Journey to the world

of mathematics
(EED 4: Teaching Mathematics in Primary Grades)

Writers:

Lodyvina G. Angeles, Ph.D.

Florida F. Remolazo
Mariel R. Tapadera, M.A.Ed., LPT
Mark Ren D. Villaflor
Hello everyone! I hope that all of you are fine and doing well
inside your houses. In this pandemic, learning is a challenge for
everyone, especially for you my dearest students. But we got
you! We, your professors in EED 4, created this module to help
and assist you while you are learning in your house. This module
consisting of six (6) units is intended to be tackled for 1 st
semester, Academic Year 2020-2021. The parts of the module
that you will encounter are: (1) Activating Your Prior
Knowledge, for you to answer so that you will have a
background knowledge about each unit; (2) Expanding Your
Knowledgeto assist you to know and learn more about the unit
being studied; and (3) Synthesizing Your Knowledgeto serve as
a measuring tool or assessment of how well you learned the
topics presented.
Stay safe and let’s continue to learn even you are not in school.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPICS PAGE NUMBER

UNIT I: FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICS TEACHING AND LEARNING

Overview ………………………………………………………………………… 1
The Nature of Mathematics …………………………………………………. 3
The Goals of Mathematics Education ……………………………………... 4
Mathematics Kto12 Curriculum Framework ………………………………. 5

UNIT II: MATHEMATICS IN THE GRADE 1-3 PROGRAM: MATH CONTENT AND
PROCESSES
Overview ………………………………………………………………………… 10
Standards in Teaching Mathematics in K to 12 Curriculum……………. 11
Grade 1 Math Content and Processes ……………………………………. 12
Grade 2 Math Content and Processes ……………………………………. 16
Grade 3 Math Content and Processes ……………………………………. 22

UNIT III:LOWER GRADE MATH CURRICULUM WITH PROBLEM SOLVING

Overview ………………………………………………………………………… 31
Number and Algebra …………………………………………………………. 32
Measurement …………………………………………………………………… 49
Space and Shapes …………………………………………………………….. 56
Data Handling ………………………………………………………………….. 65

UNIT IV: STRATEGIES IN TEACHING MATHEMATICS

Overview ………………………………………………………………………… 86
Research-based Strategies ………………………………………………….. 87
Factors in Choosing a Method or Strategy ………………………………. 88
Interactive Direct Instruction ………………………………………………… 89
Rathmell Triangle Model ……………………………………………………… 89
Cooperative Learning …………………………………………………………. 90
Inquiry Method …………………………………………………………………. 91
Problem-based Learning………………………………………………………. 92

UNIT V: ASSESSMENT IN MATHEMATICS FOR PRIMARY GRADES

Overview ………………………………………………………………………… 97
Recommendations for Student Assessment in
Mathematics for Primary Grades …………………………………………… 98

UNIT VI: LESSON PLANNING IN MATHEMATICS FOR

GRADE 1 to GRADE 3
Overview ………………………………………………………………………… 105
Writing Lesson Plan in Mathematics for
Grade 1 to 3 and Sample Lesson Plans …………………………………… 109
 UNIT FOUNDATIONS OF
I MATHEMATICS TEACHING
AND LEARNING
OVERVIEW
Mathematics introduces children to skills that are vital to their everyday life.
Often,Mathematics, of all the subjects, is considered by almost everybody as the most
difficult subject because of the challenges indealing with numbers, computations, and
solving problems. However, this unit provides a clear picture of the nature and goals of
Mathematics to education, especially at the primary level. In this sense, the fear to get the
subject may change to the enjoyment of taking the subject.In the same manner, the K-12
Curriculum Framework created by the Department of Education is highly emphasized in
this unit to guide teachers on the theories, competencies, and depths when teaching
Mathematicsat the primary level.

Class, this is Unit 1. I expect that

you will love Math after this. But,
aside from that, what am I expecting
from all of you? Please refer to the
objectives and together let’s reach
it.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. explain the nature of mathematics as a subject;
2. enumerate the aims of mathematics in education; and
3. analyze comprehensively the mathematics K-12 Curriculum Framework.

For you to have

background knowledge,
answer the following
activity.

ACTIVATING YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

A. Picture Analysis
Before you start reading this unit, write down your own understanding of
teaching mathematics at the primary level. What must be the nature and goals of
teaching the aforementioned?

4
 Source: https://www.teachingideas.co.uk/maths/mega-maths-mat

Figure 1.

Nature of Mathematics
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Goals of Mathematics to Education:

___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________
5
B. Fact or Bluff? Identify the following statements if Fact or Bluff. Use the space
provided for your answer.
1.Mathematics offers children a powerful
way of communicating.
2.Mathematics prevents chaos to make our
life orderly.
3.Through mathematics, students can
acquire essential skills such as decision-
making and solving mathematical
problems but it does not help us to cope
with this changing world.
4All people use mathematical knowledge
every day.
5.Mathematics is a spectator sport.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Mathematics introduces children to concepts, skills, and thinking strategies that

are essential in everyday life and support learning across the curriculum. It helps children
make sense of the numbers, patterns, and shapes they see in the world around them;
I know that
offers ways of handling numbers in an increasingly you world;
digital want and makes a crucial
contribution to their development as successful more, right? ItSo,
learners. let delight to children to
brings
solve a problem, especially when it leads themustodiscuss. an unexpected discovery or new
connections. As their confidence grows, they look for patterns, use logical reasoning,
suggest solutions, and try out different approaches to problems. Mathematics offers
children a powerful way of communicating. They learn to elaborate and expound their
knowledge using symbols, diagrams, and spoken and written language. They start to
discover how mathematics has developed over time and contributes to our economy,
society, and culture. Studying mathematics stimulates curiosity, fosters creativity, and
equips children with the skills they need in life beyond school.

National Council of the Philippinesdefines the nature of Mathematics as follows:

1. It is the study of patterns and

relationships
Mathematicsconcepts are
interconnected from
oneanother; hence, the students
should discover that connection
by finding or discovering the
pattern and relationships
between two mathematical
ideas.

2. Ithelps students to think.

6
 The problem-solvingexercises help students to acquire different ways of thinking
and to develop the way students think in solving everyday problems.

3. It is an art.
Mathematics is systematic and
reliable.Numbers and geometric figures can
show us several patterns. You can see
mathematics in different forms of arts, some of
these are tessellations, weaving, and tiling. By
exploring the orderliness and consistency of
Mathematics, people acknowledge its beauty.

4. It is a language.
Through symbols and mathematical terms, we
can communicate easily. For example, when we
are asking the weight and length of subjects, we
easily understand that using the different SI
systems, right?

5. It is a tool.
Mathematics can be used in all
occupations and jobs. For example, we
teachers need mathematics to compute
grades.

Goals of Mathematics to Education

The following five broad goals were given by the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, (NCTM, 1989) Standards for School Mathematics to address the needs of
students in Mathematics for the 21st century.In connection with this, teachers must help
students to:

1. Value Mathematics
Students should see how important mathematics is in their everyday lives.

2. Reason out Mathematically

Through mathematics, students should be able to think critically and
logically. For example, the teachers must give activities or tasks as tools in
sharpening the higher-order-thinking-skills (HOTS) of students.

3. Communicate Mathematics
Students should use mathematical symbols and terms in communicating.
For example, when comparing things, children should know which is greater and
lesser.

4. Solve Problems

7
 Since this is mathematics, of course, it is a must for the students to solve
problems at the end of a particular lesson or topic. Furthermore, they need to
apply the conceptstotheir everyday life.

5. Make students feel confident

Instead of letting students feel the stigma and fear towards mathematics,
why not boost their confidence that if they will learn math, they will be
successful someday, because Mathematics is present in all fields.

Mathematics K-12 Curriculum Framework

Figure 2

Mathematics is a subject that we can apply in our daily lives because its
application goes beyond the classroom and the school. Therefore, it should be taught
comprehensively and deeply. In the K-10 goal, mathematics should develop the critical
thinking and problem solving of students.

According to skillsyouneed.comCritical thinking refers to the ability of a man to think

clearly and rationally, and to understand the logcal connection between ideas.

Moreover,as cited in the module entitled, “Learning Mathematicin thePrimary Grades”

by Math Division Madison Metropolitan School District (2006), problem solving is using
a variety of strategies to solve problems.

The two goals mentioned above can be reached by organizing the curriculum
content in a rigorous and well-organized manner, defining a set of high-level skills and
processes, introducing desirable values and attitudes, and using appropriate tools
considering the nature of Filipino learners.

There are five content areas in the curriculum, as adapted from the framework,
prepared by MATHTED & SEI (2010): Numbers and Number Sense, Measurement,
Geometry, Patterns and Algebra,and Probabilityand Statistics.

The specific skills and processes to be developed are: knowing and understanding;
estimating, computing and solving; visualizing and modeling; representing and

8
communicating; conjecturing, reasoning, proving and decision making; and applying and
connecting.

The following values and attitudes are to be honed as well: accuracy, creativity,
objectivity, perseverance, and productivity.

We recognize that the use of appropriate tools is necessary for teaching mathematics.
These include manipulative objects, measuring devices, calculators and computers,
smartphones, and tablet PCs, and the internet.

We define context as a locale, situation, or set of conditions of Filipino learners that

may influence their study and use of mathematics to develop critical thinking and
problem-solving skills. Contexts refer to belief, environment,language, and culture that
include traditions and practices,as well as the learner’s prior knowledge and experiences.

The framework is supported by the following underlying principles and theories:

Experientialand Situated Learning, Reflective Learning, Constructivism, Cooperative
Learning and Discovery, and Inquiry-Based Learning.The Mathematics curriculum is
grounded in these theories.

Experiential Learning, as advocated by Kevin Kolb, is learning that occurs by making

sense of direct everyday experiences.Experiential learning theory defines learning as “the
processwhereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience.Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming
experience” (Kolb, 1981: p. 41).Situated learning, theorized by Lave and Wenger,is
learning in the same contextin which concepts and theories are applied.

Reflective learning refers to learning that is facilitated by reflective thinking. It is not

enough that learners encounter real-life situations. Deeper learning occurs when learners
are able to think about their experiences and process these, allowing them the opportunity
to make sense and derive meaning from their experiences.

Constructivism is a theory that argues that knowledge is constructed when the learner
is able to draw ideas from his/her own experiences and connect them to new ideas.

Cooperative Learning puts a premium on active learning achieved by working with

fellow learners as they all engaged in a shared task. The mathematics curriculum allows
the student to learn by asking relevant questions and discovering new ideas. Discovery
learning and Inquiry-Based Learning (Bruner, 1961) support the idea that students learn
when making use of personal experiences to discover facts, relationships, and concepts.

To see if you really learn from our

discussion, answer the following
activity. Make sure to answer it
correctly.

9
SYNTHESIZING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 1
Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________
Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

This activity is called the Prior Knowledge, Present Knowledge, and Gained
Knowledge (PPG)where you are to cite all concepts that you know about the nature of
Mathematics.Write all the concepts that you know about the lesson, and enumerate the
insights gained in the lesson.This will also compare your previous answer on the nature
of Mathematics. Are there similarities in your answer or none?

Prior Knowledge (P) Present Knowledge (P) Gained Knowledge (G)

(cite all the concepts that you (write all the concepts discussed) (enumerate insights gained in the
know about the lesson) lesson)

10
 Activity 2

Based on the goals of mathematics in education discussed in this unit, cite a

classroom scenario to clearly show how each goal can be achieved.

Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

1.Value Mathematics

2. Reason Mathematically

3. Communicate Mathematics

4.Solve Problems

5.Develop confidence

11
 Activity 3

Name:_________________________________________ Date:
____________________________
Section: ________________________________________ Score:
___________________________

Create your own paradigm of the K-12 Mathematics Curriculum based on the
conceptual framework cited by the Department of Education. Your work will be graded
using the following criteria: content, relevance to the topic, organization, and creativity.

REFERENCES

Critical Thinking Skills You Need. 2020. Retrieved August 5, 2020 from
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/critical-thinking.html

Nivera, Gladys C. 2013. Curriculum and Instruction: The Teaching of Mathematics.

Teacher Education Council, Department of Education.
https://www.slideshare.net/knowellton/module-63-mathematics

K to 12 Mathematics Curriculum Guide. 2016. Department of Education.DepEd Complex,

Meralco Avenue Pasig City

Learning Mathematic in the Primary Grades. 2006. Madison Metropolitan School

District. Retrieved from www.madison.k12.wi.us

That was tough! But I believe that you

enjoy Unit I, right? So, let us proceed
to Unit II.

12
 UNIT MATHEMATICS IN THE GRADE
II 1-3 PROGRAM: MATH
CONTENT AND PROCESSES

OVERVIEW

This unit will let you, future elementary teachers, to have a clearer picture of the
contents of the Mathematics subject for 1st to 3rd-Grade level. You may also have an
understanding of the importance of the Mathematics subject as it pervades life at any age.
You also have to inculcate in your heart and mind that the twin goals of teaching
mathematics to your future students are to develop critical thinking and problem-solving
skills. So, you have to give your best every time you are teaching your students. Please be
generous in sharing theideas that you have. Happy teaching!

Class, welcome to our next

session. To know what our
targets for this session, read
the objectives below.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. differentiate the Math content and processes according to complexity;
2. discuss the importance of knowing the Math content and processes in
Grade 1 to 3;
3. use the knowledge in Math content and processes in designing a lesson
plan; and
4. utilize the K to 12 Curriculum Guide in Mathematics.

I know that this unit seems

hard, right? But, before having
that conclusion, answer the
activities below.

ACTIVATING YOUR PRE-KNOWLEDGE

Directions: Read and comprehend each of the questions or statements below. Choose the
appropriate answer. (This is also available in Google Form for the students to
have easy access.)
1. When do we start teaching Mathematics in the K to 12 Curriculum?
A. Kinder B. Grade 1 C. Grade 2 D. Grade 3
13
 2. Among the given principles and theories, which of the following does not
supportthe Philippines’ Mathematics Curriculum Framework?
A. Experiential Learning B. Cooperative
Learning
C. Discovery Learning D. None of the
Choices
3. The following are the contents of the K to 10 Mathematics except:
A. Numbers and Number Sense B. Measurement
C. Business Mathematics D. Probability and
Statistics
4. In what grade level will you start teaching Algebra?
A. Grade 1 B. Grade 2 C. Grade 3 D. Grade 4
5. When do we start teachingStatistics and Probability?
A. Grade 1 B. Grade 2 C. Grade 3 D. Grade 4

Triggered by that
activity? Feeling
excited? So, let us
now discuss.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Here is the brief course description of Mathematics from K to 10 in the

Philippines as implemented by the Department of Education for you to have a
background on the different contents and objectives of teaching Mathematics in the
elementary and secondary levels.
Mathematics from K to10 is a skill subject. By itself, it is all about quantities,
shapes and figures, functions, logic, and reasoning.
Mathematics is also a tool of science and a language complete with its own
notations and symbols and “grammar” rules, with which concepts and ideas are
effectively expressed.
The contents of mathematics include Numbers and Number Sense,
Measurement, Geometry, Patterns & Algebra,and Statistics and Probability.
Numbers and Number Sense as a strand includes concepts of numbers,
properties, operations, estimation, and their applications.
Measurement as a strand includes the use of numbers and measures to describe,
understand, and compare mathematical and concrete objects. It focuses on attributes such
as length, mass and weight, capacity, time, money, and temperature among others, as
well as applications involving perimeter, area, surface area, volume, and angle measure.
Geometry as a strand includes properties of two- and three-dimensional figures
and their relationships, spatial visualization, reasoning and geometric modeling, and
proofs.
Patterns and Algebra as a strand studies patterns, relationships and changes
among shapes and quantities and includes the use of algebraic notations and symbols,
equations, and most importantly, functions, to represent and analyze relationships.
Statistics and Probability as a strand is all about developing skills in collecting
and organizing data using charts, tables and graphs, understanding, analyzing and
interpreting data, dealing with uncertainty and making predictions and outcomes.The K
to 10 Mathematics Curriculum provides a solid foundation for Mathematics at Grades 11
to 12. More importantly, it provides necessary concepts and life skills needed by Filipino
learners as they proceed to the next stage in their life as learners and as citizens of our
beloved country, the Philippines.
14
Learning Standard: The learner demonstrates understanding and appreciation of key
concepts and principles of Mathematics as applied, using appropriate technology, in
problem-solving, communicating, reasoning, making connections, representations, and
decisions in real life.

Key Stage Standards:

K–3
At the end of Grade 3, the learner demonstrates understanding and appreciation of key
concepts and skills involving whole numbers up to ten thousand, fractions,
measurement, simple geometric figures, pre-algebra concepts and data representation
and analysis as applied, using appropriate technology, in critical thinking, problem-
solving, reasoning, communicating, making connections, representations and decisions
in real life.

Grade Level Standards:

Grade Level Grade Level Standards
Grade 1 The learner demonstrates understanding and appreciation of key
concepts and skills involving whole numbers up to 100, fractions,
measurement, simple geometric figures, pre-algebra concepts, data
collection and representation as applied, using appropriate technology,
in critical thinking, problem-solving, reasoning, communicating,
making connections, representations and decision in real life.
Grade 2 The learner demonstrates understanding and appreciation of key
concepts and skills involving whole numbers up to 1 000, fractions,
measurement and geometric figures, pre-algebra concepts, data
collection, representation and analysis as applied, using appropriate
technology, in critical thinking, problem-solving, reasoning,
communicating, making connections, representations and decision in
real life.
Grade 3 The learner demonstrates understanding and appreciation of key
concepts and skills involving whole numbers up to 10 000, fractions,
measurement, geometric figures, pre-algebra concepts, data collection,
representation and analysis as applied, using appropriate technology, in
critical thinking, problem-solving, reasoning, communicating, making
connections, representations and decision in real life.

