Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)

Jyotiḥśāstra (or jyotiṣa, jyautiṣa) is the “science of pean inluence (c. 1800–present) may further be
[celestial] lights.” Like its traditional European added (see below).
counterpart, it encompasses both astronomy and
astrology – two terms which were largely inter-
changeable in Europe until the 17th century, and Astronomy and Vedic Ritual
occasionally beyond that time. Of the two, astron-
omy is generally seen as subservient to the practi- A major focus of Vedic religion was the regular
cal needs of calendar making and astrology, performance of sacriices (→ yajña), both daily
which will be the main focus of this article. (nitya) and occasional (naimittika). he times of
hematically, jyotiṣa is traditionally divided the latter were oten determined by astronomical
into three “branches” (skandha) and six “limbs” factors such as the season, month, and nakṣatra
(aṅga): (a) the branch of gaṇ ita (calculation), or asterism occupied by the moon; and Jyotiṣa or
consisting of → mathematics (gaṇita in a restricted the accurate knowledge of these factors therefore
sense) and astronomy (gola); (b) the branch of became an important auxiliary branch of Vedic
horā (horoscopy or judicial astrology), consisting learning, or Vedāṅga, along with the disciplines
of genethlialogy or natal astrology (jātaka), inter- of phonetics (śikṣā), metrics (chandas), grammar
rogations or horary astrology (praśna), and catar- (vyākaraṇa), etymology (nirukta) and liturgics
chic or electional astrology (muhūrta), to which (kalpa). In a less systematic list, the “knowledge
omens (nimitta) are occasionally added; and of the stars” (nakṣatravidyā) occurs in as early a
(c) the branch of saṃ hitā (“collections”), compris- text as the Chāndogyopaniṣad (7th–6th century
ing mundane or natural astrology afecting whole BCE?) along with the four → Vedas and a number
countries or regions as well as weather prognosti- of related subjects, including divination or daiva
cation and various natural lore and divinatory (ChāU. 7.1).
techniques not necessarily involving the heavenly he text of the Jyotiṣavedāṅga is extant in two
bodies (see → divination). he fact that other recensions: that of a certain Lagadha, belonging
forms of divination are oten subsumed under the to the Ṛgveda and dated to the 5th or 4th century
heading of jyotiṣa indicates a primacy of astrology BCE, and the somewhat later version belonging
over other divinatory arts which is no doubt due to the Yajurveda. Both are short works, compris-
at least in part to its more “scientiic” – that is, ing 36 and 43–45 verses, respectively, and are
complex, systematic and objective – character. concerned mainly with the construction of a
Horā and saṃ hitā are sometimes grouped together dependable calendar related to the Vedic rituals.
as phalitajyotiṣa (“having results” jyotiṣa, that is, No astrological elements are present in this
applied jyotiṣa), contrasting with the theoretical “Vedic jyotiṣa,” which includes several concepts
gaṇitajyotiṣa. borrowed from the astronomy of Mesopotamia.
Chronologically, the development of jyotiṣa By the 5th century, Greek astronomy was well-
may be divided into several periods characterized established in India, as is clear from the astrono-
by inluences from outside the Indian subconti- mer Āryabhaṭa’s (b. 476 CE) work, known simply
nent. Speaking strictly of the astronomical side, as the Āryabhaṭīya. Unlike most of his contempo-
D. Pingree (1981) makes use of the following raries, Āryabhatạ believed the earth to rotate on
chronology: its axis, making the daily rotation of the celestial
sphere only an apparent one. His astronomical
• Vedic (c. 1000–400 BCE) teachings survived mainly in Kerala, where they
• Babylonian (c. 400 BCE–200 CE) enjoyed something of a renaissance in the 14th to
• Greco-Babylonian (c. 200–400) 16th centuries. In the 6th century, important works
• Greek (c. 400–1600) on all branches of Jyotiḥśāstra were authored by
• Islamic (c. 1600–1800) Varāhamihira, including a summary of the ive
he history of astrology in India difers somewhat established schools (Siddhānta) of astronomy: the
from this scheme, as will be discussed below. For Paitāmahasiddhānta, Vasiṣt ̣hasiddhānta, Romaka-
both aspects of jyotiṣa, a period of modern Euro- siddhānta, Pauliśasiddhānta, and Sūryasiddhānta
282 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
(not identical with the later and more well-known Astrology
work bearing this name). While the names
Romaka (“the Roman”) and, possibly, Pauliśa he discipline of horā – astrology in the everyday
(Paulus?) betray a Western origin, the others sug- sense of casting and judging horoscopes or astro-
gest a mythologized history, being ascribed to the logical charts – entered India from the Greek-
creator → Brahmā (pitāmaha, lit. the grandfather), speaking world in the early centuries CE. he
the Vedic sage (→ ṛsị ) Vasiṣtḥ a, and the sun god term “horā” itself is of Greek derivation (ὥρα), as
Sūrya (→ navagrahas). are a large number of technical astrological terms.
In the Siddhāntas, which contain elements of For many of these terms no indigenous equiva-
both Greek and Babylonian astronomy, tradi- lents were ever coined, and the Sanskritized Greek
tional Indian ideas of vast cycles of time were nomenclature is employed by Indian astrologers
astronomized and combined with Greek theories to the present day. he earliest strata of Indian
of a “great year” beginning and ending with a astrological texts even make frequent use of the
mean planetary conjunction. he various schools Greek names of the planets and zodiacal signs,
difer on the exact length of these cycles and their which in later texts are generally translated. Nev-
subdivisions. Features of puranic cosmology (see ertheless, even the earliest Sanskrit texts also contain
→ Purāṇas) were likewise reinterpreted: the myth- uniquely Indian features and display a well-devel-
ical Mount Meru at the centre of the world as the oped acculturation of Hellenistic concepts. Astro-
terrestrial north pole, and its surrounding conti- logical works of later eras do not acknowledge
nent Jambūdvīpa as the sphere of the earth. Other any foreign sources at all, preferring instead to
topics covered in the Siddhāntas include the cal- trace the history of astrology – like that of many
culation of days elapsed from the beginning of other Śāstras or disciplines – through a tradition
the current kalpa or of kaliyuga (→ cosmic cycles), of semi-divine sages (ṛsị s) to an original divine
by which mean planetary longitudes are estab- revelation, and providing innovative Sanskrit
lished; spherical trigonometry; the calculation of etymologies for its nonstandard vocabulary.
solar and lunar eclipses; and the precession and
trepidation of the equinoxes. True planetary lon- Astrology and Religion
gitudes, necessary for the casting of horoscopes, he religious sanction of astrology implied in the
were computed from the mean values by means mythologized accounts of its origins was not
of epicyclic theories difering in certain respects always present. Although jyotiṣa in the sense of
from those of Ptolemaic astronomy. calendar keeping and its prerequisite knowledge
Some of the most remarkable accomplishments of astronomy was considered an auxiliary branch
in Indian astronomy and mathematics belong to of Vedic learning (Vedāṅga), the use of astral
South India, particularly to Kerala in the 14th omens had long been frowned upon in India.
and 15th centuries, where astronomers such as Authors of texts on socioreligious law
Parameśvara and his pupil Nīlakaṇtḥ a Somayājin (→ Dharmaśāstra) listed “consulting the stars”
achieved an exactness in planetary calculations among minor, polluting sins such as gambling or
unparalleled in Europe until the 17th century. sorcery, and excluded “those who live by the
Regrettably, their inluence did not extend to stars” from attending certain Vedic sacriices (see
northern India. Parameśvara was an advocate of → astrologers). Despite its extra-Indian origins,
dṛggaṇita (“calculation from observation”), con- horoscopic astrology eventually attained a far
trasting with vākya, the traditional system of ver- higher religious status than the indigenous and
siied formulae, based on the school of Āryabhatạ . less sophisticated forms of astral divination, and
Despite the evident greater utility of dṛggaṇita has enjoyed a more widespread and lasting accep-
in calculating observable phenomena such as tance within Hinduism, and Indian culture gen-
eclipses, however, the vākya system is still extant erally, than in any other cultural environment.
today and employed in a number of published he reason for such acceptance is probably to
religious calendars or pañcāṅga (see below). be found primarily in the pan-Indic doctrine of
retributive action or → karman. From the time of
its inception, horoscopic astrology has served a
twofold purpose, relected in its division into a
 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) 283
genethliacal and a catarchic branch. he former future retribution for sins committed in the pres-
attempts to analyze and interpret the qualities ent lifetime. Hindu astrologers similarly relate
inherent in the time and place of a person’s birth, any evil planetary position by karman theory
