A comprehensive guide meticulously designed to navigate you through the demanding

terrains of TSPSC – APPSC - Group 1 & 2, and UPSC Civil Services Examinations.

This book stands as a One-Stop Solution, finely interweaving the extensive and varied syllabi of
these three formidable examinations, aiming to provide a seamless and enriching learning
experience for aspirants with diverse needs. Our endeavour is to facilitate a holistic and integrated
learning approach, enabling you to comprehend and interlink diverse subjects and concepts,
essential for cracking these competitive exams. The table serves as a roadmap, guiding you through
the syllabus, ensuring a balanced and focused preparation strategy.

TSPSC- Group 1 APPSC – Group 1 UPSC – Civils

I. The role and impact of I. Role and impact of Science
Science and Technology & Technology in the
Development of India
 Classical and Emerging  Science and Technology-  Science and Technology-
areas of Science & Classical and emerging areas developments and their
Technology: Value addition their relevance to the day to applications and effects in
by Science & Tech. day life. everyday life.
 Current Science &  National Policy of Science and  Achievements of Indians
Technology developments technology and its changes. in science & technology;
in India and importance of  Importance of science and indigenization of
Science & Technology as an technology nation Building. technology and
engine for National developing new
Development; technology.
 Industrial development &
Urbanization.
 National Policy of Science &  Nation Policies of Science and  Awareness in the fields of
Technology: changes in Technology- energies in IT, Computers, robotics,
Policy from time to time: Policies with time, Nano-technology, bio
 Technology missions- ICT:  Technology Missions- Basics technology and
Basics in Computers, in Computers Communication  Technology missions;
Robotics, Nano technology Broadcasting  Issues relating to
and Communication.  Role of the information intellectual property
Technology in rural India, rights.
 Software Development in
Economic Growth,
Development of
Nanotechnology, Role in
different areas.
 Space program in India and  Space Programme in India, its  Awareness in the fields of
its applications with special Applications with Reference Space
reference to industrial, to industrial, Agricultural and
agricultural and other rural other rural development
development activities, activities; INSAR, IRS,
 INSAT, IRS systems, EDUSAT EDUSAT, Chandrayaan,
and Chandrayaan-1 and Mangalyaan and other
future Programme. futures Programmes,
 Role of Space Programme in
Agriculture & Rural
Development

1
 Application of Space  Current Science &  Disaster and disaster
Technology in India with Technology Developments in management
references to Education, India,
Agriculture and Industry.  Global Warming and Climate
 Climatic change, Floods, change, Floods, Cyclones and
Cyclone, Tsunami, Natural Tsunami, Natural and
and Manmade Disaster  Manmade Disasters,
Management. Tsunami, Mobilization and
Industrialization.
 Energy Resources: Energy  Energy Resources: Energy  Energy Policies in India,
demands, Indian energy demands, Indian Energy energy security
scenario- hydel, thermal Sciences Conventional  Renewable and Non –
and nuclear. energy powers, Thermal, Renewable energy
 Importance of renewable renewable energy resources, resources
resources - Solar, Wind, Solar, wind, Bio and wasted
small/Mini/Micro hydel, based, energy policies
Biomass, waste based, Geothermal and Tidal
geothermal, tidal & fuel Sources,
cells.  Energy Policies in India,
 Energy security - Role of energy security.
Science & Technology, Bio-
fuel cultivation and
extraction.
II. Modern Trends in II. Biological Resources,
application of knowledge of Human Welfare & Modern
Science trends in Life Sciences
 Crop Science in India;  Biological Resources: Plants,  Major Crops
Characteristics of Plants - animals and Microbes.  Crop diversification
Crop plants, Forest species,  Outline Classification of  High yield crops
Medicinal Aromatic plants. plants, animals and  Agricultural revolutions
 Useful and Harmful plants microorganisms.  Economics of animal-
and utility for mankind  Plants and Animal Resources: rearing
Uses of plants-food, fodder,
medicine & fibers & other
products.
 Cultivated plants-origin &
Indian natives. Poisonous
plants.
 Animals-wild and
domesticated. Usefulness of
animals for Mankind for food
and medical advancements.
 Concept of Biotechnology  Introduction to Genetic  Concept of Biotechnology
and application of genetic Engineering and and applications of
engineering and Stem Cell Biotechnology. Basic genetic engineering
Research. concepts of genetic
 Biotechnology in engineering.
Agriculture (bio-fertilizers,  Tissue culture methods and
bio - pesticides, bio- fuels, applications.
tissue culture, cloning) and  Biotechnology in agriculture-
 Environment Bio-pesticides, Bio-fertilizers,

2
 (Biotechnology in Bio-fuels, GM crops.
Environmental cleanup  Animal husbandry- transgenic
process) animals.
 Food bio-technology, Food  Microbial resources -  Food security;
safety and Food quality History of fermentation  Food processing
standards, Food Laws and development industrially
Regulations. important Fermentation
 Recent Trends in organic  Products - antibiotics, organic
farming and farm acids, alcohols, vitamins,
mechanization. amino acids.
 Safe Drinking Water -  Insulin and growth
Defluoridation and other hormones.
Techniques.
 Microbial infections;  Human diseases-microbial  Microbial Infections
Introduction to bacterial, infections.  Preventive Measures
viral, protozoal and fungal  Common infections and
infections. Preventive measures.
 Basic knowledge of Introduction to bacterial,
infections caused by viral, protozoal and fungal
different groups of Infections.
microorganisms- diarrhea,  Basic knowledge of
dysentery, cholera, infections-diarrhea,
tuberculosis, malaria, viral dysentery, cholera,
infections like HIV,  Tuberculosis, malaria, viral
encephalitis, chikungunya, infections like HIV,
bird flu- Preventive Encephalitis, Chikungunya,
Measures during out Bird flu-preventive measures
breaks. during outbreaks.
 Vaccines: Introduction to  Vaccines: Introduction to  Vaccines
immunity, Fundamental immunity, Fundamental  Principles of Vaccination
concepts in vaccination and concepts in vaccination,
 Traditional methods of  Production of Modern
vaccine production Vaccines (production of
(production of DPT and Hepatitis vaccine).
Rabies vaccine),
 Production of modern
vaccines (production of
Hepatitis Vaccine)

This book encompasses 95% of the common syllabus for TSPSC, APPSC, and UPSC, covering up to
100 (S&T) + 50 (Essay) marks for TSPSC & APPSC mains and up to 100 marks for UPSC mains,
serving as a versatile resource for comprehensive preparation. This book also includes detailed
explanations and analyses of key concepts relevant to Prelims.

3
 INDEX (SAMPLE)

I. The Role and Impact of Science and Technology

Chapter 1: Classical and Emerging Areas of Science & Technology
 Contributions and current developments in Science and Technology in India,
emphasizing its role as an engine for national development, industrial growth, and
urbanization.

Chapter 2: National Policy of Science & Technology

 Evolution of Science and Technology policies in India, including technology missions
and advancements in ICT, robotics, nanotechnology, and communications.

Chapter 3: Space Program in India and its Applications

 India's space initiatives like INSAT, IRS, EDUSAT, Chandrayaan missions, and future
programs, focusing on their impact on industrial, agricultural, and rural
development.

Chapter 4: Application of Space Technology in India

 Space technology applications in education, agriculture, and industry, and its role in
managing climatic changes; natural and man-made disasters.

Chapter 5: Energy Resources

 India’s energy demands and scenario, including hydel, thermal, and nuclear sources,
and the significance of renewable resources like solar, wind, and bio-fuels for energy
security.

II. Modern Trends in the Application of Knowledge of Science

Chapter 6: Crop Science in India
 Crop science, covering various plant types including crop plants, forest species, and
medicinal plants, and their significance for humanity.

Chapter 7: Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

 Role of biotechnology and genetic engineering in agriculture (e.g., bio-fertilizers,
tissue culture) and environmental management (e.g., bioremediation).

Chapter 8: Food Biotechnology

 Food safety and quality standards, food laws and regulations, trends in organic
farming, farm mechanization, and safe drinking water technologies.

Chapter 9: Microbial Diseases

 Microbial infections and their impacts, covering bacterial, viral, protozoal, and fungal
infections, and preventive measures during outbreaks.

Chapter 10: Vaccines

 Basics of immunity, traditional and modern vaccine production techniques, and the
production of vaccines like those for Hepatitis and Rabies.

4
 CROP SCIENCE (SAMPLE)
6.1 Scope of Crop Science
6.2 Indian Agriculture
6.2.1 Unique, vast and diversified agriculture in India:
 Agricultural research in India
 Indian government initiatives
6.3 Traditional vs Modern Cultivation:
6.3.1 Features of Traditional agricultural practices
6.3.2 Features of Modern agricultural practices
6.4 Importance of Crop Science in Agriculture
6.5 Taxonomy
6.5.1 Classification of Plants A) Bentham and hooker system B) Rh Whittaker Classification
6.6 Physiological processes in plants
6.7 Morphological characteristics of plants
6.8 Characteristics of Plants - Crop plants, Forest species, Medicinal Aromatic plants
6.8.1 Characteristics of crop plants
 Major crops & Plant Diseases
 Mushrooms
 Oil Seed Crops & Policies
6.8.2 Characteristics of Forest species:
 Forest Types & Services provided by forests
 Technologies used to conserve Forest Species
 Community forestry and Joint Forest Management (JFM)
6.8.3 Characteristics of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:
 Significance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in India
 Important Medicinal & Aromatic Plants
 Traditional Medicine in Modern Healthcare
6.9 Useful & Harmful Plants and Utility for Mankind:
6.9.1 Useful Plants and Utility for Mankind
6.9.2 Poisonous plants
6.9.3 Framework and Policies to protect Medicinal and Aromatic plants in India
6.10 Potential of Plants as Biopesticides & Bioherbicides & Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
6.11 Invasive species
6.12 Impact of Climate Change on Crop Cultivation
6.13 Importance of Soil Health & Crop Rotation
6.14 Sustainable Irrigation Practices
6.15 Role of science and technology in enhancing the efficiency of crops and crop science research
6.16 Animals-wild and domesticated
 Native Indian Animal species
 Usefulness of animals for mankind for food and medical advancements.
 Animals in Laboratories
6.17 Telangana State Biodiversity Profile – Flora and Fauna
6.18 Andhra Pradesh State Biodiversity Profile

5
 MICROBIAL INFECTIONS (SAMPLE)
9.1 Some Major Historical Outbreaks
9.2 Key Milestones in the History of Microbial Disease Discoveries
9.3 Disease Transmission Methods: Direct and Indirect Transmission.
9.4 Key Factors Influencing Infection
9.5 How Microorganisms Cause Disease
9.6 Preventive measures to be taken to avoid Common Infections
Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)
9.7 The impact of pathogens on human health
9.8 Role of Rapid and Accurate Diagnostics in India
9.9 Public Health Strategies in India
9.10 Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR)
Fixed Dose Drug Combinations (FDCs)
9.11 Healthy Diet
Trans-fats, Balanced Diet
9.12 Role of Technology in Transforming the Health Care sector
Life expectancy and menstrual hygiene management (MHM)
9.13 Non-communicable diseases (NCDs): Diabetes, Cancers, Cardiovascular diseases etc.
9.14 Microbial Infections: Friendly Microbes and Harmful Microbes
Bacterial Diseases: Tuberculosis (TB), Cholera, Dysentery, Diarrhoea, Typhoid, Urinary Tract
Infection (UTI), Leprosy, Pneumonia, Tetanus, Anthrax
Viral infections: HIV-AIDS, Influenza, Measles, Rubella, Dengue, CHIKUNGUNYA, Encephalitis,
COVID-19, Bird flu
Fungal infections: Mycoses in humans- Dermatophytes (Tinea Infections), Yeasts, Moulds,
Dimorphic Fungi Mucormycosis (black fungus) etc
Protozoan Diseases- Malaria, Leishmaniasis (Kala-Azar), Black Fever, Giardiasis etc
Parasitic Diseases - Filariasis

9.15 Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

9.16 Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs)
9.17 Diseases in News

6
 VACCINES ( PYQ’s)

Year Exam Questions

2022 UPSC What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines
work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to
produce COVID-19 vaccines?
2020 APPSC Explain the mechanism of action of vaccines. Give two examples where vaccines
have eradicated diseases in India. What do you know about the Global Vaccine
Action Plan 2011-2020 and Mission Indradhanush?
2020 APPSC The 2020 Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine was awarded to three
scientists for their work on HCV. What do you know about this virus and the
disease it causes? Is there any vaccine available for this disease?
2017 APPSC What is Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)? Describe the role of MHC
classes.
2017 APPSC What are monoclonal antibodies? How are they useful in detecting parasitic
diseases?
2016 TSPSC Write a note on the combination vaccines and controversies associated with
these vaccines.
2016 TSPSC What is an antibody? Discuss the advancements in the field of
immunodiagnostics with suitable examples.
2016 APPSC What is immunization? Briefly write the history of development of vaccines?
2016 APPSC Write a short note on: Edible vaccines, ELISA test, autoimmune diseases
2016 APPSC Give a detailed note on ‘Triple Vaccination’.
2012 APPSC Enumerate the mechanism of humoral immunity system and the usefulness of
the antibodies.
2012 APPSC Give an account of the adverse effects of passive immunization.
2012 APPSC What are the organs of immune system? Give a schedule of immunization for
new born children.
2012 APPSC Write a short note on the adverse consequences of vaccination.
2012 UPSC The Human Papilloma Virus vaccine has been making the headlines in the recent
months. Who make the ideal candidates for receiving this vaccine and what are
its benefits?

7
 BIOTECHNOLOGY (PYQ’s)
Year Exam Questions
2022 APPSC 1. Biotechnology has unlocked a vast potential for improving human life, but the risks
it poses are now a concern - Discuss the blessing and curse of Biotechnology.
2. Bio-pesticides are slower in action compared to conventional pesticides, with
shorter persistence and susceptible to unfavourable environmental conditions, but
still there is a need to shift towards Bio-pesticides - Explain why.
2021 UPSC What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology?
How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society?
2020 APPSC 1. Is there any difference between gene therapy, transgenic organisms, and gene
enhancement/genome editing? With example, explain the ethical concerns in each
of these approaches? When can genome editing be considered ethical?
2. In October 2020, the Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to the CRISPR
technology. Explain how CRISPR functions in nature and how it has been adapted for
research and clinical applications.
2019 UPSC How can biotechnology improve the living standards of farmers?
2018 UPSC Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has
this activity benefitted the field of biopharma?
2017 UPSC Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical
conditions including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns.
Describe what stem cell therapy is & what advantages it has over other treatments
2017 APPSC 1. Describe the methods of gene transfer in developing Genetically Modified crops.
2. What is Bio pesticide? How fungal parasites of insects useful in Biological control.
2016 TSPSC 1. Define genetic engineering. Discuss the debates on genetically modified food.
2. Define plant tissue culture. Explain importance of tissue culture in agriculture.
3. What is pharmacogenomics? Applications of biotechnology in human health.
2016 APPSC 1. What is plant tissue culture? Write applications of tissue culture in agriculture?
2. What is ‘Golden Rice’? Describe its advantages?
3. What are Bio fertilizers? Explain different types of bio fertilizers and Advantages.
2012 APPSC 1. Define Bioinsecticides, What are the different types of Bioinsecticides?
2. Write briefly on the types and uses of biopesticides.
3. Mention briefly the arguments in favour of and against GM crops.
2011 APPSC 1. Give a brief description of GM crops and explain the regulations and concerns
associated with the release of a Genetically Modified crop.
2. Define biofertilizers. Give an account of technology involved for the mass
production of different biofertilizers, with their application.
2008 APPSC 1. What is meant by genetically modified crops? Write their role in agriculture with a
note on the legitimate concerns about transgenic agriculture.
2. Write about the role of biotechnology in environmental clean-up processes.

8
 MICROBIAL INFECTIONS (PYQ’s)

Year Exam Questions

2022 UPSC The increase in life expectancy in the country has led to newer health challenges in
the community. What are those challenges and what steps need to be taken?
2022 APPSC Technology plays a key role in transforming the healthcare sector and in addressing
India’s health care challenges—Discuss.
Why is antibiotic resistance getting worst in India? Discuss strategies & action plans.
2020 UPSC The COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide.
However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the
crisis. Give an account on how technology was sought to aid manage the pandemic.
2020 APPSC 1. What is “life expectancy at birth”? Data shows that the global average life
expectancy has more than doubled since 1900, and is now above 70 years. Describe
three to five factors which have contributed to improvement in life expectancy.
2. Write short notes on the causes, treatment, and methods of prevention of any 3
of these diseases: 1. Cholera; 2. Malaria; 3. Encephalitis; 4. Tuberculosis; 5. Avian flu.
2017 APPSC 1. Describe the major types of fungus that causes Mycoses in humans.
2. Describe the most common protozoan diseases, causative agents and prevention
2016 TSPSC 1. Present a note on the promotion of menstrual hygiene and its relevance.
2. What is meant by Vector-borne diseases? Write about the epidemiology of
malaria and malaria situation in India.
2016 APPSC 1. (A) Explain different patterns of disease outbreak with examples? Differentiate
between epidemic and endemic diseases?
(B) What is the cause of Chikungunya? What are its preventive measures and
treatment? Give a comparative note on symptomology of Chikungunya &Dengue?
2. (A) Write a brief note on aetiology, mode of spread, symptoms, treatment and
preventive measures of malarial parasite?
(B) Explain the preventive measures to be taken to avoid common infections.
2014 UPSC Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, are
contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases? What are the
mechanisms for monitoring & control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.
2013 UPSC What do you understand by Fixed Dose Drug Combinations (FDCs)?
2012 UPSC What do you understand by the term ‘Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis’ (MDR-TB)?
What measures would you advocate for its containment and what are the
implications of its spread in the community?
2012 APPSC 1. What are antibiotics? Write advantages and disadvantages of antibiotics of use.
2. (A) What is meant by infection? Explain the terms Acute, chronic, fulminating,
localized, generalized, primary and secondary used for infections, with examples.
(B) Write a short note on Pathogenesis.
3. (A) What is hydrophobia? Causes? What remedial or precautions to be taken?
(B) Discuss briefly on the morphology and biological characters of measles virus.
2011 UPSC Write about the Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach to sanitation.
2011 APPSC 1. Discuss in detail about HIV virus; also mention the symptoms associated with the
infection, preventive measures and diagnostic tests for disease confirmation.
2. Describe the causative agent for malaria, emphasize its life cycle in different hosts
and discuss the preventive measures for the disease.
2008 APPSC 1. Write about the causative agent for diarrhoea & tuberculosis, its symptoms, and
modes of infection, common diagnostic tests and causes for its prevalence in India.