GRADE 1
Content Content Performance Learning Competencies
Standards Standards
Numbers and The learner The learner is The learner…
Number demonstrates an able to…  recognizes cardinal
Sense understanding  explore the numbers from 0 to 100.
of… concept of  counts and tells the number
 number cardinal of objects in a given set by
notation and numbers up ones and tens.
place value, to 100 and  identifies the number that
cardinal and compare is one more or one less from a
ordinal these given number.
numbers, and numbers in  composes and decomposes
comparing and various a given number.
ordering contexts.  regroups sets of ones into
numbers up to sets of tens and sets of tens
100. into hundred using objects.
 compares two sets using
the expressions “fewer than,”

15
 “more than,” and “as many
as.”
 orders sets from least to
greatest and viceversa.
 counts by 2’s, 5’s and 10’s
through 100.
 reads and writes numbers
up to 100 in symbols and in
words.
 identifies the place value
and finds the value of a digit
in a one- and two-digit
numbers.
 renames numbers into tens
and ones.
compares numbers up to
100 using relation symbols.
 arranges numbers up to
100 in increasing order and
vice versa.
 recognizes coins and bills
up to P100 (pesos and
centavos).
 explore the  reads and writes ordinal
concept of numbers 1st, 2nd, 3rd up to
ordinal 10th.
numbers.  identifies the 1st, 2nd, 3rd
up to the 10th object in a
given set from a given point
of reference.
 determines the position of
an object using 1st to 10th
from a given point of
reference.
 addition and  illustrate the  illustrates addition as
subtraction up addition and putting together and
to 100. subtraction subtraction as taking away,
of whole comparing and adding up.
numbers.  illustrates the relationship
of joining sets to the addition
of whole numbers.
 illustrates that addition and
subtraction are inverse
operations.
 identifies and constructs
equivalent number
expressions using addition
and subtractions.
 identifies and creates
patterns to compose and
decomposes numbers using
addition.
 compute for The learner …
sums and  adds two one-digit
solve addition numbers with sums up to 18
problems. using the order and zero
properties of addition.
16
  adds two to three one-digit
numbers horizontally and
vertically with sums up to 18.
 adds three one-digit
numbers having sums of up to
18 using the order and
grouping properties of
addition.
 uses expanded form to
explain the meaning of
addition with regrouping.
 adds numbers with sums
through 99 without or with
regrouping.
 mentally adds two to three
1-digit numbers with sums up
to 18.
 mentally adds a 2-digit
number and 1-digit number
with regrouping.
 solves one-step word
problems involving the
addition of whole numbers
including money with sums
up to 99 using appropriate
problem-solving strategy.
 compute for  subtracts one-digit
differences numbers with minuends
and solve through 18 (basic facts).
subtraction  subtracts one to two-digit
problems. numbers with minuends up to
99 without regrouping.
 uses the expanded form to
explain subtraction with
regrouping.
 subtracts one to two-digit
numbers with minuends up to
99 with regrouping.
 mentally subtracts 1-digit
numbers from minuends up to
18 without regrouping.
 mentally subtracts a 1-digit
number from 2-digit
minuends without regrouping.
 solves word problems
involving subtraction of
whole numbers including
money with minuends up to
99 with and without
regrouping using appropriate
problem-solving strategy.
 the concepts of  visualize,  visualizes and identifies ½
halves and model and and ¼ of a whole object.
fourths and represent the  divides a whole into halves
applies them concept of and fourths.
in dividing a halves and  divides the elements of a
whole or set fourths using set of objects into two groups
17
 equally. whole objects of equal quantities to show
and sets. halves of sets.
 divides the elements of a
set of objects into four groups
of equal quantities to show
fourths of sets.
 given half of a region or a
set, draws the whole region or
set.
Geometry  2-D and 3-D  explore the  identifies, names and
shapes properties of describes the four basic
through 2- and 3- shapes in 2- and 3-
identifying, dimensional dimensional objects: square,
classifying figures. rectangle, triangle and circle.
and  compares and classifies 2-
constructing and 3-dimensional figures
figures using according to common
cut-outs and attributes.
concrete  model and  draws the four basic
models. represent 2- shapes.
and 3-  constructs three-
dimensional dimensional objects using
objects. manipulative materials.

Patterns and  simple  identify and identifies and explains

Algebra patterns. create number
simple repeating patterns.
and attribute
 makes patterns of shapes,
patterns. colors, and numbers.
 complete  finds the missing
number and number/digit in addition or
attribute subtraction problems.
patterns.  finds and completes
patterns of one or two of the
following attributes: Shape,
Size, Color, Number,
Orientation.
 determines the next term
(figure/number) in a given
sequence and give a reason.
Measurement  the concepts of  give different  names and tells the number
time and measures of of days in a week; months in
measures and time. a year in the right order.
compares  uses a calendar to
objects using determine a day or month.
direct  tells the time by an hour,
comparison half-hour, and quarter-hour.
and non-  estimate and  compares objects using the
standard units compute for comparative words: Short,
of length, measurements shorter, shortest; Long,
mass, and of length, longer, longest; Tall, taller,
capacity. mass, and tallest; High, higher, highest;
capacity. Heavy, heavier, heaviest;
Light, lighter, lightest.
 estimates and measures
length using non-standard
units of linear measures.
 estimates and measures
18
 mass using non-standard units
of mass/weight measures.
 shows and finds capacity
using the non-standard unit.
Statistics and  organizing,  organize and  collects and organizes data
Probability representing interpret data using tallies and tables.
and comparing  represents data using
data using pictographs without using a
pictographs scale.
without scale  reads and interprets a
representations pictograph.
and  make  identifies cause and effect
probability, conjectures relationships.
and explores about games  predicts and records the
games and and activities. outcome of experiments and
activities. chance games.

Those are the standards

that you need to remember
when you about to teach
Grade 1 Math. Now, let us
proceed on Grade 2.

GRADE 2

Content Content Performanc Learning Competencies

Standards e Standards
Numbers The learner The learner The learner…
and Number demonstrates is able to…  visualizes and identifies numbers
Sense an  explore from 101 through 1000.
understanding the  associates numbers with sets
of… concepts having 101 up to 500 objects and
 the of give the number of objects.
relationship numbers  associates numbers with sets
s between up to having 501 up to 1000 objects and
numbers 1000, give the number of objects.
and place read and  counts and groups objects in ones,
value of write tens, and hundreds.
whole these  reads and writes numbers from 101
numbers up numbers. through 1000 in symbols and in
to 1000 and words.
of ordinal  counts numbers by 10s, 50s, and
numbers up 100s.
to 20th.  reads and writes numbers through
1000 in symbols and in words.
 gives the place value of each digit
in a three-digit number.
 writes three-digit numbers in
19
 expanded form.
 compares numbers using >, < and
=.
 orders numbers up to 1000 from
least to greatest and vice versa.
 identify  visualizes and identifies the 1st
ordinal through the 20th object of a given set
numbers from a given point of reference.
through  reads and writes ordinal numbers
the 20th. from 1st through the 20th.
 identifies and uses the pattern of
naming ordinal numbers from 1st to
the 20th.
 the concept  compute  adds numbers with sums up to
of the four sums and 1000 without and with regrouping: 2
operations solve digit and 3-digit.
of whole addition  adds numbers with sums up to
numbers problems 1000 without and with regrouping: 3
and the involving digit and 3-digit.
identity and numbers  uses the following properties of
zero of up to addition in computing for sums of up
properties 1000. to 1000: zero/identity property of
of addition, commutative property of
multiplicati addition, associative property of
on. addition.
 mentally adds 1- to 2-digit
numbers with sums up to 50.
 mentally adds 3-digit numbers by
ones (up to 9).
 mentally adds 3-digit numbers by
tens (multiples of 10 up to 90).
 mentally adds 3-digit numbers by
hundreds (multiples of 100 up to
900).
 analyzes and solves word
problems involving addition of whole
numbers including money with sums
up to 1000 without and with
regrouping.
 compute  subtracts 2- to 3-digit numbers
difference with minuends up to 999 without and
s and with regrouping.
solve  mentally subtracts 1-digit numbers
subtractio from 1 to 2-digit numbers with
n minuends up to 50.
problems  mentally subtracts 3-digit by ones
involving without regrouping.
numbers  mentally subtracts 3-digit by tens
of up to without regrouping.
1000.  mentally subtracts 3-digit by
hundreds without regrouping.
 analyzes and solves one-step word
problems involving subtraction of
whole numbers including money with
minuends up to1000 without and
with regrouping.
 compute  performs order of operations
20
 for sums involving addition and subtraction of
and small numbers.
difference  solves two-step word problems
s and involving addition and subtraction of
solve 2- to 3-digit numbers including
problems money using appropriate procedures.
involving
both
addition
and
subtractio
n of
numbers.
 explore  illustrates multiplication as
and repeated addition, arrays, counting by
illustrate multiples, and equal jumps on the
the number line.
concept  writes a related equation for each
of type of multiplication: repeated
multiplica addition, array, counting by
tion of multiples, and equal jumps on the
whole number line.
numbers.  illustrates the property of
multiplication that any number
multiplied by one (1) is the same
number.
 illustrates the property of
multiplication that zero multiplied by
any number is zero.
 illustrates the commutative
property of multiplication.
 compute  constructs and fills up the
products multiplication tables of 2, 3, 4, 5, and
of 10.
numbers  multiplies mentally to fill up
involving multiplication tables of 2, 3, 4, 5, and
2, 3, 4, 5, 10.
and 10  analyzes and solves one-step word
and solve problems involving multiplication of
problems whole numbers including money.
involving  analyzes and solves two-step word
multiplica problems involving multiplication of
tion of whole numbers as well as addition
these and subtraction including money.
numbers.
 explore  models and describes division
and situations in which sets are separated
model the into equal parts.
concept  represents division as equal
of sharing, repeated subtraction, equal
division jumps on the number line, and
of whole formation of equal groups of objects.
numbers.  writes a related equation for each
type of situation: equal sharing,
repeated subtraction, equal jumps on
the number line, and formation of
equal groups of objects.
21
  compute  divides numbers found in the
quotients multiplication tables of 2, 3, 4, 5, and
of 10.
numbers  mentally divides numbers found in
found in the multiplication tables of 2, 3, 4, 5,
the and 10.
multiplica  analyzes and solves one-step word
tion problems involving division of
tables numbers found in the multiplication
involving tables of 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10.
2, 3, 4, 5
and 10
and solve
problems
involving
division
of these
numbers.
 unit  explore  visualizes and identifies unit
fractions, the fractions with denominators 10 and
proper concept below.
fractions of unit  reads and writes unit fractions.
and similar fractions  compares unit fractions using
fractions, and other relation symbols.
and fractions  orders unit fractions.
identificati less than  visualizes and identifies other
on of 1 and fractions less than one with
money compare denominators 10 and below.
value these  visualizes and identifies similar
through fractions. fractions (using a group of objects
100. and number line).
 reads and writes similar fractions.
 compares similar fractions using
relation symbols.
 orders similar fractions.
 apply  reads and writes money with value
number through 100.
concepts  counts and tells the value of a set
on of bills or a set of coins through 100
problem in peso ( coins only, bills only and
situations coins and bills).
involving  counts and tells the value of a set
money. of bills or a set of coins through 100
in centavo (coins).
 counts and tells the value of a set
of bills or a set of coins through 100
in combinations of pesos and
centavos (Peso and centavo coins
only, bills and centavo coins, coins,
and bills).
 reads and writes money in symbols
and in words through 100.
 compares values of different
denominations of coins and paper
bills through 100 using relation
symbols >, < and =.
Geometry  the basic  visualize  visualizes, identifies, classifies,
22
 properties and and describes half-circles and quarter
of model circles.
geometric half-  constructs squares, rectangles,
shapes, circles triangle, circles, half-circles, and
simple and quarter-circles using cut-outs and
tessellation quarter- square grids.
s, and circles as
symmetry. well as
other
common
shapes.
 explore  identifies shapes/figures that show
the symmetry in a line.
concept  creates figures that show
of symmetry in a line.
symmetry
.
 visualize,  recognizes shapes that can
model, tessellate.
and  tessellates a surface using triangles
represent and squares.
tessellatio
ns.
 explore  identifies straight lines and curves,
the flat and curved surfaces in a 3-
concept dimensional object.
of lines,  explains the differences between
curves, straight lines and curved lines, flat
and surfaces, and curved surfaces.
surface
on 3-
dimensio
nal
objects.
Patterns and  patterns on  argue and  identifies and explains simple
Algebra numbers justify repeating patterns.
and patterns.  determines the next term
geometric (figure/number) in a given sequence
objects. and give a reason.
 apply  finds and completes patterns
their according to one or two of the
understan following attributes: shape, size,
ding and color, orientation.
strategies
in
completin
g
patterns.
Measuremen  the concept  compute  tells and writes the time in minutes
t and for including a.m. and p.m. using analog
application measures and digital clocks.
of time and of time  finds the duration of time elapsed
of using and solve using a calendar, analog, and digital
standard problems clocks.
units in involving  solves simple word problems
measuring time. involving time.
length,  identify  shows and uses the appropriate
23
mass, area, and unit of length to measure a particular
and compare object and their abbreviations cm and
capacity. the m.
standard  compares length in meters or
units centimeters.
centimete
r and
meter.
 estimate  measures objects using appropriate
and measuring tools in m or cm.
compute  estimates and measures length
for using meter or centimeter.
lengths of  solves simple word problems
objects involving length.
and solve
problems
involving
lengths
using
centimete
r and
meter.
 identify,  shows and uses the appropriate
use, and unit of mass to measure a particular
compare object or situation and their
the abbreviations g and kg.
standard  compares mass in grams or
units kilograms.
gram and
kilogram.
 estimate  measures objects using appropriate
and measuring units in g or kg.
compute  estimates and measures mass using
for the grams or kilograms.
mass/wei  solves simple word problems
ght of an involving mass.
object
and solve
problems
involving
mass/wei
ght.
 explore  illustrates area as a measure of
and how much surface is covered or
illustrate occupied by the plane figure.
the  shows the area of a given figure
concept using square tile units, i.e. number of
of area. square tiles needed.
 estimate  estimates the area of a given figure
and using any shape.
compute  finds the area of a given figure
for the using square tile units i.e. the number
area of a of square tiles needed.
plane
figure.
 measure  shows and finds capacity using
capacity. appropriate measuring tools, e.g. the
24
 amount of liquid needed.
Statistics and  pictographs  organize  collects and organizes data using
Probability with scale and tables and pictures.
representati interpret  reads and interprets data in a given
ons and the data. pictograph.
idea of  represent
likelihood. data using  forms scale representation of
scales. objects from the data collected.
 makes pictographs using scale
representation.

 make  makes a guess on whether an event

conjectur is less likely, more likely, equally
es and likely or unlikely to happen based on
educated facts.
guesses
about the
likelihood
of events.

I know that you notice

something, right? I am happy to
hear that.

GRADE 3

Content Content Performance Learning Competencies

Standards Standards
Numbers The learner The learner is The learner…
and Number demonstrates able to…  reads and writes the numbers
Sense an  explore the through 10 000 in symbols and in
understandin concepts of words.
g of… numbers up to  identifies the place value and
 the 10 000, count, find the value of a digit in 4- to 5-
concepts read and write digit numbers.
of whole these numbers  compares 4- to 5-digit numbers
numbers and identify using relation symbols.
up to ordinal  orders 4- to 5-digit numbers in
10000, numbers of up increasing order and vice versa.
ordinal to 100th.  rounds numbers to the nearest
numbers tens, hundreds, and thousands.
up to  identifies ordinal numbers
100th, and from 1st to 100th.
Roman  read and write  reads and writes the value of
numerals numbers using roman numbers in Hindu-Arabic
up to M. Roman and vice versa I to L.
numerals up to  reads and writes the value of
25
 M. roman numbers in Hindu-Arabic
and vice versa L to C.
 reads and writes the value of
Roman numbers in Hindu-Arabic
and vice versa C to D.
 reads and writes the value of
Roman
 the four  use properties
operations of addition to  illustrates the properties of
of whole estimate and addition (commutative,
numbers compute for associative, identity).
and of the sums and
concept of solve addition  adds 3- to 4 -digit numbers up
identity, problems to three addends with sums up to
commutati involving 10 000 without regrouping.
ve, numbers of up
associativ to 10 000.  adds 3- to 4 -digit numbers up
e, and to three addends with sums up to
distributiv 10 000 with regrouping.
e  estimates the sum of 3- to 4-
properties digit addends by rounding.
of  mentally adds without or with
addition regrouping 2-digit and 1-digit
and numbers and explain the
multiplica strategies used.
tion.  mentally adds without or with
regrouping two 2-digit numbers
and explain the strategies used.
 mentally adds without or with
regrouping 2-digit and 3-digit
multiples of hundreds and explain
the strategies used.
 solves word problems
involving the addition of whole
numbers with sums up to 10 000
including money using
appropriate problem-solving
strategy.
 estimate and  subtracts 3-digit numbers from
compute for 3- to 4-digit numbers without and
differences with regrouping and with and
and solve without zeros in the digits.
subtraction  subtracts 3- to 4-digit numbers
problems from 4-digit numbers without and
involving with regrouping and with and
numbers of up without zeros in the digits.
to 10 000.  estimates the difference of two
numbers with three to four digits
by rounding.
 mentally subtracts without and
with regrouping 2-digit and 1-
digit numbers and explain the
strategies used.
 mentally subtracts without and
with regrouping two 2-digit
numbers and explain the
strategies used.
26
  mentally subtracts without and
with regrouping 2-digit to 3-digit
numbers from multiples of
hundreds and explain the
strategies used.
 solves one-step word problems
involving subtraction of whole
numbers including money using
appropriate problem-solving
strategies.
 solves two-step word problems
involving addition and
subtraction of whole numbers
including money using
appropriate problem-solving
strategies.
 estimate and
multiply 2-  constructs and completes the
and 3-digit multiplication tables of 6, 7, 8,
numbers by 1- and 9.
digit to 2-digit  states basic multiplication facts
numbers and for numbers up to 10.
solve  applies the commutative
multiplication property of multiplication.
problems  multiplies 2-digit by 1-digit by
involving using the distributive property of
these numbers. multiplication.
 multiplies three 1-digit
numbers by using the associative
property of multiplication.
 multiplies 2- to 3-digit
numbers by 1-digit numbers
without or with regrouping.
 multiplies 2-digit numbers by
2-digit numbers without
regrouping.
 multiplies 2-digit numbers by
2-digit numbers with regrouping.
 multiplies 2- to 3-digit
numbers by multiples of 10 and
100.
 multiplies 1- to 2-digit
numbers by 1000.
 estimates the product of 2- to
3-digit numbers by 1- to 2-digit
numbers by rounding.
 mentally multiplies 2-digit by
1-digit numbers without
regrouping involving products of
up to 100.
 solves one-step word problems
involving multiplication of whole
numbers including money using
appropriate problem-solving
strategies.
 solves two-step word problems
involving multiplication as well
27
 as addition and subtraction
including money using
appropriate problem-solving
strategies.
 explore the  states multiples of 1- to 2-digit
concepts of numbers.
factors and  differentiates prime and
multiples. composite numbers.
 estimate and  divides numbers found in the
divide 3-digit multiplication tables of 6, 7, 8, 9.
numbers by up  states basic division facts of
to 2-digit numbers up to 10.
numbers and  divides 2- to 3-digit numbers
solve division by 1-digit numbers without a
problems remainder.
involving  divides 2- to 3-digit numbers
these numbers. by 1-digit numbers with a
remainder.
 divides 2-digit numbers by 2-
digit numbers.
 divides numbers by 10 and
100.
 estimates the quotient of 2- to
3-digit numbers by 1- to 2-digit
numbers.
 mentally divides 2-digit
numbers by 1-digit numbers
without a remainder.
 solves one-step word problem
involving division of 2- to 4-digit
numbers by 1- to 2-digit numbers
including money using
appropriate problem-solving
strategies.
 solves word problems
involving division and other
fundamental operations,
including money, using
appropriate problem-solving
strategies.
 the basic  explore the  visualizes and identifies
kinds of concepts of fractions that are equal to one and
fractions, dissimilar greater than one.
know how fractions,  reads and writes fractions that
to improper are greater than one in symbols
simplify fractions, and and in words.
and order mixed  relates and changes improper
them, and numbers. fractions to mixed numbers and
to apply to vice versa.
problem-  visualizes and identifies
solving dissimilar fractions.
money  compares dissimilar fractions.
through  arranges dissimilar fractions in
100. increasing or decreasing order.
 recognizes and generates
equivalent fractions of commonly
used fractions.
28
  changes fractions to the lowest
forms.
 apply number  reads and writes money in
concepts to symbols through 1000.
solve  compares values of the
problems different denominations of coins
involving and bills through 1000.
money  solves real-life problems
through 1000. involving money through 1000.
Geometry  the basic  explore the  recognizes and draws a point,
elements concepts of line, line segment, and ray.
of angles, point, line, line  recognizes and draws
lines, and segment, and perpendicular lines, parallel lines,
rays. ray. and intersecting lines.
 visualizes, identifies, and
draws congruent line segments.
 explore  identifies and draws the line of
symmetryin symmetry in a given symmetrical
plane figure.
figuresand the  identifies and visualizes
environment. symmetry in the environment and
in design.

