LAB REPORT (1-10)

ENGINEERING MECHANICS (EM)

SUBMITTED TO: Mr. Bilal Arshad

SUBMITTED BY: 2023-IM-14
2023-IM-22
2023-IM-33

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE.

 Experiment no. 1

Title:
To understand the law of triangle of forces for a concurrent force
system. (Static equilibrium).
Objectives:
 To develop a practical comprehension of the concept of law of triangle of forces.
 To develop the magnitude of unknown force using law of triangle of forces.
Apparatus:
Diagram board, Short screws, Pulleys, Knurled Nuts, Set of weights, Ring
with three cords, Weight hooks.
Apparatus Diagram:

Theory:
Force:
The push or pull on an object with mass causes it to change its velocity. Force is an
external agent capable of changing a body`s state of rest or motion. It has a magnitude a
direction. Mathematically, Force is defined as
F=Δp/Δt
Units:
The SI unit of force is the newton, symbol N. And 1N is equal to the 1Kgm/s.
Types of force: There are different type of forces.
 Contact Force:
Contact force is a force that is applied by objects in contact with each other. The contact
force acts on a point of direct contact between the two objects. This force can either be
continuous as a continuous force or can be momentary in the form of an impulse. Contact
force is governed by Newton's Laws.

 Frictional Force:
The frictional force is defined as the force that is generated between the surfaces that slide
Against each other. The frictional force is said to be a contact force because frictional
force occurs when two surfaces come in touch with each other. Example of frictional
force is walking on the road.
Formula: F = μN.
 Normal Force:
The normal force is an everyday force that is felt when a surface pushes against an object
that is placed on that surface.
For example, when a book is placed on a table, the normal force keeps the book from
falling through the table.
 Resultant Force:
When a system of forces is acting on an object, the difference between the
forces is called the Resultant force.
For example, a 3N force to the left and 10N force to the right gives a resultant force of 7N
to the right.
 Gravitational Force:
The force of attraction on a body by earth is called gravitational force.
For Example, The leaves and fruits fall from a tree downwards towards the ground, water
in a river flows down streams, a ball thrown up goes to a height and then returns back on
ground are some examples of motion due to gravitational force.
Formula: F = Gm1m2/r2
 Co-Planner Force:
When all forces are acting in the same plane, they are called coplanar force.
 Concurrent Forces:
When forces act at the same time and at the same point, they are called concurrent
forces.
 Restoring Force:
A restoring force is a force that causes a physical structure to return to equilibrium. The
restoring force would help to push the system back to equilibrium if it has been turned
away from equilibrium. The restoring force is solely determined by the mass or particle's
location.
Formula: F = -kx
 Tension Force:
The tension on an object is equal to the product of the mass of the object and gravitational
force added to the product of the mass and acceleration. Mathematically, it is represented
as follows: T=mg+ma

Law of Triangle:
Triangle law of vector states that when two vectors are represented by two sides of a
triangle
in magnitude, and direction taken in same order then third side of that triangle represents
(in magnitude and direction) the resultant of the vectors.

Procedure:
The diagram board was positioned and secured with screws and knurled nuts
through holes on the mounting panel.
• The three pulleys were positioned as shown in figure and were secured with nuts.
• A sheet of paper was clipped to the drawing board.
• Two of the ring cords were passed over the rim of the pulleys and the weight hooks were
attached to the end of them.
• Another weight hook was attached to the third pulley and that was hung freely.
• Weight was added to the cord to achieve 0.49N, 0.981N, 0.296N respectively.
• The rings was released and the weight was let settled freely.
• The position of three cords were marked with pencil dots in the paper.
• The paper was removed, the lines representing the three cords have been drawn, and the
weight supported by each cord has been written.
• Repeat the experiment by changing the place of weights.
• Observation and Calculation:
Sr. No. Force description Magnitude Direction
1. F1 98 25°
2. F2 98 155°
3. F3 98 270°
4. F4 294 39°
5. F5 294 140°
6. F6 294 271°
7. F7 392 34°
8. F8 392 151°
9. F9 392 271°
Result and comments:
The triangular law of forces can determine the net force acting
on a rigid body by summing the individual forces acting on the body. The net force is the
vector sum of all the forces acting on the body and it can be found by using the triangular
law of forces to combine the individual forces into a single force.
 Experiment No.2

Objectives:
 To develop a practical comprehension of the concept of law of triangle of forces.
 To develop the magnitude of unknown force using law of triangle of forces.
Apparatus:
Diagram board, Short screws, Pulleys, Knurled Nuts, Set of weights, Ring
with three cords, Weight hooks.
Apparatus Diagram:

Theory:
Force:
The push or pull on an object with mass causes it to change its velocity. Force is an
external agent capable of changing a body`s state of rest or motion. It has a magnitude a
direction. Mathematically, Force is defined as
F=Δp/Δt
Units:
The SI unit of force is the newton, symbol N. And 1N is equal to the 1Kgm/s.
Types of force:
There are different type of forces:
 Contact Force:
Contact force is a force that is applied by objects in contact with each
other. The contact force acts on a point of direct contact between the two objects. This
force can either be continuous as a continuous force or can be momentary in the form of
an impulse. Contact force is governed by Newton's Laws.