9
 NATIONAL POLICY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

From Independence to the Present: overview

The Catalyst Role of Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI):

Science, Technology, Innovation (STI) plays a significant role in advancing socio-economic
development and benefitting all the sectors through scientific and technological advances. STI acts
as a key determinant in addressing critical sectors such as health, environment, education, food,
energy, climate change, water etc. Indian Science and Technology policies post-independent India
were predominantly rooted in the ideas of self-reliance and indigenous development across the
sectors. This unique approach has cemented India’s reputation in delivering inclusive and cost-
effective innovations on the global stage.

A Historical Traverse through STI Policies:

1. The Dawn: Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958 (SPR 1958)
In the initial years post-independence, SPR 1958 set the course, instilling a foundation for scientific
temper in India. More than mere scientific advancement, this policy was inspired with a grander
vision: employing science and technology as transformative tools for socio-economic upliftment and
nation-building.

2. The Pursuit of Technological Sovereignty: Technology Policy Statement, 1983 (TPS 1983)
By the 1980s, India had etched significant milestones in domains like space, nuclear energy,
industrial research, defence research, biotechnology, agriculture, and health. To augment this
trajectory, TPS 1983 was launched, championing the cause of technological self-reliance through
indigenous technology promotion. This era saw the birth of the Technology Development Fund and
the establishment of Technology, Information Forecasting, and Assessment Council (TIFAC)

3. The Millennium Transition: Science and Technology Policy, 2003 (STP 2003)
As the world stepped into the new millennium, India pivoted its STI stance. The policy now aimed at
conversion of knowledge into wealth and value, addressing socio-economic needs of the country
and to amalgamate science, technology, and innovation (STI). STP 2003, through its initiatives,
birthed institutions like the Scientific and Engineering Research Board (SERB) under Department of
Science & Technology (DST) to champion scientific research.

10
The period following the S&T Policy 2003 is marked by a significant increase in R&D Investment, a
steady increase in institutional and human capacity. As a result, the decade of 2010 to 2020 was
declared as the ‘Decade of Innovation’ with the agenda to create a 21st Century National Innovation
Ecosystem, to build innovative institutions and mind-sets for national progress.

4. The Innovation Era: Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy, 2013 (STIP 2013)
The next decade was marked by India's aspiration to be recognized amongst the top five global
scientific powers. The STIP 2013 laid emphasis on fostering an innovation-driven ecosystem,
attracting private sectors into R&D and linking STI to socio-economic priorities. The 12th Five-year
plan (2012-17) focused on the creation and development of R&D facilities, building technology
partnerships with states, large scale investment in Mega Science projects, etc.

5. The Strategic Blueprint: Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy, 2020 (STIP 2020)
Acknowledging the rapidly evolving national and global dynamics, STIP 2020 was unveiled as a
comprehensive policy, addressing the broader spectrum of the society. With its core focus on being
inclusive, the policy aims to drive India towards scientific self-reliance, ensuring readiness for
unpredictable exigencies. By strategically aligning with the United Nations Sustainable Development
Goals (UN-SDGs), STIP 2020 accentuates the need for augmenting public funding, promoting private
investments in R&D, reinforcing existing infrastructure, enhancing governance, and fostering global
STI collaborations. Thus, this policy instrument in its design and objective aims to be evidence-
driven, inclusive and bottom-up for the well-being of the nation and its people with socio-economic
and environmental considerations.

Year Policy Aim

1958 Scientific Policy "Foster, promote and sustain" the "cultivation of science and
Resolution scientific research in all its aspects".

1983 Technology Policy “Technological self-reliance through promotion and development of

Statement indigenous technologies”.

2003 Science and “To increase investment in research and development (R&D) and
Technology Policy innovation in areas that impact society and the economy”.

2013 Science, Technology, “To position India among the top five global scientific powers by 2020,
and Innovation Policy focusing on inclusive development and innovation by facilitating
private sector investment in R&D centres in India and overseas.”

2020 Science, Technology, “To reorient research and technology development priorities, sectoral
and Innovation Policy focus, and methods to achieve larger socio-economic welfare”.

11
Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP2020)
As India and the world reorient in the wake of the COVID-19 crisis, a landmark policy initiative has
been flagged by the Government of India. The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, 2020
(STIP2020) formulation process facilitated jointly by the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to
the Government of India and the Department of Science and Technology. It is one of the most
significant events amidst many important changes in the past decade that have necessitated the
formulation of a new outlook and strategy for Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI).

STIP 2020 by way of its decentralized, bottom-up, and inclusive design process aims to restrategize
priorities, sectoral focus, and methods of research and technology development for larger socio-
economic welfare. A participative model with four interconnected tracks that has been envisioned
to formulate the STIP 2020

 Track-I involves extended pubic and

expert consultation with larger public
participation. Track-I aims to capture the
aspirations of a larger set of stakeholders
and create a repository of public voices
that will act as a guiding force for the
drafting process. There are six unique
activities under this track, designed
carefully keeping the limitations (access,
reach, digital services, language barriers
and last-mile connectivity) of different stakeholder groups in mind.
 Track-II involves focused experts-driven thematic group consultations to feed evidence-
informed recommendations into the policy drafting process. Twenty-one (21) thematic groups
have been constituted for this purpose with 150+ experts drawn from government, academia,
industry, civil society organizations and think tanks.
 Track-III connects ministries, departments, and states to this policy process through a
designated nodal officer. This track involves extensive intra-state and intra-department/ministry
consultations. The ‘State/UT Consultations’ focus on strengthening the regional STI ecosystem
and creating efficient means of STI Policy Governance at the state level that can lead to the
creation of state STI Policies and action plans in tandem with the national STIP 2020. The
ministerial consultation process will take key policy recommendations from different ministries
and incorporate them into a form that can lead to the creation of a broader STI policy
governance and robust STI data architecture.
 Track-IV brings institutional coherence by integrating inputs from all the tracks. This track is the
binding force that draws upon the apex-level multi-stakeholder engagement at the national as
well as global levels. This track is ex-officio in nature, involving institutional representatives from
governments, academia, industry, and civil society organizations. The Track-IV apex-level
consultations have focused deliberations planned with (i) young scientists and technologists, (ii)
civil society organizations with special focus on farmers and traditional businesses, (iii) scientific
ministries, departments and agencies, (iv) socio-economic ministries and department, (v) state
governments, and (vi) global partners.

12
The background preparatory work in all the 4 tracks helps us in capturing the larger stakeholder
voices and results in identifying a broader set of priority issues, recommendations, ideas, and
suggestions to shape up the STI ecosystem of the country with a futuristic outlook. In addition, the
national STI policy can truly reach the masses only when they percolate down to the states. The
proactive role of states in aligning their policies towards the larger goal of STIP 2020 will go a long
way in building a strong STI ecosystem and promoting innovation and entrepreneurship.

Vision:
 To achieve technological self-reliance and establish India as one of the top three global scientific
superpowers within the next decade.
 To attract, nurture, enhance, and retain essential human capital through a 'people-centric'
science, technology, and innovation (STI) ecosystem.
 To double the number of Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) researchers, the Gross Domestic
Expenditure on R&D (GERD), and the private sector's contribution to GERD every five years.
 To cultivate individual and institutional excellence in STI with the goal of attaining the highest
levels of global recognition and awards over the next decade.

The Philosophy behind STIP 2020 includes:

 A departure from previous STI policies which were predominantly top-driven in development,
this policy adopts fundamental principles of being decentralized, evidence-informed, bottom-up,
expert-driven, and inclusive.
 It is designed to be dynamic, with a strong policy governance framework that incorporates
regular reviews, evaluations, feedback, adaptations, and importantly, a well-timed exit strategy
for policy tools.
 The STIP is driven by the vision to make India one of the top three global scientific superpowers
in the upcoming decade, and to foster a people-centric STI ecosystem that attracts nurtures,
strengthens, and retains crucial human capital.

The Open Science Framework promotes more equitable participation in science by:
 Enhancing access to research findings;
 Increasing transparency and accountability in research processes, and promoting inclusiveness;
 Improving resource utilization through minimal restrictions on the reuse of research outputs and
infrastructure;
 Facilitating ongoing knowledge exchange between the creators and consumers of knowledge.
 Ensuring at least 30 percent representation of women in all decision-making bodies and
providing "spousal benefits" to partners of scientists from the LGBTQ+ community.
 The policy stipulates that "academic age" rather than biological age should be considered in
matters of selection, promotion, awards, or grants.

13
 SPACE TECHNOLOGY

Evolution:
 India's journey into space exploration is a testament to its commitment to science, innovation,
and the quest to understand the cosmos. This voyage is intricately woven into the global
narrative of space exploration, which saw its genesis with early experiments such as France's use
of sounding balloons in 1896 to study the atmosphere. The launch of the first sounding rocket,
The WAC Corporal, by America in 1945 and the subsequent development of rockets capable of
placing satellites into orbit marked a pivotal shift towards the modern space age.
 In the wake of the historic launch of Sputnik-1 by the Soviet Union in 1957, the global scientific
community, spurred by the realization of space's potential, took a significant step forward. In
response to this newfound frontier, the International Council for Scientific Union founded the
Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) in 1958. COSPAR aimed to foster international
cooperation in space exploration and research, marking the beginning of a concerted global
effort in the space race.
 India, closely watching the international advancements in space technology, recognized the
strategic importance of space research for national development. In this context, the Indian
government, led by the visionary Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, head of the Department of Atomic
Energy, took a pivotal step by establishing the Indian National Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) on February 16, 1962. Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, known as the father of the Indian space
program, was appointed as its first chairman, setting the stage for India's ambitious journey into
space exploration. The Space Commission and the Department of Space were established in
1972, bringing ISRO under their umbrella.
 India's space program has been strategically developed around: satellite communication and
remote sensing, space transportation systems, and application programs. Early achievements
include the operationalization of the Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station in
Ahmedabad in 1967, which also served as a training hub for scientists and engineers worldwide.
 Before the advent of indigenous satellites, ISRO utilized foreign satellites for developmental
applications. One such initiative was 'Krishi Darshan,' a television program aimed at
disseminating agricultural information to farmers, which received widespread acclaim.
 The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76, reaching 200,000 people
across 2,400 villages, and the Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) using the
Symphonie satellite in 1977-79, were significant milestones. These projects laid the groundwork
for utilizing satellites for educational and communication purposes across India.
 Other notable achievements include the launch of India's first spacecraft, Aryabhata, in 1975,
and the development of the SLV-3 launch vehicle, marking India's capability to place satellites
into low Earth orbit. The 1980s saw comprehensive demonstrations of India's ability to design,
develop, and manage space systems, exemplified by the Bhaskara and APPLE missions, and the
development of the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV).
 Entering the operational phase in the 1990s, India focused on establishing significant space
infrastructure through the Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system for communication,
broadcasting, and meteorology, and the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) system for Earth
observation. The development and operationalization of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

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 (PSLV) and the Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) were pivotal in this era,
showcasing India's growing prowess in space technology and its dedication to leveraging space
for national development and global collaboration.

List of individuals of Indian and Indian-origin who have been to space:

 Rakesh Sharma, the first Indian in space, flew on Soyuz T-11 in 1984, spending eight days on
Salyut 7, conducting experiments.
 Kalpana Chawla, the first woman of Indian origin in space, flew on two Space Shuttle missions.
Her first flight was on STS-87 in 1997 aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia. Her second mission,
STS-107 in 2003, ended tragically with the shuttle's disintegration.
 Sunita Williams, of Indian-American descent, embarked on two long-duration space missions.
She set records for the longest single spaceflight by a woman and the most spacewalks by a
woman, spending a total of 322 days in space.
 Raja Chari, a colonel in the U.S. Air Force, commanded SpaceX Crew-3 to the ISS in 2021 under
NASA's Artemis program, contributing to scientific experiments and technology demonstrations
for deep space exploration.
 Sirisha Bandla, participated in the Virgin Galactic Unity 22 mission in 2021, becoming the third
woman of Indian origin in space. She oversaw research payloads and the researcher experience
during this commercial suborbital spaceflight.

The four main components of a rocket are:

 Structural system: The frame of the rocket
 Payload system: The top part of the rocket
 Guidance system: Includes sensors, computers, radars, and communication equipment
 Propulsion system: The bottom part of the rocket

The propulsion system of a rocket engine comprises various components, including tanks, pumps,
propellants, power head, and rocket nozzle, all aimed at generating thrust. Thrust is the force that

15
propels a rocket through the atmosphere and into space. The combustion of fuel and an oxidizer in a
combustion chamber produces hot exhaust, which generates thrust. Unlike aircraft with gas turbine
engines or propellers that rely on atmospheric air, rockets utilize the exhaust gases from combustion
as their working fluid. Consequently, turbines and propellers cannot operate in space due to the
absence of atmosphere, while rockets can propel themselves in this environment.

Newton's First Law: An object remains in its state

of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by
an external unbalanced force.
 Application in Rocketry: A rocket on the
launch pad remains stationary as
gravitational forces and the support from the
pad are in equilibrium. Ignition disrupts this
balance, creating an unbalanced force
(thrust) that propels the rocket upward.

Newton's Second Law: The force acting on an

object is equal to the mass of that object
multiplied by its acceleration (F = ma)
 Rocket Dynamics: The thrust (force) generated by a rocket is a product of the mass of the gas
being expelled and the acceleration at which it is expelled. Since the mass of a rocket decreases
as fuel burns off, acceleration increases, enabling the rocket to gain speed as it ascends.

Efficient rocket design maximizes thrust by burning fuel rapidly, essential for achieving orbital (over
28,000 km/h) or escape velocities (over 40,250 km/h).

Newton's Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
 Rockets in Action: The expulsion of gas from the rocket's engine (action) generates thrust,
propelling the rocket forward (reaction). This principle enables rockets to lift off and manoeuvre
in space, where even minimal thrust can change a spacecraft's trajectory.

The Principle of Rocket Propulsion

The fundamental principle behind rocket propulsion is Newton's third law of motion. In the context of
rockets, this principle is realized through the expulsion of exhaust gases at high speed from the
rocket's engine, producing a thrust that propels the rocket forward.

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) stands as India's third-generation launcher and its first to
incorporate liquid stages. Since its maiden success in October 1994, PSLV has proven itself as India's
reliable and versatile "workhorse," adept at launching a wide array of both Indian and international
satellites. It’s most notable achievements include sending the Chandrayaan-1 to the Moon in 2008
and the Mars Orbiter Spacecraft to Mars in 2013, showcasing its capability in interplanetary
missions. The launch of PSLV-C48 marked the vehicle's 50th mission, underlining its significant role in
India's space endeavours. As of January 1, 2024, the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) has
completed 60 launches, with 57 successful missions, two failures, and one partial failure. This gives
the PSLV a success rate of 95%.

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 Payload to SSPO (Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit): 1,750 kg
PSLV earned its title 'the Workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various satellites to
Low Earth Orbits. It can take up to 1,750 kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits of 600 km
altitude.
Payload to Sub GTO: 1,425 kg
Due to its unmatched reliability, PSLV has also been used to launch various satellites into
Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the IRNSS constellation.

 PSLV's design allows for the placement of multiple payloads into orbit, utilizing multi-payload
adaptors. This capability, along with its proven track record in executing complex missions
involving multi-orbit and multi-satellite deployments, highlights the vehicle's exceptional
payload performance and mission flexibility. The launcher's sustained success & its capacity for
multi-satellite launches have solidified PSLV's position as a cost-effective option in global
market.
 The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is engineered with a four-stage configuration that
combines solid and liquid propulsion systems, a design that enhances its versatility and reliability
for launching satellites into various orbits. Each stage of PSLV is distinct, incorporating specific
engines and fuel types to achieve optimal performance throughout the launch sequence.

1. First Stage (PS1): The PSLV's first stage, also known as the core stage, utilizes a solid propulsion
system. It is powered by the S139 engine, a solid rocket motor that provides the initial thrust
required for the launch vehicle to escape the Earth's gravitational pull. This stage is one of the
largest of its kind in the world, responsible for imparting significant velocity to the vehicle.
Engine: S139, Fuel: HTPB

2. Second Stage (PS2): Following the first stage, the second stage takes over, which uses a liquid
propulsion system. This stage is equipped with the Vikas engine, named after the Viking engines
from which it was developed. The Vikas engine runs on a liquid propellant combination of
unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH) and nitrogen tetroxide (N 2 O 4). This stage provides
the continued thrust needed for the vehicle to reach higher altitudes and velocities. Engine:
Vikas, Fuel: UDMH + N 2 O 4

3. Third Stage (PS3): The third stage reintroduces a solid propulsion system, employing the S7 solid
rocket motor. This stage is crucial for providing the intermediate velocity increment required to
position the satellite into a transient orbit, acting as a bridge between the lower atmosphere exit
and the final orbital maneuver. Engine: S7, Fuel: HTPB

4. Fourth Stage (PS4): The final stage of PSLV uses a liquid propulsion system again, but with a
difference in composition and operation compared to the second stage. The PS4 stage is
powered by two engines that run on a fuel mix of monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) and mixed
oxides of nitrogen (MON). This stage is vital for the precise injection of the satellite into its
designated orbit. The engines in this stage can be restarted multiple times to place multiple
satellites into different orbits during a single mission, demonstrating PSLV's versatility in multi-
satellite deployment. Engine: 2 x PS-4, MMH + MON

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Notable Launches of PSLV
1. PSLV-D1/C1 (IRS-1E) - The Maiden Launch (1993):
 Objective: To deploy IRS-1E, an Earth observation satellite.
 Outcome: The mission failed to achieve orbit due to a software error in the guidance
system. Despite this setback, it provided critical data to refine the PSLV design.
 Target Orbit: Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO).

2. PSLV-C2 - First Successful Multiple Satellite Launch (1999):

 Objective: To deploy IRS-P4 (OceanSat-1), a satellite for oceanographic studies, along with
two other satellites, the German DLR-Tubsat and the Korean KitSat-3.
 Outcome: Successful deployment of all three satellites, demonstrating PSLV's multi-satellite
deployment capabilities.
 Target Orbit: Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO).

3. PSLV-C11/Chandrayaan-1 - India's First Lunar Mission (2008):

 Objective: To launch Chandrayaan-1, aimed at high-resolution remote sensing of the Moon
in various spectral bands.
 Outcome: Successful insertion into lunar orbit; significant discovery of water molecules on
the Moon.
 Target Orbit: Highly elliptical orbit around the Earth, transitioning to lunar transfer
trajectory.

4. PSLV-C17/GSAT-12 - Expanding Communication Capabilities (2011):

 Objective: To launch GSAT-12, a communication satellite to replace the aging INSAT-3B.
 Outcome: Successful deployment, enhancing India's communication infrastructure.
 Target Orbit: Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO).

18
5. PSLV-C25/Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) - India's First Interplanetary Mission (2013):
 Objective: To develop and launch a spacecraft capable of reaching Mars orbit to study the
Martian surface and atmosphere.
 Outcome: Successful Mars orbit insertion, making India the first Asian nation to reach
Martian orbit and the first in the world to do so in its maiden attempt.
 Target Orbit: Earth parking orbit followed by a Mars transfer trajectory.