 completes a symmetric figure

with respect to a given line of
symmetry.
 tessellates the plane using
triangles, squares, and other
shapes that can tessellate.
Patterns and  patterns of  explore the  tells when a number is odd or
Algebra numbers, concept of odd even.
operations and even  finds the pattern using odd and
, numbers. even numbers with objects,
geometric pictures, and words.
objects,  identify the  determines the pattern of a
and rule for a given sequence and state the rule.
relationshi pattern and  finds the missing number or
ps. complete the digit in a pattern.
number
pattern.
Measuremen  the  convert time  converts time measure from
t concept measures from seconds to minutes, minutes to
and one unit to hours, hours to days.
applicatio another.  converts time measure from
n of time days to weeks and months, and
(in convert weeks, months, and years
minutes), to days.
length,  finds the exact time between
mass, dates.
area, and  solves word problems
capacity. involving time measures.
 recognize,  converts common units of
perform, and measure from a larger unit to
use smaller unit and vice versa: meter
conversions of and centimeter, kilogram and
common units. gram, liter and milliliter.
 solves word problems
29
 involving conversions of
common units of measure.
 explore the  estimates the area of a square
concept of and rectangle using non-standard
area and find units.
areas of finds the area of a square in cm 2
squares and and m2.
rectanglesusin finds the area of a rectangle in
gcm2 and m2. cm2 and m2.
 solves word problems
involving areas of squares and
rectangles.
 measure  finds the capacity of a
capacity container using milliliter/liter.
using  solves word problems
milliliter and involving capacity measure.
liter.
Statistics and  tables,  organize and  collects and organizes data in a
Probability bar interpret data table.
graphs, presented in  reads and interprets a table.
and tables and bar  constructs a bar graph.
probabilit graphs.  reads and interprets a bar
y. graph.
 make simple  tells whether an event is most
predictions of likely to happen, equally likely to
events. happen or unlikely to happen
based on facts.

What can you say about the Math

content and processes for Grade
1, 2, and 3? Is that easy? Or too
difficult for them?

SYNTHESIZING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 4. Journal Making

Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

Directions: Your task is to make a journal answering the questions below. You have to
write it in cursive in a long bond paper.

1. What are the three most important things that I have learned today?
30
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
31
Activity 5. Teaching Material Making
Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________
Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

Directions: After learning the contents and processes of Grades 1 to 3

Mathematics, I will randomly assign you topics in Mathematics and your task is to make
an original teaching material in any form (traditional or modern) as if you will be
teaching students in a particular grade level with a particular topic. You have to submit
six (6) pictures (two [2] pictures of the materials, two[2] pictures while you are doing it,
and another two [2] pictures of the finished product). Submission will be through our
Facebook Group. Comment down your pictures with captions on my post “Teaching
Material Making.”The deadline for submission will be discussed by the whole class,
especially for those who do not have access to internet. The criteria for grading your
output will be as follows:
Appropriateness and Correctness – 40%
Physical Appearance – 30%
Resourcefulness – 20%
Timeliness – 10%
Total – 100%
Note: You just have to make instructional materials intended for the presentation of the
topic. You may utilize the K to 12 Mathematics curriculum as your reference.

How was your Unit II

experience? I-KMJS nayan?
Just kidding! I hope you enjoy
our session today.

REFERENCES

K to 12 Mathematics Curriculum Guide. 2016. Department of Education.DepEd

Complex, Meralco Avenue Pasig City

32
 UNIT LOWER GRADE MATH
III CURRICULUM WITH PROBLEM
SOLVING

OVERVIEW
This unit introduces the different types of numbers like whole numbers, decimals,
fractions, and percentages which are essential in the description of real-world
phenomena. The skills of counting and of natural numbers are not enough to satisfy all
the requirements of a mathematician. Consequently, the newly expanded number system
was created. This unit will also introduce the four fundamental operations as well as its
properties. The concept of exponents will also be introduced. The measurement process
will also be discussed along with the standard systems of measurement. Data presented in
tables and graphs will be analyzed and interpreted.

Now we are here in Unit

III! So brace yourselves,
everyone, because there’s a
lot of numbers coming.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. explain numbers, their representations, and quantities;

2. demonstrate the ability to be accurate and efficient, as wells as being confident in
calculating mentally andin the paper;
3. acquire the ability to solve;
4. determine patterns and relationships in mathematics;
5. show the ability to write symbols, notations,graphs, and diagrams to show
mathematical relationships;
6. express knowledge and understanding of measurements, their application, and
interpretation;
7. demonstrate accuracy and reliability in measuring;
8. describe two-dimensional and three-dimensional figures and their relation to
geometry;
9. obtain spatial awareness and be able to use it;
10. use geometrical models in solving problems;
11. utilize appropriate statistical treatment in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
data; and
12. interpret data presentedin different data presentations.

33
 I hope that you are going to be more
focused in this Unit because the
content is also very important to a
Math teacher like you. But before
that, let us have a pre-assessment.

ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Identify the term described by the statements below.

1. Group ofnumbers we use for counting.
2. This property is derived from its root word that means to unite.
3. Division by this number is undefined.
4. This number is the multiplicative identity or the identitynumber for
multiplication.
5. This system of measurement originated in France.
6. What do you call the special name given to the “perimeter”or
length of the circle?
7. It is the longestside of a right triangle.
8. It is defined as the amount of space that an objectoccupies.
9. It isa pattern of numbers arranged in a particular order.
10. A diagram showing the relation between variable quantities,
typically of two variables.

Want to discover the

answers? Let us discuss
the concepts then. Let us
begin with NUMBERS.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Number and Algebra

The natural numbers are those numbers with which we count discrete objects. By
including 0in the set, weobtain the set of whole numbers.
1. Natural Numbers
{1, 2, 3, 4, …} is the set of natural numbers.

2. Whole Numbers
{0, 1, 2, 3, …} is the set of whole numbers.

These numbers, along with many others,can be represented in a number line like
the one pictured in Figure 3. We drawthe numberlines bylocatingany point on the line
34
andcalling it 0. Choose anypoint to the right of 0 and call it1. The distance between 0 and
1gives the unit of measure usedto locate other pointsas shown in Figure 1. The points
labeledin Figure 1 and those continuing in the same way to the rightcorrespondto the set
of whole numbers.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure3
Allthe whole numbers starting with 1 are located to the right of 0 on the number
line. But numbers may also be placed to the left of 0.These numbers, written -1, -2, -3,
and so on, are shown in Figure 4. (The negative sign is used to show that the numbers
arelocated to the left of 0.

Zero
Negative Numbers Positive Numbers

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 4
The numbers to the left of 0 are negative numbers.The numbers to the right of 0
are positive numbers.The number 0 itself is neither positive nor negative.
Positivenumbers and negative numbers are called the signednumbers.

There are many practical applications of negative numbers. For example,

temperaturessometimes fall below zero. The lowest temperature ever recorded in the
meteorological record was -128.6˚F at Vostok, Antarctica, on July 22, 1983. Altitudes
below sea level can be represented by negative numbers. The shore surrounding the Dead
Sea is 1312 feet below sea level, this can be represented as -1312 feet.

The set of numbers shown in Figure 4is part of the set of integers,
includingpositive and negative numbers and zero.

3. Integers
{…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}is the set of integers.

1
Not all numbers are integers. For example, is not; it is a number halfway
2
1
between the integers 0 and 1. Also 3 is not an integer. Several numbers that are not
4
integers are graphed in Figure 5. The graph of a number is a point in the number line.
Think of the graph of a set of numbers, as the picture of the set. All the numbers in Figure
5 can be written as quotients of integers. These numbers are examples of rational
numbers.

(Figure 5 will be shown clearly in a PowerPoint Presentation which will be

discussed by the professor, for better understanding.)

2
Notice that an integer, such as 2, is also a rational number; for example, 2 = .
1

4. Rational Numbers

{x | x is a quotient of two integers, with denominator not equal to 0}is the set of
rational numbers.

35
 Although a great many numbers are rational, not all are. For example, a square
that measures one unit on a side has a diagonal whose length is the square root of 2,
written √ 2. It will be shown later that √ 2 cannot be written as a quotient of integers
because it is rational.

5. Irrational Numbers

{x | x is a number on the number line that is not rational}is the set of irrational
numbers. Examples of irrational numbers include √ 3, √ 7, −√ 10, and π, which is the ratio
of the distance around a circle (the circumference) to the distance across it (the diameter).
All numbers that can be represented by a point on a number line are called real numbers.

6. Real Numbers
{x | xis a number that can be represented by a point on the number line} is the set
of real numbers.

Real numbers can be written as decimal numbers. Any rational numbers can be
written as a decimal that will come to an end (terminate), or repeat in a fixed “block” of
2
digits. For example, . Real numbers can be written as decimal numbers. Any rational
5
numbers can be written as a decimal that will come to an end (terminate), or repeat in a
2 27
fixed “block” of digits. For example, = .4 and = .27 are rational numbers with
❑ 100
1 3
terminating decimals; = .3333 and = .27272727… are repeating decimals. The
3 11
decimal representation of an irrational number will neither terminate nor repeat.
Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers
4 −5 11
, ,
9 8 7 -√ 8
Integers
-11, -6, -4
Whole Numbers √ 15
0

√ 23
Natural π
Numbers
1, 2,3, 4, 5, 37, π
40 4

All numbers shown aboveare real numbers.

Example 1. List the numbers in the set

2 13
{-5, - , 0, √ 2, , 5, 5.8}
3 4

that belong to each of the following sets of numbers:

1. Naturalnumbers
The only naturalnumber in the set is5.

36
 2. Whole numbers
The whole numbers consist of natural numbers and 0. So the elements of the
set that arewhole numbers are0 and 5.

3. Integers
The integers in the set are -5, 0, and 5.

4. Rational numbers
2 13
The rational numbers are -5, - , 0, , 5, and 5.8, since each of these
3 4
58
numbers can be written as a quotient of two integers. For example, 5.8 = =
10
29
.
5

5. Irrational numbers
The only irrational number in the set is √ 2.

6. Real numbers
All numbers in the set are real numbers.

Now that you are familiar with

NUMBERS, let us discuss the
different operations. Let us
back to basic.

A. Whole Numbers Operations and Properties

1. Addition and Its Properties

Finding the sum of two whole numbers is one of the first mathematical ideas that
children encounterafter learning the counting chant “one, two, three, four, …”and the
concept of number.In particular, the question, “How many is 3 and 2?” can be answered
using both the set model and the measurement model.

1.1 Set Model

To find“3 + 2,”find two disjoint sets, one withthreeobjects and one withtwo
objects.

Definition

Addition of Whole Numbers

Let a and b be any two whole numbers. If A and B are disjoint sets with a = n(A)
and b = n(B), then
a + b = n (A U B).

37
 The number a + b is called the sum of a and b, and a and b are called addends or
summands of a + b.

Example 1. Use the definition of addition to find the sum of 4 + 5.

Solution:
Let A = {a, b, c, d) and B = {e, f, g, h, i}. Then n(A) = 4 and n(B) = 5. Also, A and B
have been chosen to be disjoint.
Therefore, 4 + 5 = n(AUB}
= n{a, b, c, d } U {e, f, g, h, i}
= n{a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i}
=9

Addition is called a binary operation because two(“bi”)numbers are combined to

produce a unique (one and only one) number.Multiplication is another example of a
binary operation with numbers. Intersection, union and set difference are binary
operations using sets.

1.2 Measurement Model

Addition can also be represented on the whole number line. Even though we have
drawn a solid arrow starting at zero and pointing to the right to indicate that the collection
of whole numbers is unending, the whole numbers are represented by the equally spaced
points labeled 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on. The magnitude of each number is represented by its
distance from 0.

The addition of whole numbers is represented by directed arrows of whole-

number lengths.The procedure used to find the sum 3 + 4 using the number line is
illustrated in the figure below. Hence, the sum of 3 and 4 is found by placing arrows of
lengths 3 and 4 end to end, starting at 0 to get a total of 7. Notice that the numbers 3 and
4 are placed end to end and are disjoint, just as in the set model.

Next, we examine some fundamental properties of addition of whole numbers that

can help simplify computations. These properties, as well as similar properties, should
become an integral part of the way you view mathematics.

1.3 Properties of Whole NumberAddition

Closure Property forWhole- NumberAddition

The sum of two whole numbers is a whole number.

When an operation on a set satisfies a closure property, the set is said to be closed
with respect to the given operation.Knowing that a set is closed under operation is helpful
when checking certaincomputations.For example, consider the set of all even whole
numbers, {0, 2, 4, …},and the set of all odd whole numbers, {1, 3, 5, …}.The set of even
numbers is closed under addition since the sum of two even numbers is even.Therefore, if
one is adding a collection of even numbers andobtainan odd sum, an error has been made.
The set of odd numbers is not closed under addition since the sum of 1 + 3 is not an odd
number.

Many children learn how to add by“counting on.”For example, to find 9 + 1, a

child will count on 1 more from 9, that is, “nine, then ten.”However, if asked to find 1 +
9, a child might say “1, then 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.”Not only is this inefficient, but the
child might lose track of counting on 9 more from 1. The fact that 1 + 9 = 9 + 1 is useful
in simplifying this computation and is an instance of the following property.

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 Commutative Property for Whole-Number Addition

Let a and b be any whole numbers.Then,

a+b=b+a

Note that the root word of commutative is commute, which means“to

interchange.” Suppose that a child knows all the addition facts through the fives, but
wants to find 6 + 3. A simple way to do this is to rewrite 6 + 3 as 5 + 4 by taking1from 6
and adding it to 3.Since the sum of 5 + 4 is known to be 9, the sum of 6 + 3 is 9, too. In
summary, this argument shows that 6 + 3 can be thought of as 5 + 4 by following
thereasoning:6 + 3 = (5 + 1) + 3 = 5 + (1 + 3) = 5 + 4.The next property is most useful in
simplifying computations in this way.

Associative Property for Whole-Number Addition

Let a, b, and c be any whole numbers. Then,

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

The root word for associative is associate, which means to “unite,” or, in this case,
reunite.”

Identity Property for Whole-Number Addition

There is a unique whole number, namely 0, such that for all whole numbers a,

a + 0 = a = 0 + a.

Because of this property, zero is called the additive identity or the identity for addition

The previous properties can be applied to help simplify computations. They are
especially useful in learning the basic addition facts (that is, all possible sums of the
digits 0to 9). Although drilling with flashcardsor similar electronic devices helps learn
the facts, an introduction to learning the facts via the following thinking strategies will
pay rich dividends later as students learn to performmulti-digit addition mentally.

2. Subtraction

2.1 The TakeAway Approach. There are two distinct approaches to subtraction. The
takeaway approach is often used to introduce children to the concept of subtraction. The
problem “If you have 5 coins and spend 2, how many do you have left?” can be solved
with a set of a model using take away approach. Also, the problem ”If you walk 5 miles
from home and turn back to walk 2 miles toward home, how many miles are you from
home?” can be solved with a measurement model using the take away approach.

This approach can be stated using sets.

2.2 Subtraction ofWhole Numbers: Take AwayApproach

Let a and b be any whole numbers and A and B be sets such that a = n(A), b =
n(B) and B󠄇⊆ A. Then

a - b = n(A -B)

39
 Thenumber “a – b”is called the difference, where a is called the minuend and b
the subtrahend.To find 7 – 3 using sets, think of a set with 7 elements, say {a, b, c, d, e, f,
g}. Touse set difference, take away a subset of3 elements, say {a, b, c}.The result is the
set {d, e, f, g}, so 7 – 3 = 4.

2.3 The Missing Addend Approach

The second method of subtraction, which is called the missing addend approach,
is often used when making change. For example, if an itemcosts 76 cents and 1 peso is
tendered, a clerk will often hand back the change by adding up and saying“76 plus 4 is
80, and 20 is a peso” as 4 coinsand 2 cents are returned.