and to determine how those qualities will mani- to unknown sins committed in a previous exis-
fest in the unfolding of the person’s life. his tence and attempt to avert its manifestations by
descriptive role of astrology obviously presup- ritual means known as śānti, “paciication” or
poses a certain element of determinism or pre- “propitiation.”
dictability. In the latter branch, astrologers advise he possibility of śānti is oten seen as the prac-
their clients on how to make best use of the quali- tical value of astrology, and some astrological
ties of space-time by undertaking or refraining authors use the categories “loosely rooted kar-
from particular actions. In this prescriptive role, it man” and “irmly rooted karman” to distinguish
is equally clear that astrology assumes a certain between future events which are or are not con-
measure of freedom to act on the part of the indi- sidered amenable to counteraction by śānti. he
vidual. Any view of the world which seeks to practice may consist in the worship of the plane-
accommodate astrology would therefore need to tary deities, deities of the greater Hindu pantheon
strike a balance between free choice and deter- associated with particular planets, or even –
minism (in Hindu terms, puruṣakāra [“human through rarely – of the → astrologer himself. Com-
efort”] and daiva [“fate”]); and the doctrine of mon forms of śānti also include donations of
karman provides just such a middle ground, stip- foods, valuables or other objects associated with
ulating as it does that the moral value of actions the alicting planet – typically to Brahmans
performed in previous lifetimes determines the (Brāhmaṇas), the needy, and/or persons likewise
individual’s present circumstances, thereby creat- represented by the planet – and fasting on the
ing the framework within which new action is weekday ruled by the planet see → vratas). Śānti is
performed, and so on ad ininitum. oten performed during the period or daśā (see
In allowing for the interplay of fate and free below) of an ill-placed planet or some other astro-
will, Hinduism thus ofers an excellent theoretical logically inauspicious time, such as the seven-
model for astrology, more consistent with the art and-a-half-year transit of Saturn known in
as practiced than the theistic systems of the Mid- Sanskrit as sārdhasapta (“seven and a half ”) and
dle East and Europe, whose attitudes towards in North Indian vernaculars as sāṛhesātī (see
astrology have been far more ambivalent. Not → navagrahas).
surprisingly, the karman model has been invoked
by Indian astrological authors for more than Astrology as a Divinatory System
1,700 years. heir view of astrology is typically a As a system of what has sometimes been called
noncausal one: the stars reveal good and evil “wisdom divination,” Jyotiṣa occupies an inter-
events to come, but do not cause them; the real mediate position between science and religion.
cause is action performed in previous lives, which On one hand, it involves the systematic and
matures into events in the current lifetime. Con- empirical observation of celestial phenomena; on
trary to the assumptions of some scholars, there is the other, it gives meaning to such observations
no textual evidence to suggest that an “inluence by relating them to the lives of individuals
of the stars” was ever proposed by Indian astrolo- through an overarching metaphysical structure.
gers to explain events independently of karman Divinatory methods are typically not con-
theory. Even those relatively few passages which cerned with the natural causes of the phenomena
hint at some causal power inherent in the planets they interpret, but rather with the interpretation
occur in texts which explicitly uphold teachings of them as they present themselves to human
of karman. experience; and the same is true of astrology.
Nevertheless, the nine planets of astrology are Although the astrologer’s “observation” of the
conceived of and worshipped as deities (see heavenly bodies is more oten a matter of calcula-
→ navagrahas) with the express intention of miti- tion from tables than of actual stargazing,
gating evil astrological indications. Such practices astrology is not dependent on any particular
are not unique to astrology: Hindu codes of law astronomical theory, ancient or modern; and a
frequently prescribe ritual acts of atonement number of such theories have traditionally been
(prāyaścitta) meant to avoid or mitigate any used in India, as discussed above.
284 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
While the practices of genethlialogy ( jātaka) ent techniques and using a variety of designs for
and catarchic astrology (muhūrta) go back to the their horoscopic charts; but in general they agree
earliest times of Hellenistic horoscopy, the branch on basic concepts and procedures (for examples
of interrogations ( praśna) is likely to have origi- of variant traditions, see below).
nated in India, from where it later spread through
Persia and the Arabic-speaking world to the Latin Fundamental Concepts
west. Praśna may be considered a reversal of he fundamental elements of Indian judicial
catarchic astrology: rather than selecting the most astrology are: the zodiac with its many subdivi-
favorable time to commence an undertaking, a sions; the division of the sky into twelve places or
chart is cast for the time a question is asked in houses; and the planets with their constantly
order to determine the likely outcome of a ven- varying states of being, strength of inluence, and
ture. Hindu astrological texts declare that this aspects. All of these technical elements have a
practice is as valid as that of genethlialogy, as both number of Sanskrit names, only the most com-
rest on the foundation of karman. he 17th- mon of which will be given in this article.
century Praśnamārga says: he use of the term “planet” (graha) to include
the sun and moon (the luminaries) and the lunar
Because a man comes helplessly into the pres-
nodes (the “shadowy planets”) has been discussed
ence of the astrologer, forcibly compelled by his
elsewhere in this work (see → navagrahas). he
good or evil fate, therefore a query is equal to a
nativity in its results. (PrMā. 1.46)
ive “stellar planets” planets Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are distinguished from
As in most cultures where astrology has been ordinary stars by their motion relative to the ixed
practiced, birth horoscopes in India have long constellations. he apparent course of the sun
been a privilege of the wealthier classes, although through the constellations during a year (actually
in modern times this situation has changed some- caused by the earth’s orbit around the sun) marks
what (see below). A properly cast birth chart, or the imaginary circle of the ecliptic around the
at least a knowledge of one’s “birth star” or earth. he planets are all seen to move, relative to
nakṣatra, may be required in situations such as the stars, within a belt of sky extending some 9°
the arrangement of a marriage or the perfor- to either side of the ecliptic. his belt is the zodiac
mance of religious rituals (where name, birth or “wheel of stars” (bhacakra). he zodiacal posi-
nakṣatra, and family lineage [gotra] serve to iden- tions of the planets are measured with reference
tify the sponsor). However, even those who lack a to the ecliptic, which is divided into twelve equal
birth chart, or whose time or date of birth is parts of 30° each, known as the zodiacal signs or
unknown, may consult an astrologer to obtain an houses (rāśi, lit. group [of stars]). he nomencla-
answer to a particular question (praśna) or to ture of the 12 zodiacal signs is essentially the
determine an auspicious time (muhūrta) for an same as in the European astrological tradition.
important undertaking such as the commence- hese names are derived from actual constella-
ment of a journey, constructing or moving into a tions found within the zodiac, although the con-
new home, social or religious functions, and so stellations, unlike the signs, are of unequal
forth. General information on auspicious and extension. While the zodiacal signs of Hindu
inauspicious times (→ auspiciousness) is also oten astrology are therefore not identical with the con-
included in religious calendars (pañcāṅga; see stellations, they are dependent on and constant in
below). Unlike contemporary Western astrolo- relation to them. By this division of the ecliptic,
gers, who typically focus on psychological coun- known as a sidereal or ixed (nirayaṇa) zodiac,
selling, Hindu practitioners are routinely expected Hindu astrology difers from its European coun-
by their clients to provide objective information terpart, which since Late Antiquity has allowed
concerning such issues as the time of marriage, the zodiac to drit away from the constellations
number and sex of children, career opportunities and become a wholly independent construct
and income, or the whereabouts of a missing per- deined with reference to the position of the sun
son or object. at the vernal equinox – the so-called tropical or
Over the centuries a number of regional styles movable (sāyana) zodiac.
of jyotiṣa have developed in India, favoring difer-
 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) 285