6. PSLV-C37 - Record Satellite Deployment (2017):

 Objective: To deploy a record 104 satellites in one mission, including the primary payload,
the Cartosat-2 series satellite for Earth observation.
 Outcome: Successful deployment of all satellites, demonstrating the PSLV's capability to
handle large-scale satellite deployments.
 Target Orbit: Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO).

7. PSLV-C44 - Promoting Student Involvement (2019):

 Objective: To launch Microsat-R, an imaging satellite, and Kalamsat, a student-developed
payload.
 Outcome: Successful deployment of payloads, encouraging academic participation and
innovation in space technology.
 Target Orbit: Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO).

Cryogenics is a branch of physics that deals with the production and effects of very low
temperatures, typically below −150 °C. It encompasses the study of the production of such
temperatures and the behaviour of materials exposed to these extreme conditions. Cryogenic
technologies involve the use of liquid gases, such as liquid nitrogen (boiling point −196 °C) and liquid
helium (boiling point −269 °C), to achieve these low temperatures and to maintain them in various
applications.

Applications of Cryogenic Technology

1. Medical Applications: Cryosurgery and Cryopreservation: Cryogenics is used in the medical

field for cryosurgery, a technique where abnormal or diseased tissue is destroyed using
extreme cold. It is commonly used for treating skin conditions and retinal disorders.
Cryopreservation is another significant application, used for preserving biological samples
(e.g., sperm, eggs, and tissue samples) at cryogenic temperatures, allowing them to remain
viable for years or decades.

2. Superconductivity: Magnets for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Superconductivity, a

phenomenon that occurs at very low temperatures, allows materials to conduct electricity
without resistance. This principle is used in MRI machines, where cryogenically cooled
superconducting magnets create a powerful and stable magnetic field necessary for imaging
internal structures of the body without radiation.

19
 3. Space Exploration: Rocketry: Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, both cryogenic substances,
are used as propellants in rocket engines, including those used in space shuttles and other
spacecraft. The extreme cold of cryogenic fuels allows for a higher density, which means
more fuel can be stored in the same volume, increasing the efficiency of the rocket.

4. Quantum Computing: Some quantum computers use cryogenic temperatures to stabilize

quantum bits or qubits. At these low temperatures, quantum systems can maintain
coherence for longer periods, allowing for more complex computations.

5. Freeze Drying and Food Preservation: Cryogenic freezing is used in the food industry to
freeze food quickly, preserving its quality, texture, and nutritional value better than
traditional freezing methods. Cryogenic technology is also utilized in freeze-drying, where
frozen food is subjected to a vacuum to remove ice by sublimation, extending its shelf life.

6. Energy Storage and Transport: Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): Cryogenic technology is crucial
in the liquefaction of natural gas, which reduces its volume by approximately 600 times,
making it easier and safer to store and transport over long distances.

A cryogenic engine is a type of rocket engine that uses cryogenic fuel or propellants—substances
that are in a liquid state at extremely low temperatures—to produce thrust. The most common
cryogenic fuels are liquid hydrogen (LH2) as the fuel and liquid oxygen (LOX) as the oxidizer. These
components are kept in a liquid state at very low temperatures: liquid hydrogen at approximately
−253°C and liquid oxygen at about −183°C. When combined and ignited in the combustion chamber
of the rocket engine, they react vigorously to produce a high-speed stream of gases that propel the
rocket forward.

A semi-cryogenic engine is a type of rocket engine that uses a combination of cryogenic and non-
cryogenic propellants. Typically, this involves a cryogenic oxidizer, such as liquid oxygen (LOX), paired
with a non-cryogenic, or earth-storable, fuel such as kerosene (RP-1) or a hydrocarbon fuel. This
combination seeks to leverage the advantages of both cryogenic and non-cryogenic technologies to
create a propulsion system that is both powerful and practical for a variety of space missions.

Advantages of Cryogenic Engines:

1. High Specific Impulse: They can achieve greater thrust per unit mass of propellant.

2. Greater Energy Density: Allows a larger amount of energy to be stored in the same volume,
leading to longer mission durations or the ability to carry more payloads.

3. Environmental Friendliness: The combustion of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen produces
water vapour as exhaust. Cryogenic engines are Non-toxic and Non-corrosive.

4. Versatility and Performance: Suitable for a wide range of space missions, from launching
satellites into orbit to deep space exploration. Their high performance makes them ideal for
missions requiring high delta-V (change in velocity).

20
Disadvantages of Cryogenic Engines:

1. Complex Storage and Handling: Maintaining propellants in a liquid state at extremely low
temperatures requires sophisticated and complex storage systems that can insulate and
prevent the boil-off of fuels. This adds to the overall system complexity and cost.

2. Rapid Fuel Evaporation: Due to their extremely low boiling points, cryogenic fuels tend to
evaporate quickly if not properly insulated.

3. Start-Up Time: Cryogenic engines often require a longer start-up time compared to non-
cryogenic engines.

4. Material Challenges: The extreme cold of cryogenic propellants can cause brittleness.

Development of Cryogenic Engine in India:

India's journey into cryogenic technology began in the late 1980s and early 1990s when the country
sought to enhance its space launch capabilities. Cryogenic engines, which use super-cooled liquid
fuels to generate propulsion, are critical for launching heavier payloads into geostationary orbits.
Recognizing this, ISRO aimed to develop its cryogenic engine technology. However, the initial plan to
acquire the technology from Russia was thwarted due to pressure from the United States, citing
concerns over the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), leading to a pivotal moment where
India decided to develop its cryogenic technology indigenously.

Indigenous Development and GSLV

ISRO's Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP) was established, which aimed at developing the
technology within the country. After years of rigorous research, testing, and development, ISRO
successfully developed the Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) for its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV).

The first attempt to launch a GSLV rocket with an indigenous cryogenic engine (GSLV-D3) in 2010
was unsuccessful. However, ISRO learned from its failures, leading to the successful flight of GSLV-D5
in January 2014. This mission was a landmark, as it was the first time the GSLV, equipped with an
indigenously developed cryogenic engine (CE-7.5), successfully placed a satellite into geostationary
transfer orbit (GTO).

Further Developments and Achievements

 Following the success of GSLV-D5, the Indian cryogenic engine technology has seen several
enhancements. The CE-20 was developed for the GSLV Mk III (LVM3), India's heaviest rocket
designed to carry 4-ton class of satellites into GTO. The CE-20 is the first Indian cryogenic
engine to feature a gas-generator cycle. It is one of the most powerful upper-stage
cryogenic engines in the world. The GSLV Mk III's successful maiden flight in June 2017,
carrying the GSAT-19 satellite, was a testament to the maturity and reliability of India's
cryogenic technology. Today, India is one of six countries that have developed its own
cryogenic engines, along with the United States, France, Russia, China, and Japan.

21
 CROP SCIENCE

Crop science is the study of the world's major food, feed, turf and fibre crops and their
environment. It involves studying biological systems, soil, plants, biodiversity, climate, genetics, field
management, cultivation techniques to improve the growth, yield, quality, nutritional value and
environmental sustainability of crops. Crop science can help to identify and develop new strains
and breeds which are more resistant to specific pests. This would also lead to a decrease in the
application of pesticides. This field is crucial for ensuring food security and supporting the
agricultural economy. Crop science in India is evolving to meet the challenges of the food security
and climate change, emphasizing sustainable and technologically advanced agricultural practices.

Importance of Crop Science in Agriculture:

1. Enhancing Food Security: Crop science plays a critical role in ensuring food security by
developing high-yielding and resilient crop varieties. This is crucial for feeding a growing global
population, especially in regions prone to food scarcity.
2. Improving Nutritional Quality: Beyond just increasing the quantity of food, crop science focuses
on improving the nutritional quality of crops. This includes increasing the levels of essential
vitamins, minerals, and proteins in staple crops to combat malnutrition.
3. Pest and Disease Resistance: Through the study of plant pathology and genetics, crop scientists
develop crops that are resistant to pests and diseases. This reduces crop losses and minimizes
the reliance on chemical pesticides, contributing to both economic and environmental benefits.
4. Adaptation to Climate Change: As climate change affects agricultural conditions worldwide,
crop science provides solutions for adapting crops to new stresses like increased temperature,
drought and salinity.
5. Sustainable Farming Practices: Crop science contributes to the development of sustainable
farming practices by improving crop varieties that require less water, fertilizers, and pesticides.
This helps in conserving natural resources and reducing the environmental footprint of
agriculture.
6. Economic Growth: Advances in crop science lead to higher productivity, which in turn boosts
farm incomes, drives rural development, and contributes to the overall economic growth of a
country.
7. Innovation in Farming Techniques: Crop science research leads to innovative farming
techniques like precision agriculture, which optimizes planting, watering, and harvesting to
maximize efficiency and reduce waste.
8. Biodiversity Conservation: Crop science helps in preserving biodiversity through the study and
cultivation of a wide range of crop varieties, including traditional and indigenous species.
9. Global Trade: Improved crop varieties and agricultural practices can increase the quality and
quantity of produce available for global trade.
10. Education and Knowledge Transfer: It plays a crucial role in educating farmers about the latest
agricultural techniques and technologies, fostering knowledge transfer from labs to fields.

22
Important Medicinal & Aromatic Plants:
Botanical Part Chemical
Name Uses
Name Used Compound
Ashwagandha Withania Root Stress relief, improves strength, anti- Withanolides
(Indian Ginseng) somnifera inflammatory, cognitive enhancement
Brahmi Bacopa Whole memory improvement, insomnia, Bacosides
monnieri Plant epilepsy, and as an anxiolytic
Aloe Vera Aloe Leaves Skin healing, digestive aid, immune Aloin
barbadensis boost
Gudmar Gymnema Leaves Reduces sugar cravings, manages Gymnemic
sylvestre diabetes Acid
Guduchi Tinospora Stem Boosts immunity, reduces fever, anti- Berberine
cordifolia inflammatory
Sarpagandha Rauvolfia Root Manages high blood pressure, treats Reserpine
serpentina insomnia, mental illnesses like
schizophrenia
Shatavari Asparagus Root Supports reproductive health, Shatavarins
racemosus digestive aid, boosts immune system
Tulsi Ocimum Leaves Reduces stress, anti-inflammatory, Eugenol
sanctum manages respiratory disorders, treats
insect bites
Bhringaraj Eclipta Whole Promotes hair growth, liver Ecliptine
prostrata Plant detoxification, improves vision
Peppermint Mentha Leaves Digestive aid, relieves headaches, Menthol
piperita improves energy, flavoring, respiratory
infections
Akarkara Anacyclus Root Enhances libido, dental health, treats Anacyclin
pyrethrum rheumatism, arthritis, treats male
infertility
Kalmegh Andrographis Whole Treats colds, flu, liver protection, Andrographol
paniculata Plant boosts immunity ide
Stevia Stevia Leaves Natural sweetener, manages blood Steviol
rebaudiana sugar levels, reduces blood pressure Glycosides
Lemongrass Cymbopogon Leaves Anxiety relief, full of antioxidants, Citral
digestive health, antiseptic properties,
mosquito repellant
Neem Azadirachta Leaves Antibacterial, antifungal, treats acne, Azadirachtin
indica improves dental health
Indian Redwood Caesalpinia Wood Anti-inflammatory, treats skin Brazilin
sappan conditions, improves blood circulation
Sandalwood Santalum Wood Anti-inflammatory, aids in mental Santalol
album clarity, skin care, fragrance
Moringa Moringa Leaves Rich in nutrients, anti-inflammatory, Moringinine
oleifera lowers cholesterol, boosts energy
levels
Lavender Lavandula Flowers Reduces anxiety, improves sleep Linalool,
angustifolia quality, antiseptic Linalyl
acetate
Chamomile Matricaria Flowers Soothes digestive tract, anti- Bisabolol,
chamomilla inflammatory, sedative, helps with Chamazulene

23
 sleep disorders
Amla (Indian Phyllanthus Fruit helps to brighten the skin, purify the Emblicanin A
gooseberry) emblica blood, and improve eyesight and B
Ginseng Panax Root Increases energy, reduces stress, Ginsenosides
ginseng enhances memory
Milk Thistle Silybum Seeds Protects the liver, promotes liver Silymarin
marianum regeneration, antioxidant
Ginger Zingiber Rhizome Relieves nausea, anti-inflammatory, Gingerol
officinale digestive aid
Garlic Allium Bulb Reduces blood pressure, cholesterol Allicin
sativum levels, antibacterial
Turmeric Curcuma Rhizome Anti-inflammatory, increases Curcumin
longa antioxidant capacity of the body
Feverfew Tanacetum Leaves Prevents migraine headaches, anti- Parthenolide
parthenium inflammatory, eases arthritis pain
Hawthorn Crataegus Berries, Heart health, regulates blood Flavonoids
Leaves, pressure, digestive aid
Flowers

Significance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in India:

1. Economic Importance: The cultivation and export of medicinal and aromatic plants provide
livelihood opportunities to millions. These plants have high market demand, both domestically
and internationally, offering a source of income for farmers, especially those in the marginalized
sectors.
2. Biodiversity and Conservation: India is recognized as a mega-biodiversity country, and its
medicinal and aromatic plants contribute significantly to this status. Preserving these plants
helps maintain ecological balance and conserve biodiversity.
3. Healthcare and Wellness: They are vital for producing herbal medicines, which are used by a
large segment of the population due to their natural origin, fewer side effects, and holistic
approach to healing. Aromatic plants also have therapeutic properties and are used in
aromatherapy.
4. Cosmetic and Personal Care Industry: Aromatic and medicinal plants are integral to the
cosmetic industry. Ingredients derived from these plants are used in skincare, haircare, and
perfumery.
5. Culinary Uses: Many aromatic plants, such as basil (tulsi), mint (pudina), and lemongrass, are
used in Indian cuisine, adding flavour and therapeutic value to the dishes.
6. Ecological Significance: Certain medicinal plants help in soil conservation, water table recharge,
and as bio-pesticides. For example, Vetiver grass, with its deep roots helps prevent soil erosion.
7. Research and Development: India's rich repository of medicinal and aromatic plants offers vast
opportunities for research. Scientific validations of traditional knowledge can lead to the
discovery of new drugs and treatments.
8. Spiritual and Ritualistic Use: Many aromatic plants like Tulsi have spiritual significance and are
used in religious rituals and ceremonies.
9. Sustainable Agriculture: The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants can be a part of
sustainable agriculture practices. These plants can be grown in mixed cropping systems,
improving soil health and reducing dependency on chemical pesticides.

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Technologies used to Conserve Forest Species:
Technologies for conserving forest species play a critical role in monitoring, protecting and
sustaining biodiversity. These technologies not only aid in tracking the health and population sizes of
species but also play a critical role in habitat restoration and the fight against poaching and illegal
logging.
1. Satellite Monitoring: Uses satellites to gather comprehensive images and data of forests over
time, allowing for the monitoring of deforestation, forest degradation and changes in land use.
2. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): An advanced remote sensing technology that measures
distances by illuminating targets with laser light and measuring the reflection with a sensor. It's
used to create high-resolution maps of forest structure.
3. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS technology integrates, manages, analyzes and
visualizes geographic information, allowing conservationists to map habitats, track changes over
time and identify areas critical for conservation efforts
4. Drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Monitor hard-to-reach areas, providing real-time
images and videos of forests. They can track wildlife populations, monitor poaching and logging.
5. Camera Traps: These automatically triggered cameras capture images or videos of wildlife,
providing invaluable data on animal behaviour, species distribution and population sizes. They
are crucial for monitoring elusive or rare species and can help identify poaching hotspots.
6. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning: Can analyze vast amounts of data collected
from satellites, drones, camera traps and other sources to identify patterns, predict outcomes,
and provide actionable insights.
7. Mobile Applications and Citizen Science: Apps that encourage citizen science allow people to
contribute to conservation efforts by reporting sightings of plants and animals, illegal activities,
or environmental damage.
8. Genetic Technologies: Technologies like DNA barcoding and environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis
enable the identification of species from genetic material collected in the environment. This can
be used for monitoring biodiversity, detecting rare or invasive species.
9. Acoustic Monitoring: Recording devices placed in forests can capture the sounds of wildlife,
providing information on species presence, behaviour and changes over time. Acoustic
monitoring is particularly useful for species that are difficult to spot but make distinct sounds,
such as birds and amphibians.

Usefulness of Animals: The relationship between animals and humans spans millennia, deeply
entwined in the fabric of our societal development, especially in the realms of food and medical
advancements.

For Food

 Nutritional Value: Animal-sourced foods play a critical role in combating malnutrition in

India. Eggs, dairy products, and meat are important sources of high-quality protein, vitamins,
and minerals (such as iron and zinc), crucial for cognitive development, immune function,
and overall health. For example, fish contain omega-3 fatty acids, which are crucial for heart
health, while red meat provides iron and vitamin B12, necessary for blood formation and
neurological function.

25
  Domestication and Agriculture: The domestication of animals for food marked a
revolutionary shift from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural ones. This transition,
beginning around 10,000 BCE with the domestication of sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle,
enabled population growth and the development of civilizations. Today, the FAO estimates
that livestock provide livelihoods for about 1.3 billion people and that the meat industry
alone was worth approximately $945 billion globally in 2020.

For Medical Advancements

 Drug Development and Testing: Animals play a critical role in medical research, contributing
to the development and testing of drugs. Rodents, primarily mice and rats, are used in
preclinical trials to assess the safety and efficacy of new medications due to their
physiological and genetic similarities to humans. A notable example is the development of
insulin from the pancreas of dogs in 1921, a breakthrough in diabetes treatment.
 Surgical Techniques and Transplants: Animal models have been pivotal in advancing surgical
techniques and organ transplant procedures. The first successful kidney transplant in 1954,
which paved the way for human organ transplants, was preceded by extensive
experimentation on dogs to perfect the surgical method.
 Vaccines: The development of vaccines has heavily relied on animal research. The polio
vaccine, developed in the 1950s, utilized monkey kidney cells for virus cultivation, leading to
a vaccine that has nearly eradicated polio worldwide.