2.4 Subtraction of Whole Numbers: Missing Addend Approach

Let a and b be any whole numbers.Then, a – b = c, if and only ifa = b + c for some
whole numbersc.
In this alternative definition of subtraction, c is called the missing addend. The
missing addendapproach to subtraction is very useful for learning subtraction facts
because it shows how to relate them to the addition of facts via four-fact families.
Notice that this alternative definition of subtraction does not guarantee that there
is an answer for every whole number subtractionproblem.For example, there is no whole
number c such that 3=4 + c so the problem 3 – 4 has nowhole number answer.Another
way of expressing this idea the set of whole numbers is not closed under subtraction.

Finally, thereason for learning to add and subtract is to be able to solve problems. In
particular, it is crucial to decide which operations to use in solving a problem. Consider
the problem “If Larry has 7pesosand Judy has 3pesos,how much more money does Larry
have?” Neither the take away approach nor the missing addend approach can be applied
literally since Judy’s 3 pesosis not a subset of Larry’s 7 pesos. However, Judy’s 3
pesoscan be matched with three of Larry’s 7 pesos, leaving a difference of 4. This
approach tosubtraction is called the comparison approach. In this approach, we begin
with two distinct sets. Then we matchthe elements of the setshaving fewer elements witha
subset of thelarger set and use either the take away or missing addend approachto find the
difference. We can solvethe preceding problemby rephrasing it in missing addend format.
3 + c = 7 so 7 – 3 = 4

3. Multiplication

Multiplication and Its Properties

There are many ways to view multiplication.

3.1 Repeated Addition Approach. Consider the following problems: There are five
children, and each has three one peso coin. How many peso coindo they have altogether?
The peso coinare about 1 inch wide. If the peso coinare laid in a single row with each
peso cointouching the next, what is the length of the row? These problems can be
modeled using the set model and the measurement model.
(For better understanding, the model will be presented thru a PowerPoint
Presentation)
These models look similar to the ones that we used for addition, since we are
merely adding repeatedly. They show that 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 15, or 5 × 3 = 15.

40
3.2 Multiplication of Whole Numbers: Repeated Addition Approach

Let a and b be any whole numbers, where a ≠0, then

ab = b + b+ . . . + b

If a = 1, then ab = 1 ⸱ b = b; also 0 ⸱b = 0 for all b .

Since multiplication combines two numbers to form a single number, it is a binary

operation. The number ab is called the product of a and b. The numbers a and b are called
factors of ab.

Rectangular Array Approach. If the one peso coinin the preceding problem are arranged
in a rectangular array, multiplication can be viewed in a slightly different way

3.3 Multiplication of Whole Numbers: Rectangular Array Approach

Let a and bbe any whole numbers.Then ab is the number of elements in a

rectangular array having a rows and b columns.

3.4 Multiplication of Whole Numbers: Cartesian Product Approach

Let a and b be any whole numbers. If a = n(A) and b = n(B), then

Ab = n(A × B).

For example, to compute 2 ⸱ 3, let 2 = n({a, b)} and 3 = n(x, y, z}). Then 2⸱3 is the
number of ordered pairs in {a, b} × {x, y, z}. Because {a, b} ×{x, y, z} = {(a, x), (a, y),
(a, z), (b, x), (b, y), (b, z)} has 6 ordered pairs, we conclude that 2⸱3 = 6.

3.5 Properties of Whole Number Multiplication

You have probably observed that whenever you multiply any two whole numbers,
your product is always a whole number. Thefact is summarized by the following
property.

Closure Property for Multiplication of Whole Numbers

The product of two whole numbers is a whole number.

When two odd whole numbers are multiplied together, the product is odd; thus,
the set of odd numbers is closed under multiplication. Closure is a useful idea. If we
multiply two (or more) odd numbers and the product we calculate is even, we can
conclude that our product is incorrect. The set {2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …}is not closed under
multiplication, since 2 ⸱ 5 = 10 is not in the set.

The next property can be used to simplify learning the basic multiplication
facts.For example, by the repeated addition approach, 7 × 2 represents 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
2 + 2, whereas 2 × 7 means 7 + 7.Since 7 + 7 has been learned as an addition fact,
viewing 7 × 2 as 2 ×7 makes this computation easier.

Commutative Property for Whole -Number Multiplication

Let a and b be any whole numbers. Then,

ab = ba

41
 The example in the figure belowshould convince you that the commutative
property for multiplication is true.

3 columns

5
rows

The product 5 ⸱ (2 ⸱ 13) is more easily found if it is viewed as (5 ⸱ 2) ⸱ 13.

Regrouping to put the 5 and 2 together can be done because of the next property.
5 columns
Associative Property for Whole-
Number Multiplication
3 rows
Let a, b, and c be any whole numbers. Then,

a(bc) = (ab)c

Identity Property for Whole-Number Multiplication

The number 1 is the uniquewholenumber such that for every whole number a,

a ⸱ 1 = a = 1 ⸱ a.

Because of this property, the number 1 is called the multiplicative identity or the
identity for multiplication

Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition

Let a, b, and c be any whole numbers. Then,

a(b + c) = ab + bc

Because of commutativity, we can also write (b + c) a = ba + ca. Notice that

distributive property “distributes” the a to b and to c.

Example 1. Rewrite each of the following expressions using the distributive property.
1. 3(4 + 5)
2. 5 ⸱ 7 + 5 ⸱ 3
3. am + an
4. 31 ⸱ 76 + 29 ⸱ 76
5. a(b + c + d)

Solution
1. 3(4 + 5) = 3 ⸱ 4+ 3 ⸱ 5
2. 5 ⸱ 7 +5 ⸱ 3 = 5(7 + 3)
3. am + an = a(m + n)
4. 31 ⸱ 76 + 29 ⸱ 76 = (31 + 29)76

42
 5. a(b + c + d) =ab + ac + ad

Let’s summarize the properties of whole-number addition and multiplication.

Whole-Number Properties

Property Addition Multiplication

Closure Yes Yes
Commutativity Yes Yes
Associativity Yes (zero) Yes(one)
Identity Yes Yes
Distributivity of multiplication
over addition Yes

In addition to these properties, we highlight the following properties:

Multiplication Property of Zero

For every whole number, a,

a⸱0=0⸱a=0

Using the missing addendapproach to subtraction, we will show that a(b–c) = ab–
acis a whole number.In words, multiplication distributes over subtraction.

Distributivity of Multiplication over Subtraction

Let a,b, and c be any whole numbers where b ≥ c.Then,

a(b – c) = ab + ac

4. Division

Just as with addition, subtraction, and multiplication, we can view division in

different ways.

4.1 Division of Whole Numbers: Missing -Factor Approach

If a and b are any whole numbers with b ≠ 0, then a ÷ b = c, if and only if, a = bc
for some whole number c.

The symbol a ÷ b is read “a divided by b.” Also, a is called the dividend, b is

called the divisor, and c is called the quotient or missing factor.

Example 2. Find the quotients of the following:

1. 24 ÷ 8
2. 72 ÷ 9
3. 52 ÷ 4
4. 0 ÷ 7

Solution
1. 24 ÷ 8 = 3, since 24 = 8 × 3
2. 72 ÷ 9 = 8, since 72 = 9 × 8
3. 52 ÷ 4 = 13, since 52= 4 × 13
4. 0 ÷ 7 = 0, since 0 = 7 × 0

4.2 Division Property of Zero

43
 If a ≠ 0, then 0 ÷ a = 0.
Next, consider the situation of dividing by zero. Suppose that we extend the
missing factor approach of division to dividing by zero. Then we have the following two
cases:
CASE 1:a ÷ 0, where a ≠ 0. If a ÷ 0 =c, then a = 0 ⸱ c, or a = 0. But a ≠ 0.Therefore, a ÷
0 is undefined.
CASE 2: 0 ÷ 0.If 0 ÷ 0 =c , then 0 = 0⸱ c.But any value can be selected for c, so there is
no unique answer c. Thus, division by zero is said to be indeterminate, or undefined
here.These two cases are summarized in the following statements.

Division by zero is undefined

4.3 The Division Algorithm

If a and b are any whole numbers with b ≠ 0, then there exists unique whole number q
and r such that
a = bq + r, where 0 ≤ r ˂ b.

Here, b is called the divisor, q is called the quotient, and r is the remainder. Notice
that the remainder is always less than the divisor. Also, when the remainder is 0, this
result coincides with the usual definition of whole number division.

Example 3. Find the quotient and remainder of these problems.

1. 57 ÷ 9
2. 44 ÷ 13
3. 96 ÷ 8
Solution
1. 9 × 6 = 54, so 57 = 6× 9 + 3.The quotient is 6 and the remainder is 3.
2. 13 × 3 =39, so 44 = 3× 13 + 5.The quotient is 3 and the remainder is 5.
3. 8 × 12 = 96, so 96 = 12× 8 + 0.The quotient is 12 and the remainder is 0

B. Ordering and Whole-Number Operations

“Less Than”for Whole Numbers

For any two whole numbers a and b, a ˂ b (or b ˃ a), if and only if, there is a
nonzero whole number n such that a + n = b

For example, 7 ˂ 9 since 7 + 2 = 9 and 13 ˃ 8 since 8 + 5 = 13. The symbols

“≤and ≥” means “less than or equal to” and “greater than or equal to,” respectively.One
useful property of“less than”is the transitive property.

Transitive Property of “Less Than”for Whole Numbers

44
 For all whole numbers a, b, and c, if a ˂ b and b ˂ c, then a ˂ c.

The following is a more formal argument to verify the transitive property.It uses
the definition of“less than” involving addition.

a ˂ b means a + n = b for some nonzero whole number n.

b ˂ c means b + m = c for some nonzero whole number m.

Adding m to a + n and b, we obtain

a+n+m=b+m

Thus, a + n + m = c since b + m = c

Therefore, a ˂ c since a + (n + m) = c and n + m is a nonzero whole number

Note:The transitive property of“less than” holds trueif “˂” (and “≤”) is replaced
with “greater than” for “˃” (and “≥”) throughout.

There are two additional properties involving“less than.”The first involves

addition (or subtraction).

Less Than and Addition for Whole Numbers

If a ˂ b, then a + c ˂ b + c

Less Than and Multiplication for Whole Numbers

If a ˂ b and c ≠ 0, then ac ˂ bc

C. Exponents

Whole-Number Exponent

Let a and m be any two whole numbers, where m ≠ 0. Then

am = a ⸱ a ⸱ ⸱ ⸱ a

The number m is called the exponent or power of a, and a is called the base.The
number am is read“a to the power m” or “a to the mth power.”
For example, 52, read “5 to the second power” or “5 squared,” is 5 ⸱ 5 = 25; 2 3,
read “2 to the third power” or “2 cubed,”equals 2 ⸱ 2 ⸱ 2 = 8; and 34 = 3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3 = 81.

There are several properties of exponents that permit us to represent numbers and
to do many calculations quickly.

Example 1. Rewrite each of the following expressions using a single exponent.

1. 23 ⸱ 24
2. 35 ⸱ 37

Solution

1. 23 ⸱ 24 = (2 ⸱ 2⸱ 2) (2 ⸱ 2 ⸱ 2 ⸱ 2) = 27
2. 35 ⸱ 37 = (3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3⸱ 3) (3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3 ⸱ 3) = 312

45
 The fact that exponents are added in this way can be shown to be valid in general.
Theresult is stated next as a theorem. A theorem is a statement that can be proved based
on known results.
Theorem:Let a, m, and n be any whole numbers where m and n are nonzero. Then,

am ⸱ an = am + n

Example 2. Rewrite the following expressions using a single exponent

1. 23 ⸱ 53
2. 32 ⸱72 ⸱ 112

Solution

3. 23 ⸱ 53 = (2 ⸱ 2 ⸱ 2) (5⸱ 5 ⸱5) = (2 ⸱ 5) (2 ⸱ 5) (2 ⸱ 5) = (2 ⸱ 5) 3
4. 32 ⸱ 72 ⸱ 112 = (3 ⸱ 3) (7 ⸱ 7) (11 ⸱ 11) = (3 ⸱ 7 ⸱ 11) (3 ⸱ 7 ⸱ 11) = (3 ⸱ 7 ⸱ 11)2

The resultssuggest the following theorem.

Theorem:Let a, b, and m be any whole numbers where m is nonzero. Then,

am ⸱ bm = (ab)m

The next example shows how to simplify expressions of the form (am)n

Example 3. Rewrite the following expressions with a single exponent.

1. (53)2
2. (78)4

Solution

1. (53)2 = 53 ⸱ 53 = 53 + 3 = 56 = 53 ⸱ 2
2. (78)4 = 78 ⸱ 78 ⸱ 78 ⸱ 78 = 732 = 78 ⸱ 4

In general, we have the next theorem:

Theorem:Let a, m, and n be any whole numbers, where m and n are nonzero.

(am)n = amn

The next example concerns the division of numbers involving exponents with the
same base number.

Example 4. Rewrite the following quotients with a single exponent.

1. 57÷ 53
2. 78 ÷ 75

Solution
1. 57 ÷ 53 = 57 – 3 =54
2. 78 ÷ 75 = 78 – 5 = 73

In general, we have the following result.

Theorem:Let a, m, and n be any whole numbers, where m ˃ n and a is nonzero.

Then

46
 a m ÷ an = a m – n

Zero as an Exponent a0 = 1 for all whole numbers a ≠ 0.

Notice that 00 is not defined. To see why, consider the following two patterns.

PATTERN 1 PATTERN 2
30 = 1 03 = 0
20 = 1 02 = 0
10 = 1 01 = 0
00= ? 00= ?

Pattern 1 suggests that 00 should be 1 and pattern 2 suggests that 00 should be 0.

Thus to avoid such an inconsistency, 00 is undefined.

D. Patterns

Patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. A pattern of

numberin a particular order is called a number sequence, and the individual numbers in
the sequence are called terms of the sequence. The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, …give
rise to manysequences.Here are someof the sequences that arise from counting numbers.

Sequence Name
2, 4, 6, 8. … The even (counting) numbers
1, 3, 5, 7, … The odd (counting) numbers
1, 4, 9. 16, … The square (counting) numbers
30, 31, 32, 33, … The powers of three
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, … The Fibonacci sequence

Inductive reasoning is used to draw conclusions or make predictions about a large

collection of objects or numbers, based onsmall representative sub-collection.For
example, inductive reasoning can be used to find the ones digit of the 400 th term of
sequence 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, … By continuing this sequence for a few more terms 28, 32,
36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56, 60, 64, one can observe that the ones digit of every 5 th term starting
with term 24 is 4. Thus, the ones digit of the 400th term must be 4.

Example. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following:
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, _____
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, _____

Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 largerthan the precedingnumber. Thus, we predict
that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and third numbers differ by three.It
appears that the difference between the two numbers is always one more than
thepreceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differs by 5, we predict that the next
number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

After knowing the important

concepts about numbers. Let us
move to measurement!

47
 Measurement
The measurement process allows us to analyze geometric figures using real
numbers. For example, suppose that we use a sphere to model the earth. Then we can ask
many questions about the sphere, such as “How far is it around the equator? How much
surface area does it have? How much space does it take up?” Questions such as these can
lead us to the study of the measurement of length, area, and volume of geometric figures,
as well as other attributes.

Measurement with Nonstandard and Standard Units

Nonstandard Units

The measurement process is defined as follows:

1. Select an object and an attribute of the object to measure, such as its length, area,
volume, weight, or temperature.
2. Select an appropriate unit with which to measure the attribute.
3. Determine the number of units needed to measure the attribute. (This may require
a measurement device.)

For example, to measure the length of an object, wemaysee how many times
ourhandswill span the object. For measuring longer distances, we might use the length of
our feet placed heel to toe or our pace as a unit of measurement. For shorter distances, we
might use the width of a finger asa unit.Regardless, in every case, we can select some
appropriate unit and determine how many units are needed to span the object.This is an
informal measurement method of measuring length since it involves naturally occurring
units and is done in a relatively imprecise way.

To measure the area of a region informally, we select a convenienttwo-

dimensionalshape as our unit and determine how many such units are needed to cover the
region. For our example,how to measure the area of a rectangular rug, using square floor
tiles as the unit of measure.By counting the number of squares inside the rectangular
border and estimating the fractional parts of the other squares that are partly inside the
border we can determine the area of the rug.

Measurement using nonstandard units is adequate for many needs, particularly when
accuracy is not essential. However, there are many other circumstances when we need to
determine measurements more precisely and communicate them to others. That is, we
need standard measurement units.

Standard Units

The English System.The EnglishSystemof units arose from natural, nonstandard

units. For example, the foot was literally the length of a human foot and the yard was the
distance from the tip of the nose to the end of theoutstretched arm (useful in measuring
cloth or“yard goods”).The inch was the length of three barleycorns, the fathom was the
length of a full arm span (for measuring rope), and the acre was the amount of land that a
horse could plow in one day.

Length. The natural English units were standardized so that the foot was defined
1
by a prototype metal bar, and the inch defined as of a foot, the yard the length of 3
12
48
feet, and so on for other lengths. A variety of ratios occur among the English units of
length. For example, the ratio of inches to feet is12:1, of feet to yards is 3:1, of yards to
1
rods is 5 :1, and of furlongs to miles is 8:1. A considerable amount of memorization is
12
needed in learning the English system of measurement.

Area.Area is measured in the English system using the square foot (written ft 2) as
the fundamental unit.That is, to measure the area of a region, the number of squares, 1
foot on a side, that are needed to cover the region is determined.This is an application of
tessellating the plane with squares. Other polygons could be used as fundamental units of
area. For example, a right triangle, an equilateral triangle, or a regular hexagon could also
be used as a fundamental unit of area. For the large region,square yards are used to
measure areas, and for very large regions, acres and square miles are used to measure
areas.

Unit Multiple of 1 Square Foot

Square inch 1/144 ft2
Square foot 1 ft2
Square yard 9 ft2
Acre 43 560 ft2
Square mile 27 878 400 ft2

Volume.In the English system, the volume is measured using the cubic foot as the
fundamental unit. To find the volume of a cubical box that is 3 feet on each side, imagine
stacking as many cubic feet inside the box as possible.The box could be filled with 3 × 3
× 3 = 27 cubes, each measuring 1 foot on an edge. Each of the smaller cubes has a
volume of 1 cubic foot (written ft 3) so that the larger cube has a volume of 27 ft 3.The
larger cube is, of course, 1 cubic yard (1yd3).It is common for topsoil and concrete to be
sold by the cubic yard, for example. In the English system, we have several cubic units
used for measuring volume.