Anglo-Latin name Sanskrit name Meaning of Sanskrit

Aries meṣa ram

Taurus vṛṣabha bull
Gemini mithuna twins
Cancer karkaṭa crab
Leo siṃha lion
Virgo kanyā girl
Libra tulā scales
Scorpio vṛścika scorpion
Sagittarius dhanus bow
Capricorn makara sea monster
Aquarius kumbha (water) pot
Pisces mīna ish

Table 1: he twelve signs of the zodiac.

he Twelve Signs of the Zodiac Each planet (excluding the lunar nodes) is con-
he sun’s equinoctial position regresses very sidered to rule or own certain signs of the zodiac,
slowly through the constellations, describing a full Cancer and Leo being assigned to the luminaries
circle in some 26,000 years. his motion is known and successive pairs of signs to the remaining
as the precession of the equinox, and the preces- planets in their order of velocity, as seen from
sional value at any given date – the diference igure 1 drawn in the South Indian style.
between the two zodiacs – is called the ayanāṃ śa Planets are believed to inluence each other by
(“degree of motion”). here is considerable dis- occupying the same sign (conjunction, saṃ yoga)
agreement among Hindu astrologers on the exact or by “beholding” each other (aspect, dṛsṭ ị ).
ayanāṃ śa value, and on the iducial star or stars According to the most commonly used deinition,
marking the beginning of Aries, or of any zodiacal each planet casts a full aspect on the sign opposite
sign. he Government of India has adopted the itself (the seventh sign, counting inclusively).
value advocated by the late N.C. Lahiri (citrāpakṣa Jupiter also casts a full aspect on the ith and ninth
ayanāṃ śa, 23°09′35″ for 1 January, 1950) for the signs from itself, while other planets do so only by
computation of its oicial almanac. Most other a half aspect. Similarly, Saturn casts a full aspect
ayanāṃ śas in current use difer from that of N.C. on the third and tenth signs (otherwise a quarter-
Lahiri by less than 4°. strength aspect), and Mars aspects the fourth and

Pisces Aries Taurus Gemini

Jupiter Mars Venus Mercury

Aquarius Cancer
Saturn Moon

Capricorn Leo
Saturn Sun

Sagittarius Scorpio Libra Virgo

Jupiter Mars Venus Mercury

Fig. 1: he planetary rulers of the zodiac.

286 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
eighth signs from itself (otherwise a three-quarter which is then known as the irst “house” or “place”
aspect). his aspect system difers from that found (bhāva, sthāna); the following zodiacal sign is the
in classical Greek sources (see also the discussion second house, and so forth up to the twelth house.
of tājika astrology below). Alternatively, both the horizon and the meridian

1. aśvinī 8. puṣyā 15. svāti – (abhijit)

2. bharaṇī 9. āśleṣā 16. viśākhā 22. śravaṇā
3. kṛttikā 10. maghā 17. anurādhā 23. ̣ ā
dhaniṣth
4. rohiṇī 11. pūrvaphalgunī 18. ̣ ā
jyeṣth 24. śatabhiṣaj
5. mṛgaśīrṣā 12. uttaraphalgunī 19. mūlā 25. pūrvabhadrapadā
6. ārdrā 13. hastā 20. pūrvāṣāḍhā 26. uttarabhadrapadā
7. punarvasu 14. citrā 21. uttarāṣāḍhā 27. revatī

Table 2: he nakṣatras.