Chemicals and drugs derived from animals:

 Insulin: Traditionally derived from the pancreases of pigs (porcine insulin) and cows (bovine
insulin), though most insulin used today is produced using recombinant DNA technology.
Application: Essential for the treatment of diabetes, insulin regulates blood sugar levels.
 Heparin: Extracted from the intestinal mucosa of pigs or the lungs of cattle. Application: A
powerful anticoagulant used to prevent and treat blood clots.
 Premarin: Conjugated estrogens isolated from the urine of pregnant horses. Application: Used
in hormone replacement therapy, particularly for symptoms of menopause.
 Anti-venoms: Produced by immunizing horses or sheep with small doses of venom from snakes,
spiders, or other venomous animals. Application: Critical for the treatment of life-threatening
venomous bites and stings.
 Thyroid Hormones: Originally sourced from the thyroid glands of pigs (porcine thyroid
hormone), though synthetic versions are now more common. Application: Used to treat thyroid
hormone deficiency and manage symptoms of hypothyroidism.
 Corticosteroids: Biochemically similar to cortisol, a hormone made by the adrenal glands of
animals. While synthetic versions are predominantly used, natural extracts were initially derived
from animal sources. Application: Used to reduce inflammation in conditions like asthma and
rheumatoid arthritis.
 Vaccine Ingredients: Certain vaccines use animal products during manufacturing, including
gelatin from pigs or cells from chicken embryos. Application: Essential in the prevention of
diseases, though the final vaccine product typically contains no trace of the animal-derived
substance.
 Chondroitin: Derived from the cartilage of sharks and other animals. Application: Often used in
dietary supplements for joint health, particularly in the treatment of osteoarthritis.
APPSC GROUP 1 2017: Give an account on chemicals and drugs produced from animals.

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Use of Animals in Laboratory Research:
The use of animals in laboratory research is a deeply controversial topic, engaging ethical, scientific
and practical considerations. On one hand, animal testing has been instrumental in numerous
medical and scientific breakthroughs, contributing significantly to our understanding of disease
mechanisms, drug efficacy and safety. On the other hand, it raises profound ethical concerns
regarding animal welfare and the morality of subjecting non-human animals to distress, pain and
death in the name of benefit to mankind.

 Scientific Contributions: The contributions of animal research to medical and scientific

advancement are undeniable. For instance, the development of insulin therapy for diabetes, the
polio vaccine and more recently, the rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines have all relied on
animal testing. The use of mice, rats, monkeys and other animals in these studies has provided
essential insights that would be difficult, if not impossible, to gain through other means.

 Ethical Considerations: The ethical argument against the use of animals in research hinges on
the belief that animals, as sentient beings, have the right to live free from suffering and
exploitation. Critics argue that subjecting animals to painful experiments for the benefit of
human beings is morally indefensible. The European Union's principles of Replacement,
Reduction and Refinement (the 3Rs), aiming to minimize animal use and suffering, while helpful,
do not address the fundamental ethical issue.

 Alternatives and Advancements: The pursuit of alternatives to animal testing is gaining

momentum, driven by both ethical concerns and scientific advancements. Techniques such as in-
vitro testing, computer modeling and the use of human patient simulators offer promising
results without the need for animal subjects. The development of "organs-on-chips," which
mimic human organ systems on microchips, using AI in different parts of drug discovery,
including drug design, chemical synthesis, drug screening, polypharmacology, and drug
repurposing, is another innovative approach that could reduce the need for animal testing
significantly.

 Legal and Regulatory Framework: The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, and the
establishment of the Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on
Animals (CPCSEA) in 1998, underline the country's commitment to regulating animal testing. The
CPCSEA guidelines mandate the use of alternatives to animal testing whenever possible; reduce
the number of animals used in experiments, and refine experimental methods to minimize
suffering.

 Conclusion: In conclusion, while the use of animals in laboratories has contributed significantly
to scientific and medical advancements, it raises serious ethical concerns that cannot be ignored.
The pursuit of alternatives to animal testing is not only a moral imperative but also a scientific
one, as these alternatives can offer more relevant, humane and efficient approaches to
understanding human disease and developing treatments. The balance between scientific
progress and ethical responsibility is delicate and complex. It is essential for research and
innovation to find paths that honour both human and animal welfare.

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 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster : United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) defines ‘disaster’ as: "A
serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous
events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of
the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts."

DM Act 2005 defines, "Disaster" as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area,
arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial
loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or
degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping
capacity of the community of the affected area."

Disaster management is the organization, planning, and implementation of measures to prepare

for, respond to, and recover from disasters. It's a continuous process that involves:
 Prevention: Measures to reduce the likelihood and consequences of a disaster
 Preparedness: Building capacity, including research and knowledge management
 Response: Promptly responding to a threatening disaster situation
 Recovery: Stabilizing the area and restoring essential community functions, such as food, clean
water, utilities, transportation, and healthcare

Types of Disasters
Primarily disasters are triggered by natural hazards or human-induced or result from a combination
of both. The human-induced factors can greatly aggravate the adverse impacts of a natural disaster.
Even at a larger scale, globally, the UN Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
shown that human-induced climate change has significantly increased both the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events. While heavy rains, cyclones, or earthquakes are all natural, the

28
impacts may, and are usually, worsened by many factors related to human activity. The extensive
industrialization and urbanization increase both the probability of human-induced disasters, and the
extent of potential damage to life and property from both natural and human-induced disasters. The
human society is also vulnerable to Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) threats
and events that might escalate to emergencies/ disasters.

Natural Hazards
The widely accepted classification system used by the Disaster Information Management System of
‘DesInventar’ classifies disasters arising from natural hazards into five major categories and is used
globally for the Sendai targets monitoring:

Category Main Event Secondary Disaster

1.Geophysical Earthquake/  Landslide following earthquake;

Mass movement  Urban fires triggered by earthquakes;
of earth materials  Liquefaction - the transformation of (partially) water-
saturated soil from a solid state to a liquid state caused by
an earthquake
 Mass movement of earth materials, usually down slopes
 Surface displacement of earthen materials due to ground
shaking triggered by earthquakes

Volcano  Surface displacement of earthen materials due to ground

shaking triggered by volcanic eruptions
 A type of geological event near an opening/vent in the
Earth’s surface including volcanic eruptions of lava, ash,
hot vapour, gas, and pyroclastic material.
 Ash fall; Lahar - Hot or cold mixture of earthen material
flowing on the slope of a volcano either during or
between volcanic eruptions;
 Lava Flow
 Pyroclastic Flow - Extremely hot gases, ash, and other
materials of more than 1,000 degrees Celsius that rapidly
flow down the flank of a volcano (more than 700 km/h)
during an eruption

Tsunami  Tsunamis are difficult to categorize they are essentially an

oceanic process that is manifested as a coastal water-
related hazard. A series of waves (with long wavelengths
when traveling across the deep ocean) that are generated
by a displacement of massive amounts of water through
underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or landslides.
 Tsunami waves travel at very high speed (500–1,000
kilometers per hour in deep water) across the ocean but
as they begin to reach shallow water they slow down, and
the wave grows steeper

2. Hydrological Flood  Coastal flood - Higher-than-normal water levels along the

coast caused by tidal changes or thunderstorms that
result in flooding, which can last from days to weeks.
 Flash Flood Hydrological - Heavy or excessive rainfall in a

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 short period of time that produce immediate runoff,
creating flooding conditions within minutes or a few
hours during or after the rainfall
 Flood Hydrological - A general term for the overflow of
water from a stream channel onto normally dry land in
the floodplain (riverine flooding), higher-than normal
levels along the coast and in lakes or reservoirs (coastal
flooding) as well as ponding of water at or near the point
where the rain fell (flash floods)

Landslides  Avalanche, a large mass of loosened earth material, snow,

or ice that slides, flows or falls rapidly down a
mountainside under the force of gravity
 Coastal Erosion - The temporary or permanent loss of
sediments or landmass in coastal margins due to the
action of waves, winds, des, or anthropogenic activities
 Debris Flow, Mud Flow, Rock Fall - Types of landslides
that occur when heavy rain or rapid snow/ice melt send
large amounts of vegetation, mud, or rock downslope by
gravitational forces

Wave Action  Wind-generated surface waves that can occur on the

surface of any open body of water such as oceans, rivers
and lakes, etc. The size of the wave depends on the
strength of the wind and the travelled distance (fetch).

3.Meteorological Hazard caused by  Cyclone, Storm Surge, Tornado, Convective Storm, Extra-
short-lived, micro- tropical Storm, Wind
to meso-scale  Cold Wave, Derecho
extreme weather  Extreme Temperature, Fog, Frost, Freeze, Hail, Heat wave
and atmospheric  Lightning, Heavy rain
conditions that  Sandstorm, Dust-storm
may last for  Snow, Ice, Winter Storm, Blizzard
minutes to days

4.Climatological Unusual, Extreme  Drought

weather  Extreme hot/cold conditions
conditions caused  Forest/Wildfire Fires
by long-term  Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
atmospheric  Subsidence
processes ranging
from a few weeks
to several
decades.

5.Biological Exposure to germs • Epidemics: viral, bacterial, parasitic, fungal or prion

and toxic infections
substances • Insect infestations
• Animal stampedes

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Man-made Disasters
 Man-made disasters have an element of human intent, negligence, or error involving a failure
of a man-made system, setting them apart from natural disasters caused by environmental
forces.
 Rise in population, rapid urbanization and industrialization, development within high-risk zones,
environmental degradation, and climate change aggravates the vulnerabilities to various kinds of
disasters.
 Due to inadequate disaster preparedness, communities, and animals are at increased risk from
many kinds of human-induced hazards arising from accidents (industrial, road, air, rail, on river
or sea, building collapse, fires, mine flooding, urban flooding, oil spills, etc.).
 Hazards from CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear) threats are among the most
critical, with a high potential for disaster. These, along with crimes, arson, civil unrest, terrorism,
wars, and cyber-attacks, underline the importance of robust disaster preparedness and planning.

Why Disaster management is crucial for India?

Geographical and Climatic Vulnerabilities: India's diverse geography makes it susceptible to a
variety of natural disasters. The Himalayan region is prone to earthquakes and landslides, while the
extensive coastal areas face the perils of cyclones and tsunamis. Moreover, the annual monsoons,
vital for agriculture, often result in catastrophic floods and droughts across vast swathes of the
country, severely impacting millions of lives and causing significant economic damage.
Population Density and Urbanization: Cities, often overcrowded and built with inadequate
infrastructure, are particularly vulnerable. The urban poor are disproportionately affected during
disasters due to their limited access to resources. Strategic disaster management is essential to
enhance urban planning and establish efficient emergency response mechanisms.
Economic Vulnerabilities: Disasters pose a severe threat to India's economic stability. The
agricultural sector is highly susceptible to climatic adversities. Additionally, industrial sectors are at
risk from disruptions caused by natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes, leading to
substantial economic losses.
Health Implications: Disasters have significant health implications, from immediate injuries to long-
term mental health issues. The spread of waterborne diseases following floods, or respiratory
problems after a dust storm, are examples.
Social Dimensions of Disasters: Affects marginalized groups, disrupts community structures, results
in community displacement and migration and leads to long-term mental and educational
challenges.
Climate Change: The exacerbation of extreme weather events due to climate change, including
more frequent and severe cyclones, heatwaves, floods, necessitates the integration of climate
adaptation strategies into disaster management planning.
National Security and International Relations: Effective disaster management is integral to national
security and maintaining societal stability. It reflects the government's capability to protect its
citizens and efficiently handle crisis situations. Additionally, robust disaster management enhances
India's international reputation, demonstrating its commitment to achieving Sustainable
Development Goals and participating actively in global crisis management initiatives.

The multifaceted challenges posed by disasters in India

demand a robust and adaptive disaster management strategy that not only addresses immediate
impacts but also prepares the nation for future challenges. This strategic approach is crucial for
safeguarding lives, protecting economic assets, and enhancing the overall resilience of the country.

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 VACCINES

Immunity is our body's capability to identify and eliminate foreign substances. This ability to
distinguish between the body's own components and foreign invaders is crucial for survival.
Interestingly, immunity isn’t just a blanket response but is tailored to specific invaders.

Every day, we come into contact with a number of infectious agents. Yet, only a fraction of these
interactions lead to actual illnesses. This is due to the fact that the body is able to defend itself from
most of these foreign agents. This defence mechanism provided by our immune system is called
immunity.

The Dual Nature of Immunity - Innate and Acquired (Adaptive):

1. Innate Immunity: Innate immunity is our body's first line of defence, present right from birth. It
isn't specific to any particular pathogen but offers a general shield against a wide range of threats.
 Physical Barriers: Our skin acts as a primary shield, blocking the entry of many micro-organisms.
Moreover, the mucus layers in our respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts trap these
invaders, preventing their further intrusion.
 Physiological Barriers: Some bodily fluids, like the stomach's acid, mouth's saliva and tears from
our eyes, play crucial roles in curbing microbial growth.
 Cellular Barriers: Our blood contains specialized white blood cells, such as leukocytes (PM-NL),
monocytes and a type of lymphocytes known as natural killers. These cells can engulf and
eliminate microbes.
 Cytokine Barriers: When cells get infected by viruses, they release proteins termed as
interferons. These proteins shield the non-infected cells from potential viral invasions.

2. Acquired Immunity:
Unlike the broad shield provided by innate immunity, acquired immunity is tailored to specific
pathogens. Its most distinguishing feature is 'memory'. When our body faces a pathogen for the first
time, it mounts a primary response, which may be mild. However, on subsequent exposures to the
same invader, the body recalls the initial encounter and launches a much stronger secondary
response.

This immunity is orchestrated by two vital lymphocytes in our blood: B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes. While B-lymphocytes churn out proteins called antibodies to combat pathogens, T-
cells, although not directly producing antibodies, aid B-cells in their function.

Apart from this antibody-mediated defence, there's also a cell-mediated immunity (CMI), where T-
lymphocytes play the central role. This is especially crucial during organ transplants. The body can
recognize 'self' from 'non-self', leading to graft rejections if tissue and blood group compatibility are
not ensured.

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Acquired immunity can further be classified into:

1. Active Immunity: Active immunity is like building your own shield. It arises when a person's
immune system encounters and responds to antigens, either from infections or vaccinations. This
protection can last many years, often a lifetime, as the body remembers the pathogen. For instance,
those who've had chickenpox usually don't get it again.

 Natural Exposure: When a person encounters a pathogen (e.g., bacteria, virus) their immune
system responds by producing antibodies and activating T-cells. This response can take days or
weeks but leads to immunity that can last a lifetime or several years.

 Artificial Exposure: Vaccines mimic natural infection, presenting antigens—components of

pathogens that trigger immune response—without causing disease. This stimulates the immune
system to produce antibodies and develop cellular immunity, leading to immunological memory.

Adverse effects associated with (Vaccines) active immunization:

1. Common, Mild Reactions: These include pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site. For
example, the tetanus vaccine often causes pain and swelling where the shot was given. Mild
fever, fatigue, and muscle aches can occur, commonly seen after the influenza vaccine.
Allergic reactions rare but may include rash or itching.

2. Moderate Problems: Some vaccines, like the rubella component of the MMR (measles,
mumps, and rubella) vaccine, can cause joint pain, especially in adult women.

3. Rare and Serious Adverse Effects: Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS), a rare condition that can
occur after flu vaccination, though the risk is extremely low. Rarely, the yellow fever vaccine
can cause severe systemic illness mimicking natural yellow fever infection. A type of bowel
blockage that is a rare potential complication of the rotavirus vaccine.

4. Contrary to some public beliefs, studies have consistently found no link between vaccines
and long-term health conditions like autism. Rigorous scientific research continues to
monitor and investigate any long-term issues related to vaccines.

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Comparison of Traditional and Modern Vaccines
Characteristic Traditional Vaccines Modern Vaccines
Types Live attenuated, inactivated, Messenger RNA (mRNA),viral vector, DNA
protein subunit, toxoid
Mechanism of Introduce a weakened or killed Deliver genetic material (mRNA) that uses
Action form of the pathogen, or a host cell mechanism to produce a part of
protein from it to stimulate an the pathogen (like the spike protein),
immune response triggering an immune response
Immunity Type Mainly humoral immunity Both humoral (antibody) and cellular
(antibody production) immunity, providing a broader immune
response
Examples Polio (Salk), MMR (measles, COVID-19 vaccines like Pfizer-BioNTech and
mumps, rubella), Hepatitis B, Moderna, Covishield
Covaxin
Development Slower production; requires Rapid development possible; synthetic
and Production growing the virus or bacteria in production without the need for cell
eggs or cell cultures cultures
Storage Generally require refrigeration; Ultra-cold storage (e.g., Pfizer-BioNTech
Requirements some need freezing requires -70°C)
Side Effects Generally mild; severe reactions Generally mild; concerns about rare
are rare but possible due to live reactions like myocarditis, particularly in
components younger males
Duration of Long-lasting with boosters for Duration still under study; boosters may be
Protection some vaccines required especially with emerging variants

Types of Traditional Vaccines: Traditional vaccines, often referred to as "conventional vaccines,"

are based on traditional methods which typically use whole viruses or bacteria, or parts of them, to
stimulate the immune system to produce a response.

1. Live Attenuated Vaccines: Created by weakening the virus or bacterium so that it cannot cause
disease in healthy individuals. This is often achieved by growing the microbe in a laboratory setting
under conditions that cause it to lose its pathogenicity.
 Use Cases: Examples include the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, the varicella
(chickenpox) vaccine, and some forms of the influenza and yellow fever vaccines. These vaccines
often provide strong and long-lasting immunity with fewer doses.
 Considerations: Because they contain a live organism, they are generally not recommended for
individuals with weakened immune systems.
 Mimicking Natural Infection: Live attenuated vaccines contain a weakened form of the
pathogen that is still capable of replicating but not causing illness. This closely mimics a natural
infection, usually leading to a strong and long-lasting immune response.
 Immune Response: The body's immune system responds to the vaccine by producing both B
cells (which make antibodies to attack the pathogens) and T cells (which help recognize and
destroy infected cells).
2. Inactivated Vaccines: These vaccines are made by inactivating, or killing, the virus or bacteria with
chemicals, heat, or radiation. This process ensures that the pathogen cannot replicate, but its
antigens remain intact to stimulate an immune response.
 Examples: Inactivated polio vaccine and the hepatitis A vaccine are common examples. Influenza
vaccines that are given as a shot are often inactivated vaccines.