Unit Fraction or Multiple of a

Cubic Foot
Cubic inch (1 in3) 1/ 1 728ft3
Cubic foot 1 ft3
Cubic yard(yd3) 27 ft3

Weight.In the English system, weight is measured in pounds and ounces. There
are two types of measures of weight– troy ounceand pounds (mainly for precious metals),
and avoirdupois ounces and pounds, the latter being more common. We will use
avoirdupois units. The weight of2,000pounds is 1 English ton. Smaller weights are
measured in grams and grains.

English System units of Weight (Avoirdupois)

Technically, the concepts of weight and mass are different. Informally, mass is
the measure of the amount of matter of an object and weight is a measure of the force
with which gravity attracts the object.Thus, although your mass is the same on Earth and
on the Moon, you weigh more on Earth because the attraction of gravity is greater on
Earth. We will not make a distinction between weight and mass. We will usethe English
units of weight and metric units of mass, both of which are used to weigh objects.

49
 Temperature. Temperature is measured in degrees Fahrenheit in the English
system. The Fahrenheit temperature scale is named for Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German
instrument maker, who invented the mercury thermometer in 1714. The freezing point
and the boiling point of water are used as reference temperatures.The freezing point is
arbitrarily defined to be 32˚ Fahrenheit and the boiling point 212 ˚ Fahrenheit. This gives
an interval of exactly 180˚ from freezing to boiling.

THE METRIC SYSTEM In contrast to the English system of measurement

units, the metric system of units (or SystemeInternationa d’ Unites) incorporates all of the
following features of an ideal system of units.

An Ideal System of Units

1. The fundamental unit can be accurately reproduced without reference to a

prototype.
2. There are simple (e.g.,decimal) ratios among units of the same type.
(Convertibility).
3. Different types of units (e.g.,those for length, area, and volume) are defined in
terms of each other, using simple relationships. (Interrelatedness)

1
Length.In the metric system, the fundamental unit of length is the meter (about 39
2
inches). The meterwas originally defined to be a one-tenth millionth of the distance from
the equator to the North Pole along the Greenwich-through-Paris meridian. A prototype
platinum-iridium bar representing a meter was maintained in the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures in France. However, in science, this definition was changed so
that the meter could be reproduced anywhere in the world. Since 1960, the meter has
been defined to be precisely1, 650, 763 .73 wavelengths of orange-red light in the
spectrum of the element Krypton 86. Although this definition may seem highly technical,
it has the advantage of being reproducible in a laboratory anywhere. That is, no standard
meter prototype needsto be kept. This is a clear advantage over older versions of the
English system. We shall see that there are many more.

The metric system is a decimal system of measurement in which multiples and

fractions of the fundamental unit correspond to powers of ten. For example, one thousand
meters is a kilometer, one-tenth of a meter is a decimeter, one-hundredth of a meter is a
centimeter, and one-thousandth of a meter is a millimeter.

Unit Symbol Fraction or Multiple of 1 Meter

1 millimeter 1 mm 0.001 m
1 centimeter 1 cm 0.01 m
1 decimeter 1 dm 0.1 m
1 meter 1m 1m
1 dekameter 1 dam 10 m
I hectometer 1 hm 100 m
11 kilometer 1 km 1 000 m

Area.In the metric,the fundamental unit of area is the square meter. A square that
is 1 meter long on each side has an area of 1 square meter, written 1 m 2.Areas measured
in square feet or square yards in the English system are measured in square meters in the
metric system.

Smaller areas are measured in a square centimeter. A square centimeter is the area
of a square that is 1 centimeter long on each side. Very smaller areas, such as on a

50
microscope slide, are measured using square millimeters. A square millimeter is the area
of the square whose sides are each 1 millimeter long.

In the metric system, the area of a square that is 10 m on each side is given the
special name are (pronounced “air”). An are is approximately the area of the floor of a
large two-car garage and is a convenient unit for measuring the area of building lots.
There are 100 m2 in 1 are.

An area equivalent to 100 ares is called a hectare, written as 1 ha. Notice the use
of the prefix “hect” (meaning 100). The hectare is useful for measuring areas of farms
and ranches. We can show that 1 hectare is 1 square hectometer by converting each to
square meters, as follows:

ha = 100ares =100 × (100 m2) = 10 000 m2

Also,
hm2 = (100m) (100m) = 10 000 m2
Thus, 1 ha= 1hm2

Finally, very large areas are measured in the metric system using square
kilometers. One square kilometer is the area of a square that is 1kilometer on each side.
Areas of cities or states, for example, are reported in square kilometers

Unit Abbreviation Fraction or Multiple of 1 m2

Square millimeter mm2 0.000001 m2
Square centimeter cm2 0.0001 m2
Square decimeter dm2 0.01 m2
Square meter m2 1 m2
Are(Square dekameter) a (dam2) 100 m2
Hectare(Square hectometer) ha (hm2) 10 000 m2
Square kilometer km2 1 000 000 m2

Volume.The fundamental unit of volume in the metric system is the liter. A liter,
abbreviated L, is the volume of a cube that measures 10 cm on each edge. We can also
say that a liter is 1 cubic decimetre since the cube is measured1 dm on each side. Notice
that the liter is defined with reference to the meter, which is the fundamental unit of
length. The liter is slightly larger than a quart. Volume in the metric system can also be
measured using cubic centimeter, cubic milliliter, and cubic meter

Unit Abbreviation Fraction or Multiple of 1

Litre
Milliliter mL (cm3) 0.001L
Litre (cubic decimeter) L (dm3) 1L
Kilolitre (cubic meter) kL (m3) 1 000 L

In the metric system, capacity is usually recorded in liters, milliliters, and so

on.We can make conversions among metric volume units usinga metric converter.

Mass.In the metric system, a basic unit of mass is the kilogram. One kilogram is
the mass of 1 liter of water in its densest state. (Water expands and contracts somewhat
when heated or cooled.) A kilogram is about 2.2 pounds in the English system. Notice
that kilogram is defined with reference to the liter, which in turn,is defined relative to the
meter.

Temperature.In the metric system, the temperature is measured in degrees

Celsius. The Celsius scale is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who
devised it in 1742. The scale was originally called “centigrade.” Two reference
temperatures are used, the freezing point of water and the boiling point of water. These
51
are defined to be, respectively, zero degrees Celsius (0˚C) and 100 degrees Celsius
(100˚C). A metric thermometer is made by dividing the interval from freezing to boiling
into100 degrees Celsius.

Example 1
1 Derive a conversion formula for degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.
2 Convert 37˚C to degrees Fahrenheit.
3 Convert 68˚F to degrees Celsius.

Solution
1. Suppose that C represents a Celsius temperature and F the equivalent Fahrenheit
temperature.Since there are 100˚Celsius for each 180˚ Fahrenheit, there is 1˚C for
each 1.8˚F. If C is thetemperature above freezing, then the equivalent Fahrenheit
temperature, F, is 1.8˚C degreesabove 32˚ Fahrenheit, or 1.8˚C + 32. Thus 1.8˚C
+ 32 = F is the desired formula. (Thisalso applies tothe temperatureat freezing or
below, hence to all temperatures.)
2. Using 1.8˚C + 32 = ˚F, we have 1.8 (37) + 32 = 98.6˚ F,which is normal human
body temperature.
F−32
3. Using 1.8˚C + 32 = ˚F and solving ˚C, we find ˚C = . Hence,the room
1.8
68−32
temperature of 68˚F is equivalent to C = = 20˚ C.
1.8

Dimensional Analysis

When working with two (or more) systems of measurement, there are many
circumstances requiring conversions among units. The procedure known as dimensional
analysis can help simplify the conversion. In dimensional analysis, we use unit ratios that
are equivalent to 1 and treat these ratios as fractions. For example, suppose that we wish
¿
to convert 17 feet to inches. We use the unit ratio 1 ft (which is 1) to perform the
conversion.
12 ¿
17 ft = 17 ft × 17 ft = 17 ft × 1 ft
❑
= 17 × 12 in
= 204 in.

Hence, a length of 17 ft is the same as 204 inches. Dimensional analysis is

especially useful if several conversions must be made.

Example 2.A vase holds 4, 286 grams of water. What is the capacity in liters?

Solution
Since 1 mL of water weighs 1 gm and 1 L = 1 000 mL, we have

1mL 1L
4286 g = 4 286 g × ×
1g 1000 mL

4 286 L
= = 4.286 L
1 000

Example3. The area of a rectangular lot is 25 375 ft 2.What is the area of the lot in acres?
Use the fact that 640 acres = 1mi2.
2
❑
mi 640 acres
Solution 25 375 ft2 = 25 375 ft2 × 1 × 2 × 2
❑ 27 878 400 ft 1 mi

52
 ❑ 25 375× 640 acres
=❑ = = =
❑ 27 878 400
0.58 acres

1
Example 4.A pole vaulter vaulted 19 ft 4 in. Find the height in meters.
2
Solution
19 ft and 4.5 in = 232.5 in.

2.54 cm 1m
= 232.5 in × ×
1∈¿¿ 100 cm

232.5× 2.54 m
= = 5.9055 m
100 m

Example 5.Suppose that a bullet train is traveling 200mi/h.How many feet per second is
it traveling?
Solution
200 mi 200 mi 5280 ft 1h
= × ×
h h 1 mi 3600 s

200× 5280 ft
= = 293.33fps
3600 s

The density of a substance is the ratio of its mass to its volume:

Mass
Density =
Volume

Let us have a short throwback,

when you are in elementary, how
do you define shape? What is
your favorite shape?

Space and Shapes

Plane Figures
Perimeter.The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of its sides. Peri
means “around” and meter represent “measure;”hence perimeter literally means“the
measure around.” Perimeter formulas can be developed for some common quadrilaterals.
A square and a rhombus both have four sides of equal length. If one side is of length s,
then the perimeter of each of them can be represented by 4s.
In rectangles and parallelograms, pairs of opposite sides are congruent. Ifthe
lengths of their sides are a and b,then the perimeter of a rectangle or a parallelogram is 2a
+ 2b.
Perimeters of Common Quadrilaterals
FIGURE Perimeter
53
Square with sides of length s 4s
Rhombus with sides of length s 4s
Rectangle with sides of lengths a and b 2a + 2b
Parallelogram with sides of lengths a and b 2a + 2b
Kite with sides of lengths a and b 2a + 2b

Example 1.Find the perimeters of the following figures.

a. Atriangle with the lengths of 5 cm, 7 cm, and 9 cm on its sides.
b. A square with a length of 8 ft on each side.
c. A rectangle with a length of 9mm on one side and 5 mm on another side.
d. A rhombus with a length of 7 in on one of its sides.
e. A parallelogram with a length of 7.3 cm and 9.4 cm on its sides.
f. A kite whose shorter sides are 2.5 yds and whose longer sidesare 6.5 yds.
g. A trapezoid with lengths of 13.5 ft and 7.9 ft on its bases and 4.7 ft and 8.3 ft on
its sides.
Solution
a. P = 5 cm + 7 cm + 9 cm = 21 cm
b. P = 4 × 8 ft = 32 ft
c. P = 2(9 mm) + 2(5mm) = 28 mm
d. P = 4 × 7 in = 28 in.
e. P = 2(7.3cm) + 2 (9.4 cm) = 33.4 cm
f. P = 2(2.5 yd) + 2(6.5yd) = 18 yd
g. P = 13.5 ft + 7.9 ft + 4.7 ft + 8.3 ft = 34.4 ft.

Circumference The “perimeter”of a circle, namely the length of the circle, is

given the special name circumference. In every circle, the ratio of the circumference (C)
to the diameter (d), namely C/d, is a constant calledπ (the Greek letter“pi”).We can
approximate π by measuring the circumferences and diameters of several cylindrical
cans, then averaging the ratios of circumference to diameter.

Distances in a Circle
Let r, d, and C be the radius, diameter, and circumference of a circle, respectively.
Ten d = 2r and
C= πd = 2πr.

Area
RECTANGLES
To determine the area of a two-dimensional figure, we imagine the interior of the
figure completely filled with square regions called square units. To find the area of a
rectangle whose sides have whole numberlengths,we determine the number of unit
squares needed to fill the rectangle.

Area of a Rectangle.The area A of a rectangle with perpendicular sides of lengths a and

b is

Area of a Square.The area A of a square whose sidesof length s is

Triangles.The formula for the area of a triangle can also be determined from the
area of a rectangle. Consider first a right triangle ∆ABC. Construct rectangle ABDC
where ∆DCB is a copy of ∆ABC. The area of rectangle ABDC is bh, and the area of
1
∆ABC is one-half the area of the rectangle. Hence, the area of ∆ABC = bh.
2

Area of a Triangle.The area A of a triangle with a base of length b and corresponding

height h is

54
Area of a Parallelogram.The area A of a parallelogram with base b and height h is

Area of a Trapezoid.The area A of a trapezoid with parallel sides of lengths a and b and
height h is

Area of a Circle.The area A of a circle with radius r is

The Pythagorean Theorem.The Pythagorean theorem, perhaps the most

spectacular result in geometry, relates the lengths of the sides in a right triangle;the
longest side is called the hypotenuse and the other two sides are called legs. The
Pythagoreantheorem states that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the two legs.

In a right triangle, if the legs have lengths a and b and the hypotenuse has length c, then
c2 = a2 + b2

Volume and Surface Area

The volume of a three-dimensional figure is a measure of the amount of space that it
occupies.
Volume andSurface Area of aBox (Prism)
The volume (V) of a right rectangular prism whose dimensions are l = length, w = width,
and h = height is
V = lwh S = 2lw + 2lh + 2 hw
If the prism is a cube with edges
V = s3 S = 6s2
Example1. Find the volume (V) and the surface area of a box with the following
dimensions: l = 14 cm, w = 7 cm, and h = 5 cm.
Solution
To find the volume, use the formula V = lwh
V = 14 cm × 7 cm × 5 cm
= 490 cm3
To find the surface area, use the formula S = 2lw + 2 lh + 2 hw
S = 2(14)(7) + 2(14) ( 5) + 2 (5)(7 )
= 406 cm2
Volume andSurface Area of a Right Circular Cylinder
Ifa right circular cylinder hasheight h and radiusof its baseequal to r,then the
volume(V) and thesurface area (S) are given by theformulas
V = πr2h and S = 2πrh + 2πr2
Inthe formula forS,the areas of the top and bottomare included

Example 2.Theright circular cylinder has a surface area of 288πsquare inches, and the
radius ofits base is 6 inches.
55
 a. Find the height of the cylinder.
b. Find the volume of the cylinder.
Solution
a. Since we know that S = 288π and r = 6, substitute into the formula for surface
area to find h.

S = 2πrh + 2πr2
288π = 2π(6)h + 2π(6)2
288π = 12πh + 72π
216π = 12πh Subtract 72π
h = 18 Divide by 12π
The height is 18 inches

b. Use the formula for volume, with r = 6 and h = 18

V = πr2h = π(6)2(18) = 648π

The exact volume is 648π cubic inches, or approximately 2, 034.72 cubic inches using π
= 3.14.

The three-dimensional analogof a circle is a sphere. It is defined by replacing the word

“plane” with “space” inthe definition of a circle.

Volume and Surface Area of a Sphere

If a sphere has a radius (r), then the volume (V) and the surface area (S) are given by the
formulas

4 3
V= πr and S = 4πr2
3

Example 3.Suppose that a spherical tank having a radius of 3 meters can be filled with
liquid fuel for Php. 200.00 .How much will it cost tofill a spherical tank with a radius of 6
meters with the same fuel?

Solution
We mustfirst find the volume of thetankwith a radius of 3meters. Call it V1,
4
V = πr3
3

4
V1 = π (3 )3 = 36π
3

Now find V2, the volume of the tank having radius 6 meters.

4
V2 = π (6)3 = 288π
3

Notice that doubling the radius of the sphere from 3 meters to 6 meters, the volume has
increased 8 times, since
V2 = 288π = 8V1 = 8(36π)

Therefore, the cost to fill the larger tank is 8 times the cost to fill the smaller one:

8(Php. 200.00 ) = Php. 1 600.00

56
Volume and Surface Area of a Right Circular Cone

Ifa right circular cone has height h and the radius ofitscircular base is (r), then thevolume
(V) and the surface area (S) are given by the formulas

1 2
V= πr h and S = πr√ r 2 +h2 +¿πr 2
3

In the formula for S, the area of the bottom is included.

A pyramid isa space figurehaving a polygonal base and triangular sides

Volume of a Pyramid
If B represents the area of the base of a pyramid, and hrepresents the height (that
is, the perpendicular distance from the top, or apex, tothe base), then volume (V) is given
by the formula
Example4. What is the ratio of the volume of a right circular cone with a radius of the
base (r) and height (h) to the volume of a pyramid having a square base, with each side of
length r, and height h?
Solution
Usingthe formula for the volume of a cone, we have
1
V1 = volume of a cone = πr2h.
3
Since thepyramid has a square base, the area B of itsbase is r 2. Usingthe formula for the
volume of a pyramid, we get
1 1
V2 = Volume of the pyramid = Bh = r2h
3 3
The ratio of thefirst volume to the second is
1 2
πr h
V1 3
= =π
V2 1 2
r h
3

Do you love pie graph? Nah, because

the only thing I know is that I love egg
pie. Just kidding! Because in this part,
we will talk about data handling.

Data Handling

57
Elementary Statistical Concepts
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization,
tabulation and presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data. It also deals with drawing
conclusions about a population from the knowledge of the properties of a smaller group
which is deemed representative of the population.
Statisticsis a process ofutilizingdata to makesound conclusions. The two broad
areas of statistics are descriptive and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics refers to the process that is used in presenting describing

data.

Inferential statistics refers to the process of making inferences about a large

group, called population, based on observations of a smaller group which is deemed
representative of the population called a sample.

A population consists of all the subjects (people, objects, events) that are being
studied. A sample refers to a group of subjects selected from a population of interest.

The numerical value that describes the characteristics of a population is called a

parameter. Any quantity obtained from a sample is called a sample statistic or simply
statistic.

A variable is the thing that we measure, control, or manipulate in research. It is a

characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.

Continuous variables are variables that take any value within a defined range of
values. On the other hand, discrete variables are variables that take countable values only.

Examples of continuous variables are height, weight, distance. Examples of

discrete variables are the size of your family and the number of registered voters.

Independent variables are those that are manipulated whereas dependent variables
are only measured or registered.

Measurement is the systematic assignment of a number of ideas, events, or

objects.

A variate is a value (measure or observation) that a variate can assume.

A datum (plural, data) constitutes the set of information gathered from elements
under investigation.