A parallel and indigenous system of dividing the may be considered, so that the intersections of the
zodiac is that of 27 or 28 asterisms or nakṣatras, zodiac with the horizon east and west are consid-
roughly corresponding to the daily motion of the ered the central points (“cusps,” sphuṭa) of the irst
moon through the constellations and therefore and seventh houses, respectively, and its intersec-
sometimes known as “lunar mansions.” Originally tions with the meridian south and north, the cusps
the names of the nakṣatras referred to observable of the tenth and fourth houses. he cusps of the
stars or constellations in the sky, but by the time of remaining houses are found by trisection of the
the Jyotiṣavedāṅga they had become an equal divi- resulting quadrants, each house extending in both
sion of the zodiac into 27 parts of 13°20′ each (the directions from its cusp halfway to the adjacent
additional nakṣatra abhijit being considered as cusps, rather than coinciding with the zodiacal
overlapping the nakṣatras uttarāṣāḍhā and signs.
śravaṇā). hough not without importance in natal Both the simpler and the more complex
or horary astrology, the nakṣatras igure most method of house division (the latter of which is
prominently in catarchic astrology (muhūrta). commonly named ater its 11th-century Indian
he apparent velocities of the planets as they advocate Śrīpati) appear to have existed in Helle-
move through the zodiac difer greatly, from the nistic astrology before its introduction into India.
27-day cycle of the moon to the 29.5-year cycle of Classical works on Hindu astrology rarely address
Saturn. Owing to the varying relative positions of the issue directly, and occasionally a single work
the earth and the ive tārāgrahas – planets in the will contain passages apparently supporting both
modern astronomical sense – in their respective systems. he same inconsistency is found in
orbits around the sun, these planets occasionally ancient Greek astrological texts. Present-day
appear to slow down, come to a halt, and move Hindu astrologers are divided on the matter, the
backwards, against the order of the zodiacal simpler method being more prevalent in South
signs. his phenomenon, known as retrogression India than in North India, and many astrologers
(vākrya), lasts from a few weeks to several months, employing both systems side by side.
ater which the planet stations once more and
resumes its direct or forward motion. he lumi- Diagnosis and Prognosis
naries are always in direct motion, the nodes (in Each of the twelve houses represents certain areas
their traditionally used mean motion) always ret- of life, the most notable of which may be dis-
rograde. cerned from their common appellations. Simi-
While the planets continuously move through larly, each planet by its inherent nature is
the zodiac, the rotation of the earth around its axis considered the signiicator (kāraka, lit. causer) of
causes the zodiac itself, along with the planets, a number of phenomena. A horoscope is judged
apparently to revolve around the point of observa- to determine, irst, the strength and quality of the
tion once in 24 hours. he zodiacal point rising in areas so signiied; and second, the times of their
the east at the time for which a horoscopic chart is manifestation. he former may be termed a static
cast is known as the ascendant (lagna). he same judgment or diagnosis; the latter, a dynamic judg-
designation may be used for the entire rising sign, ment or prognosis.
 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) 287

House Sanskrit name Meaning Other major signiications

irst tanu body birth; character; general quality of life.

second dhana wealth food; learning; speech; household.
third sahaja siblings courage; strength.
fourth sukha happiness mother; home; land; house; carriages.
ith putra children intelligence; worship; incantations.
sixth ripu enemies illness; debts; wounds.
seventh dāra wife marriage; sexual intercourse; trade.
eighth mṛtyu death sufering; misfortune.
ninth dharma virtue father; teachers; pilgrimage.
tenth karman action livelihood; rank; honor; fame.
eleventh lābha gain elder siblings; prosperity.
twelth vyaya loss imprisonment; exile.

Table 3: he twelve houses of the horoscope.

Any house may be inluenced by one or more prominent of which may be divided into four
planets in three ways: by position (yoga), aspect categories: zodiacal position; house postition;
(dṛsṭ ị ), and rulership (ādhipatya). hus, the areas motion and light; and planetary interrelations. Of
of life signiied by the house are thought to relect these, zodiacal position is the most complex. A
the beneicial or destructive qualities of any plan- planet is digniied in its own sign or domicile
ets occupying it, as well as those of planets ruling (svakṣetra) and even more so in its sign of exalta-
or casting their aspects on the zodiacal sign in tion (ucca), particularly in its degree of highest
which the house falls. Such qualities of the plan- exaltation (paramocca). Opposite these are its
ets are partly inherent or essential, partly acciden- sign of fall (nīca) and degree of deepest fall
tal, in that they are determined by each planet’s (paramanīca), where a planet is at its most debili-
current state of being (avasthā) and strength tated. hese concepts derive from Hellenistic
(bala) – two categories sometimes used synony- astrology. Other classiications of the sign place-
mously – as well as by its rulership of and place- ment for each planet are its place of rejoicing
ment in auspicious or inauspicious houses. By (known in the Indian tradition as mūlatrikoṇa,
way of illustration, a planet ruling the tenth house lit. root-triangle, and constituting part of one of
and placed in the twelth might be interpreted its domiciles or its exaltation) as well as its
positively as honors (tenth house) attained in friendly, neutral and inimical signs, of which
exile (twelth house), if the planet were inherently more than one version exist.
beneic and in good state; or negatively as loss Much importance is also attached to the divi-
(twelth house) of livelihood (tenth house), if sion of a sign into smaller segments (varga), of
inherently maleic and in evil state. which six, seven, ten or sixteen varieties are com-
Planetary strength or weakness and state of monly listed. Each segment is assigned a plane-
being are composed of many factors, the most tary ruler, and most correspond symbolically to

Sun Maleic. he self; kings; the father; gold; glory; ire.

Moon Beneic if waxing, maleic if waning. he mind; queens; the mother; silver; water.
Mars Maleic. Strength; soldiers; brothers; earth; ighting; weapons; wounds; enemies.
Mercury Beneic with beneics, maleic with maleics. Speech; scholars; learning; intelligence; arts
and crats.
Jupiter Beneic. Wisdom; ofspring; priests; ministers; teachers; dignity; piety; wealth.
Venus Beneic. Love; lust; semen; beauty; marriage; wives; enjoyments; carriages.
Saturn Maleic. Sufering; death; servants; poverty; misfortune; low company; imprisonment.