34
 Safety Profile: Inactivated vaccines do not replicate in the recipient, making them safer for use
in immunocompromised individuals compared to live attenuated vaccines.
 Antibody Production: The immune system recognizes the inactivated microbes as foreign and
produces antibodies. However, since these vaccines don't mimic natural infection as closely as
live vaccines, the immune response might not be as strong or long-lasting, often requiring
booster shots.
3. Subunit, Recombinant, Polysaccharide, and Conjugate Vaccines: Instead of the entire germ,
these vaccines use specific parts of it, such as its protein, sugar, or capsid.
 Subunit and Recombinant Vaccines: These include vaccines like the HPV vaccine and the
pertussis (whooping cough) component of the DTaP vaccine. Recombinant vaccines use a piece
of the germ created using DNA technology.
 Polysaccharide and Conjugate Vaccines: Polysaccharide vaccines, like the pneumococcal
polysaccharide vaccine, are made from long chains of sugar molecules that make up the surface
capsule of bacteria. Conjugate vaccines, such as the Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib) vaccine,
polysaccharides are linked to a protein carrier, enhancing the immune system's response,
especially in young children who don’t respond well to polysaccharide antigens alone.
 Targeted Immune Response: These vaccines use specific, isolated parts of the pathogen (like its
protein, sugar, or capsid). The immune system recognizes these components as foreign and
mounts an immune response.
4. Toxoid Vaccines: Toxoid vaccines are created using toxins produced by the germ. The toxin is
inactivated to form a toxoid, which is used in the vaccine.
 Examples: The diphtheria and tetanus vaccines are toxoid vaccines. They protect against
diseases caused by the toxins of bacteria.
 Mechanism: The primary principle behind toxoid vaccines involves inactivating the toxins
(known as toxoids) with chemicals or heat so that they lose their ability to cause disease, but still
retain the ability to stimulate the immune system. If the vaccinated individual is later exposed to
the actual toxin, their immune system is already primed to recognize and neutralize the toxin
effectively, preventing the toxin from causing disease.
Vaccines often contain additional components besides the antigen itself, such as adjuvants,
preservatives, and stabilizers. These components play crucial roles in enhancing the vaccine's
efficacy, safety, and stability.

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Role of India in COVID vaccine distribution:
 India played a significant role in the global distribution, particularly COVID-19 vaccines,
leveraging its large pharmaceutical capacity and robust digital platforms to manage and facilitate
its vaccination efforts. Known as the "pharmacy of the world."
 Vaccine Maitri is a humanitarian initiative by the Indian government to provide COVID-19
vaccines to countries around the world. The initiative began on January 20, 2021, as on 6
January 2023, India has been able to administer more than 220 crore Covid vaccine doses across
the country. Also India supplied 160 countries with anti-COVID vaccines, medicines.
 This was facilitated by several key initiatives, such as the Vaccine Intelligence Network (eVIN),
which helped track vaccine stockpiles and monitor the cold chain. The Co-WIN platform was
another crucial tool, managing vaccine registrations and certifications, making the process
inclusive even for those without easy access to digital resources.
 The vaccination efforts in India saw record-breaking days, with over 10 million doses
administered in a single day at its peak, demonstrating the scale and speed of its vaccine rollout.
Moreover, India’s role in vaccine research and development extended to facilitating clinical trials
in neighbouring countries and enhancing regional clinical capacities.
 India advocated for equitable vaccine distribution on a global scale, supporting initiatives like a
temporary suspension of vaccine intellectual property rights to enhance vaccine accessibility.
This stance was part of a broader diplomatic strategy to aid global recovery, emphasizing the
philosophy of "Vasudeva Kutumbakam" (the world is one family) in its foreign policy.

Apart from Covid Vaccines, India has been a major supplier of the oral polio vaccine (OPV) globally.
Indian manufacturers produce vaccines against measles and rubella, which have been used
extensively in immunization programs in various countries, particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia.
BCG Vaccine which is used against tuberculosis is another significant export of India, distributed
widely in countries with high TB incidence. India supplies Hepatitis B vaccine, Pentavalent Vaccine
(five diseases—diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, hepatitis B, and Haemophilus influenza type b) to
many developing countries, supported by India’s production capabilities. Indian pharmaceutical
companies have also developed and exported vaccines against rotavirus, which causes diarrhoea.

Hyderabad – Vaccine Capital of the World:

 Hyderabad has emerged as a leading life sciences hub in Asia housing more than 1000+ life
sciences companies with a combined valued of USD 80 Bn. Telangana accounts for 1/3rd of
global vaccine output and is regarded as the vaccine capital of the world. Also, the State
contributes to about 35% of India’s pharmaceutical production.
 Hyderabad Pharma City Hyderabad Pharma City is proposed to be the world’s first and largest
integrated pharmaceutical cluster spread across 14,029.36 acres with a potential investment of
Rs. 64,000 crores and employment potential of 4.20 lakhs. The project is of National Significance
and the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) has accorded NIMZ
status and Environmental clearance obtained from the Ministry of Environment, Forests and
Climate Change (MoEF&CC), GOI.
 Genome Valley is India's premier hub for life sciences research and development (R&D) and eco-
friendly manufacturing, offering top-tier facilities including industrial parks, special economic
zones, and advanced lab spaces. It hosts over 200 companies and employs around 15,000
professionals, including major global firms.

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Major Vaccine Producing Companies in India
Company Name Location Notable Vaccines Produced

Serum Institute of India Pune, Maharashtra Covishield, Covovax, MenAfriVac, Pentavalent

vaccines

Bharat Biotech Hyderabad, Telangana Covaxin, Rotavaca , typhoid, and rabies.

Biological E. Limited Hyderabad, Telangana Corbevax, BioHib, Japanese Encephalitis

Zydus Cadila Ahmedabad, Gujarat ZyCoV-D, a DNA-based COVID-19 vaccine

Indian Immunologicals Hyderabad, Telangana vaccines for rabies, DTP (Diphtheria, Tetanus,
Limited Pertussis), and hepatitis

Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories Hyderabad, Telangana Sputnik V

Attribute Covishield Covaxin

Developer Serum Institute of India (under Bharat Biotech in collaboration with
license from Oxford-AstraZeneca) Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR); First COVID-19 vaccine
developed and manufactured in India
Type of Vaccine Viral vector (non-replicating) Whole-virion inactivated virus
Mechanism Uses a modified chimpanzee Uses inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus to
adenovirus to deliver the SARS-CoV- generate an immune response
2 spike protein gene, prompting an without causing the disease.
immune response.
Efficacy Approx. 70% after one dose; up to About 78% against symptomatic
90% after the second dose with a 12- COVID-19; 100% against severe
week interval COVID-19 (as of phase 3 trial results)
Dosage Two doses, recommended 12-16 Two doses, recommended 4-6 weeks
weeks apart apart
Storage Can be stored, transported, and Similar to Covishield, requires storage
handled at 2-8°C at 2-8°C
Side Effects Common: Pain at injection site, Common: Injection site reactions,
headache, fatigue, mild fever headache, fever, malaise, and nausea
Rare: Thrombosis with Rare: Hypersensitivity reactions, such
thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS), as anaphylaxis or angioedema
very rare cases of myocarditis
Target Population Approved for adults over 18; some Approved for adults and children over
countries approve for 12-17 12; ongoing trials for under 12
Effectiveness Generally effective against Alpha and Demonstrated efficacy against Alpha,
Against Variants Delta variants Beta, and Delta variants
Global Reach and Widely used globally, significant part Used primarily in India with some
Usage of international vaccination efforts, international authorizations in
especially in low and middle-income countries like Iran, Philippines, and
countries & European Countries Mexico
Recently, AstraZeneca, the pharmaceutical giant which developed the Covishield vaccine in partnership with the University
of Oxford, had admitted in court documents in the UK that its COVID-19 vaccine could cause a rare side effect known as
Thrombosis with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome (TTS) characterised by blood clots (thrombosis) combined with low levels of
platelets (thrombocytopenia)

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 MICROBIAL INFECTIONS

In the vast and intricate mosaic of life, humans have coexisted with countless microorganisms for
millennia. While many of these microscopic entities play crucial roles in maintaining our health and
the planets ecological balance, others have been the forerunner of some of the most devastating
diseases known to humankind, that have periodically altered the course of human history.
Historically, microbial infections have been responsible for more human deaths than wars and
natural disasters combined.

To underscore the importance of studying microbial infections for public health, referencing
significant historical outbreaks provides valuable lessons on the impact of these diseases and the
necessity for preparedness and research:
The Black Death (1347-1352): Pathogen: Yersinia pestis (bacterium) spread by fleas-wingless insect.
 Impact: Estimated to have killed about 50 million people, or 60% of the European population at
the time. The Bubonic plague caused profound social, economic and religious upheavals, leading
to significant changes in the course of European history.
 Highlighted the need for understanding transmission vectors (fleas on rats) and the importance
of sanitation and public health measures.

Spanish Flu (1918-1919): Pathogen: H1N1 influenza A virus which is an avian origin.
 Impact: Infected approximately one-third of the world's population and caused an estimated 50
million deaths worldwide. Its rapid spread was facilitated by the movements of troops around
the world during World War I.
 Underlined the importance of public health interventions (e.g., isolation, quarantine, use of
masks) and the need for global surveillance and preparedness for pandemic influenza.
HIV/AIDS Epidemic (Identified in 1981, ongoing): Pathogen: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
 Impact: More than 75 million people have been infected with the HIV virus and about 32 million
people have died of HIV. It has had a profound impact on society, particularly in sub-Saharan
Africa.
 Stressed the importance of sexual health education, the development of antiretroviral therapy
(ART), and the need for research on vaccines and cure strategies.
COVID-19 (2019-Present): Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
 Impact: Caused significant global morbidity and mortality, leading to unprecedented public
health and economic measures, including lockdowns, travel restrictions, and the rapid
development of vaccines.
 Demonstrated the critical need for rapid diagnostic testing, vaccine development, and the
importance of global cooperation in the face of pandemic threats. Highlighted the role of
technology and data in tracking and managing outbreaks.

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Today, we live in a world that's more interconnected than ever. Rapid urbanization, global travel and
changes in land use patterns, combined with climate change, have augmented the risks associated
with microbial diseases. The 21st century has already witnessed the emergence of novel pathogens,
like the SARS-CoV-2 virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, which has had profound
implications globally and was especially impactful in densely populated nations, including India.
Tuberculosis, a bacterial infection, continues to be a significant public health challenge, with India
accounting for about 28% of the global TB cases. Vector-borne diseases like dengue and malaria
persistently test the country's health infrastructure. Simultaneously, the overuse of antibiotics in the
nation has raised alarms about the increasing threat of antimicrobial resistance, which could render
many current treatments ineffective.

The impact of pathogens on human health:

Direct Health Effects
 Morbidity and Mortality: Diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria have historically
been leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The recent COVID-19 pandemic has
further exemplified how a novel pathogen can cause widespread health crises.
 Chronic Conditions and Complications: For example, HIV weakens the immune system, leading
to AIDS, while some viral infections like Hepatitis B and C can cause chronic liver disease and
increase the risk of liver cancer.
Social and Psychological Effects
 Stigma and Discrimination: Infectious diseases often carry a stigma, leading to discrimination
against those affected. This can result in social isolation, mental health issues, and reluctance to
seek diagnosis and treatment, further exacerbating the spread and impact of the disease.
 Mental Health: The psychological impacts including anxiety, depression & Post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) among survivors and their families.
Economic and Developmental Impact
 Healthcare Costs: The economic burden of managing infectious diseases is substantial, with
costs including diagnostics, treatment, hospitalization and long-term care for complications.
 Workforce Productivity Loss: Illness and death due to infectious diseases can significantly
impact labour productivity and economic output.
 Educational Disruption: Infectious disease outbreaks can disrupt education, as seen during the
COVID-19 pandemic with school closures and shifts to online learning. This has long-term
implications for educational attainment and future workforce skills.
Global Health Security
 Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): The misuse and overuse of antibiotics have led to
the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, posing a significant threat to global health
security. AMR complicates the treatment of infections, leading to higher medical costs,
prolonged hospital stays and increased mortality.
 Global Health Threats: Infectious diseases know no borders. Global travel and trade can rapidly
spread infections from one country to another.
Environmental and Ecological Effects
 Zoonotic Diseases: A significant proportion of infectious diseases are zoonotic, meaning they can
be transmitted between animals and humans. Changes in land use, deforestation and climate
change can alter the interactions between wildlife, livestock and humans, increasing the risk of
zoonotic diseases.

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Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR):
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), also known as drug resistance – occurs when microorganisms such
as bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites change in ways that render the medications used to cure the
infections they cause ineffective. When the microorganisms become resistant to most antimicrobials
they are often referred to as “superbugs”. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a complex
challenge where microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to resist the
effects of antimicrobials — including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics. These
agents, once effective against infections, lose their efficacy, leading to harder-to-treat diseases and
increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness, and death.

The Growing Threat of AMR

 Global Impact: AMR was responsible for approximately 4.95 million deaths worldwide in 2019,
underscoring the critical need for urgent action to combat this rising threat.
 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) warned that the world
could experience a significant rise in resistance to second and third-line antibiotics by 2030,
forecasting significant health and economic consequences globally.
 Accelerating Resistance Rates: Research by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in
2022 indicated that resistance to broad-spectrum antimicrobials is increasing annually by 5% to
10%. This is echoed by findings from the Indian Network for Surveillance of Antimicrobial
Resistance (INSAR), highlighting widespread resistance to critical drugs like ciprofloxacin,
clindamycin, gentamicin and erythromycin.
 World Health Organization (WHO) Alarms: WHO reports alarmingly high antibiotic resistance
rates worldwide, with variations in resistance to ciprofloxacin, for example, ranging from 8.4% to
92.9% for Escherichia coli infections. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (TB) further complicates
the global health landscape, with cure rates falling below 60%.

40
 India has been called the "AMR capital of the world" due to the rising rates of antimicrobial
resistance (AMR) in the environment, animals, and humans.

Main drivers of AMR:

1. Overuse of Antibiotics: This is perhaps the most significant factor. Excessive and inappropriate
use of antibiotics in humans—for example, using antibiotics to treat viral infections against
which they are ineffective—promotes the development of resistance.
2. Agricultural Use: Large quantities of antibiotics are used in agriculture, not just to fight
infections, but often to promote growth and prevent disease in healthy animals. This widespread
use of antibiotics in livestock can lead to the development of resistant bacteria, which can then
be transmitted to humans through the food chain and environment.
3. Lack of New Antibiotics: The development of new antibiotics has not kept pace with the rate of
emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains.
4. WASH: Lack of access to clean water, sanitation, & hygiene (WASH) for humans, animals.
5. Inadequate infection prevention and control practices in hospitals and clinics allow for the
spread of resistant bacteria among patients, healthcare workers, and visitors.
6. Global Travel: International travel enables rapid global spread of resistant organisms.
7. Lack of Public Awareness: Public misunderstanding of antibiotics and their appropriate use leads
to pressure on healthcare providers to prescribe antibiotics unnecessarily and patients not
completing their prescribed antibiotic courses, which both contribute to resistance.
8. Some drivers of AMR in India include: Pharmaceutical wastewater, Livestock discard, Agricultural
manure and sludge, Heavy metals, and Aquaculture. Also, India faces a significant burden of
infectious diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, typhoid, cholera, and pneumonia. The emergence
of AMR makes these diseases more difficult to treat effectively.
Mechanisms of Resistance
1. Mutation: Random mutations in the genetic material of microorganisms can lead to changes
that protect them from the effects of antimicrobials. For example, a mutation might alter the
target site of an antibiotic within the bacterial cell, reducing the drug's effectiveness.
2. Efflux Pumps: Some bacteria can develop or increase the activity of efflux pumps, which are
protein structures that actively expel antimicrobial agents from the cell, thereby reducing the
concentration of the drug inside the cell to non-lethal levels.
3. Enzymatic Degradation: Bacteria can produce enzymes that chemically degrade or modify
antimicrobials. A well-known example is the production of beta-lactamase enzymes by certain
bacteria, which break down beta-lactam antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporin.
4. Biofilm Formation: A biofilm is a community of microorganisms that attach to a surface and
form a protective layer that can prevent antimicrobials from reaching their targets effectively.
Biofilms can increase resistance and make infections difficult to eradicate.
National and Global Efforts to combat AMR:
 National Action Plans: India's National Action Plan on AMR (2017-21) highlights initiatives like
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Swachh Swasth Sarvatraand Kayakalp to enhance hygiene, sanitation,
and antibiotic stewardship combat AMR.

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 The Delhi Declaration during India’s G20 presidency saw a commitment to strengthen the
global health architecture by building more resilient, equitable, sustainable and inclusive health
systems to implement the One Health approach enhance pandemic preparedness and
strengthen existing infectious diseases surveillance systems.
 Antibiotic Stewardship Program (AMSP): The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has
initiated the AMSP on a pilot project basis in 20 tertiary care hospitals across India. The program
aims to control the misuse and overuse of antibiotics in hospital wards and ICUs.
 Ban on inappropriate fixed dose combinations (FDCs): On the recommendations of the ICMR,
the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) has banned 40 FDCs.
 Ban on the use of Colistin: The ICMR, in collaboration with the Indian Council of Agriculture
Research, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Fisheries, and the DCGI, has banned the
use of Colistin as a growth promoter in animal feed in poultry.
 One Health approach: The government is working on a One Health approach by encouraging
interdisciplinary collaboration at the human-animal-environmental interface. The key priority
areas include zoonotic diseases, food safety, and antibiotic resistance.
 Integrated One Health Surveillance Network for AMR: The ICMR has undertaken a project on
an "Integrated One Health Surveillance Network for Antimicrobial Resistance" in collaboration
with the Indian Council of Agriculture Research to assess the preparedness of Indian Veterinary
laboratories to participate in an integrated AMR surveillance network.
 The Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) is a web-based
platform for sharing data on antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The World Health Organization
(WHO) launched GLASS in 2015 to monitor AMR and develop strategies to contain it.
 The Muscat Ministerial Conference on AMR: The Muscat Ministerial Manifesto on Antimicrobial
Resistance (AMR) aims to accelerate the implementation of One Health action to control the
spread of AMR. The manifesto was agreed upon at the Third Global High-Level Ministerial
Conference on AMR, which took place in Muscat, Oman on November 24–25, 2022. Over 30
countries adopted the Muscat Ministerial Manifesto, committing to:
 Reducing the total amount of antimicrobials used in agrifood systems by at least 30 per cent-
50 per cent by 2030.
 Preserving critically important antimicrobials for human medicine and ending the use of
medically important antimicrobials for growth promotion in animals.
 Ensuring that ‘Access’ group antibiotics (a category of antibiotics that are affordable, safe
and have a low AMR risk) represent at least 60 per cent of overall antibiotic consumption in
humans by 2030.
The Path Forward
 Reducing Antimicrobial Use: Evidence suggests that reducing the use of antimicrobials can
significantly curb the emergence of resistance. Success stories from the Netherlands, Thailand,
and China, where antimicrobial use in agriculture has been cut by nearly 50%. Community
Awareness: Increasing public awareness about the judicious use of antibiotics and healthier food
production practices is crucial.
 Regulatory Measures: Policies to limit antibiotic use, scrutinize prescriptions, and ban antibiotics
for growth promotion in livestock are being implemented globally.
Conclusion: Antimicrobial resistance remains a formidable challenge that requires coordinated
global action. Through sustained efforts and international cooperation, we can tackle this silent
pandemic and safeguard future generations.