Data at the nominal level are only qualitative classification. Data are classified
into non-overlapping exhausting categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed.
An example is a gender.

Data at the ordinal level include variables that can be ranked or ordered in terms
of which has less and which has more of the quality represented by the variable.
Examples of ordinal variables are academic awards (Cum Laude, Magna Cum Laude,
Summa Cum Laude) and IQ level.

Data at the interval level take all the properties of ordinal variables and can be
quantified and compared. Interval variables have arbitrary zero values. Example: grading
system in a course.

58
 Data at the ratio level take all the properties of interval level with an identifiable
absolute zero point. Measurements of heights, weights, and ages appropriately use the
ratio scale.

Collecting Data

Sampling and Sampling Technique.The process of obtaining samples is called

sampling. Random or probability sampling is a method by which every element of a
population has an equal chance of being included in a sample.

Most often, a researcher is confronted with a problem of gathering data from a

population. If material constraints dictate that a sample or a group of samples will suffice,
the problem is narrowed down to the choice of sampling technique and simple random
sampling. Under the concept of randomness, each member of the population has an
equally likely chance to be included in the sample gathered. There are various techniques
for gathering a random sample, the most common of which is through a lottery or through
a table of random numbers. A variation of this technique is collecting a stratified random
sample. The technique ensures in advance that as ample will contain the same proportion
of members of different groups as are in the larger populations. Other examples of
sampling techniques are quota sampling and multistage sampling.

Methods of Data Collection

Primary data – refer to information thatis gathered directly from an original source or
which the researcher gathered himself.
1. Direct or interview method
2. Indirect or questionnaire method
3. Registration method
4. Observation
5. Experimentation

Secondary data- refer to information thatis taken from published or unpublished data
previously gathered by other individuals or agencies.
1. Journals and periodicals
2. Newspapers
3. Tables
4. Unpublished or published research papers
5. Theses and dissertations

Data Presentation

Presenting data as pictures or graphics is sometimes more appealing than using

texts. Graphs give a more comprehensive but plain view of the numerical relationships
even without going into the longer time of reading discussions.

A frequency distribution table or simply frequency distribution is a listing of data

that pairs each entry in the list with the number of times it occurs.

Example 1.Belowis a list of scoresof students in Math examination arrangedfrom lowest

to highest.

16 18 20 20 21 21 22 23 23 24 25
25 26 26 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 29
30 30 31 31 31 32 33 33 33 34 34
34 34 35 35 35 35 35 36 37 37 38
59
 39 39 40 41 42 42 43 43 44 45 47

A grouped frequency distribution of the scores is shown on the table shown on the
next page. Observe that the table provides the reader with an easier way to analyze and
describe the data. However, the identity of the individual score is lost due to grouping.
Scores in Math Scores
Scores Frequency
(Class Intervals) (f)
45 – 49 2
40 – 44 7
35 – 39 11
30 – 34 13
25 – 29 12
20 – 24 8
15 – 19 2

There are 7 classes or class intervals in our grouped frequency table. The
scores45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, and 15are called thelower limits while the scores 49, 44, 39,
34, 29, 24, and 19 are called the upper limits. The sizeof the classinterval or the class
width is the number of scores contained in each class. The class width of the table above
is 5. This is obtained by actually counting from the lower limit to the upper limit in every
class interval.

Graphical Presentation

The graphical presentation of data provides you with a picture of the significant
relationships between the facts or data presented. Such relationships are presented with
simplicity for easy comprehension.

Graphs refer to diagrams or drawings which show the successive values of a

changing quantity.

Histogram

The histogram is constructed as a sequence of touching vertical rectangles. Each

rectangle is drawn with a height corresponding to the frequency.

Frequency Polygon

The frequency polygon is a closed figure of n sides constructed by plotting the

class marks versus the frequencies.

Ogive is a line graph obtained by connecting points of intersection between the class
boundaries versus cumulative frequencies ‘less than” or “more than”.

Measures of Central Tendency

Ameasure of central tendencydescribes a set of databy locating the middle region

of the set.The common measures of central tendencyarethe arithmetic mean, the median,
and the mode. Each is an average because each describes the middle region of a data. In a
given situation, it may be more appropriate to use one as compared to the others.

Mean. The mean or arithmetic mean is the most known average. You have encountered it
many times. Instead of calling it mean, you probably called it an average.The arithmetic

60
mean or simply meanfor a set of data orscores, isfound by determiningthe sumof the data
anddividingthis sum by the total number of elements in the set.

Example 1.Five students have scores of 7, 9, 1, 6, and 7. Find the mean.

Solution The arithmetic mean may be obtained by using the formula

Σx 7+9+1+6 +7
Mean = = =6
n 5

In the previous example, there are 5 elements, so n = 5.

Example2. Sarah’s grades last semester are shown in the table.

Sarah’s Grades Last Semester

Course Grade (x) Number xw
of Units
(w)
Math Logic 90 3 270
Math Research 92 5 460
Calculus 88 5 440
English 85 3 255
P. E. 94 3 282
Filipino 90 3 270
Field Study 88 1 88
Personality Education 89 1 89
Total 24 2 154

She computed the mean as follows:

2154
= 89.75
24

Note that Sarah wanted to find the mean of her grades with each grade having a
different weight, unit, or degree of importance. The computed mean is called the
weighted mean and is obtained using this formula.

Σxw
Weighted Mean =
Σw

Where: xis the value of each of thedata

w is the weight for each datum

Example 3.The grouped frequencydistribution of scoresof students in a math

examinationis shown in the following table. Let us getthe midpoint of thelower and upper
limits of a given class interval. Wefind the midpointby gettingone-half of the sum of
theupperand the lowerlimits. Then we multiply each midpoint to each corresponding
frequency.

Scores in Math Frequency(f) Midpoint Fx

Exam (x)
45 – 49 2 47 94
40 – 44 7 42 294
35 – 39 11 37 407
30 – 34 13 32 416
25 – 29 12 27 324
20 – 24 8 22 176

61
 15 – 19 2 17 34
Total 55 1 745

Using the formula for the mean of grouped data

Σfx 1745
Mean for Grouped Data = = = 31.72
n 55

Median.Themedian for a set of data isfound by arrangingthe data insequential

order and finding the middle datum.The median is the measure of central tendency that
gives the middle of a given set of data. It is the number, value, or scoresuch that the
number of data below the median is the same as the number of dataabove the median.

Example 4.Find the median ofthe following set of data: 43, 10, 44, 48, 46.
Solution Arrange the score from lowest to highest or highest to lowest, then find the
middle score.
10 43 44 46 48
The median is 44.

Example 5.Given the following set of data 2.1 6.5 2 2.2 2.4 2.3
Solution Arrange the score from lowest to highest

2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 6.5

The middle scores are 2.2 and 2.3. To get the median, get the average of 2.2 and
2.3.The median is 2.25.

Mode.The mode for a set of data is thenumber, item, orvalue that occurs most frequently.

Example 6. The scores of 5 students on a quiz are 4, 25, 32, 25, and 14. The mode for
these scores is 25 because it occurs twice, whereas each of the other scores occurs only
once.

There can be situations where a set of data has no mode because the values occur
an equal number of times. A set of data can have more than one mode.

Example 7. The result of a quiz in Trigonometry of 5 students is shown below.

43 44 46 48 10

Note that each value appears an equal number of times. Hence,there is no mode in the
given set of data.

Example 8.The contents of the different varieties of bottled water (in mL) are given
below.
250 250 500 500 1000

Observe that 250 and 500 occurwith the same number of times. Thus, there are
two modes in the set of data which are 250 and 500.

Finally, the discussion is over, so let

us answer the activities below. But
class in order not to find it a burden,
my suggestion is that, when you
finish a specific topic, answer the
activity immediately.
62
REFERENCES

Bolanos, A. (1997). Probability and Statistics An Introduction. Rex book Store.

Marcelino, D. D. et. al. (2011). Contemporary Mathematics. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Miller, C. D. et. al. (2004). Mathematical Ideas Expanded Tenth Edition. Pearson
Education, Inc.

Musser, G. L. et. al. (2003).Mathematics for Elementary Teachers, 6 th Ed. A

Contemporary Approach. John Wiley and Sons.

Utuzzurum, J. et. al. (1997) College Statistics.

63
 UNIT STRATEGIES IN TEACHING
IV MATHEMATICS

OVERVIEW
In this Unit, you will learn the differentways on how you are going to teach the
different topics in Mathematics for students in Grade 1 to Grade 3.Here, you will be
acquaintedwith becoming an effective and efficient teacher by delivering the lesson using
the appropriate strategy. You will learn how and when to use a specific strategy given the
topic and the nature of your future students. As a future teacher, learning the content is
not enough, you should also be a master when it comes to pedagogy because an effective
and efficient teacher makes a hard and difficult topic a lot easier and more enjoyable for
his or her students, especially in Mathematics wherein, in reality, many students in Grade
1 to 3 are having difficulty.

A great teacher knows how to

teach. Want to be a great one?
So, let us start acquiring that.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. evaluate the use and application of different research-based strategies in teaching
Mathematics in Primary Grades;
2. identify the different factors in choosing amethod or strategy;
3. critique the different strategies in teaching mathematics;
4. explain the different strategies in teaching mathematics;
64
 5. determine when to use the different strategies in teaching mathematics;
6. describe the different strategies in teaching mathematics and its use in teaching
Mathematics in Primary Grades; and
7. expound the use of different strategiesin teaching Mathematics in Primary Grades.

I heard that you love answering

multiple choice items, then I
give it to you.

ACTIVATING YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

A. Multiple Choice. Analyze each question carefully and encircle your answer.
1. If you are a learner in a constructivist classroom, what is your role?
a. Activelyconstruct meaning from their experiences andenvironment
b. The teacher and the environment offer stimuli and passively respond to
it.
c. Constantly scaffold in classroom performances
d. Obediently follows assigned tasks
2. Among the strategies given, whichis under the inquiry approach?
a. Lecture c. Socratic
b. Discovery d. Deductive
3. When teaching solid figures, Ms.Abesamisuses manipulative and concrete
materials. Ms. Abesamis is utilizing what mathematics principle?
a. Communicating plays an important role in learning mathematics.
b. It is a developmental process.
c. In learning mathematics, a wide range of visual aids is necessary.
d. Mathematics learning is affected by metacognition.
4. Ms. Bianzonis teaching addition and multiplication rules of equality,
which among the following, is the most appropriate for her to follow?
a. Teach the rules orderly and clearly.
b. To illustrate the rules of equality, she needs to use a balance scale.
c. Tell the students to state the rules based on their comprehension.
d. Apply the rules in an equation.
5. Mr. Santiagois on the topic of percentage.If she wants to present it in a
meaningful way, which among the following is the best for her to follow?
a. Define the concept c. Start with a game and
and give examples. relate it to the topic.
b. Start the discussion d. Review the past
with a real-life lesson.
problem.
B. Self-assessment????
Fill out the chart below to assess your knowledge about the different strategies
in teaching mathematics in primary grades.

W hat I know?65
 Did you enjoy our activity? Let
us now enlighten your minds
thru our discussion.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Research-based Strategies
Marzano, Gaddy, and Dean (2000, in Feden and Vogel, 2003) suggested
good ways on how to teach mathematics according to the result of their study:
1. Giving the details how objects differ and similar to one another. It is the start for
the child to identify patterns and relationships.
2. Ability to summarize and take notes. It can be done usingtables, graphic
organizers, and concept mapping.
3. Following Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (giving rewards and recognition).
By doing this you will help the students to love mathematics and to accept
difficult topics with a positive perception and also it can enhance the self-efficacy
of your students. For example, when you often praise your students every time
they answered correctly, they will be more motivated to answer on every
discussion. You can also give tokens such as candies and chocolates because
children love that, hence motivating them more.
4. Homework and practice. Since most of the students in Grade 1-3 are having
difficulty in Mathematics it is better to give them follow-up activities at home.
5. Nonlinguistic representations. Following Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory, we can say that students from Grade 1-3 will learn best when we use
visual aids and other manipulative materials.
6. Cooperative learning. When students learn alongside their peers, there is a
greater possibility that they will learn better because they are more comfortable
with their classmates, for example, if they want to ask questions, it will be easier
for them to address it immediately.
7. Identifying the learning targets and giving opinions and suggestions about
student’s performance. It is very important that every time you discuss a lesson
you start by saying what are the things that your students need to do or to
accomplish on that particular day or lesson. Then, after accomplishing their
activities, as a teacher you need to give comments, suggestions, and opinions
about their work.

66
 8. Making and proving an educated guess (hypothesis). In order to help your
students to easily solve a problem, you should let them make and prove their
guess (hypothesis). This is used when you will implement the inductive way of
teaching mathematics like inquiry approach and discovery learning.
Factors in Choosing a Method or Strategy
1. Instructional Objectives. You should base your method or strategy on your
objective and goal in teaching. For example, if you want your students to
memorize the multiplication table, the strategy should be more on repetition
by doing drill and practice.
2. The nature of the subject matter. You should look at how difficult and how
easy the subject or the topic is when you are going to choose a method or
strategy. For example, if the topic is too hard for your students, the use of the
inductive approach is a waste of time. However, when the topic is too easy,
normally, the deductive way is the most convenient to use.
3. The learners. Since they are our priorityin the educative process, of course,
you should also put them in your criteria when you are choosing a method or
strategy. For example, when you encounter competent students you may use
complex and investigative strategies, however, when you have the opposite
you should give activities enhancing their mastery level.
4. The teacher. You are the one who will carry out the method or strategy, hence
it is better to also ask yourself, what among those strategies you are able to
deliver effectively and efficiently.
5. School Policies. Certain schools adopt specific strategies for teaching.

What can you say about the

research-based strategies and
factors in choosing a method or
strategy? Are you familiar with
direct instruction? If not, please
read and learn.

Interactive Direct Instruction

It is considered as the oldest style way of teaching. It is teacher-centered
and it is an efficient means in covering content. One of the drawbacks of this
method is that when giving real-life experience, it is the least to be considered.
According toGunter, Estes, and Schwab (1995), there are six (6)steps in the
direct instructional approach as follows:
1. Have a review.
2. State objective for the lesson
3. Presentation of the new lesson.
4. Have a practice exercise and immediate feedback.
5. Give independent practice and corrective feedback.
6. Review periodically and provide correctivefeedback.

Please take note of that. Have you

heard Rathmell Triangle Model?
67
Lucky for those who answer yes,
but for ‘no,’ come on I will help you.
Rathmell Triangle Model
It is a flexible framework for teaching Mathematics. Look at the example
model below.

Photo credit: https://www.slideshare.net/knowellton/module-63-mathematics

We can infer from the above modelthat relationships must be discussed

between and among real-life situations, materials, language, and symbols to
develop strong mathematical ideas. It can be summarized below:
1. Model to Language Language to Model
2. Model to Symbol Symbol to Model
3. Language to Symbol Symbol to Language
This strategy utilizes realistic learning which makes the topic meaningful.
It uses concrete or visual materials to illustrate the concept before proceeding to
the operation of symbols. Also, the emphasis is placed on the mathematical
language used.
Here they are.Look at the examples:
Interaction Activity

68
 Model to Language The teacher shades 3 of 10 equal parts of a
circle and asks, “What fraction is shaded?”
Language to Model The teacher asks: “Shade 1/6 of a circle.”
Model to Symbol The teacher shows 5 parts shaded out of 6
equal parts and asks: “Write down the
fraction shaded in symbols.”
Symbol to Model The teacher directs the students to shade a
rectangle to show this fraction. She writes
3/8 on the board.
Language to Symbol The teacher says, “Write down four-
sevenths in symbols.”
Symbol to Language The teacher shows a card with 2/5 written
on it and says: “Say this out loud.”

Since, Mathematics is a challenge

for every learner in Grade 1-3,
learning together is an option, right?
So, let us look and learn.

Cooperative Learning
In this strategy, students are achieving a given goal while working
together in small mixed ability groups. If you want to increase the cooperation
inside the class, this strategy is very suitable. This strategy has three (3) purposes:
1. to increase achievement;
2. an alternative to a competitive structure; and
3. to provide human relations inside the classroom (Wilen, et al, 2000).
You need to use it:
1. when the given activity requires a collaborative effort;
2. the open-ended problem-solving task calls for clarification and a range of
techniques for the answer; and
3. limited resources.
In conducting this kind of strategy, you as the teacher has three roles: as a
facilitator, planner, and the one who monitors the group. On the other hand, the
learners have two roles also: support the other members and help other members
in their learning.
Wilen, et al, (2000) suggested five usual ways on how to do cooperative
learning:
1. Student Teams-Achievement Division (STAD) – In here, students complete
common tasks in groups and then are tested individually.
2. Think-Pair-Share – First the student will think individually, second the
students will form pairs in order to collaborate ideas with other classmates,
and last they share his/her understanding in the class.
3. Jigsaw – According to the Institute for Teaching and Learning Innovation of
the University of Queensland Australia, in this technique students are
provided the opportunity tobecome "experts" in a particular subject and share
thatknowledge with their peers. It can be done using three crucial steps: (a)
breakout into groups; (b) report back to the homegroup; and (c) discuss with
the homegroup.

69
 4. Team Assisted Instruction – In a group, students will be assisted by their co-
members with the assigned material to them.When individual tests were
improved, the group scores also improved.
5. Group investigation – Here, the groups are responsible for their own learning.
For example, when you give them a problem and their group is free to solve
the problem with whatever technique they wanted.
To implement this strategy the following steps should be followed (Wilen, et
al, 2000):
1. Planning;
2. Preparing Students;
3. Monitoring and Intervening; and
4. Evaluating and Processing

We all know that children have many

questions in their minds, right? We
need to use that or we need to take
advantage of that. How? Read the
next method.

Inquiry Method
Wilen, et al, define the inquiry method as a flexible instructional method
used to involve students in a process to analyze a problem or issue in a logical or
systematic way.
It has five (5) phase:
1. Entry:Presentation and Clarification of a Problem, an Issue, or a Question
a. State objectives and provide a rationale.
b. Identify a problem, a question, or a query.
c. Relate to the perspectives and lives of students.
d. Clarify the problem.
2. Formation of Hypotheses
a. Encourage the creation of a preliminary explanation and solutions.
b. Clarify hypotheses.
3. Collection of Data
a. Facilitate the identification of proof sources.
b. Assist in analyzing the proof.
4. Test Hypotheses
a. Assist in organizing data.
b. Assist in data processing and assessment.
5. Closure: Draw Conclusion
a. Facilitate the creation of a generalization, clarification, or solution.
b. Integration and transition.