Table 4: Natures and major signiications of the planets.

288 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
one of the zodiacal signs. A planet may thus be is to say with their maximum brightness. he case
simultaneously digniied in some divisions and of the inferior planets (Mercury and Venus), the
debilitated in others. A few texts ascribe particu- orbits of which lie between the sun and the earth,
lar portfolios to the diferent divisions, but these is more complex, as they may be combust in
may vary considerably. More oten, the sum total either direct or retrograde motion.
of a planet’s varga placements is used to judge its As mentioned above, planets are considered to
overall performance, and a special nomenclature inluence each other by conjunction or aspect.
is employed to signify how many beneic vargas a Depending on the nature and accidental states of
planet has attained. In general practice, however, the planets involved, an aspect or conjunction
only the ninth-part or navāṃ śa is consistently may be considered either helpful or harmful.
employed. Among the conjunctions, a particular subset is

Pisces Aries Taurus Gemini

Venus 27° Sun 10° Moon 3°
Aquarius Cancer
Jupiter 5°
Capricorn Leo
Mars 28°
Sagittarius Scorpio Libra Virgo
Saturn 20° Mercury 15°

Fig. 2: he exaltations of the planets.

Among the 12 houses, the angles (kendra: houses that of planetary combat (grahayuddha), in which
1, 4, 7, and 10) are positions of strength; succedent one planet is considered defeated by the other. Dif-
houses (paṇaphara: houses 2, 5, 8, and 11) are ferent deinitions of this condition are found in
somewhat weaker; and cadent houses (āpoklima: classical texts, some requiring the warring planets
houses 3, 6, 9, and 12) weakest of all. he most to be conjunct by latitude as well as longitude.
unfortunate places are houses 6, 8, and 12. he Being the victor in planetary combat is a dignity,
trine houses (trikoṇa: houses 5 and 9) are held to whereas being defeated is a debility.
be fortunate (śubha) and are routinely grouped Having determined the latent tendencies of the
along with the kendras – and occasionally the 11th horoscope, the astrologer’s next task is to predict
house – as the auspicious places. their times of manifestation. For this purpose,
Of the kendras, the 1st house is held to be the Hindu astrology relies primarily on time-cycle
strongest, followed in turn by the 10th, the 7th, techniques, symbolically dividing a human life
and the 4th. into blocks of time (daśā, lit. condition, also called
he apparent motion and brightness of the ive pāka, “maturation,” or dāya, “allotment”) assigned
“stellar planets” depend on their apparent posi- to the various planets or zodiacal signs. Each such
tion relative to the sun. In Hindu astrology, block or main period typically lasts several years
brightness and slowness (including retrogression) and consists of a number of subperiods similarly
are generally considered dignities, whereas com- allotted, each of which may be further subdi-
bustion (conjunction with the sun, rendering a vided. In the simplest daśā systems, the order and
planet invisible) and switness are debilities. For duration of the various periods are ixed and
the so-called superior planets (Mars, Jupiter and identical for all; others are based on the distribu-
Saturn), the orbits of which lie outside that of the tion of planets in the houses of the horoscope,
earth, the two sets of phenomena are necessarily similar to time-cycle techniques found in classi-
related: their stations and retrogression – that is, cal Greek astrology. he daśā systems most in
their periods of minimum velocity – coincide current use, however, are irst found in early
with their greatest elongation from the sun, which medieval Sanskrit texts, and are based on the
 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) 289
indigenous nakṣatra division. he most popular Islam in Persia, and an initial period of Muslim
is the viṃ śottarī or “[one hundred] and twenty” resistance against the practice of astrology, the art
daśā, based on a cycle of 120 years – the theoreti- began to lourish under the Abbasid Caliphate
cal maximum human lifespan. Other common from the 8th century CE, with Greek, Persian,
nakṣatradaśās include the aṣtọ ttarī (“[one hun- and Indian texts being translated into Arabic.
dred] and eight”), kālacakra (“wheel of time”) and Among the Indian contributions were most likely
yoginī systems; many more are mentioned in texts interrogations (praśna) and military astrology
although rarely used in practice. (yātrā), together with speciic techniques such as
he basic premise of any daśā system is that a the use of the navāṃ śa or one-ninth of a zodiacal
planet or sign should, during its period, manifest sign. Some centuries later, this cross-pollinated
whatever it indicates in the natal horoscope, con- Perso-Arabic tradition was introduced into India,
current with the subject’s age and circumstances. where it became known as Tājika or “Persian”
Into this method based on the ixed horoscope of astrology (from Pahlavi tāzīg, meaning “Arab,”
the nativity, a lexible element is introduced by originally derived from Ṭayyiʾ, the name of the
the consideration of the celestial positions of the Arabic tribe). he earliest known Sanskrit text
planets – in particular, the ruler of the period in on Tājikajyotiṣa was probably composed in the
question – at the time of commencement of the 13th century. he system eventually spread over
period (daśāpraveśa), which may modify the most of India, but was and remains most popular
expected results considerably. in North India. It has many similarities with
As a secondary consideration, the continuous medieval European astrology, which is likewise
movements or transits (gocara, grahacāra) of the based on Perso-Arabic sources.
planets through the zodiac may be related to posi- Tājika difers from standard Indian astrology
tions in the nativity. he most complex method of mainly by its scheme of planetary aspects (dṛsṭ ị ),
judging the astrological efects of transits is called which are those of classical Greek astrology: the
aṣtạ kavarga (“groups of eight”), the transit of each conjunction (exact when two planets occupy the
planet being considered from the perspective of same degree and minute of one zodiacal sign),
the ascendant, the planet’s own natal position, sextile (exact at a 60° angle), square (90°), trine
and the natal positions of the other six planets (120°), and opposition (180°). Sextiles and trines
(excluding the lunar nodes). he seven planets are considered friendly aspects, the others hostile.
continuously transiting one or another of the 12 Great importance is attached to the consideration
zodiacal signs reckoned from eight diferent of whether an aspect is in the process of perfect-
points give rise to 672 possible results. At an early ing (“application” [itthaśāla, from Arab. ʾittiṣāl])
stage of its development, however, the method or dissolving (“separation” [īsarāpha, from Arab.
was considerably rationalized by the conversion ʾinṣirāf ]). Variations on this theme make up the
of particular good or evil predictions into a binary 16 tājikayogas, which form the nucleus of the sys-