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ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN TRANSFORMING THE HEALTH CARE SECTOR:
 Telemedicine and Remote Care: Telemedicine has revolutionized healthcare delivery in rural
and remote areas of India, where there is a significant shortage of healthcare professionals.
Platforms like Practo and Apollo Telehealth provide virtual consultations, allowing patients in the
most remote areas to access specialist doctors without the need to travel. This not only saves
time and reduces travel expenses for patients but also helps in decongesting urban healthcare
facilities.
 The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of telemedicine, with the Indian government
launching the eSanjeevani platform, which has facilitated millions of virtual consultations across
the country. This platform demonstrates the potential for scalability and sustainability of
telehealth services in a diverse and populous country like India.
 Health Information Systems: The integration of robust Health Information Systems (HIS) is
crucial for the effective management of health data. The Indian government's Ayushman Bharat
Digital Mission (ABDM) aims to develop a digital health ecosystem that supports universal health
coverage in an efficient, accessible, inclusive, affordable, timely, and safe manner. This mission
includes creating unique health IDs for citizens, digital health records, and a registry of
healthcare providers, enabling interoperability across the healthcare ecosystem.
 Electronic Health Records (EHR): While the adoption of EHRs in India has been slow, interest is
increasing. EHRs enhance patient care by providing comprehensive health histories, reducing
errors, and improving communication between providers. However, challenges such as the lack
of a national EHR system and concerns about data privacy persist.
 Mobile Health (mHealth): Mobile health interventions, like SMS reminders and health apps,
have proven effective in chronic disease management and improving maternal and child health.
Apps like Aarogya Setu have played a significant role in managing the spread of COVID-19
through contact tracing and real-time updates. Despite their benefits, challenges in scalability,
sustainability, and data privacy need addressing.
 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: AI and ML are at the forefront of transforming
healthcare diagnostics and treatment. For example, Qure.ai, an Indian startup, uses AI to
interpret radiology scans faster and with high accuracy, assisting in early diagnosis and
management of diseases like tuberculosis and COVID-19. Similarly, AI-powered solutions are
being developed for pathology, ophthalmology, and cardiology, which can predict disease
progression and optimize treatment plans.
 Blockchain Technology: Blockchain technology offers a secure way to manage and share medical
records, ensuring privacy and data integrity. This can be particularly beneficial in a complex
healthcare system like India’s, where data security is paramount. Projects like the pilot by Apollo
Hospitals and Microsoft in using blockchain for health records illustrate the potential for such
technologies to enhance trust and efficiency in healthcare systems.
 IoT: The ‘Internet of Things’ can also be used to gain valuable insights from data derived from
foetal monitors, electrocardiograms, temperature monitors, and blood glucose levels. Smart IoT
devices can provide the necessary health data remotely, reducing the need for direct patient-
physician interaction. Different distributed devices will collect, analyze, and transmit real-time
medical data to open, private, or hybrid clouds in an IoT-enabled world, enabling the collection,
storage, and analysis of big data streams in various new formats and activating context-sensitive
alarms.

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Government Initiatives: Key initiatives include:
 National Health Stack (NHS): Aims to create a unified digital health infrastructure featuring
health IDs, EHRs, and health analytics.
 National Digital Health Blueprint (NDHB): Provides a strategy for the digital transformation of
healthcare in India, aiming to establish a National Digital Health Ecosystem.
 Ayushman Bharat Scheme: Offers health insurance to over 100 million vulnerable families,
promoting technology use in healthcare delivery.
 Digital India Initiative: Seeks to transform India into a digitally empowered society, impacting
healthcare through initiatives like the NHS and NDHB.

Sociological Impact: The technology integration in healthcare has:

 Increased access to healthcare in rural and remote areas via telemedicine and mHealth.
 Improved patient engagement and empowerment through accessible health records and
information systems.
 Shifted the dynamics of doctor-patient relationships, with patients becoming more informed and
involved in their healthcare decisions.
 Raised concerns over privacy and security, highlighting the need for robust data protection
measures.

NFHS 5 – 2019-2021
Indicator Description
Menstrual Hygiene 81.5% of women between 15 and 24 years old in India use some kind of
hygienic menstrual protection. However, UNICEF reports that only 13%
of Indian girls are aware of menstruation before their first period, and
60% of girls miss school or drop out permanently due to challenges like
lack of infrastructure.
Use of Clean Fuel 43% of rural households and 90% of urban households in India
primarily use LPG for cooking.
Total fertility rate 2 children per woman.
Abortion and 53% of abortions were performed in private health facilities, with
Reproductive Health unplanned pregnancy being the most cited reason for abortions.
Child Health and 76.5% of children aged 12-23 months received all basic vaccinations.
Vaccination
Nutritional Status Stunting has declined from 38% to 36%, wasting from 21% to 19% and
underweight from 36% to 32% at all India level.
Mortality Rates Infant mortality rate was 35.2 deaths per 1,000 live births, and under-
five mortality rate was 41.9 deaths per 1,000 live births.
Knowledge of HIV/AIDS 22% of women and 31% of men aged 15-49 years had comprehensive
knowledge of HIV/AIDS.
Life Expectancy India's life expectancy was 70.42 years, which was a 0.33% increase
from 2022. Men - 70.5 years, Women - 73.6 (62.1 years in 2000)
Sex Ratio 1,020 women for 1000 men in the country
Anemia 57% of women and an 25% of men aged 15-49 years were anaemic.
Institutional Births Institutional births have increased substantially from 79% to 89%.
Family Planning Overall Contraceptive Prevalence Rate (CPR) has increased substantially
from 54% to 67% at all-India level

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Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) involves the use of clean menstrual management
material to absorb or collect blood, along with facilities to change the materials, access to water and
soap for washing, and safe disposal of used menstrual products. Inadequate MHM has been
recognized as a public health and human rights issue globally.

MHM for Health and Social inclusion:

1. Health and Comfort: Good menstrual hygiene helps prevent infections, such as bacterial
vaginosis or yeast infections, which can occur if menstrual blood is left to accumulate in a damp
environment. Regularly changing sanitary products and using clean materials minimizes the risk
of these infections and increases comfort.
2. Preventing Complications: Poor menstrual hygiene can lead to more serious health issues,
including urinary tract infections and pelvic inflammatory disease, which can have long-term
consequences on reproductive health.
3. Dignity and Confidence: Menstruation is a natural process, and managing it with dignity is
crucial for the mental and emotional well-being of those who menstruate. Effective hygiene
practices help individuals feel confident and comfortable during their menstrual period, reducing
anxiety and promoting a positive self-image.
4. Educational Impact: Girls in India often miss school during their periods due to lack of facilities
and/or cultural stigmas. Reports indicate that around 23 million girls drop out of school annually
because of inadequate menstrual hygiene facilities. Promoting MHM can increase school
attendance and participation, leading to better educational outcomes.
5. Economic Benefits: Improved menstrual hygiene management can lead to better participation
of women in the workforce. Women who are educated and healthy contribute to economic
growth.
6. Gender Equality: Menstrual hygiene is a gender equality issue. Addressing MHM challenges
helps to reduce gender disparities and empower women and girls, giving them more control
over their health, education, and economic opportunities.
Challenges in Promoting Menstrual Hygiene
 Cultural Barriers: Deep-rooted stigmas and taboos around menstruation often discourage open
discussion and proper education on the subject.
 Economic Factors: Many women and girls in rural and impoverished urban areas cannot afford
sanitary products.
 Lack of Education: There's a significant gap in knowledge about menstruation which is
compounded by inadequate sexual and reproductive health education in schools.

Strategies for Effective Promotion of Menstrual Hygiene

1. Education and Awareness Campaigns: Initiatives like the Menstrual Hygiene Day (celebrated on
May 28 globally) help raise awareness and combat stigma.
2. The Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janausadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP) is a scheme that provides
biodegradable sanitary pads sanitary napkins called "Suvidha" at 1 rupee per pad.
3. Policy Implementation: Ensuring that policies on menstrual hygiene are not only formulated but
effectively implemented.
4. Community Involvement: Engaging community leaders and men in discussions about menstrual
hygiene to foster a supportive environment.
5. Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between governments and private companies can
help make sanitary products more accessible and affordable.

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HIV-AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the body's immune system, specifically
CD4 white blood cells. HIV can't be cured, but it can be controlled with proper medical care. If left
untreated, HIV can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). AIDS is the final stage of
HIV infection, when the body's immune system is severely damaged. There are two main types of
the virus: HIV-1, which is more prevalent worldwide, and HIV-2, which is mostly confined to West
Africa. HIV-2 is less infectious than HIV-1. HIV-2 also has three major differences compared to HIV-
1: Longer asymptomatic phase, slower rate of CD4 decline and Lower plasma viral loads.

HIV is a (lentivirus) retrovirus that primarily infects components of the human immune system such
as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. It is transmitted through direct contact with bodily
fluids of an infected person, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids, rectal fluids, and breast milk.
Transmission routes include unprotected sexual contact, needle-sharing among drug users, from
mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding, and through transfusions of contaminated blood.

 23 million people in India are living with HIV/AIDS, as of World AIDS Day 2023. 91% of these
patients contracted the virus through unsafe sex. The HIV epidemic in India is concentrated
among High-Risk Groups (HRG), with 6.26% of people among Injecting Drug Users (IDU) and
3.14% among Hijra/Transgender (H/TG) at the national level. The prevalence among Female Sex
Workers (FSW) is 1.56% and Men having sex with Men (MSM) is 2.7%.
 According to India HIV Estimates 2021, the northeast region states have the highest adult HIV
prevalence in India, with Mizoram having the highest at 2.70%, followed by Nagaland at 1.36%,
and Manipur at 1.05%. The southern states have the largest number of people living with HIV
(PLHIV), with Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka being the top three.
 The number of People Living with HIV (PLHIV) is estimated at around 24 lakhs. Southern States
have the largest number of PLHIV viz. Annual New Infection (ANI) is estimated at 62.97
thousand in 2021 in India.

Symptoms: HIV infection progresses in stages. The initial acute infection may manifest as a flu-like
illness within two to four weeks after the virus enters the body, characterized by fever, sore throat,
and muscle pain. As the infection progresses to chronic HIV, the symptoms become less apparent
until the immune system is significantly weakened. Without treatment, HIV can progress to AIDS,
which is defined by a CD4+ T cell count of less than 200 cells/mm³ or the occurrence of specific
diseases associated with the virus like Kaposi's sarcoma or certain opportunistic infections.

46
Common symptoms of AIDS include rapid weight loss, recurrent fever or profuse night sweats,
extreme and unexplained tiredness, prolonged swelling of the lymph glands, and chronic diarrhoea.

Diagnosis:
 Antibody Screening Tests (ELISA - Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay): Detect HIV antibodies
- first line screening tests.
 Western Blot: Used to confirm the presence of HIV antibodies after a positive screening test.
 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Detects the virus's genetic material and is particularly useful
for diagnosing early infection, and in new-borns born to HIV-positive mothers.
 Rapid Diagnostic Tests: These can provide results within 20 minutes, increasing accessibility and
facilitating early diagnosis.

Treatment: The mainstay of HIV treatment is antiretroviral therapy (ART), which involves a
combination of HIV medicines to fight HIV infection and prevent the progression to AIDS. ART is
recommended for all HIV-positive individuals, regardless of CD4+ T cell count, to reduce the viral
load to undetectable levels and prevent transmission. Medications used include reverse
transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, and integrase strand transfer inhibitors. Highly
personalized treatment based on the patient's specific needs and the characteristics of the infection.

Prevention and Control: Measures to Prevent or Control the Disease Spread

 Safe Sex Practices: Use of condoms and other barrier methods.
 Needle Exchange Programs: To prevent transmission among intravenous drug users.
 Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) and Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP): Medications taken
before or after potential HIV exposure.
 Maternal Health: Treatment of HIV-positive mothers and caesarean deliveries.
 Education and Awareness Campaigns: Targeted at vulnerable populations to reduce stigma and
promote HIV testing.

Government Measures & Recent advancements in HIV research in India include:

 Development of Indigenous ART: Indian pharmaceutical companies have been pivotal in
producing cost-effective HAART "highly active antiretroviral therapy".
 The National AIDS Control Program (NACP) was established in 1986, and has since become
the Department of AIDS under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The program's
scope was expanded in 1991 to include raising awareness, blood safety, and prevention
among high-risk populations. The National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) is a semi-
autonomous body that implements the program.
 The HIV and AIDS (Prevention and Control) Act, 2017 aims to address stigma and
discrimination, and to ensure the rights of people infected with HIV and AIDS. The act also
requires the central government to provide adequate information about the disease.
 The National Policy on HIV/AIDS is based on human rights principles, and aims to reduce the
impact of the epidemic in the workplace. The policy includes:
 Preventing the transmission of HIV infection among workers and their families
 Protecting the rights of those infected, and access to care, support, and treatment
 Protecting workers from stigma and discrimination related to HIV/AIDS
 Ensuring safe migration and mobility with access to information on HIV/AIDS

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 ENERGY RESOURCES

Year Exam Questions

2023 UPSC Discuss several ways in which microorganisms can help in meeting the current fuel
shortage.
2022 APPSC 1. Though circumstances are strongly insisting for India to overturn decades of ‘No
first use’ nuclear doctrine, still India is committed to No first use of nuclear
weapons. Comment.
2. What is Green Energy? Discuss the Green Energy corridors and their need in India.
3. What is the current scenario of renewable power generation in India? Discuss the
factors responsible for the growing focus and shift towards Renewable energy.
2020 APPSC 1. What is nuclear energy? At the end of 2019, seven nuclear reactors were under
construction in India, with a combined capacity of 5.4 GW. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of using nuclear energy in India? What is the NPT and how does
this impact India which is not a member of the NPT?
2. What is “Clean Energy”? List the sources of clean energy and explain how they
work. Which of these sources can be used or are already widely used in India?
2020 UPSC Describe the benefits of deriving electric energy from sunlight in contrast to
conventional energy generation. What are the initiatives offered by our
Government for this purpose?
2017 APPSC 1. Discuss India’s present composition of energy sources and future energy security
scenario in the context of growing energy demand.
2. What are the benefits of ‘‘Smart Grid’’? Examine the challenges and strategies for
‘‘Smart Grid’’ operations in India.
2017 UPSC Give an account of the growth and development of nuclear science and technology
in India. What is the advantage of a fast breeder reactor programme in India?
2016 UPSC Give an account of the current status of the targets to be achieved pertaining to
renewable energy sources in the country. Discuss in brief the importance of the
National Programme on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
2016 TSPSC 1. Solar energy is claimed to be a panacea for growing energy problems in the
country. Comment.
2. Discuss the need for a revamped energy policy to tackle the problems of growing
urbanization in India.
2016 APPSC 1. (A) Write a short note on Shale Gas Revolution.
(B) Narrate Nuclear Power growth in India. Add a note on Nuclear Fuel reserves in
the country.
2. (A) Discuss the scope of renewable energy in the scenario of an energy crisis?
(B) Give a detailed list of barriers to renewable energy?
2015 UPSC To what factors can the recent dramatic fall in equipment costs and tariff of solar
energy be attributed? What implications does the trend have for the thermal power
producers and the related industry?
2012 APPSC 1. (A) What is the difference between renewable energy and non-renewable
energy? What are the different types of non-conventional energy? Add a note on
their resources.
(B) What are the factors for the increase in the worldwide energy demand? Discuss
briefly to mitigate such demands.
2. (A) What are the new emerging renewable energy technologies?
(B) Define nuclear energy. Discuss briefly on the mitigation of nuclear hazards and
nuclear waste.

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2011 APPSC 1. (A) I. Of late there is a lot of public resistance towards the establishment of coal-
based power plants. Comment.
II. Discuss the reasons for the sparse use of renewable resources in India
2. (B) I. Wind power in India.
II. Biomass management in India
III. Ocean energy
2011 UPSC Write about ‘Concentrated’ solar energy and ‘photovoltaic’ solar energy.
2008 APPSC 1. What are the various renewable energy resources? What is their potential in our
country?
2. What are the challenges faced by energy sector in our country

Power Industry in India

The power industry in India plays a pivotal role in infrastructure development, serving as a
cornerstone for economic growth and societal well-being. Adequate and efficient power
infrastructure is vital for India's sustained economic progress.

The Indian power sector is structured into three key segments:

1. Generation: Generation is the process of producing electricity from different sources like
thermal energy (coal, diesel etc.), nuclear and renewable sources such as sunlight and wind,
natural gas, etc. in generating stations or power generation plants.
2. Transmission: Transmission utilities transport large amount of electricity from power plants to
distribution substations via a grid at high voltages.
3. Distribution: This is carried out at lower voltages to ensure safe usage in homes, businesses, and
other establishments. Distribution companies manage the local grid to maintain reliable and
continuous power supply to consumers.

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Importance of Renewable Energy:
Renewable energy is increasingly becoming a critical component of the global energy mix, offering
significant advantages over conventional fossil fuel sources. This shift is particularly evident in India,
where the government and private sector are aggressively pursuing renewable options.

1. Environmental Impact: i. Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions ii. Air Quality Improvement:
One of the biggest challenges involved with the conventional source is the environmental
contamination. Coal combustion at thermal power plants emits carbon dioxide (CO2), Sulphur oxides
(SOx), nitrogen oxide (NOx), Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) and other gases, and inorganic pollutants like
fly ash. As of 2023, India's per capita carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are around 2 tonnes (global
average of 4.6 tonnes). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the industrial sector is
responsible for about 30% of carbon emissions, while the transport sector is responsible for about
13%. Majority of the coal-fired power plants are inefficient and run on older subcritical technologies.
These technologies utilize more coal per MWh of electricity generated. Air pollution, water
pollution, noise pollution and land degradation are some of the environmental and health risk posed
by the thermal power plants. Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydro have minimal
environmental impact compared to fossil fuels. They do not produce greenhouse gases or other
pollutants, which means they have a smaller carbon footprint.

As of 2023, India is the fifth-largest solar power producer in the world. The country's solar
installations significantly reduce carbon emissions each year. For instance, solar parks like the Bhadla
Solar Park in Rajasthan, spread over thousands of acres, contribute to substantial reductions in CO2
emissions. iii. Biodiversity Conservation: Unlike large-scale hydro projects, solar and wind
installations have a comparatively lower impact on local ecosystems and biodiversity.

2. Sustainable Supply: Abundant availability of resources

While the traditional thermal power generation requires fuels like coal, lignite, gas and diesel which
are available in limited quantity and the resources deplete on usage, renewable power sources are
abundantly available in nature and do not deplete. Renewables provide a sustainable energy supply.
India receives around 5,000 trillion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of solar energy annually, which is more
than the country's total energy consumption. Most areas of India receive 4–7 kWh per square meter
per day, and the country has around 300–330 sunny days per year. The abundance of solar
irradiance and availability of solar energy throughout the year has created enormous opportunities
to exploit solar energy especially in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh.

The recent Wind Resource Assessment indicates a gross wind power potential of 302 GW in the
country at 100 meter and 696 GW at 120 meter above ground level. Most of this potential exists in
seven windy states including Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu and Telangana.