 Frictional Force:
The frictional force is defined as the force that is generated between the surfaces
That slides against each other. The frictional force is said to be a contact force
because frictional force occurs when two surfaces come in touch with each other.
Example of frictional force is walking on the road.
Formula: F = μN.
 Normal Force:
The normal force is an everyday force that is felt when a surface pushes
against an object that is placed on that surface.
For example, when a book is placed on a table, the normal force keeps the book from
falling through the table.
 Resultant Force:
When a system of forces is acting on an object, the difference between the forces is
called the Resultant force.
For example, a 3N force to the left and 10N force to the right gives a resultant force of 7N
to the right.
 Gravitational Force:
The force of attraction on a body by earth is called gravitational force.
For Example, The leaves and fruits fall from a tree downwards towards the ground, water
in a river flows down streams, a ball thrown up goes to a height and then returns back on
ground are some examples of motion due to gravitational force.
Formula: F = Gm1m2/r2
 Co-Planner Force:
When all forces are acting in the same plane, they are called coplanar force.
 Concurrent Forces:
When forces act at the same time and at the same point, they are called
concurrent Forces.
 Restoring Force:
A restoring force is a force that causes a physical structure to return to
 equilibrium that restoring force would help to push the system back to equilibrium if it has
been turned
away from equilibrium. The restoring force is solely determined by the mass or particle's
location.
Formula: F = -kx
 Tension Force:
The tension on an object is equal to the product of the mass of the object and gravitational
force added to the product of the mass and acceleration. Mathematically, it is represented
as follows:
T=mg+ma

Law of Triangle:
Triangle law of vector states that when two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle
in magnitude, and direction taken in same order then third side of that triangle represents
(in magnitude and direction) the resultant of the vectors.

Procedure:
The diagram board was positioned and secured with screws and knurled nuts
through holes on the mounting panel.
• The three pulleys were positioned as shown in figure and were secured with nuts.
• A sheet of paper was clipped to the drawing board.
• Two of the ring cords were passed over the rim of the pulleys and the weight hooks were
attached to the end of them.
• Another weight hook was attached to the third pulley and that was hung freely.
• Weight was added to the cord to achieve 0.49N, 0.981N, 0.296N respectively.
• The rings was released and the weight was let settled freely.
• The position of three cords were marked with pencil dots in the paper.
• The paper was removed, the lines representing the three cords have been drawn, and the
weight supported by each cord has been written.
• Repeat the experiment by changing the place of weights.

Observation and Calculation:

Sr. No. Force description Magnitude Direction
1. F1 98 mN 25°
2. F2 98 mN 155°
3. F3 98 mN 270°
4. F4 294 mN 39°
5. F5 294 mN 140°
6. F6 294 mN 271°
7. F7 392 mN 34°
8. F8 392 mN 151°
9. F9 392 mN 271°
Result:
The triangular law of forces can determine the net force acting on a rigid body
by summing the individual forces acting on the body. The net force is the vector sum of
all the forces acting on the body and it can be found by using the triangular law of forces
to combine the individual forces into a single force.
Comments:
The difference in reading of three forces of a triangle may be due to the human
error or there may be a chance that apparatus measure incorrect reading.
 Experiment no. 3

Title:
To determine the reactions on a simply supported beam subjected to multiple
loads.
Objectives:
 To learn skills of practically applying law of moments for solving equilibrium
problems.
 To calculate magnitude of reaction force in a simple supported beam subjected to
multiple loads.

Apparatus:
A wooden beam, two spring balances, meter rod, hanger, weights, spirit level.
Equipment Diagram:

Figure 1: Simply Supported Beam Apparatus

Theory:
Beam:
A long sturdy piece of timber or metal used to support the roof or floor of a building.
There are two conditions for equilibrium, namely, the sum of the forces acting
vertically downward must be equal to the sum of the forces acting vertically upward
and the total moment of the forces acting on a beam must be zero. A simply
supported beam is one that rests on two supports and is free to move horizontally.

Types of Beam:
 Simply supported beam
 Fixed beam
 Over hanging beam
 Double overhanging beam
 Continuous beam
 Cantilever beam
 I-beam (Based on Shape)
 T-beam (Based on Shape)
 C-beam (Based on Shape)

Support:
The support means to bear weight or load.
Types of Support:
 Roller Support
 Pin Support
 Hinge Support
 Fixed Support

Procedure:
 Set the apparatus as per the defined guidelines.
 Then place the beam on the hooks with spring balance on both the ends.
  Add weights on beam with hangers such that the beam is exactly in horizontal
position by using spirit level.
 Note the distance of weight jaws in Inches (in.) from the support by using meter rod.
 Also Note the value of reaction forces Ra and Rb in pound (lb) on the spring balance.
 Also calculate the theoretical value of reaction forces by using the following
formula.