system where a planet transiting a good place tem. Tājika also employs a partly diferent set of
scores a point (bindu), while a planet transiting an dignities, primarily the pañcavarga (“group of
evil place receives a dash (rekhā). A greater than ive”): domicile, exaltation, triplicity (musallaha,
average number of points falling in any given from Arab. muthallatha), terms (hadda, from
house of the natal horoscope indicates positive Arab. ḥ add), and decan. hese are again closely
results in the corresponding areas of life. modelled on Greek sources, as are the zodiacal
points known as “lots” (sahama, from Arab.
Variant Traditions sahm), derived mathematically from the longi-
During the long history of Indian astrology, many tudes of the planets and ascendant and used as a
regional styles and schools have developed in the third set of signiicators, along with planets and
subcontinent. Among the most distinctive are houses.
Tājikajyotiṣa, based on Perso-Arabic sources; Although designed as a complete system of
Kerala astrology with its unique praśna techniques; astrology, Tājika has long been associated with
and the traditions of Nāḍi or Bhṛgusaṃ hitā two branches in particular: interrogations and a
reading. form of genethlialogical prognostication known
Horoscopic astrology, which was probably dis- as annual revolutions (varṣaphala, lit. year result),
covered in Hellenistic Egypt, eventually spread which appears to be of Perso-Arabic invention. In
into Persia as well as India. Ater the advent of this method, a separate horoscope is cast for each
290 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
time the sun returns to its exact longitude at birth, ties in a temple lead the worshippers to fear the
on or around the subject’s birthday every year displeasure, or even the absence, of the deity or
(depending on the calendar used). his horo- deities worshipped. In such a ritual, the planets
scope is used to determine the outcome of the and the 12 houses of the horoscope take on a
following year of life – a more manageable unit of more specialized set of meanings adapted to the
time than the daśā periods and subperiods context. he purpose of a devapraśna is to reveal
employed in classical Indian astrology. Despite both the cause of the misfortunes in the temple
some initial resistance from orthodox quarters, and the most suitable remedy.
where the system was regarded as impure due to Two other forms of astrological divination with
its foreign origins, Tājika soon took root in India, strong religious and ritual ailiations are the
and is still widely practiced by Hindu astrologers, typologically similar Nāḍi (or Nāḍī) readings
oten alongside the classical system. prevalent in South India, particularly in Tamil-
Contrasting with Tājika, the forms of interro- speaking areas, and Bhṛgusaṃ hitā readings in
gational astrology practiced in the very south of North India. Common to both is that predictions
the subcontinent, particularly Kerala, represent for a client’s future and answers to his or her ques-
indigenous developments in which the “scientiic” tions are supposedly read out from preexistent,
aspect of the art has been played down in favor of physical manuscripts believed to have been
the overtly divinatory and religious. he Kerala authored by ancient sages or divinities long before
praśna technique known as aṣtạ maṅgalapraśna or the birth of either reader or client. Such texts are
“interrogations [with] eight auspicious [objects]” not considered subject to the symbolic interpre-
(oil lamps, a mirror, a gold piece, milk, curds, tation of the diviner, as is the case in bibliomancy
fruit, a book, and a white cloth) is a heavily ritual- (see → divination). On the contrary, a reading is
ized form of astological divination depending as ideally so speciic as to be applicable to one client
much on nonhoroscopic factors as on the horo- only; and many readers claim that their texts sup-
scope itself, and which seems to have been fully ply not only the name of the person consulting
developed at least by the mid-17th century. Ater the text, but even the names of his or her parents
ritual worship (→ pūjā) has been ofered to vari- and spouse.
ous divinities including the planets and to the While both types of readings are couched in
auspicious articles used, the astrologer recites astrological terminology, a client’s Bhṛgusaṃ hitā
certain → mantras while touching 108 consecrated manuscript is typically identiied on the basis of
cowrie shells. A prepubescent child is then asked an actual horoscope, brought by the client or pre-
to place the gold piece or coin in one of the pared by the reader and cast either for the time of
squares of a zodiacal diagram previously drawn the client’s birth or for the time of consultation.
up; the zodiacal sign represented by this square is he texts themselves are composed in simple,
treated as an ascendant and used in the astrolo- oten ungrammatical Sanskrit. he same is true of
ger’s interpretation. he cowrie shells are divided some Nāḍi texts; but more oten, the Nāḍi will be
into three heaps representing past, present and composed in Tamil (generally in an archaic and
future, and each heap counted to divine the status more literary style than the corresponding San-
of the corresponding period by numerological skrit texts), and the manuscript to be used for the
means, the planets being assigned numbers from reading is identiied with the help of the client’s
one to eight. Betel leaves brought by the client are thumb print, followed by a series of yes-or-no
similarly examined and interpreted within a questions. he Bhṛgusaṃ hitā is always presented
broad framework of astrological symbolism; and as a dialogue between the sage (ṛsị ) Bhṛgu and his
every event or circumstance connected with the son Śukra (identiied with the planet Venus); in
consultation is noted and incorporated into the the Tamil Nāḍi texts, the speakers are divinities
reading. (typically → Śiva and → Pārvatī), two or more ṛsị s
While aṣtạ maṅgalapraśna may be employed to (most oten Agastya, sometimes credited with the
answer many kinds of questions, its elaborate invention of the Tamil language; other popular
nature and the corresponding cost of performing sages include Vasiṣtḥ a, Kauśika, Śuka, and Bhṛgu),
it means that it is generally resorted to in matters or a combination of these. In both North and
of grave importance. One particular form of the South India, the readers of Sanskrit texts are gen-
practice is the devapraśna (“interrogation about erally Brahmans, while the Tamil Nāḍi readers
the gods”), employed when evil signs or calami- are non-Brahmans.
 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) 291
he term “nāḍi” is probably derived from the say, Christian) and a sceptic or “rationalist” wing,
Tamil root nāṭu-, “to enquire ater,” “examine,” although the two have sometimes joined forces;
“look at,” and all texts containing the term in its whereas western pro-astrological inluences have
astrological sense, even when composed in San- been largely informed by heosophy (→ heo-
skrit, appear to originate in the Dravidian lan- sophical Society).