3. Economic Benefits: Lower Tariffs as compared to thermal power plants:

Investing in renewable energy can drive economic growth by creating jobs, reducing energy import
bills, and providing energy security. Renewable energy projects often have lower operational costs
once established. Solar tariffs have reduced from Rs. 6.47/ Kwh in FY14 to Rs. 2.9/ Kwh in FY23,
driven by declining solar panel prices, supportive government policies, technological advancements
and intense competition resulting in significantly lower tariffs than the thermal power tariffs.

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4. Energy Security: Renewable energy sources are domestically available and can be harnessed
locally, reducing India’s dependence on imported fossil fuels. This shift enhances national energy
security by mitigating the risks associated with geopolitical tensions, supply disruptions, and volatile
global oil prices. India's National Solar Mission aims to establish India as a global leader in solar
energy. By expanding its solar capacity, India reduces its reliance on crude oil imports, enhancing its
energy security.

5. Lower offtake risk: DISCOMs purchase power from multiple power producers, across various
generation types and under different contractual frameworks. Since renewable energy have the
must run status, the electricity from these renewable plants cannot be curtailed for any commercial
reasons. This reduces the offtake risk since in case of excess supply or availability of cheaper power,
the DISCOMs cannot curtail the RE power or refrain the power producers from generating or
dispatching power.

5. Health Benefits: Renewable energy results in fewer air pollutants, which can significantly improve
public health. The reduction in pollutants like sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter from
fossil fuels can lead to lower incidence of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Studies suggest
that India's renewable energy initiatives could significantly decrease air pollution-related deaths
annually by reducing pollutants emitted by thermal power plants.

6. Enhancing Rural Development and Inclusivity: Renewable energy projects, particularly solar and
wind can be deployed at the community level, which directly benefits rural areas. These projects not
only provide energy access to remote and underserved regions but also promote local job creation in
installation, maintenance, and operations. This decentralization of power generation promotes
socio-economic development in rural areas, reducing migration to urban centers and helping
balance regional inequalities.

7. Supporting Sustainable Urbanization: Renewable energy integration in urban planning helps

cities manage their energy demands sustainably. Implementing green building standards and
promoting electric vehicles powered by renewable energy can significantly reduce urban pollution
levels. This not only improves the quality of life but also supports the development of smart cities
that are environmentally sustainable and economically viable.

8. Boosting International Relations and Cooperation: India’s push towards renewables improves its
standing in international forums as a responsible global player committed to sustainable
development goals. This enhances its diplomatic relations and opens up avenues for partnerships on
technology exchange, joint research, and development projects focused on renewable energy and
sustainability. India’s proactive stance in international climate negotiations, like the Paris
Agreement, and initiatives such as the International Solar Alliance, highlight its commitment to
leading the global renewable energy sector. Investing in renewable energy technologies positions
India as a leader in the global energy transition

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 BIOTECHNOLOGY
In 1919, Károly Ereky coined the term "biotechnology" to describe the process of using living
organisms to create products from raw materials. He defined it as "the process of using technology
to convert raw, biological material into a useful product".

This definition encapsulates the broad scope of biotechnology, highlighting its application not just to
living organisms but also to components of these organisms (like cells, enzymes, genes) for various
purposes. It underscores biotechnology's role in creating wide range of products and services across
multiple areas including healthcare, agriculture, environmental science and industrial processes.

Terms related to biotechnology:

1. Gene: A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a specific protein or
set of proteins. Genes are the basic units of heredity and play a significant role in determining
the characteristics of organisms. A genome is the complete set of DNA (genetic material) in an
organism. It can contain millions or billions of DNA letters.
Order of genetic material: largest to smallest is genome>chromosome>gene> nucleotide
2. Vector: In molecular biology, a vector is a vehicle used to transfer genetic material into a cell.
Common vectors include plasmids, viruses and artificial chromosomes. They are vital tools in
genetic engineering.
3. Plasmid: A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule found in bacteria and
some other organisms. Plasmids are independent of the chromosomal DNA and can replicate
autonomously. They are commonly used as vectors in genetic engineering to insert and express
foreign genes in a target organism.
4. Genetic Code: The genetic code is a set of rules by which information encoded in genetic
material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins by living cells. It involves the use of
codons, which are sequences of three nucleotides, each of which corresponds to a specific
amino acid or a stop signal during protein synthesis.
5. Recombinant DNA (rDNA): Recombinant DNA is a form of DNA assembled from two or more
different sources. This technology allows for the insertion of genes from one organism into the
DNA of another, enabling the expression of new genetic traits.
6. Transgenic Organism/GMO (Genetically Modified Organism): A transgenic organism or GMO is
an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
These organisms contain DNA from different species, resulting in new traits or characteristics.
7. CRISPR-Cas9: CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene-editing technology that can correct errors in the genome
and turn genes on or off in cells and organisms.
8. Cell Culture: Cell culture is a collection of techniques and resources in which cells that were part
of an organism are growth in an artificial controlled environment. Cell culture techniques are
essential for studying cellular functions, developing biopharmaceuticals and producing cultured
meat.
9. Bioreactor: A device or system used to grow organisms or cells in a controlled environment,
often for biological and chemical reactions i.e producing pharmaceuticals, antibodies or other
biological products.
10. Monoclonal Antibodies: Monoclonal antibodies (also called moAbs or mAbs) are proteins made
in laboratories that act like proteins called antibodies in our bodies. Antibodies are parts of your

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 immune system. They seek out the antigens (foreign materials) and stick to them in order to
destroy them.
11. Proteomics: Proteomics is the study of the interactions, function, composition, and structures of
proteins and their cellular activities. Proteomics provides a better understanding of the structure
and function of the organism than genomics.
12. Genomics: Studies the structure, function, evolution, mapping and editing of genomes. A
genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes and its structural
configuration.
13. Bioinformatics: An interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for
understanding biological data. It combines biology, computer science, mathematics and
statistics to analyze and interpret biological data, especially genetic data.
14. Enzyme: Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in
cells. In biotechnology, enzymes are used in various applications, including DNA replication,
polymerase chain reactions (PCR) and biofuel production.
15. Synthetic Biology: An interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering that involves designing
and constructing new biological parts, devices and systems or re-designing existing biological
systems for useful purposes.
16. Antibiotic Resistance Genes: Genes found in bacteria that provide resistance to antibiotics.
These genes are often used in genetic engineering as selectable markers to identify successfully
modified cells.
17. Biopharmaceuticals: A biopharmaceutical, also known as a biological medical product, is any
pharmaceutical drug product manufactured in, extracted from, or semi synthesized from
biological sources.
18. Gene Therapy: A medical field which focuses on the treatment of disease by altering the genetic
makeup of an individual’s cells. It often involves the use of vectors to deliver therapeutic genes
to patients' cells.
19. Genetic Screening: Genetic screening is the process of testing a population for a genetic disease
in order to identify a subgroup of people that either have the disease or the potential to pass it
on to their offspring.
20. RNA Interference (RNAi): A biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or
translation, by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules. It's a powerful tool for gene silencing in
research and therapeutic applications.
21. Gene Cloning: Gene cloning is a molecular biology technique that involves the replication of a
specific gene or piece of DNA outside of its original organism, in a host organism or cell. This
process allows for the creation of multiple copies of the gene or DNA segment,
22. Tissue Engineering: Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells in an artificial medium
separate from the parent organism. This technique is also called micropropagation.
23. Gel Electrophoresis: A laboratory method used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA or proteins
according to molecular size.
24. Biomarkers: A biomarker is a biological molecule that indicates the presence or severity of a
disease, condition, or normal process. Biomarkers can be found in blood, urine, tissues, or other
body fluids. They can also be early warning systems for health. For example, high levels of lead in
the bloodstream may indicate a need to test for cognitive or nervous system disorders.
25. Mutations: Any change in the DNA sequence of a cell. Mutations may be caused by mistakes
during cell division, or they may be caused by exposure to DNA-damaging agents in the
environment.

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Modern Biotechnology:
Modern biotechnology today includes the tools of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is the
name for the methods that scientists use to introduce new traits or characteristics to an organism.
Recombinant DNA technology is a technique used in genetic engineering.

1. Recombinant DNA (r-DNA) Technology is a ground-breaking technique of genetic engineering

used to alter the genetic material of an organism. This technology has vast applications in medicine,
agriculture, and research, allowing scientists to produce proteins, modify crops for greater yield or
resistance to pests, and create model organisms for study.

Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA molecules from two different species into a
single molecule. This recombined DNA molecule is then inserted into a host organism, where it can
replicate and possibly express new genetic traits. The fundamental aim is to impart new
characteristics to organisms that are not naturally present in them.

Steps in Recombinant DNA Technology:

1. Identification and Isolation of the Gene of Interest
The first step in r-DNA technology is identifying and isolating the gene of interest—the segment of
DNA that codes for the desired trait or protein. This is typically done using molecular cloning
techniques. Researchers often use restriction enzymes (also known as molecular scissors) to cut
DNA at specific sequences, allowing for the precise extraction of the desired gene.

2. Gene Cloning
Once the gene is isolated, it needs to be amplified (made in many copies) to have enough material to
work with. This is usually accomplished through a process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR),
which rapidly amplifies the selected DNA segment.

3. Insertion of Gene into a Vector

After amplification, the gene of interest is inserted into a vector—usually a plasmid (small circular
DNA) or a virus. The vector serves as a carrier that can introduce the gene into a host organism's

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cells. Before insertion, both the vector and the gene of interest are typically cut with the same
restriction enzyme to ensure compatibility and promote the bonding of the DNA strands.

4. Introduction of Vector into Host Organism

The recombinant DNA vector is then introduced into the host organism. This can be done through
various methods, such as transformation (using chemicals or heat shock to induce cells to take up
plasmid DNA), electroporation (using an electrical field to make cell membranes permeable), or
particle bombardment.

5. Selection and Screening of Recombinant Organisms

Once the vector is introduced into the host cells, not all cells will take up the vector successfully.
Therefore, a method of selecting those cells that have successfully integrated the recombinant DNA
is necessary. This is often achieved using a marker gene—usually antibiotic resistance—that is
included in the vector. Only the cells that grow in the presence of the antibiotic are those that have
taken up the vector.

6. Expression and Testing of the New Gene

The final step is the expression of the recombinant DNA within the host organism to produce the
desired protein or trait. The success of this expression can depend on many factors, including how
well the inserted gene has been integrated into the host’s genome and whether the host organism’s
cellular machinery properly translates and transcribes the new gene.

Enzymes play crucial roles in recombinant DNA (r-DNA) technology, acting as tools to cut, paste, and
amplify DNA sequences. Each enzyme has a specific function that facilitates the manipulation and
construction of recombinant DNA molecules.
1. Restriction Enzymes: These are bacterial enzymes used to cut DNA at specific recognition sites.
Each restriction enzyme recognizes a specific sequence of nucleotides and cuts the DNA at or
near these sites. This process is essential for extracting and isolating specific DNA fragments to
be cloned into vectors.
2. DNA Ligase: DNA ligase is used to join DNA fragments together. After DNA fragments are cut by
restriction enzymes, DNA ligase is used to seal the "nicks" or breaks in the sugar-phosphate
backbone of the DNA. This enzyme is crucial for constructing recombinant DNA by connecting
the DNA of interest with vector DNA.
3. Reverse Transcriptase: Reverse transcriptase is used to synthesize complementary DNA (cDNA)
from an RNA template. This is particularly important in cases where the gene of interest is
initially part of an RNA virus. The cDNA can then be cloned and further manipulated.
4. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Enzymes: Taq polymerase is the most commonly used enzyme
in PCR to amplify DNA sequences. It is a thermostable DNA polymerase, which means it can
withstand the high temperatures used in PCR to denature the DNA double helix.
5. RNA polymerase: This enzyme makes RNA from a DNA template. It’s essential for creating RNA
versions of specific genes for experiments and other applications.
6. Endonucleases: These enzymes cut DNA from within (not just at the ends like exonucleases)
used to trim unwanted single-stranded parts of DNA or prepare DNA ends for joining.
7. Exonucleases: These enzymes trim off the ends of DNA strands. They are important in DNA
sequencing and repair, helping to clean up or shape the DNA ends.

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8. Alkaline Phosphatase: This enzyme is used to prevent DNA carriers (vectors) from reconnecting
to them after being cut. It removes certain groups from DNA ends, helping to ensure that only
the right DNA pieces are joined together, which aids in successful cloning.

Applications of Biotechnology:
Healthcare and Medicine
 Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering allows for the modification of genes to treat or
prevent diseases. An exemplary case is gene therapy, which involves inserting, altering or
removing genes within an individual's cells to treat disease. For instance, CAR T-cell therapy
modifies T cells to attack cancer cells more effectively.
 Biopharmaceuticals: Biotechnology has enabled the production of biopharmaceuticals, which
include vaccines, hormones and monoclonal antibodies. Insulin, produced through recombinant
DNA technology, is a prime example.
 Personalized Medicine: Leveraging genetic information, biotechnology enables personalized
medicine, where treatments and medications are tailored to the individual patient, enhancing
efficacy and minimizing side effects. Cancer treatments are increasingly adopting this approach
to target specific mutations.
 Regenerative Medicine: Through tissue engineering and stem cell therapy, biotechnology
facilitates the regeneration of damaged tissues or organs. The creation of lab-grown skin for
burn victims is a notable example.
 Vaccines: The rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines, such as the mRNA vaccines showcases
biotechnology's capability to respond swiftly to global health crises. These vaccines use a
synthetic piece of the virus's mRNA to instruct cells to produce a protein that triggers an
immune response.

Agriculture
 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Genetically modified crops offer higher yields,
improved nutritional value and resistance to pests and diseases. Bt cotton or insect-resistant
genetically modified cotton produces an insecticide to combat bollworms. Golden Rice is
engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, addressing vitamin A deficiency
in some populations.
 Plant Tissue culture: The use of small pieces of plant tissue (explants) which are cultured in a
nutrient medium under sterile conditions. Using the appropriate growing conditions for each
explant type, plants can be induced to rapidly produce new shoots.
 Biofertilizers and Biopesticides: Utilizing microorganisms to enhance plant growth
(biofertilizers) and control pests (biopesticides) offers an eco-friendly alternative to chemical
inputs.

Industrial Processes
 Biofuels: The production of bioethanol from sugarcane and corn and biodiesel from algae and
Jatropha plants offers renewable energy alternatives to fossil fuels, contributing to energy
sustainability and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
 Bioplastics: Polylactic acid (PLA) produced from corn starch is used to make biodegradable
plastics, offering an eco-friendly alternative to petroleum-based plastics.

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Food and Beverage
 Enzyme Technology: Enzymes produced through biotechnological methods are used in cheese
making, bread baking and beer brewing to enhance flavour, texture and nutritional value. For
example, chymosin, a coagulating enzyme produced by genetically modified microorganisms, is
widely used in the cheese-making industry as a replacement for rennet.
 Fermentation Processes: Biotechnology has optimized fermentation, a process used for
centuries to produce wine, beer and yogurt. Modern biotechnological techniques improve yield,
consistency and efficiency in the production of these products.

Environmental Conservation
 Bioremediation: Use of microorganisms to detoxify polluted soil and water contaminated with
hazardous substances like heavy metals, pesticides and hydrocarbons. The use of genetically
modified bacteria (Alcanivorax borkumensis) to break down oil spills in oceans and waterways.
 Bioenergy: Bioenergy involves the production of renewable energy from biological sources. This
can help reduce reliance on fossil fuels, thus decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. The
production of biofuels from algae or agricultural waste
 Phytoremediation: Using plants to remove, transfer, stabilize and destroy contaminants in soil
and water. Sunflowers are used to clean up radioactive water and soil in the Chernobyl area. The
technique uses sunflowers' roots to pull radioactive elements like strontium 90 and cesium 137
out of the water.
 Genetic engineering can be employed to protect endangered species and restore populations of
organisms that play critical roles in their ecosystems. The modification of coral species to be
more resilient to the warming temperatures and acidifying oceans caused by climate change
 Waste Management: The application of biotechnological processes in waste management,
including composting and the conversion of organic waste into valuable products. Certain
bacteria (Bacillus spp. Enterobacter sp.) produce enzymes that can degrade plastics into simpler,
harmless compounds, addressing the global plastic pollution crisis.

Role Biotechnology to improve the living standards of farmers:

1. Enhanced Crop Yields through Genetically Modified Crops
Bt cotton, a genetically modified variety that produces a natural toxin resistant to certain pests, has
seen widespread adoption in India. Studies have shown that Bt cotton has led to yield increases and
higher income for cotton farmers due to reduced pesticide use and lower crop losses.

2. Resilience to Environmental Stresses

India faces significant challenges with water scarcity and saline soils, particularly in regions like
Gujarat and Rajasthan. Biotechnological advancements have led to the development of crops
engineered to tolerate these stresses.

3. Horticulture and Floriculture Enhancement

The rising demand for fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants, combined with challenges such as
limited land and water resources, pests, and diseases, calls for innovative solutions. Biotechnology
has introduced genetically modified versions of tomatoes, papayas, and watermelons that exhibit
enhanced resistance to viral diseases and adverse climate conditions. This development not only
promises to stabilize and increase production but also supports sustainability by reducing the need
for chemical treatments.

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4. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry
 Livestock Productivity: Biotechnology has enabled farmers to produce predominantly female
cattle, thereby increasing milk yield and farm profitability. This is coupled with advancements
like cloning and the development of transgenic animals that are more resistant to diseases and
adaptable to climatic stresses.
 Nutritional Enhancements: Transgenic cows that produce milk with altered nutrient profiles can
offer enhanced health benefits and cater to specific nutritional needs, creating new market
opportunities for farmers. Efforts like the development of iron-fortified pearl millet (bajra) help
combat nutritional deficiencies in rural areas, particularly among women and children who are
most vulnerable to anaemia.
 Recombinant DNA technology has facilitated the development of more effective vaccines against
livestock diseases, significantly reducing mortality and morbidity rates among cattle, poultry,
and other farm animals, thus decreasing economic losses and improving farm sustainability.

5. Climate Change Resilience

With climate change posing a growing threat to agriculture, biotechnological innovations such as the
development of climate-resilient crop varieties are becoming increasingly important. These varieties
can withstand extreme weather events such as floods, heatwaves, and erratic rainfall patterns,
ensuring stable crop production.
6. Reduction in Post-Harvest Losses
Biotechnology can also help reduce post-harvest losses, which are a significant issue for Indian
farmers, especially those growing perishable goods like fruits and vegetables. By developing varieties
with longer shelf lives or improved transportability, biotechnology can ensure that a larger
proportion of harvested crops reach the market.
7. Socio-Economic Impact
The adoption of biotechnological innovations in agriculture has led to increased agricultural
productivity, higher farm incomes, and improved food security. However, it also raises issues of
accessibility and affordability, particularly for small and marginal farmers who may not have the
resources to invest in new technology.