Ra+Rb-W1-W2-W3 = 0
Ra = W1+W2+W3-Rb
∑Ma = 0

RbL-W3L3-W2L2-W1L1 = 0
(𝑾𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑾𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑾𝟑 𝑳𝟑 )
Rb =
𝑳
 At the end calculate percentage error between calculated and theoretical value.
Repeat the experiment by changing the weights and distance.

Observation and Calculation:

Exp Load Length (in.) Reactions (lbs) % error

No. (lbs)
W1 W2 W3 L L2 L3 L Experimental Theoretical Ra Rb
1 Ra Rb Ra Rb
1. 1 1/2 1 6 12.2 20 23.2 1 1 1.12 1.38 10.7% 27%
2. 1 1 1.5 6 12.2 20 23.2 1 2 1.43 2.07 30% 3%
3. 2 1.5 2 6 12.2 20 23.2 3 3 2.47 3.03 -21% 0.9%
4. 2 2 2.5 6 12.2 20 23.2 3 4 2.8 3.7 -7.1% 1.8%
5. 1.5 1 0.5 6 12.2 20 23.2 1 1 1.66 1.34 39.7% 25.3%

Result:
The readings of experiment in the above table, which we had taken shows almost a
slight difference between experimental and calculated values of Ra and Rb. There is
an increase in theoretical values except reading 3 and 4. The error in reading 3 and 4
is therefore negative. In other readings minimum error is 3% and maximum is 30-
40%.
Comments:
The difference between experimental and theoretical values may be due human error
while performing experiment or it may be due to instrumental error, defect in
apparatus.
 Experiment no.4
Title:
To determine the reactions on overhanging beam subjected to
multiple loads.
Objectives:
 To develop a skills of practically applying law of moments for solving equilibrium.
 To calculate the magnitude of reaction forces on overhanging beam subjected to
multiple loads.
Apparatus:
A wooden beam, two spring balances, Meter road, Hanger and weights, Spirit
Level.
Equipment Diagram:

Figure 1: Beam Apparatus

Theory:

Beam:
A long sturdy piece of timber or metal used to support the roof or floor of a building.

Figure 2: Beam
Types of Beams:
 There are different type of beams:
 Simply supported beam
 Fixed beam
 Over hanging beam
 Double overhanging beam
 Continuous beam
 Cantilever beam
 I-beam (based on shape)
 T-beam (based on shape)
 C-beam (based on shape)
Support: The support means to bear weight or load.

Types of Support:
 Roller Support
 Pin Support
 Hinge Support
 Fixed Support
Procedure:
 Set the Apparatus as per defined guidelines.
 Then place the beam on the hooks with spring balance on both the ends.
 Adds weight on beam with hangers such that the beam is exactly in horizontal
position by using spirit level.
 Note the distance of weight jaws in inches from the support by using meter road.
 Also note the value of reaction forces Ra and Rb in pounds (lb.) on the spring balance.
This is experimental value.
 Also calculate the theoretical value of reaction forces by using the following
formula:
Ra + Rb -W1-W2 -W3=0
Ra=W1 +W2 +W3 –R
∑ MA=0
Rb L -W3 L3 s-W2 L2 -W1 L1 =0
 (𝑾𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑾𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑾𝟑 𝑳𝟑)
Rb =
𝑳
 At the end calculate the % error between Calculated and theoretical value. Repeat
the experiment by changing the weights and the distance.
Observations and Calculations:
Loads(lbs.) Length(in.) Reactions(lbs.) %Error
Exp. Experimental theoretical
No.
W1 W2 W3 L1 L2 L3 L
Ra Rb Ra Rb Ra Rb
1. 2 1 0.5 7.8 15.8 27.6 23.6 1 1.9 1.5 7.91 33.3 0.71

2. 2 2 0.5 8 15.5 27.2 23.2 1 1.5 1.29 3.12 22.4 51.9

3. 0.5 2 2 8 16 28 23.5 1 2 0.58 3.91 -72.4 48.8

4. 0.5 2 2.5 8 16 28 24 1 5 0.58 4.4 -71.8 -13.63

Result:
Ra and Rb can be found by above formula and errors can be reduced by taking
the length of beam less.

Comments:
 Errors will be formed if the apparatus will disturb from its position when load is
applied.
 The supports must be rigid.

