset 9 Stadered 7. What is mean by Geometrical isomerism? Draw the geometrical isomers for 2-butene. Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 31|[Link] The isomerism arising due to the difference in the spatial arrangement of atoms around carbon-carbon double bond is called geometrical isomerism. There are two types of geometrical isomers ~ cis isomer and trans isomer. eg. 2-butene CH, CH, H Ve / c=c c eoN yooN H H H ‘CH, cis-But-2-€1 trans-But-2-ene 8. What is Lindlar’s catalyst? Give its use. Partially deactivated palladised charcoal is known as Lindlar’s catalyst. Alkynes on reduction with Lindlar’s catalyst, we get cis-alkene. RR RC « CR'+H, —_PUE ae Alkyne H H cis-Alkene 9. What is the major product formed on the addition of Hbs *0 1-propene? Name the rule you used to choose the major product. State it. When HBr is added to propene, we get 2 products —1-bromopropane and 2-bromopropane. 1 CPC GAl-CH, (“ Br CH,-CH=CH, +H-Br—5|3°Btomopropane ii/CH,-CH,-CH,-Br 1-Bromopropane Here the major product is determiyed by. rule called Markownikoff’s rule. The rule states that “when an unsymmetrical reagent is added’ to'an v symmetrical alkene, the negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets attached che carbon containing lesser number of hydrogen atoms” 10. What is peroxide or Kharasch \ fect? Give an example. In the presence of peroxide, addition of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes takes place against Markovnikov rule. This is known as peroxide or Kharash effect or anti-Markovnikov addition reaction. e.g. CHs-CH= CH + HBr Org. peroxide , CHs-CHs-CH2Br Propene 1-bromopropane 11. Give the preparation of acetone (C:H.) from calcium carbide? On treating calcium carbide with water, we get acetylene gas. CaCz + 2H,0 > Ca(OH) + CoH (acetylene) 12. How will you convert acetylene to benzene? Ethyne (acetylene) on passing through red hot iron tube at 873K, undergoes cyclic polymerisation to form benzene (Cc). Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 32[Link] a cH) G xt Red ot eS irom tune —_, cu domme SI Nou = 13. State Hickel’s (4n + 2) r electron rule. According to this rule, “cyclic, planar, conjugated systems containing (4n+2) r electrons are aromatic”. Where n is the number of rings. n may be 1,2,3, 14. How will you convert sodium benzoate to benzene ? COONa CaO. + NaOH > + Na,CO, 15. How will you convert phenol tobenzene? Phenol is reduced to benzene by passing its vapours over heated zinc dust. OH a + Zn ++ (©) + 20 16. What are electrophilic substitution reactions? Give oa nples. These are reactions in which a weak [Link] replaced by a strong electrophile. The important electrophilic substitution reactions are Nitration, S«iphonation, Halogenation and Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation. Nitration: It is the introduction of nitro /-M03)2/oup to a benzene ring. For this benzene is heated with a mixture of cone. HNO3 and conc. H,SO. (nitraving mixture). 10, (Gjeomerno, &O.s0, —» on 17. Convert benzene to acetophenione and toluene. COCH, + (CH, 0 Aa CO Acetic schyjtnde Benzene Acetophenone CH, Any AIC, O cu,c1 “SAAC, +H Toluene Riven 18. What is gammexane or BHC? Give its preparation. Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 33,|[Link] Benzene adds chlorine in presence of uv light to form benzene hexachloride (BHC). It is also known as Gammexane or Lindane or 666. cl Anya. acy © al +6Cl, Gark, cold * + 6HCL cr ‘cl cl Hexachlorobenzene (cl). 19. How will you convert benzene to cyclohexane? Benzene add hydrogen in presence of nickel catalyst at high temperature and pressure to form cyclohexane, Ni + 3H, ——> 0 a © Cyclohexane 14, ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 1. Carbon monoxide is one of the most serious air pollucnts. Why? Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin in Give }o form carboxyhaemoglobin. It reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This oxygen deficiency, )>sults into headache, weak eyesight etc. 2. What are the major gases which contribute™:awarc's global warming? What can we do to reduce globat warming? Gases like carbon dioxide, methane; 020", chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) and water vapour are responsible for global warming. We ([Link] Global warming by following method a) to minimise the use of wstomobies. b) plant more trees to increastehe green cover 3. What is mean by the green house ~ffect? On increasing the concentration of CO, in the atmosphere, it traps the earth radiation and hence the temperature Of the earth surface increases. This phenomenon Is known as Green House effect. This results in melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low lying areas. 4. Ozone in the stratosphere is produced by the help of ultraviolet radiations. It protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiations. a) Write equation for the formation of ozone in stratosphere. b) Explain with chemical equation, the destruction of ozone by chlorofiuro carbons causing ozone hole. ‘Ans: a) Ozone is formed in the upper stratosphere by the interaction of uv radiation on dioxygen, 0,(g) sunlight, O(g) + 01g) lg) + On(8) = 0x8) In stratosphere, CFC’s get broken down by UV radiations, releasing chlorine free radical. CF,Cl;(g) _uv , CI"(g) + "CF;Cl(g) The chlorine radical then react with ozone to form chlorine monoxide radicals and molecular oxygen. Anil Kumar K.L , GHSS Ashtamudi,Kollam[[Link]] Page 34