guage area. A Tamil Nāḍi reading will normally Perhaps more important than either of these
consist of 12 chapters (kāṇḍa) corresponding to ideological inluences, however, is the technical
the 12 astrological houses, of which the client development which made possible the printing
may choose to hear as many as he or she likes and distribution of astrological books and maga-
(each for a separate fee), plus additional chapters zines in increasing numbers throughout the 20th
dealing with planetary periods and subperiods century. hese include translations of classical
(daśābhukti), prescriptions of traditional medi- Sanskrit works into English and various regional
cine (auṣadha), initiation (dīkṣā) in the use of languages as well as modern textbooks intended
mantras, and, most importantly, advice on pacii- for self-study. As a result of this new availability
cation and propitiation of ill-placed planets of astrological knowledge, originally the initiative
(śāntiparihāra). of a handful of individuals, a new class of astrolo-
Sanskrit Nāḍi texts difer markedly from the gers has emerged. he practice of astrology in
Tamil variety, particularly by a unique doctrine of India, whether profesionally or as a hobby, is no
a limited number of ixed life patterns inherent in longer restricted to Sanskrit-literate upper castes
minute divisions of the zodiac, each of which is or to members of traditional jyotiṣī (astrologer)
termed a nāḍi or simply aṃ śa (“part”). (A similar families, although still limited to those with sui-
idea – the Myriogenesis doctrine – is outlined by cient income and leisure to pursue it. However,
4th-century Roman astrologer Firmicus Mater- despite increased external similarities with astrol-
nus, but no horoscope interpretations actually ogy as found in contemporary Western culture –
purporting to be based on this doctrine have been including the prevalence of horoscope columns
recorded.) Standard rules of astrological interpre- in magazines and newspapers – astrology contin-
tation are superimposed on the fundamental pat- ues to play a role in Indian society which it has
tern of destiny indicated by the aṃ śa to arrive at not done in the West since the Renaissance.
particular predictions. here is reason to believe During the latter half of the 20th century, par-
that this astrological tradition, too, has its roots ticularly its last two decades, Indian or Hindu
in or around present-day Kerala. he existence of astrology has also achieved a marked presence in
both Nāḍi and Bhṛgusaṃ hitā texts can be attested Western countries, where readings ofered by
at least from the 16th or 17th century; some both Indians and Westerners are not only based
scholars have conjectured that Indian texts of this on Indian techniques and couched in Sanskrit
type may have been referred to by writers in terminology, but presuppose a Hindu ontology
Arabic as early as the 8th or 9th century. (including belief in karman, rebirth [→ saṃ sāra],
and the Hindu pantheon) and oten culminate in
Astrology and Modernity prescriptions of Hindu ritual observances such as
he shit in scientiic paradigms which led to the the chanting of mantras and performance of pūjā
drastic decline of astrology in Europe from the or homa (ire sacriice). Practitioners are oten,
17th century did not afect India, whose astrolog- though by no means always, ailiated with neo-
ical traditions remain vibrantly alive today. From Hindu organizations, some of which take an
the late 19th century up to the present, however, active part in arranging both readings and subse-
astrology in India has been repeatedly confronted quent ritual remedies at a fee. In an instance of
with Western ideas, and, as a result, has under- reacculturation, or what A. Bhāratī termed the
gone considerable changes. Such modern inlu- “pizza efect,” the misnomer “Vedic astrology,”
ences may be broadly divided into two categories: coined by Western practitioners, has gained pop-
the anti-astrological, forcing astrologers to defend ularity in India as well.
and redeine the theory and practice of their art; In recent years, astrology in India has become
and the pro-astrological, directly afecting the a controversial political and academic issue since
form and, to some extent, the content of astrolog- the move in 2001 of the University Grants
ical teaching. he anti-astrological contingent Commission of the Government of India – then
may be further divided into a religious (that is to led by the nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party – to
292 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
introduce “Vedic astrology” ( jyotirvijñāna) as an mic cycles). he computation of the sixty
academic discipline at Indian universities. Sup- prabhavādi years – so named ater the irst year in
porters have viewed the decision as preserving an the cycle – varies, as some schools advocate a
important aspect of the Indian cultural heritage (soli)-lunar year deinition (cāndramāna), others
in the face of Western imperialism, while critics a Jovian one (bārhaspatyamāna), the latter being
have described it as a “giant leap backwards” in based on Jupiter’s mean motion through one
terms of scientiic credibility. zodiacal sign. he Jovian calculation, used mostly
in North India, is currently 12 years ahead of the
soli-lunar calculation prevalent in South India.
Calendar hus, the year beginning in 2000 CE would be
considered a nandana year in some parts of the
Hindu religious calendars are typically soli-lunar, country but a vikrama year in others.
unlike the international civil (Gregorian) calen- A year is divided into two half years (ayana).
dar, which is based exclusively on the solar year, During the northern course (uttarāyaṇa) the sun
or the Islamic calendar, which is exclusively lunar. is approaching its northernmost position relative
In most Hindu calendars a year consists of 12 to the equator, or summer solstice in the north-
synodic months, reckoned either from one new ern hemisphere; during the southern course
moon to the next (the amānta system, generally (dakṣiṇāyana) it is moving towards its southern-
prevalent in South India along with some eastern most position, or winter solstice. hese points of
and western states) or from one full moon to the maximum declination are oten identiied with
next (the pūrṇimānta system, prevalent in much the entry of the sun into the signs Cancer and
of North India), giving a year of approximately Capricorn, respectively, although in the ixed
354 days. When the discrepancy between this zodiac used by Indian astrologers this identiica-
synodic year and the solar year marked by the tion is no longer astronomically correct (see the
changing seasons approaches one month, an discussion of the zodiac above). Each ayana is
intercalary month is inserted. In Tamil-speaking divided into three seasons (ṛtu) of two months
areas there is also an alternative system of solar each, the uttarāyaṇa being comprised of cool sea-
months, deined by the duration of the sun’s stay son (śiśira), spring (vasanta) and summer (grīṣma),
in one zodiacal sign (just over 30 days) and and the dakṣiṇāyana of rainy season (varṣa),
requiring no intercalation. autumn (śarad) and winter (hemanta).