.
 Experiment no. 5
Title:
To determine the coefficient of friction of a flat belt in contact with
cast iron pulley.
Objectives:
Calculate the value of µ for the flat belt by changing the Angles.
Apparatus:
Flat Belt Apparatus, Weights, Hangers, Spring Balance, Flat Belt.
Apparatus diagram:

Theory:
Friction:
“It is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
material elements sliding against each other”
Brief details:
Friction is a force between two surfaces that are sliding, or trying to slide, across
each other. Friction always slows a moving object down. The amount of friction
depends on the materials from which the two surfaces are made. The rougher the
surface, the more friction is produced.
Unit:
In simpler words, friction is also a type of force that the surface applies on the body.
As the unit of force is Newton (N), the SI unit of friction is also Newton (N).
Dimensions:
LMT-2
Factors which reduce friction:
• Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types
of fluid bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling
friction.
• Lubricants.
Advantages of friction:
• Make the object streamlined.
• Reduce the forces acting on the surfaces.
• Reduce the contact between the surfaces.
• Preventing us from slipping while walking or running.
• Stop a moving vehicle.
• Keep the position of object on the surface.
• Produces fire.
• Hold or grip things.
• Sharpens a knife.

Disadvantages of friction:
• Friction produces heat in various parts of machines, this one of the main
disadvantage of friction. In this way some of the useful energy wasted as heat energy.
• More power has to be exerted on machines due to friction.
• Friction opposes motion.
• Noise is also produced in machines due to friction.
• Engines of automobiles consume more fuel due to fiction.
• Efficiency of machines decreased; energy is lost due to heat.
• Friction counteracts movements and so it takes more energy to move. It causes
unwanted heat.
• Rubber shoes or soles are worn out due to friction.
• Friction between trees causes forest fires.

Types of friction:
There are many types of forces some are given below:
Static friction:
Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative
to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a
sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as μ s, is usually
higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Dynamic friction:
When the force acting on the body is greater than the limiting friction, then the body comes
into motion. The friction now acting between the surfaces of contact is dynamic friction.
The dynamic friction is always less than the limiting static friction.

Sliding friction:
We can define sliding friction as the resistance created by any two objects when sliding
against each other. This friction is also known as kinetic friction and is defined as the
force that is needed to keep a surface sliding along another surface.
Rolling friction:
In friction. Rolling friction occurs when a wheel, ball, or cylinder rolls freely over a
surface, as in ball and roller bearings. The main source of friction in rolling appears to be
dissipation of energy involved in deformation of the objects.

Belts (Mechanical):
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted
depends upon the following factors:

 The velocity of the belt.

 The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
 The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.

Types of Belt Drives:

The belt drives are usually classified into the following three groups:
 Light drives: These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds up to about 10
m/s, as in agricultural machines and small machine tools.
  Medium drives: These are used to transmit medium power at belt speeds over 10
m/s but up to 22 m/s, as in machine tools.
 Heavy drives: These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s,
as in compressors and generators.
Material used for belts:
The fibers may be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or
polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel or aramid (such as Technora, Twaron or
Kevlar). When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be
employed.

Types of Belts:
Though there are many types of belts used these days, yet the following are important from
the subject point of view :
 Flat belt:
The flat belt, as shown in Fig. (a), is mostly used in the factories and workshops,
where a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another
when the two pulleys are not more than 8 meters apart. Flat belts are also used to
transmit power from one shaft to another. It can deliver high power at high speeds.
Flat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric.
 V-belt:
The V-belt as shown in Fig. (b) is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where
a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when
the two pulleys are very near to each other.
 Circular belt or rope:
The circular belt or rope, as shown in Fig. (c) is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to
another, when the two pulleys are more than 8 meters apart. If a huge amount of
power is to be transmitted, then a single belt may not be sufficient. In such a case,
wide pulleys (for V-belts or circular belts) with a number of grooves are used. Then
a belt in each groove is provided to transmit the required amount of power from one
pulley to another.
Procedure:
 At first, note the reading of the spring balance without hanging weight in weight
pans.
 Place weight of two pound in the weight pan at 30 degree, and rotated the shaft and
after one complete rotation note the value of spring balance.
 Shift the angle to 60 degrees and note the spring balance reading according to the
tension in the tight and slack side.
 The same procedure was repeated for θ = 90°.
 Tension in tight and slack side was measured for all the angles.
 Then we used the formula driven below to find the value of coefficient of friction.

Observation and calculations:

No. of θ in T1 = W1+ Tension in

Obs. Radian(α) W2 Spring 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟏
(weight of Balance 𝐥𝐧 𝐥𝐧
𝑻𝟐 µ= 𝑻𝟐
𝜶
hanger w) T2 (lb.)

1. 1.25 1.6 -0.107 -0.2044

2. 2.25 2.4 -0.028 -0.053

3. 1.25 0.7 0.58 0.554

4. 1.75 1.3 0.129 0.1232

5. 1.25 0.8 0.194 0.1236

6. 2.25 2.2 9.76×10-3 6.21×10-3

Result:
The tension on different angles are taken and the value of µ can be find by above formula.