In Mathematics, problems are

everywhere, hence, this next
method is of course, effective to
use in teaching Mathematics to
Grade 1 to 3 students.
70
Problem-based learning
According to Feden and Vogel (2003), this strategy is centered on posing a
problem and leading students through an investigative procedure to solve it. The teacher
should give a challenging problem in order to motivate the students and encourage
participation among students. It should also enhance Higher-Order-Thinking-Skills
(HOTS). PBL offers students an opportunity to identify and address ill-structured issues
under the guidance rather than under the supervision of the teacher.
Here are the ways in doing PBL:
1. Present problem statement.
You need to introduce an “ill-structured” problem. The problem should be
difficult enough for the students not to solve it easily.
2. Identify what you know already.
3. Write a problem statement.
4. Enumerate what is needed.
5. List potential actions, suggestions, ideas, or assumptions.
6. Show and support the solution

Students can use the organizer below to write down their plans.
What do we know about The things I need to The actions I need to do
that? know

This strategy is said to be successful when:

1. Students solve independently the problem.
2. Students work and solve together.
3. Students use trial-and-error methodsto arrive in a solution.
4. Students usevisual organizers to coordinate information and interpret
relationships between variables.
These are two tips when you decided to use this strategy:
1. Problems should be relevant and interesting.
2. Using questioning to direct students effectively.

I think that after knowing

those methods you will be able
to teach Garde 1-3 students,
right? I hope that your answer
is a big YES! Apply your
knowledge by answering the
activities below.

71
SYNTHESIZING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Activity 17

Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________
Read the questions carefully. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. Choose three research-based strategies and elaborate on how you can use each
research-based strategy in teaching mathematics in primary grades.
a. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________.
b. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________.
c. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________.

2. Mrs. Dimautakan is teaching in mathematics in primary grades for 25 years. She

received many awards showing that she is really an exemplary teacher. In an
72
 interview, she was asked by the interviewee about her secret. Mrs. Dimautakan
simply replied, “I always know first who are my students, afterward, I will choose
a specific strategy suited to them.” What is the factor being used by Mrs.
Dimautukan in her teaching? Explain.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________.
3. If you are a teacher how and when you will use cooperative learning?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________.
4. Teacher Merry will discuss the ways on how to divide numbers.Which do you
think is the most effective approach to use?Why?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________.
5. Choose one topic in Math that you remember and apply the inquiry method of
teaching.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

73
Activity 18

Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

Using the Rathmell Triangle Method, how are you going to teach “writing
numbers from 1-10” to your Grade 1 students? Draw the model in the box below.

74
 Activity 19

Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

You have this competency lifted from Grade1 K to 12 Curriculum Guide:

“The students should be able to compareobjects using comparative words: short,
shorter, shortest; long, longer, longest; heavy, heavier, heaviest; light, lighter,
lightest”
How you are going to teach this using cooperative learning? Use the guide
below.

1. Planning:
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________.
2. Preparing Students
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________.
3. Monitoring and Intervening
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

75
 ____________________________________________________________
_______________________.
4. Evaluating and Processing

REFERENCES
K to 12 Mathematics Curriculum Guide. 2016. Department of Education. DepEd
Complex, Meralco Avenue Pasig City
Nivera, Gladys C. 2013. Curriculum and Instruction: The Teaching of Mathematics.
Teacher Education Council, Department of Education.
https://www.slideshare.net/knowellton/module-63-mathematics
Jigsaw Technique. Teaching Toolkit Series. The University of Queensland.
Australia. https://itali.uq.edu.au/files/3077/Resources-teaching-methods-
jigsawtechnique.pdf

ASSESSMENT IN MATHEMATICS FOR

UNIT PRIMARY GRADES
V

OVERVIEW
A great teacher cannot be called ‘great’ if there is no evidence obtained that his or
her students really learned. In the teaching and learning process, the evidence of being a
good teacher is reflected in the scores of students in their examinations, quizzes,
performances, and portfolios. Hence, the need for your skills and ability in making
assessments. In this module, you will be learning the possible assessments which you can
use when you are teaching mathematics in primary grades. As a future teacher, if you can
teach, it is a must that you know how to assess your students.

I know that most of us hate

tests and exams, right? But
that is an indispensable part of
learning, that’s why, as a
teacher you should know how to
make tests and exams.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
76
 1. write assessment tools such as tests, exams, performances, and quizzes
which are appropriate for Grade 1 to 3.

Who among you loves to play

word hunt? Wow, that’s good!
Today, we will play word hunt.
Come on, let us play!

ACTIVATING YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Word Hunt
Find the five words that you already know about tests and examinations. Describe
each based on your understanding.
M U L T I P L E C H O I C E A B M C D N
E F G M R T J O D E T Y U O P A B N M O
S D F G B N M A R I E L R T T K I M Y I
J H O N A F L O R A N I R C R N M K O T
H U R L Y N P T A P A D H E U R A N M A
K I M B E R L Y A B E I S A E M I S H C
M A N U E L I T O S N J B M O M R T J I
A K S O D A P A S G T A C A R B N M K F
B R F G H J K L T P P H P M F T Y I O I
C I A W R T Y Y S D G H J K A M K L O T
D S B M R T P E G G P I E I L S A W D N
F T C U G E O U L O N G M A S N O K B E
G E D U C H A D I D A S B A E L I N G D
H L E I T R I T E N L I T E C O K E Z E
K L F J O S E P H B R Y A N M A N A N Q
M E G S T O T O M A N E R Z D O R I G I
Y P H R O P I Z Z A N G G A L L E C H E
A T J P L A N M I L K T E A I S L I F E
B O K B E L I E V E I N Y O U R S E L F
C L P E R F O R M A N C E J E J E J E H

The words that I found are: For me it is:

1. _________________________ _______________________
2. _________________________ _______________________
3. _________________________ ________________________
4. _________________________ ________________________
77
 5. _________________________ ________________________

Those words are familiar, right?

That’s good, so you will gain a
lot of information about them.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Recommendations for Student Assessment in Mathematics for Primary Grades
In this module we will categorize the assessment into three:
A. Written Assessment
B. Authentic Assessment
C. Performance Assessment
Written Assessment
1. Objective Tests – examples of these are multiple-choice, true or false, matching,
and completion.
1.1 Multiple Choice is considered the most advantageous objective test. However,
it is the toughest to compose. A multiple-choice item consists of two parts, the
question which is called the stem and the options (A, B, C, and D) which are
called alternatives.
According to Wilen, et al (2000), there are tips in writing multiple-choice test
items:
a. Avoid words that students will find difficult to comprehend.
b. Make sure that there is really one best answer.
c. Make sure that each alternative is plausible.
d. Keep choices for a question consistent in form and length
e. Do not use common determinants of terms and absolutes such as some,
none, always, and never.
f. Stop the use of double negatives.
g. Avoid using all of theabove as distractors.
1.2. True or False Items
Here are the tips in writing true or false items:
a. Itemsshould be entirely true or completely false.
b. Itemsshould be short and meaningful.
c. Avoid using double negatives.
d. Avoid trivia.
1.3. Matching Type Items
Here are the tips in writing matching type items:
a. All items should concern one topic.
b. The possible answers should be more in number than in questions.
c. Items should be arranged in a logical, chronological, and alphabetical
manner.
d. Directions should be clearly stated.
1.4. Completion Test Items
Here are the tips in writing completion test items:
78
 a. The answer should be short and, if possible, it should be one wordonly.
b. All blanks should be of the same range.
c. Don't offer grammatical clues.
d. There should only be ONE blank in each item.

If learning needs to be
meaningful, and so is the
assessment. Thus, study
authentic assessment.

Authentic Assessment
Here are the different definitionsof authentic assessmentas cited by
different authors:
According to Jon Mueller (2011), authentic assessment is a meaningful
application of essential knowledge and skills to create real-world tasks.
As cited by Grant Wiggins (1987), it is giving adult-like
problems/situations to students wherein they will solve it creatively and
effectively.
Other definitions state that…
It is an alternative to traditional multiple-choice and standardized
achievement tests.
It is a direct examination of student performance on significant tasks that
are relevant to life outside school.
Lastly, it is a valid assessment system that provides details about particular
tasks on which students succeed or fail, but more importantly, it also presents
tasks that are important, meaningful, and useful – in short, “authentic”.
Look at the examples:
Assessment Description
Oral Interviews The teacher asks students mathematical
questions about their interests
Story or Test Retelling Students retell main ideas or selected details of
problems they need to solve (Since you are
going to teach in primary grades, you need to
transform a problem into a story.)
Projects/Exhibitions Students complete project in the content
area,working with themselves or in a dyad
Demonstrations Students demonstrate ways of solving problems.
Constructed-Response Items Students answer open-ended questions through
writing
Teacher Observations The teacher observes student attention, response
79
 to instructional materials, or interactions with
other students
Portfolios Purposeful collection of students’ works

In order to cater your students

who are kinesthetically
intelligent, you need to know
more about Performance
Assessment.

Performance Assessment
According to Hart (1994),it is designed to test students ' ability to use their
knowledge and skills in a range of practical situations and contexts.
In using this type of assessment, accordingto Gronlund (1998), tasks should:
1. be realistic;
2. be hard to analyze or solve and new;
3. demand more time for assessment; and
4. require greater use of judgment in the score.
Furthermore, Hart (1994) classifies the types of performance task according to
format and uses into three broad categories:
1. Short Assessment Tasks
If you wish to assess the mastery of your students in basic math concepts,
this kind of task is suitable and appropriate.
1.1 Open-ended Tasks
In these tasks, the teacher presents an issue or condition and the student will
be asked to respond by explaining, addressing, analyzing, graphing, or
predicting. It should encourage students to solve the problem in different
ways.
Example:
In how many times canyou multiply 16 and 24?
Illustrate these ways.
1.2 Enhanced multiple-choice questions
It will be possible when teachers challenge and require the students to explain
their answers.
Example:
KC is planning to purchase a number of white T-shirts for the school year. A
poster for a T-shirt sale reads:
SALE! SALE! SALE! Regular price: Php60.00
Take 30% off on the secondT-shirtpurchased
Take 50% off on the thirdT-shirt purchased
She has 150 in her pocket. Sheneeds to savePhp 16.00 for her fare. Does KC
have enough money to buy three T-shirts from the store??
A. KC’s money will be Php 2.00 short.
B. KC’s money will be Php 20.00 short.
C. KC will have Php 2.00 extra.
D. KC will have Php 20.00 extra.

2. Concept Mapping
80
 A concept map is a cluster or network of knowledge created by students to
reflect their understanding of concepts and the relationship between ideas
(Hart, 1994). It's used to demonstrate how a student’s understanding
changes overtime.
3. Event Tasks
It takes a longer time to complete. Students need to work together.
3.1 Problem-solving and analytical tasks
Here, students are asked to plan and figure out a solution to a practical
scenario.
Example:
Your barkada plans to put up a coffee shop and you have one million
budget.How are you going to present a table of weekly expensesgiven that
you will not exceed the budget of Php 20, 000 per week?
3.2 Long-term projects
The project provides realistic content to the topic learned.
Example:
Prepare a map of your school, drawn on a scale. Discuss the calculation
techniques and the methods you used. The project is due in three weeks’
time. Aside from the written output of the project, each group will be
required to make an oral presentation.
Did you know that, HENRY
FISCHEL was the first person
who invented the "EXAMS”?

Apply your knowledge by

answering the following activity
below.

SYNTHESIZING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 20
Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________
Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

Spot the error in each item and rewrite it.

1. Multiple-Choice item test
A fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator is called a
A. Proper fraction
B. Improper fraction
C. Unit fraction
D. Similar fraction
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________.

2. Multiple-Choice item test

What is the place value of 2 in 0.123?
A. tenths
81
 B. hundredths
C. thousandths
D. all of the above
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________.

3. Multiple-Choice Item Test

None of the following is larger than 0.65, EXCEPT:
A. 0.641
B. 0.5
C. 0.7
D. 0.6000
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________.

4. True or False Test Item

A circle is acloseplane figure and a polygon.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________.
5. True or False Test Item
Euclid was born in 300 BC.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________.
6. True or False Test Item
An isosceles triangle is usually an acute triangle.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________.
7-9. Matching Type Test (3 points)
Directions: Match column A with column B.
A B
1. triangle a. pentagon
2.polygon with five sides b. square
3. special triangle c. 30o-60o-90o
4. congruent d. 180o
5.rectangle with four equal sides e. ≅
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
82
 ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
10. Completion Test Item
A _____________ is a triangle with at least one acute angle.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________.

Activity 21

Name: _________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________
Construct two authentic assessment using the following competencies:
a. The learner should be able to determine the missing term/s in a given continuous
pattern using one attribute (letters/ numbers/events).
e.g.
A,B,C,D,__
2,3,__5,6,7
__,Wed, Thur, Fri
Aa, Bb, Cb, __,___
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.
b. The learner should be able to groupobjects in ones, tens, and hundreds.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.

Don’t get
83 tired, you are almost
there!
Activity 22

Name: _________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

Design at least three performance activities in Mathematics for Grade 1-3 using the given
types.
1. Enhanced multiple-choice questions
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________.
2. Open-ended tasks
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________.
3. Long-term projects
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

84
 _____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________.

References
K to 12 Mathematics Curriculum Guide. 2016. Department of Education. DepEd
Complex, Meralco Avenue Pasig City
Nivera, Gladys C. 2013. Curriculum and Instruction: The Teaching of Mathematics.
Teacher Education Council, Department of Education.
https://www.slideshare.net/knowellton/module-63-mathematics
Santos Rosita D.G., Ph. D., 2007. Assessment of Learning. Mandaluyong:
LorimarPublishing Inc.
Authentic Assessment. Indiana Department of Education. Office of English
Language Learning and Migrant
Education.www.doe.in.gov/englishlanguagelearning

UNIT LESSON PLANNING IN

VI MATHEMATICS FOR GRADE
1 TO GRADE 3

OVERVIEW
Every person must have a plan when doing activities especially formal or
academic activities including teaching. For a teacher, teaching is not only an activity that
must be emphasized in the classroom, but a teacher must have a plan before beginning a
lesson. Brown (2001) claims that the term “lesson” popularly considered to be a unified
set of activities that cover a period of classroom time, usually ranging from forty to
ninety minutes. Today, you will be learning how to make a lesson plan which will enable
you to organize everything before the teaching-learning occurs. Happy learning!

Hello class! We are now in our

last Unit and to know our
targets please read the
objectives below.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. create a lesson plan for Grade 1 to 3 with applications of different teaching
strategies discussed; and

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 2. show a demonstration teaching in Mathematics for Grade 1 to 3 using the
written lesson plan.

Let us have a short pre-

assessment first.

ACTIVATING YOUR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Directions: Answer the following questions as honestly as you can. Write legibly.
1. What is lesson planning? List its parts.
__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________.

2. How important is lesson planning for you as a future teacher?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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 __________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________.

Did you find difficulty in

answering? Don’t worry, class,
we will answer your queries.

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

As a future teacher, it is very important for you to know how to plan a lesson. But
how can we really do it?

A lesson must be organized and well-prepared by paying attention to some

important aspects that support the plan. The teacher could make a plan by remembering
the steps of the lesson that must be taught.But to achieve a better one, the teacher
administratively writes the plan with sequencedand organized steps or format. Brown
(2001), continued his statement that those lessons,from the perception of teacher’s own
and students’ time management, are practical, tangible units of effort that serve to
provide a rhythm to a lesson.

According to Brown (2001), there are variations of a lesson plan format, but
experienced teachers generally agree on what the essential elements of a lesson plan
should be.
1. Objectives
Objectives are most clearly captured in terms of stating what students will
do. You, as a teacher,must also try vague and unverifiable statements. In stating
objectives, you must also distinguish between the terminal and enabling
objectives. Terminal objectives are the final learning outcomes that the teacher
will need to measure and evaluate. Enabling objectives are interim steps that build
upon each other and lead to a terminal objective. Here in the Philippines, the most
used format of stating the lesson objectives is in behavioral terms – Knowledge,
Skills, and Attitude.

2. Subject Matter, Materials, and Equipment

After determining your lesson objectives, it is now time for you to identify
which subject matter or topics will let you attain your goals. For you to be able to
make it easy, always follow the prescribed curriculum guide in choosing the topic.
But sometimes you have to deviate from it depending on the ability of your
learners.
A good plan includes what you, the teacher,needto arrange in the
classroom. It is important to list the materials and equipmentthat the teacher needs
to bring in the lesson. The commonly used materials and equipment are resource
books, bookwork, tape recorders, posters, etc.
In teaching Mathematics for Grade 1 to 3, you have to be very creative
because students at this stage learn from what they see. They can also learn using
manipulative materials.

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 3. Procedure
A procedure of lesson may include many variations, but in general, a set
of guidelines of planning includes:
a) An opening statement or activity as a warm-up. It is where you do the
motivation process. You as a teacher must catch the attention of your
students right at the beginning of the class for them to be interested and
engaged in the duration of the class.
b) A set of activities or techniques in which you have to consider an
appropriate proportion of time includes:
 Whole-class work
 Small group and pair work
 Teacher talk
 Student talk
You, as a teacher, will just have to facilitate the learning. Let your
students work together or individually. In that way, they will be
learning more.
c) Closure. Every end of the topic, the teacher must clarify things with gray
areas to the students. It is where the students are allowed to raised
questions and clarifications. By the way, you should always be on deck to
answer your students’ questions. It is also the right time to generalize and
summarize your lesson.

4. Evaluation
Evaluation can take place not only at the end of the lesson but also in the
course of regular activity. You can determine whether the students have
accomplished the goals and objectives after they have sufficient learning. There
are two possibilities for evaluating the students’ outcome, assessing the success of
the students, or making adjustments in the next lesson plan for the next day.

Guidelines for Lesson Planning

1. How to Begin Planning
It is important to write the script of a lesson plan before teaching
especially for a teacher who has never taught before. The script will be useful and
helpful tothe teacher in making specific details planning to prevent classroom
pitfalls. The script can cover:
a) Introduction to activities
b) Direction for a task
c) Statement of rules or organizations
d) Anticipated interchanges
e) Oral lesson technique
f) Conclusion to the activities

2. Variety, Sequencing, Pacing, Timing.

The teacher needs to consider four important things on how the lessons
hold together as a whole:
a) There are a variety of techniques and activities to gain students’
enthusiasm
b) Techniques and activities are sequenced logically. Easier aspects placed in
the beginning followed with a more difficult one.
c) The lesson as a whole placed adequately. The activities are neither too
long nor too short; anticipate how well the various techniques flow
together, and how well the teacher provides one activity to the next.
d) The lesson is appropriately timed, considering the minutes of the class
hour.