1. prabhava 16. citrabhānu 31. hemalamba 46. paridhāvin

2. vibhava 17. subhānu 32. vilamba 47. pramādin
3. śukla 18. tāraṇa 33. vikārin 48. ānanda
4. pramoda 19. pārthiva 34. śarvarin 49. rākṣasa
5. prajāpati 20. vyaya 35. plava 50. anala
6. aṅgiras 21. sarvajit 36. śubhakṛt 51. piṅgala
7. śrīmukha 22. sarvadhārin 37. śobhakṛt 52. kālayukta
8. bhava 23. virodhin 38. krodhin 53. siddhārtha
9. yuvan 24. vikṛta 39. viśvāvasu 54. raudra
10. dhātṛ 25. khara 40. parābhava 55. durmati
11. īśvara 26. nandana 41. plavaṅga 56. dundubhi
12. bahudhānya 27. vijaya 42. kīlaka 57. rudhirodgārin
13. pramāthin 28. jaya 43. saumya 58. raktākṣa
14. vikrama 29. manmatha 44. sādhāraṇa 59. krodhana
15. vṛṣa 30. durmukha 45. virodhakṛt 60. kṣaya

Table 5: he sixty Jovian years.

Years are identiied by reference to a given era Each synodic month takes its name from the
and/or to the so-called Jovian sixty-year cycle. constellation (nakṣatra) in or near which its full
he eras most oten met with are Shaka (78 CE), moon occurs. (In the pūrṇimānta system this
Vikrama (58 BCE) and Kali (3102 BCE; see → cos- refers to the full moon at the end of the month.)
 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) 293
he month is divided into two halves or fort- Western calendar, each day being assigned to one
nights (pakṣa, lit. wing): śuklapakṣa or the bright of the seven planets. his order is based on a
fortnight of the waxing moon, and kṛsṇ ạ pakṣa or scheme of planetary rulers of the 24 hours (another
the dark fortnight of the waning moon. A pakṣa is meaning of horā, from Greek ὥρα) in a day. Begin-
further divided into iteen phases or lunar “days” ning with sunrise on Saturday, the irst hour is
(tithi), deined by the movement of the moon in ruled by Saturn – the slowest-moving planet –
12° segments of ecliptical longitude away from or with each successive hour assigned to the other
towards the sun. he average duration of a tithi is celestial bodies in ascending order of apparent
slightly less than 24 hours, but the actual duration velocity. As this cycle repeats, the irst hour of
varies with the motion of the two luminaries. he the next day will be that of the sun, which becomes
new moon is called amā or amāvāsyā, the full the ruler of Sunday; this is followed
moon pūrṇimā; other tithis within a pakṣa are by Monday ruled by the moon, and so forth.
known by their ordinals (see table 7). For astrological purposes Sunday is considered
Days begin at sunrise and are arranged in a the irst day of the week, as the sun is irst among
seven-day week in the order familiar from the the celestial bodies.

Full moon in/near Name of month Full moon in/near Name of month

citrā caitra aśvinī aśvina

viśākhā vaiśākha kṛttikā kārttika
̣ ā
jyeṣth ̣ a
jyaiṣth mṛgaśīrṣā mārgaśīrṣa
pūrvāṣāḍhā aṣāḍha puṣyā pauṣa
śravaṇā śrāvaṇa maghā māgha
pūrvabhadrapadā bhādrapada uttaraphalgunī phālguna

Table 6: he twelve synodic months.

śuklapakṣa (bright fortnight) kṛsṇ ạ pakṣa (dark fortnight)

1. prathamā or pratipad 8. aṣtạ mī 1. prathamā or pratipad 8. aṣtạ mī

2. dvitīyā 9. navamī 2. dvitīyā 9. navamī
3. tṛtīyā 10. daśamī 3. tṛtīyā 10. daśamī
4. caturthī 11. ekādaśī 4. caturthī 11. ekādaśī
5. pañcamī 12. dvādaśī 5. pañcamī 12. dvādaśī
6. ṣaṣtḥ ī 13. trayodaśī 6. ṣaṣtḥ ī 13. trayodaśī
7. saptamī 14. caturdaśī 7. saptamī 14. caturdaśī
15. pūrṇimā or paurṇamī (full moon) 15. amā or amāvāsyā (dark moon)

Table 7: he tithis.

Weekday Latin name Sanskrit name Ruling planet

Sunday dies solis ravivāsara Sun

Monday dies lunae somavāsara Moon
Tuesday dies martis maṅgalavāsara Mars
Wednesday dies mercurii budhavāsara Mercury
hursday dies jovis guruvāsara Jupiter
Friday dies veneris śukravāsara Venus
Saturday dies saturni śanivāsara Saturn

Table 8: he seven weekdays with their planetary rulers.

294 Astrology and Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
Days and nights are variously subdivided, gen- to arrive at the yoga. A karaṇa is half a tithi, desig-
erally using separate calculations for daytime nated by one of 11 diferent names according to a
(from sunrise to sunset) and nighttime (from sun- rotating scheme. Both yoga and karaṇa designa-
set to sunrise). his is true both of the horā (1/12 tions are divided into auspicious and inauspicious
of a day or night, mostly used for astrological pur- and are considered more or less suitable for difer-
poses) and of indigenous units of time such as the ent undertakings. Apart from these ive ixtures, a
yāma (1/4 of a day or night) and muhūrta (1/15 of pañcāṅga may contain information on the ingress
a day or night). Further divisions include the ghaṭī of the sun into a new zodiacal sign (saṃ krānti),
or nāḍī (half a muhūrta), subdivided in its turn into lunar or solar eclipses (grahaṇa), particular reli-
60 parts (vighaṭī, vināḍī). gious → festivals (utsava) or observances (→ vrata),
A Hindu calendar for any given year is gener- and astrologically favorable or unfavorable times
ally called a pañcāṅga (lit. ive-limbed), referring such as the daily rāhukālam generally avoided in
to the ive features listed for each day. hese are: South India.
the day of the week, or planetary ruler of the day;
the tithi or lunar phase; the nakṣatra or constella-
tion occupied by the moon; the yoga; and the Bibliography
karaṇa. All refer to the time of sunrise (generally
deined as the rising of the centre of the solar disc) Pingree, D., From Astral Omens to Astrology: From Baby-
on the day in question. In this context, yoga is the lon to Bīkāner, SOR 78, Roma, 1997.
Pingree, D., Jyotiḥ śāstra: Astral and Mathematical Litera-
sum of the ecliptical longitudes of the sun and
ture, HIL 6/4, Wiesbaden, 1981.
moon, arranged in 27 segments of 13°20′ each,
parallel to but not identical with the nakṣatras. If Martin Gansten
the sum exceeds 360°, that number is subtracted