Conclusion:

 Don’t disturb apparatus when load is applied on body.

 Take the angle in radian in calculation.
 Rotate the shaft to remove the error made by sudden load and impact.
 Experiment no, 6
Title:
To determine the coefficient of friction of a V belt in contact with cast
iron pulley.
Objectives:
Calculate the value of µ for the V belt by changing the Angles.
Apparatus:
Flat Belt Apparatus, Weights, Hangers, Spring Balance, V Belt.
Apparatus diagram:

Theory:
Friction:
“It is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
material elements sliding against each other”
Brief details:
 Friction is a force between two surfaces that are sliding, or trying to slide, across
each other. Friction always slows a moving object down. The amount of friction
depends on the materials from which the two surfaces are made. The rougher the
surface, the more friction is produced.

Unit:
In simpler words, friction is also a type of force that the surface applies on the body.
As the unit of force is Newton (N), the SI unit of friction is also Newton (N).
Dimensions:
LMT-2
Factors which reduce friction:
• Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types
of fluid bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling
friction.
• Lubricants.
Advantages of friction:
• Make the object streamlined.
• Reduce the forces acting on the surfaces.
• Reduce the contact between the surfaces.
• Preventing us from slipping while walking or running.
• Stop a moving vehicle.
• Keep the position of object on the surface.
• Produces fire.
• Hold or grip things.
• Sharpens a knife.
Disadvantages of friction:
• Friction produces heat in various parts of machines, this one of the main
disadvantage of friction. In this way some of the useful energy wasted as heat energy.
• More power has to be exerted on machines due to friction.
• Friction opposes motion.
• Noise is also produced in machines due to friction
• Engines of automobiles consume more fuel due to fiction.
• Efficiency of machines decreased; energy is lost due to heat.
• Friction counteracts movements and so it takes more energy to move. It causes
unwanted heat.
• Rubber shoes or soles are worn out due to friction.
• Friction between trees causes forest fires.

Types of friction:
There are many types of forces some are given below:

Static friction:
Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative
to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a
sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as μ s, is usually
higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Dynamic friction:
When the force acting on the body is greater than the limiting friction, then the body comes
into motion. The friction now acting between the surfaces of contact is dynamic friction.
The dynamic friction is always less than the limiting static friction.
Sliding friction:
We can define sliding friction as the resistance created by any two objects when sliding
against each other. This friction is also known as kinetic friction and is defined as the
force that is needed to keep a surface sliding along another surface.

Rolling friction:
In friction. Rolling friction occurs when a wheel, ball, or cylinder rolls freely over a
surface, as in ball and roller bearings. The main source of friction in rolling appears to be
dissipation of energy involved in deformation of the objects.

Belts (Mechanical):

The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted
depends upon the following factors:

 The velocity of the belt.

 The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
 The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
Types of Belt Drives:
The belt drives are usually classified into the following three groups:
 Light drives:
These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds up to about 10 m/s, as in
agricultural machines and small machine tools.
 Medium drives:
These are used to transmit medium power at belt speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22
m/s, as in machine tools.
 Heavy drives:
 These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s, as in
compressors and generators.
Material used for belts:
The fibers may be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or
polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel or aramid (such as Technora, Twaron or
Kevlar). When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be
employed.

Types of Belts:
Though there are many types of belts used these days, yet the following are important from
the subject point of view:

 Flat belt:
The flat belt, as shown in Fig. (a), is mostly used in the factories and workshops,
where a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another
when the two pulleys are not more than 8 meters apart. Flat belts are also used to
transmit power from one shaft to another. It can deliver high power at high speeds.
Flat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric.
 V-belt:
The V-belt as shown in Fig. (b) is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where
a moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when
the two pulleys are very near to each other.
 Circular belt or rope:
The circular belt or rope, as shown in Fig. (c) is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to
another, when the two pulleys are more than 8 meters apart. If a huge amount of
power is to be transmitted, then a single belt may not be sufficient. In such a case,
 wide pulleys (for V-belts or circular belts) with a number of grooves are used. Then
a belt in each groove is provided to transmit the required amount of power from one
pulley to another.

Procedure:
 At first, note the reading of the spring balance without hanging weight in
weight pans.
 Place weight of two pound in the weight pan at 30 degree, and rotated the
shaft and after one complete rotation note the value of spring balance.
 Shift the angle to 60 degrees and note the spring balance reading
according to the tension in the tight and slack side.
 The same procedure was repeated for θ = 90°.
 Tension in tight and slack side was measured for all the angles.
 Then we used the formula driven below to find the value of coefficient of
friction.