3. Gauging Difficulties

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 It is like a teacher’s prediction when using a kind of technique or activity
in the classroom. The teacher must anticipate the difficulties which will
possiblyemerge. The difficulties may come from tasks given to students, or
linguistic problems by students.

4. Individual differences
There are several steps to account individual differences:
a) Design techniques that have an easy and difficult aspect of items
b) Solicit responses to easier items from students
c) Use a judicious selection to assign members of small groups
d) Use small group and pair work time and give extra attention to those who
are below or above the norm

5. Student talk and teacher talk

There must be a balance between teacher talk and student talk in the
lesson plan. The teacher does not dominate the class, but students must also be
givena chance to talk, to stateconcepts, and share ideas or topics.

6. Adapting to an established curriculum

There are two factors that may be considered in curriculum planning.
Learners’ factor:
a) Who are the students? (age, education, occupation, general purpose in
taking English, entering proficiency level, etc)
b) What are their specific language needs? (i.e. to read English scientific text,
to serve as a tour guide, to survive minimally in an English-speaking
country)
Institutional factors:
a) What are the practical constraints of the institution you are teaching in?
(budget, equipment, classroom space and size, philosophy of the
institution, etc.)
b) What supporting materials are available? (Textbook, audiovisual aids,
overhead projector, etc.)

7. Classroom lessons
The teacher can carry a lesson note into the classroom. The notes can be
made in various forms. An experienced teacher usually makes it no more than one
page. Some others prefer to put it on a series of index cards for easy handling.
Too many pages will make the teacher too focused on the note and will not make
teachingspontaneous.

Having no significant differences with Brown’s theory, the other experts also state
that the lesson plan could organize and arrange the lesson to be more effective and
accomplish the goals. Planning is a concrete process involving the enactment of
particular routines or recipes (Furlong, 2000 as cited in John 2006). It means that
planning is important for teachers even it has the same importance as the practice of
teaching itself. As Carlgren (1999: 54) points out, the practice of planning is as important
as the practice of teaching.

Harmer (2007) explains the reasons to make a plan for teachers and students. For
teachers, a plan gives a lesson a framework, an overall shape. For students, a plan shows
that the teacher has devoted time to thinking about the class. In addition, Harmer (2007)
states that a plan helps teachers identify and anticipate potential problems. He added that
plan is a proposal for action rather than scripts to be followed slavishly, whether they are
detailed documents or hastily scribbled notes. It means that teacher has prepared what
they are going to teach by writing all needed aspects in a document or note.

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 Before making a plan, you as a teacher also consider what to do in pre-planning.
The steps that must be known by the teacher were explored by Harmer (2007). The steps
are:
1. The teacher must understand the students’ characteristics such as their language
level, educational and cultural background, motivation to learn English, and
different learning styles. The teacher must know the content or organization of a
curriculum or syllabus.
2. The teacher must consider four main planning elements in teaching, as follows:
 Activities; what students will be doing in the classroom.
 Skills; which language skills of students that teacher wishes to develop
 Language; what language to introduce and have the students learn,
research, or use.
 Content; which content has a good chance of provoking interest and
involvement.
3. After knowing all four elements above and understanding the knowledge of the
classroom, the teacher finally can pass all thinking through the filter of practical
reality. All features are combined to focus on what teachers are actually going to
do.

Some Researches Related to Lesson Plan

The debate about the lesson plan is an important issue discussed by many
teachers. Mostly the debate considers the ability of teachers in making a good lesson
plan. The other one is about the difficulties found by the teacher in preparing a lesson
plan.

A research conducted by Asfaw (2002) analyzes the use of lesson plan that
happened, whether teachers are able to make a good lesson plan or not. Specifically, it
analyzes teacher-made lesson plans for their appropriateness in guiding the teacher.
Unfortunately, the research result of 18 teachers who teach in 7th grade in Kafa School
shows that the lesson plans prepared by the teachers were not good materials of
communication. The lesson plans prepared by teachers were not dependable to guarantee
successful instruction.

Asfaw (2002) explains some problems that teachers experience when making
lesson plan, such as almost all teachers did not indicate instructional materials in their
lesson plans, teacher and learner activities are not clarified or specified, or all teachers
there seems to be carelessness or lack of skill in formulating instructional objectives.

Another research was done by Tashevska (2007). She analyzes the difficulties of
making a lesson plan for new teachers. There are 23 new teachers who were observed by
the researcher. Asa result, it found that teachers had some difficulties in some aspects
such as timing (68%), anticipating problems (45%), and sequencing activities (36%).

The various meanings of lesson plans have been being an interesting issue and
being discussed by many researchers. Every researcher defines lesson plans in various
ways seen by the contents of it. Furthermore, there are also different models used by
teachers, it depends on the needs of each teacher. However, the difference in lesson plan
models sometimes confuses the teachers especially those who have not taught before.
The difficulties also become a particular reason why teachers do not always make a
lesson plan.

The steps of pre-planning stated by Harmer (2007) is quite difficult to implement

by the teacher. For example,the teacher must understand the students’ characteristics such
as their language level, educational and cultural background, motivation to learn English,
and different learning styles. In some cases, the teacher needs several weeks of meeting
to understand all those aspects. Even for those who teach in many classes that consist of
many students in each class. Therefore, when the first step of making pre-planning needs
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more time, it will obstruct the next other steps. Asa result, the lesson plan may not be
working in the first few weeks of the teaching process.In a research done by Tashevska
(2007), 23 teachers were given questionnaires and answered that the most difficult in
making lesson plans come from timing (68%), anticipating problems (45%), and
sequencing activities (36%). This research shows that making a lesson plan needs a deep
understanding of all aspects. It is hoped that the teacher especially an inexperienced one,
is not stress or confused because of too much thinking about how to make a good lesson
plan. The result is the teacher does not perform well while teaching.

Sample detailed lesson plans from the Department of Education

To guide you in making your own lesson plan soon, here are some sample lesson
plans from Grade 1 to Grade 3 in mathematics subject.

Detailed Lesson Plan in Mathematics I

(Using a Calendar- Months of the Year)

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the pupils are expectedto achieve atleast a 75%
proficiency level in the following behavior:
Cognitive:Name and tell the months of the year in the right order.
Psychomotor:Trace and write the months of the year.
Affective:Show appreciation of being able to recognize months of the
year.

II. SUBJECT MATTER

Topic: Using a Calendar- Months of the year
Prerequisite Skill: Counting and Enumerating
References: PELC Teacher’s Guide in Mathematics I
Materials: Calendar Activity Sheets
Flash card Pocket Chart
Teaching Approach:Collaborative, Interactive and Constructive Approach
Subject Integrated:English
Values focus:Cooperation and Attentiveness
Time Frame: 90 minutes

III. INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURE

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Teacher’s Activity Pupil’s Activity

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 A. Preparatory Activities
a. Prayer
b. Greetings
c. Song
d. Checking of Attendance

1. Review
Before we start our lesson for today, let us
review your past lesson yesterday. What
have you studied yesterday?  We have studied about the days of the
week.

How many days are there in aweek?  There are 7 days in a week.
 The days of the week areMonday,
So, can you tell me what are thedays of the
Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday,
week? Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.

(Write the days of the week in order and let

the pupils read them twice.)

2. Motivation
When is your birthday? (The pupils will answer the questions
When is Christmas celebrated? and share their own experiences.)
When are our town and barangay fiestas
celebrated?

B. Developmental Activities

1. Presentation
(The class will listen attentivelyas the
I will read you a story about a Grade 1 teacher reads the story.)
pupil named Allan. Listen as I read the story.

After the end of classes in March, Allan

was excited because next month, he will go
to Manila to spend his vacation at his
cousin’s place. When the month of April
came, he went to Manila. There, he visits his
cousin John. John takes him to the park and
they also played at the playgrounds there.
They also shop at the mall. He did not
notice that it is already the end of April and
he has to go home.
He went back home in May. He was so
excited and he can’t wait to tell his friends
what he experienced during his vacation in
Manila.
(after reading, ask the pupils)  Allan.
Who was the Grade one pupil in the  March.
story?
 He went on a vacation.
When did their classes end?
What did he do after their classes ended?  He went to Manila on April
When did he go to Manila?  May.
When did he go back home?

2. Posing a Problem
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IV. EVALUATION
Direction: Arrange the months of the year in order by numbering it from 1 to 12.
(answer)
____ June
___6_ June
____ December ___12_ December
____ January ___1_January
___7_ July
____ July ___11_ November
____ November ___2_ February
____ February ___3_ March
___8_ August
____ March ___9_ September
____ August ___4_ April
___5_ May
____ September ___10_ October
____ April
____ May
____ October

V. Assignment
Read books on months of the year. Identifyhow many days are there in
eachof the following months.

1. January
2. February
3. March
4. April
5. May
6. June
7. July
8. August
9. September
10. October
11. November
12.

Prepared by: Noted:

EVA TUMANLAO MRS. CRISTINA MONTARDE

FS Student Resource Teacher

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13. December

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 A DETAILED LESSON PLAN IN MATHEMATICS 2
(Using Practical Work Approach)

I. OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson, the pupils are expected to achieve at least a 75%
proficiency levelin the following behavior:

Cognitive : Identity straight and curved lines; and flat and curved surfaces
on a 3-dimensional object.
Psychomotor : Differentiate objects with straight and curved lines and objects
with flat and curvedsurfaces.
Affective : Enhance perception on 3-dimensional objects.

II. SUBJECT MATTER

Skill : Identifying Lines and Surfaces on 3-dimensional
Objects
Reference : Mathematics 2 Teacher’s Guide
Mathematics Learner’s Materials, pp. 234-237
Materials : pringle’s can, ball, stamp box, gift box, oblong-
shaped coin bank
aquarium, dice, marble, chocolate bar, notebook, globe,
Santa hat, glass,
milk box, gift box, cola can, chocolate box, heart-shaped
chocolate,
cube, dice
Values : Appreciation of objects
Time Frame : 60 minutes
Teaching Method: Practical Work Approach

III.PROCEDURES

TEACHER’S ACTIVITY PUPILS’ ACTIVITY

A. PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

Routine:
 Prayer
 Energizer (“Square and Circle”)
 Checking of Attendance

1. Review
Yesterday, you have discussed tessellation.
Can you tell me what you have learned about
tessellation? Tessellation is tiling (covering) a
surface and forming patterns using
shapes.

What activities about tessellation did you do? We covered the surface of a paper
using different shapes.
Weused squares, rectangles, and
triangles in tessellating surfaces.
What shapes did you use in tessellating
surfaces?

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 But first, what shapesare these?
Triangle.
Square
I have here a big triangle.
Who can go to the board andcover this big
triangle’s surface with these shapes?

2. Motivation

Class, look around our classroom. What

different objects do you see? Can you give
me one and tell me its shape? eraser-rectangle
electric fan-circle
charts-rectangle
flashcards-square
B. DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES
1. Presentation/Discussion
Class, I am going to show you a few objects.
Tell me what shape do they have and describe
their lines and surfaces.

What shape does this object have?

What can you say about itsedges? Square.
How about its surface? Its edges are straight.
Very good! Now class, this object Ithas a flat surface.
is called a CUBE.
Again, what do we call this?
Cube.
How about this? What shape
does it have?
Describe its lines and surfaces. Its shape is a rectangle.
We call this object a It has straight lines and a flat
RECTANGULAR PRISM. surface.
What kind of object is it?

How about this? Can you describe its shape? Rectangular Prism
Does it have a straight or curved line?
How about its surface? Is it flat or curve? This object is triangle-shaped.
This object is called a PYRAMID. It has a straight line.
Again, what is it? It has a flat surface.

This object is called a CYLINDER. It is a Pyramid.

Can you describe its lines ad surface?
Again, what do we call this object?
It has curve lines and a flat surface.
Cylinder.
Now, I have here a box with different objects. I
will call some of you and get one here. Then,
you will name the object you got and describe
its lines and surface. Are you ready?

Yes Ma’am.

This is a Santa hat.

It hasa straight line

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 and aflat surface.

This is a gift box.

It has a straight line
and a flat surface.

This is a milk box.

It has a straight line and a flat
surface.

This is a glass.
It has curve lines and a curve
surface.
2. Group Activity
This time, we will have a group activity, I will
group you into three groups based on your
seats. Before the activity, may I ask, what are
the standards to be followed in doing a group
activity?

 Standards 1. Share your ideas. /Cooperate

with the group.
2. Read and follow directions
carefully.
3. Work quietly.
 Distribution of Activity Sheets 4. Finish your work on time.
I will give you some objects and a piece of
manila paper.You will follow the directions
found in the activity sheet I will give you.
Directions: Fill the table with correct
information from the object given to you.
Group 1:coke can, chocolate box, heart-shaped
chocolate, cube, dice, ball
Group 2: aquarium, dice, marble, chocolate
bar, notebook, globe
Group 3: pringle’s can, dice,ball, stamp box,
gift box, oblong-shaped coin bank
 Reporting
 Checking/Giving Marks

C. POST-ACTIVITY
1. Generalization
What characteristics of an object have we
discussed today?
Objects can have what kinds of lines? Lines and surface of objects.
How about surfaces, what kinds of a surface can Straight and curve lines.
an object have?
It can be a flat or curved surface.
What are the examples of objects with a straight
line and a flat surface?
Books, notebook, table, chairs,
What are the examples of objects with curve blackboard
lines and curve surfaces? Balls, coke can, heart-shaped box,
marble, aquarium, oblong-shaped
2. Application coin bank
Write curvedor flat to describe the surface of
the following objects.

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1. plate
2. television
3.pail

Draw a straight or a curve line to describe the

linesof the following objects.
1. wheel
2. bed
3. kettle
4. pan

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IV. ASSIGNMENT
Draw 2 objects with a straight line and flat surface and 3 objects with a
curve line and curve surface.

Prepared by:

EVA O. TUMANLAO
Student Teacher

I am confident that you can now

create a lesson plan, right? So,
do the following activity.

100
SYNTHESIZING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Activity 23. Lesson Plan Making

Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

Directions: Your task is to make a detailed lesson plan on the topic assigned to you when
I asked you to make teaching materials in Unit III. It will be submitted in a long bond
paper one week after our discussion today. You have to write it in cursive. The rubric to
be used in grading is the one that our college is using in evaluating the lesson plans of our
practice teachers.

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Activity 24. Demonstration Teaching

Name:_________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Section: ________________________________________ Score: ___________________________

Directions: You are going to conduct a demonstration teaching using the lesson plan and
the teaching aids you made previously. The rubric for grading is the one that our college
is using during practice teaching. Drawing of lots will be the basis of the presentation
order. Schedules will be posted in our FB group.

See the guides below.

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 GUIDE TO OBSERVATION IN DEMONSTRATION TEACHING
Name of Student Teacher ____________________ Grade and Subject
Taught________________
Date & Time: _______________________________________
Rating: Relative to student teachers’ ability to MEET teaching performance
standards.
1 – Does not 2 – Approaching 4 – On target 4.5 – High degree 5 – Exceptional
I. LESSON PLAN Remarks
1. Objectives stated in behavioral terms. 1 2 4 4.5 5
2. There is a congruence between:
3. Objectives and subject matter. 1 2 4 4.5 5
4. Objectives and teaching procedure. 1 2 4 4.5 5
5. Objectives and assessment. 1 2 4 4.5 5
II. TEACHING METHOD
1. The method used suited to student needs and capability. 1 2 4 4.5 5
2. The teacher executed lesson motivation and creative enough to
1 2 4 4.5 5
adapt his methods to the student’s capability.
3. There is more pupil activity rather than teacher activity and the
1 2 4 4.5 5
lesson is correlated to real-life situations.
4. The teacher makes use of visual aids examples to illustrate his
1 2 4 4.5 5
lesson.
5. The teacher makes effective use of the formative test after
1 2 4 4.5 5
teaching.
III. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
1. The teacher is systematic in the following:
2. Checking of the attendance. 1 2 4 4.5 5
3. Giving and checking of the assignment or homework. 1 2 4 4.5 5
4. Administering practice exercises and supervising group work. 1 2 4 4.5 5
5. Passingin and out of the room. 1 2 4 4.5 5
6. Correcting, distributing, and collecting papers. 1 2 4 4.5 5
IV. COMMUNICATION SKILLS
1. The teacher speaks clearly and loudly enough to be heard by the
1 2 4 4.5 5
class.
2. The teacher uses the correct pronunciation and grammar in
1 2 4 4.5 5
speaking.
3. The teacher was able to elicit the correct answer from the student
1 2 4 4.5 5
through skillful questioning.
4. The board work of the teacher is free from errors in grammar and
spelling and the handwriting on the board and lesson plan is legible 1 2 4 4.5 5
enough to be read and understood.
V. TEACHERS’ PERSONALITY
1. The teacher is neat and well-groomed. 1 2 4 4.5 5
2. The teacher is free from mannerisms that tend to disturb the
1 2 4 4.5 5
student’s attention.
TOTAL
Remarks:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
Rating
94.5 – 100 Outstanding Rated by:
88.5 – 94.4 Very Satisfactory
83.5 – 88.4 Satisfactory
_________________________________________
79.5 – 83.4 Needs Improvement (Re demonstration) Signature over Printed Name
20.0 – 79.4 Poor (Re demonstration)

103
REFERENCES

Asfaw, Abebe. (2002). Analysis of Lesson Plans: The Case of English Teaching in Kafa
Zone. School of Graduate Studies. Addis Ababa University.

Brown, H.Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles. An Interactive Approach to Language

Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2007. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Malaysia: Pearson
Education Limited.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2007. How to Teach English. China: Pearson Education Limited.

John, D. Peter. (2006). Lesson planning and the student-teacher: re-thinking the dominant
model. J. Curriculum Studies, Routledeg, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 489-498

SvetlaTashevska, Svetla. (2007). Some Lesson Planning Problems for new Teachers of
English. Cambridge ESOL, pp.20-21

Goodbye class! That ends our

semester. I hope that you have
learned a lot. Stay safe and see
you next semester.

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