Observation and calculations:

 No. of Angle of T1 = W1+W2 Tension in
Obs. Contact θ in (weight of Spring
Radian hanger w) Balance
T2 (lbs.) μ

1. π/2 2 1.3 0.43078 0.078319

2. 3 2.33 0.2527 0.04703

π/2

3. 4 3.0 0.28568 0.0350

π/2

4. 2π/3 2 1.85 0.07796 0.01088

5. 3 2.9 0.0339 0.004732

2π/3

6. 5.5 5.7 -0.036 -0.01828

2π/3

7. 5π/6 1.5 0.9 0.52 0.011766

8. 2.5 2.15 0.1508 0.01684

5π/6

9. 5.5 5.90 -0.0702 0.00784

5π/6

Result:

The tension on different angles are taken and the value of µ can be find by above formula.

Conclusion:
 Don’t disturb apparatus when load is applied on body.
 Take the angles in radian in calculation.
 Rotate the shaft to remove the error made by the sudden load impact.
 is 170 degree for v belt that can measure by the formula.


 Experiment no. 7
Title:
Slider crank mechanism.
Objectives:
To understand kinematics of slider crank mechanism and draw the
displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams.
Apparatus:
 Slider crank mechanism
 Graph paper
 Drawing equipment

Apparatus diagram:

Theory:
Kinematics:
“The branch of mechanics which deals with study of geometrical aspects of
motion”.
Brief details:
Kinematics aims to provide a description of the spatial position of bodies or
systems of material particles, the rate at which the particles are moving (velocity),
and rate at which their velocity is changing (acceleration). When the causative forces
are disregarded, motion descriptions are possible only for particles having
constrained motion—i.e., moving on determinate paths. In unconstrained or free
motion, the forces determine the shape of the path.
Distance:
Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to “how much ground an object has
Covered” during its motion.
Physical distances:
A physical distance can mean several different things:
 Distance traveled: The length of a specific path traveled between two points, such
as the distance walked while navigating a maze.
 Straight-line (Euclidean) distance: The length of the shortest possible path through
space, between two points, that could be taken if there were no obstacles.
 Geodesic distance: The length of the shortest path between two points while
remaining on some surface, such as the great-circle distance along the curve of the
Earth.
 The length of a specific path that returns to the starting point, such as a ball thrown
straight up, or the Earth when it completes one orbit.

Displacement:
 Shortest distance between two points is called displacement. It is a vector quantity.
 If an object moves relative to a reference frame (for example, if a professor moves
to the right relative to a white board or a passenger moves toward the rear of an
airplane), then the object’s position changes. This change in position is known as
displacement. The word “displacement” implies that an object has moved, or has
been displaced.

Speed:
Speed is distance traveled per unit of time. Speed id the scalar quantity that is the
magnitude of the velocity vector. It doesn’t have a direction a higher speed means an
object is moving faster.
Velocity:
Change in displacement per unit time is called velocity. It is vector quantity that
has magnitude as well as direction. Its SI unit is ms -1.
∆𝑆
𝑉=
∆𝑡
Acceleration:
Change is velocity per unit time is called acceleration. Its SI unit is ms -2.
∆
𝑎=
∆
Slider crank mechanism:
 A simple mechanism that transforms the angular motion into linear motion, like
a Connecting rod and crankshaft, can be diagrammatically represented and the
Displacement at any angle can thus be analytically determined.

Application:
 Reciprocating engine
 Internal combustion
 Rotary engine
 Transport industry
 Oscillating cylinder
 Hand pump
 Scotch yoke etc.

Procedure:
 Set the apparatus of slider crank in good condition.
 The angles of the circle and the piston are fixed at 0°.
 Then twist crank angle to 20° and a resulting distance that the piston moves,
 (x) is measured.
 The position of sliding block (x) is calculated. The procedures number 3 and
number 4 are repeated with an increasing angle of 20° until it reached 360°.
 The graph of the position of slider against angles of crank is plotted.
 Also plot the velocity, acceleration graph versed angle of crank.
Observation and Calculation:
Sr Θ Displacement Savg v a
No. S1 S2
1. 0 0 0 0 0 0
2. 30 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.67 1.23
3. 60 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.32 1.23
4. 90 2.85 2.85 2.85 1.19 0
5. 120 4 4 4 0.9 -0.55
6. 150 4.77 4.77 4.77 0.53 -0.57
7. 180 5 5 5 0 -0.96
8. 210 4.77 4.77 4.77 - -1.19
0.55
9. 240 3.9 3.9 3.9 - -1.07
1.07
10. 270 2.25 2.25 2.25 - -
1.27 0.809
11. 300 1.4 1.4 1.4 - 0
1.19
12. 330 0.35 0.35 0.35 - 0.83
0.83
13. 360 0 0 0 -0.4 1.19

Graph:
Distance:

6 Y-Values
5

3
Y-Values
2

0
0 100 200 300 400
Velocity:

Y-Values
1.5

0.5

0 Y-Values
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Acceleration:

Y-Values
1.5

0.5

Y-Values
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

-0.5

-1

-1.5
Result and description:
After experiment we can see that there are negative values, replace the
maximum negative value by zero and it is the initial point and add other by
its value.
Comments:
The graphs we obtained are parabolic for displacement, sine curve for
velocity and cosine curve for acceleration.
 Experiment no. 8
Title:
To understand the kinematics of “Whitworth Quick return
mechanism” and draw displacement, velocity and acceleration
diagrams.”
Objective:
The objective of the experiment is to understand kinematics of Whitworth's quick
mechanism and draw the displacement, velocity and acceleration diagram.
Apparatus:
• Whitworth's quick return mechanism
• Graph paper
• Drawing equipment
Equipment diagram:

Theory:

Mechanism:
A mechanism is used to produce mechanical transformations in a machine. This
transformation could be any of the following:

• It may convert one speed to another speed.

• It may convert one force to another force.
• It may convert one torque into another torque.
• It may convert force into torque.
• It may convert angular motion to another angular motion.
• It may convert angular motion to linear motion.
• It may convert linear motion to angular motion.
• It may convert reciprocating motion into circular motion and vice versa.

Quick return mechanism:

A return mechanism in an apparatus that converts circular motion into reciprocating motion
in presses and shaping machines, which are utilized to shape stocks of metals into flat
surfaces, throughout mechanical engineering. The quick return mechanism is the
foundation behind the energy of these machines.

Construction:
The mechanism consists of an arm attached to a rotating disc that moves at a controlled
uniform speed. Unlike the crank, the arm of the mechanism runs at a different rate than the
disc. By having the disc run at a different rate than the attached arm, productivity increases
because the amount of time needed for a cut is reduced. The design of this mechanism
specializes in vector calculus and the physical aspects of kinematics and dynamics.
Possible Source of error:

 Systematic error:
If the system has the error, then there will be error in the readings.

 Human error:
If the person operating the apparatus is inexperienced then there will be errors.

 Zero error of apparatus:

If there is zero error in the apparatus then there will be errors.

Applications:
Quick return mechanisms are found throughout the engineering industry in different
machines:

• Shaper
• Screw press
• Power driven saw
• Mechanical actuator
• Revolver mechanism
 Shaper Machine Screw press

Power Hack Saw Mechanical Actuator

 Revolver mechanism

Procedure:
 Set the angle at zero degree. Record the piston displacement.
 Move the crank by 20 and record the displacement.
 Repeat the step 2 for one complete revolution of the crank. It is S 1.
 Take one more reading at same angle for one complete revolution and find
average value of displacement.
 Tabulate your result in the table.
 Plot the graph between displacement, velocity and acceleration verses
angle of circle.
Observation and Calculations:

Sr. No. 𝜽° Displacement Velocity Accelerati

on

Savg Sacc

1. 0 -2.25 0 0 0

2. 30 -2.18 0.07 -0.7 0.57

3. 60 -1.8125 0.4375 -1.23 0.26

4. 90 -1.25 1 -1.19 0.07

5. 120 -0.25 1.7 -1 -0.28

6. 150 -0.5375 1.7125 -0.9 0.36

7. 180 0.3 2.55 -1.3 0.45

8. 210 1.125 3.375 -1.27 -0.1

9. 240 1.775 4.025 -1.19 -0.5

10. 270 1.975 4.225 1 -2.1

11. 300 0.975 3.225 3.07 -0.8

12. 330 -0.85 1.4 2.74 0.46

13. 360 -1.9 0.35 2.24 0.83

Graph:
Distance:
 Y-Values
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5 Y-Values

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2

Velocity:

Y-Values
4.5

3.5

2.5
Y-Values
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 100 200 300 400
Acceleration:

Y-Values
1

0.5

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-0.5
Y-Values
-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

Result and description:

After experiment we can see that there are negative values, replace the maximum
negative value by zero and it is the initial point and add other by its value.
Comments:
This mechanism is quick return which brings improvement in machining productivity
and has advantage over slider crank and scotch yoke.
 Experiment no. 9
Title:
To determine the radius of gyration of a disc rolling on an inclined plane.
Apparatus:
 Inclined plane
 Disc
 Meter rod
 Vernier calipers
 Stop watch

Apparatus figure:

Radius of Gyration:
Radius of gyration or gyration refers to distribution of the mass of an object around
an axis.
Symbol:
It is represented by k or r.
Mathematical expression:
The radius of gyration is the root mean square distance of the object's parts from
either its center of mass or a given axis, depending on the relevant application. It is
actually the perpendicular distance from point mass to the axis of rotation.
𝟏
𝐾=
𝒎
Uses:
 The radius of gyration is used to compare how various structural shapes will
behave under compression along an axis.
  It is used to predict buckling in a compression member or beam.

Procedure:
 measure the diameter of disc D and spindle d using vernier caliper and
Calculate radius of each.
 The adjustable inclined plane must be leveled with a spirit level.
 Raise one end at known height hi.
 Allow the disc to roll freely over from rest. Note the time taken by disc to
reach at another end.
 Calculate angular velocity and radius of gyration.
 Repeat step 3, 4 & 5 of this procedure more than two times.

Observation and calculations:

Disc radius = R = 7.6 cm
Spindle radius = r = 0.64 cm
Inclined lengths = L = 169.5 cm
Distance = S = L – 2R = 154.3cm
g = 9.81 ms-1 = 981 cms-1
Heig Times(sec) Avg. Radius of gyration
Sr.
No
hts Velocity
hi hf T1 T2 T3 Avg W=
𝟐𝒔 𝟐𝒈 𝒉𝒊 𝒉𝒇 kth=
𝑹
𝒓𝒕 ke= 𝒘𝟐
− 𝒓𝟐 √𝟐
1. 19.7 11.3 19.60 19.28 19.5619.28 24.749 0.0492 0.053
2. 18.3 11.3 22.67 20.96 21.2321.62 22.302 0.0521 0.053
3. 17.5 11.3 22.60 23.85 22.7623.07 20.901 0.051 0.053
𝒌 𝒌
%error= 𝒕𝒉 𝒆 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒌𝒕𝒉
Result:
ke kth %Error
0.0492 0.053 7.169%

0.0521 0.053 1.699%

0.051 0.053 3.77%

Comments:
Adjust the wheel correctly and level the surface before starting the surface can reduce
the error in case when disc touches the wall of the inclined plane then repeat the
experiment.
 Experiment no. 10
Title:
To determine the Moment of Inertia of a Flywheel.

Apparatus:
 Fly Wheel
 Weights
 Meter rod
 Vernier Calipers
 Stop Watch

Apparatus diagram:

Theory:

Moment of Inertia:
The moment of inertia of body is defined as the measure of its resistance to the
changes of its rotation.
OR
 The ratio of angular momentum L to the angular velocity ω around principal axis.
𝑳
𝑰=
𝛚
 If the shape of the body does not change, then its moment of inertia appears in Newton's
law of motion as the ratio of an applied torque τ on a body to the angular
acceleration α around a principal axis.
𝝉 = 𝑰𝜶
𝝉
𝑰=
𝜶

 For a simple pendulum, moment of inertia is equal to the product of mass of pendulum
and the distance from the pivot point.
𝑰 = 𝒎𝒓𝟐

SI units for Moment of Inertia:

In SI system of units the unit of moment of inertia is Kg.m2 (kilogram meter square).

Applications:

 Machines: Flywheels are used in punching machines and riveting machines.

 Internal Combustion Engine: For internal combustion engine applications, the
flywheel is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft.
 Locomotive Engines: Flywheel systems have been used experimentally in
small electric locomotives for shunting or switching

Procedure:

 The length of the cord is carefully adjusted, so that when the weight-hanger just
touches the ground, the loop slips off the peg.
 A suitable weight is placed in the weight hanger
 A chalk mark is made on the rim so that it is against the pointer when the weight
hanger just touches the ground.
 The other end of the cord is loosely looped around the peg.
 The flywheel is given a suitable number (n) of rotation so that the cord is wound round
the axle without overlapping.
  The height (h) of the weight hanger from the ground is measured.
 The flywheel is released.
 The weight hanger descends and the flywheel rotates.
 The cord slips off from the peg when the weight hanger just touches the ground. By
this time the flywheel would have made n rotations.
 A stop clock is started just when the weight hanger touches the ground.
 The time taken by the flywheel to come to a stop is determined as t seconds.
 The number of rotations (N) made by the flywheel during this interval is counted.
 The experiment is repeated by changing the value of n and m.
 From these values the moment of inertia of the flywheel is calculated using equation:

Observation and Calculation:

Obs. Mass Height No of Rotation of wheel after Time for N Angular Moment of
No. of of turns wheel is detached rotations velocity inertia
hanger hanger of I=
𝑵
X
+mass from thread 𝟒п𝑵 𝒏 𝑵
ω= 𝟐𝒈𝒉
of above on 𝒕 m( -𝒓𝟐 )
𝝎
weight the axle
ground
m h (n) 1 2 mean 1 2 t (rad/s)
(lb.) (inch) (N) (sec) (sec) (sec)
1. 1.25 33.7 10 30.5 30.25 45.62 104 106 105 5.46 124
2. 2.25 34.5 10 31 31.5 62.5 78 79 157 5 261.7
3. 3.25 33.4 10 49.6 50.2 99.25 96 98 194 6.4 302
4. 4.25 31.1 10 59.6 59.62 119.25 106 107 213 7 341.4

Result:
After experiment we can see that there are negative values, replace the maximum
negative value by zero and it is the initial point and add other by its value.
Comments:
The graphs we obtained are parabolic for displacement, sine curve for velocity and
cosine curve for acceleration.