Bio-fertilizers: Biofertilizers are ready to use live formulates of beneficial microorganisms that on
application to seed, root or soil mobilize nutrients through their biological activity in particular, and
help in building up the micro-flora and soil health in general. They are an important component of
organic farming and sustainable agricultural practices, aiming to reduce the dependence on chemical
fertilizers, enhance soil fertility and maintain soil health. They enhance the availability of nutrients
like nitrogen, phosphorus and essential minerals to the plants.

In India, biofertilizers and organic fertilizers were brought under the regulatory purview of the
Fertilizer (Inorganic, Organic or Mixed) Control Order (FCO), 1985, under the Union Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, in 2006. As of now, 11 biofertilizers are approved under FCO,
which include nitrogen fixers and phosphate-solubilizing and potassium-mobilizing biofertilizers of
bacterial or fungal nature. They are available in solid and liquid formulations.
Tamil Nadu is a leading producer of both solid and liquid biofertilizers. In terms of organic fertilizers,
Chhattisgarh led the country in 2020–21 with 63% of the production, while Karnataka came in
second.

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Types of Biofertilizers:
1. Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers: These biofertilizers contain microorganisms that can convert
atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can absorb and use.
 Rhizobium: This bacterium forms a symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants (such as peas
and beans) by infecting the roots to form nodules, where nitrogen fixation occurs.
 Azospirillum and Azotobacter: These are free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria beneficial for non-
leguminous crops like wheat, rice, and corn.
 Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae): Examples include Nostoc and Anabaena, commonly used in
rice paddies. They not only fix atmospheric nitrogen but also add organic matter to the soil.
Cultivated in shallow raceway ponds or photo bioreactors under controlled light and
temperature conditions. Harvesting is done by filtration or centrifugation.

A medium for Rhizobium might include mannitol, yeast extract, and mineral salts. The cultures are
then agitated in bioreactors, followed by harvesting and formulation into carrier-based (e.g., peat,
lignite) or liquid products.

2. Phosphate-Solubilizing Biofertilizers: Phosphorus is a major nutrient for plants but is often in a

form that plants cannot use. Phosphate-solubilizing biofertilizers help convert insoluble forms of
phosphorus to soluble forms, making them available to the plants. Production involves growing
these bacteria in a phosphate-rich medium, which stimulates them to produce organic acids that
solubilize phosphate.
 Bacillus species: Such as Bacillus circulans and Bacillus megaterium.
 Fungi: Such as Penicillium and Aspergillus, which can solubilize phosphate and make it available
to plants

3. Potash Mobilizing Biofertilizers: These are used to increase the availability of potash to the plant,
which is crucial for the overall vigour of the plant, disease resistance and quality of the seeds and
fruits. Bacillus mucilaginous: Known to mobilize soil potash for plant uptake.

4. Fungal Fertilizers:
 Trichoderma: Used for enhancing soil nutrients and protecting plants against pathogens.
Production involves solid or liquid fermentation, with substrates such as molasses or wheat bran
serving as nutrient sources.
 Mycorrhiza: Mycorrhiza (Fungi) forms a symbiotic association with plants. It helps in the
absorption of water, phosphate, and other nutrients from the soil to the plant. In return, the
plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF): These are
used widely with various crops to enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus.
The production of mycorrhizal fungi involves growing the fungi on a solid or gel-based medium,
often requiring specific host plants in the initial stages, before harvesting the spores or infected
root fragments.

5. Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria: These bacteria promote plant growth by various

mechanisms, including synthesizing plant hormones, solubilizing nutrients and suppressing disease-
causing pathogens. Pseudomonas fluorescens: It enhances nutrient uptake and also acts against
fugal pathogens.

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 FOOD BIOTECHNOLOGY
FERMENTATION:
Fermentation is a food processing technique through which microorganisms like yeast and bacteria
convert carbs — such as starch and sugar — into alcohol or acids. The alcohol or acids act as a
natural preservative and give fermented foods a distinct texture. The fermentation process also
promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria, known as probiotics, which have been shown to improve
digestive, heart and immune health.

Many cultures have used fermentation to preserve foods for thousands of years. For example,
fermenting vegetables allows people to eat them year-round, and cheese lasts longer than
milk. Fermentation also makes some foods that are usually inedible or bad-tasting more palatable.

“Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substances through
the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from
carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen.”

APPSC GROUP 1 2016: What is yeast fermentation? Explain industrial use of yeast in making
different products?
Ancient Methods of Food Fermentation:
Natural Fermentation: This method relies on the microorganisms available in the surroundings to
initiate the fermentation process without any deliberate addition of starter cultures. Sauerkraut is
produced by allowing naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria to ferment salted cabbage.
Use of Starters: Starters that contain a mix of specific microorganisms are added to initiate
fermentation. Sourdough bread is made using a starter culture rich in wild yeasts and lactic acid
bacteria.
Controlled Environment: Creating specific conditions such as temperature and anaerobic
environments was crucial. The production of traditional Indian curd requires maintaining a warm
environment to support the growth of lactic acid bacteria which ferment the milk. The process often
involves inoculating warm milk with a small amount of existing curd.
APPSC GROUP 1 2012: Differentiate between old and modern biotechnology. Describe the
discovery of Louis Pasteur on fermentation.

Modern Methods of Food Fermentation:

Precision Fermentation: A metabolic process that uses genetically modified microorganisms to
produce specific end products and compounds such as vitamins, enzymes, flavours and proteins.
Lab-grown dairy products like cheese and yogurt use precision fermentation to create dairy proteins
(e.g., casein and whey) without the need for cattle achieving the same taste and nutritional profile
as traditional dairy products.

Solid-State Fermentation: Involves the growth of microorganisms on a solid substrate in the

absence or near-absence of free water. This technique is particularly useful for the production of
fermented foods, enzymes, and bioactive compounds. Also have applications in waste management
by fermenting agricultural residues.

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Submerged Liquid Fermentation: Most common method of fermentation, where microorganisms
are grown in a liquid nutrient medium. This technique is extensively used for the production of
antibiotics, hormones, enzymes and vaccines with precise control over temperature, pH and oxygen
levels. It's ideal for producing liquid products like soy sauce or for organisms that require a fully
aqueous environment.

High-Gravity Fermentation: Process of fermenting high concentrations of substrate, leading to the

production of high alcohol concentrations in the case of ethanol fermentation. This method is highly
efficient, reducing water usage and energy costs by producing more alcohol per volume of
fermentation broth. It's widely used in the brewing and bioethanol industries.

The following is a detailed process of fermentation, focusing on alcoholic, lactic acid and acetic
acid, yeast fermentation:
1. Alcoholic Fermentation: Alcoholic fermentation is a process where yeast, mainly Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, turns sugars into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide.
A. Glycolysis: In the yeast cell’s cytoplasm, one glucose molecule (a type of sugar) breaks down into
two molecules of pyruvate. This step also produces two ATP molecules, which are like energy
units for the yeast.
B. Pyruvate Conversion: Pyruvate changes into acetaldehyde, a simpler compound, and releases
carbon dioxide. This step is why drinks like beer and sparkling wine are fizzy.
C. Alcohol Production: Finally, acetaldehyde is turned into ethanol by an enzyme called alcohol
dehydrogenase. This step uses NADH from glycolysis and produces NAD+, needed for glycolysis
to keep going.
 Beer Brewing: Sugars derived from malted grains are fermented by brewer's yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae), producing ethanol and carbon dioxide.
 Wine Making: Sugars present in grapes are fermented by wine yeast strains, leading to the
production of wine.

2. Lactic Acid Fermentation: Lactic acid fermentation is a process where glucose and other sugars
are turned into energy and lactate without using oxygen. This happens in some bacteria (like
Lactobacillus and Streptococcus) and in animal muscle cells.
A. Glycolysis: This step is similar to alcoholic fermentation, where glucose is broken down into
pyruvate, producing two ATP molecules that cells use for energy.
B. Pyruvate Reduction: Next, pyruvate is transformed into lactic acid by the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase. This step also changes NADH into NAD+, making sure there’s enough NAD+ for
glycolysis to continue.
C. No Gas Production: Unlike alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation doesn’t produce any
gas, so foods like yogurt and sourdough bread made through this process aren’t fizzy
 Yogurt Production: Lactic acid bacteria ferment lactose, the sugar in milk, into lactic acid,
which curdles the milk proteins, giving yogurt its texture and tangy flavour.
 Sauerkraut: The fermentation of cabbage by lactic acid bacteria produces lactic acid,
preserving the cabbage and giving sauerkraut its sour taste.
 Cheese production starts with the fermentation of milk using lactic acid bacteria, followed by
the addition of rennet or an acidic substance to coagulate the milk into curds and whey.

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3. Acetic Acid Fermentation: Acetic acid fermentation is a two-step process where ethanol is first
converted to acetaldehyde and then to acetic acid. This process is conducted by acetic acid bacteria
(AAB), which are aerobic, meaning they require oxygen to grow and convert ethanol into acetic acid.
A. Ethanol Oxidation: The acetic acid bacteria use alcohol dehydrogenase to convert ethanol into
acetaldehyde. This step is an oxidation reaction where ethanol loses electrons and is converted
to acetaldehyde.
B. Acetaldehyde Oxidation: Acetaldehyde is then further oxidized to acetic acid by another
enzyme, aldehyde dehydrogenase. This step also involves the transfer of electrons, where
acetaldehyde is oxidized to acetic acid. Throughout the process, the bacteria utilize the released
energy to grow and multiply.
 Vinegar Production: Wine or cider is exposed to acetic acid bacteria. The ethanol in these
liquids is converted to acetic acid, resulting in vinegar.
 Kombucha: A symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) ferments a mixture of tea and
sugar, producing a tangy drink that contains both alcohol and acetic acid.

4. Yeast fermentation: This process involves the anaerobic (without oxygen) conversion of sugars
into alcohol, carbon dioxide, and other metabolic by-products by yeast cells. Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, commonly known as brewers or baker's yeast, is one of the most widely used species for
fermentation.

The Process of Yeast Fermentation: The fermentation process begins when yeast cells are
introduced to a sugar-rich environment, such as wort in beer brewing or dough in bread making.
Yeast cells consume the sugars, primarily glucose, fructose and sucrose, through a metabolic
pathway known as glycolysis, converting them into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process
provides the energy yeast cells need to grow and reproduce.

Applications
 Brewing: Yeast fermentation is central to the production of alcoholic beverages, such as beer
and wine. The yeast metabolizes sugars extracted from grains (in beer) or fruits (in wine),
producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. The type of yeast and the fermentation conditions can
significantly affect the flavour, aroma, and texture of the final product.
 Baking: In bread making, the carbon dioxide produced by yeast fermentation causes the dough
to rise, creating a light and airy texture. The fermentation also contributes to the flavour of the
bread.
 Biofuel - Ethanol Fuel: Yeast fermentation is used to produce bioethanol, a renewable energy
source. Starch or sugar-based feedstocks, such as corn or sugarcane, are fermented to produce
ethanol.
 Pharmaceuticals and Chemicals: Yeast is employed in the biotechnological production of various
pharmaceuticals, including insulin and vaccines, through the fermentation process. It can also
produce industrial enzymes and chemicals.

APPSC GROUP 1 2016: What is Lactic acid fermentation? Explain how different products can be
made by fermentation of milk?

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Food Fortification:
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) define fortification as “deliberately
increasing the content of essential micronutrients in a foods like rice, milk, and salt by adding
essential vitamins and minerals (e.g., iron, iodine, zinc, Vitamin A & D) so as to improve the
nutritional quality of food and to provide public health benefit with minimal risk to health”. For
example, adding iodine and iron to edible salt. This process can reintroduce nutrients lost during
food processing or add nutrients not originally present. The ‘+F’ logo has been notified to identify
fortified foods that were developed by the Food Fortification Resource Centre (FFRC). In India, food
fortification started in the 1950s with salt iodization and the fortification of vegetable oil.

The Need for Fortification:

 The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) highlights widespread nutritional deficiencies in
India: 36% of children in India are stunted, 19% are wasted, and 32% are underweight. 67% of
children between the ages of 6 and 59 months are anaemic, and 57% of women between the
ages of 15 and 49 are anaemic.
 It is estimated that 50-70% of these birth defects are preventable. One of the major causes is
deficiency of Folic Acid.
 Fortification addresses micronutrient malnutrition, or "hidden hunger," especially crucial for
those unable to access varied and nutritious diets. It's a strategic response to nutritional gaps
affecting large population segments, particularly in low-income groups.

Food Fortification Initiative in India

 Rice Fortification (Iron, Folic Acid and Vitamin B12): Rice Fortification is the process of adding
Fortified Rice Kernels (FRK), containing FSSAI prescribed micronutrients (Iron, Folic Acid, Vitamin
B12) to normal Rice in the ratio of 1:100 (Mixing 1 Kg of FRK with 100 Kg milled rice). The
Department of Food & Public Distribution (DFPD) introduced this "Centrally Sponsored Pilot
Scheme on Fortification of Rice & its distribution through Public Distribution System" in 2016 at
a highly subsidized rate of Rs 1 per kilogram.
 Wheat Fortification (Iron, Folic Acid and Vitamin B12): Officially announced in 2018 as part of
India's flagship Poshan Abhiyaan. The initiative focuses on enhancing the nutritional intake of
children, adolescents, pregnant and lactating mothers by fortifying wheat with vital nutrients.
 Edible Oil Fortification (Vitamin A, Vitamin D): Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) mandated the fortification of edible oils across the country in 2018. This ensures that
essential vitamins are added to edible oils, contributing to the overall nutritional enhancement.
 Milk Fortification (Vitamin A, Vitamin D): The fortification of milk began in 2017, with the
National Dairy Development Board of India (NDDB). The NDDB encourages dairy companies to
fortify milk with vitamin D, among other nutrients, to combat vitamin D deficiency, which is
prevalent in various segments of the population.
 Salt Fortification (Iron and Iodine): To combat micronutrient deficiencies, particularly iodine
deficiency disorders (IDD) and iron deficiency anaemia, Fortified salt, commonly referred to as
iodized salt, is fortified with iodine, and sometimes iron, to prevent conditions such as goiter,
mental impairment, and anaemia. Double Fortified Salt is formed by blending iron premix with
iodized salt (1:200 ratios).

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Benefits of Fortification
 Cost-Effective: Food fortification presents an exceptional benefit-to-cost ratio. According to the
Copenhagen Consensus, each Rupee invested in fortification yields a return of nine Rupees to
the economy. Initial costs for equipment and vitamin-mineral premixes are outweighed by the
low overall expense of fortification, enabling essential nutrients to be added to foods like oil and
milk.
 Culturally Non-invasive: Fortification aligns with existing dietary habits and cultural practices,
requiring no changes in food consumption patterns. It's a universally acceptable method of
nutrient delivery.
 Preserves Food Characteristics: The process does not affect the taste, aroma or texture of
foods, ensuring consumer acceptance
 Immediate and Widespread Impact: Quick to implement, fortification shows rapid health
improvements across a large demographic, targeting staple foods consumed by the masses.
 Prevents Nutrient Deficiencies: It directly combats deficiencies in essential nutrients, reducing
the incidence of diseases like rickets, anaemia and osteoporosis, and is particularly beneficial
during critical life stages such as pregnancy, childhood and old age.
 Supports Vulnerable Populations: Fortification is vital for individuals with specific dietary
restrictions or those at risk of nutrient deficiencies, including vegetarians, vegans, the lactose-
intolerant and the elderly, ensuring they meet their dietary nutrient requirements.

Challenges and Criticisms of Fortification

 Nutritional Simplification: Critics argue that fortification does not address underlying issues of
malnutrition, such as calorie and protein deficiencies or the lack of dietary diversity, often
focused on cereal-based diets.
 Iron Supplementation Risks: Excessive iron intake, intended to combat anaemia may lead to
unintended health consequences, including increased ferritin levels without improving
haemoglobin synthesis. Iron's oxidative properties may also aggravate intestinal damage and
exacerbate infections. High ferritin levels results in diabetes risk during pregnancy.

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 Nutrient-Interaction Complexity: The fortification process might disrupt the balance of natural
protective substances in foods, potentially diminishing their health benefits. Natural foods
contain protective substances such as phytochemicals and polyunsaturated fat that are
adversely affected by the process of blending micronutrients.
 Market Influence Concerns: Some researchers view fortification as a market-driven approach,
benefiting the food industry more than consumers, with limited scientific basis. Mandatory
fortification risks entrenching dependence on fortified products, possibly disadvantaging smaller
food producers.
 Economic and Industrial Impacts: The cost of fortifying rice through social safety networks alone
is projected to reach approximately 2,600 crores annually. Small-scale industries may face
significant challenges due to high fortification costs, threatening the viability of local mills and
processors.

Alternatives to Fortification:
 Diverse and Nutrient-Rich Diet: Prioritizing a varied diet rich in quality nutrients is essential. A
balanced intake of animal proteins, fruits, vegetables and dairy products is recommended to
fulfill the body's micronutrient needs effectively. The National Institute of Nutrition highlights
the importance of such diversity for meeting the nutritional requirements of the Indian
population, as detailed in its 2020 "Nutrient Requirements of Indians."
 Improving School Meal Programs: School meal initiatives should aim to offer a wide range of
nutrients by incorporating both animal and plant-based proteins, including eggs, dairy products,
pulses, vegetables and fruits. This approach ensures that children receive a broad spectrum of
essential nutrients conducive to healthy growth and development.
 Promoting Sustainable Agriculture: Encouraging practices like Amrut Krishi, an organic farming
method, can enhance the nutritional quality of food crops. Such sustainable practices not only
improve food nutrition but also benefit the environment.
 Emphasizing Breastfeeding: Breastfeeding, especially with proper techniques during the crucial
first 1,000 days of a child's life, plays a pivotal role in preventing nutritional deficiencies. It
provides a perfect balance of nutrients essential for infant development.
 Encouraging Kitchen Gardens: Implementing kitchen gardens, as evidenced by a study in
Maharashtra, can boost nutritional intake, notably increasing haemoglobin levels through the
consumption of organically grown vegetables.
 Advocating for Less Processed Foods: Integrating less processed or unpolished rice into the
public distribution system can significantly improve nutritional intake. Rice bran, retained in less
processed rice, is a valuable source of micronutrients.
 Strengthening Local Food Systems: Fostering connections between local communities, farmers
and food processors with nutrition programs can enhance food security and nutrition. By
supplying raw materials and locally produced food items like syrups, biscuits and powders made
from natural ingredients, these partnerships support nutritional improvement and sustain local
economies.

Raising awareness about the benefits of a diversified diet and proper nutrition practices can
empower individuals to make healthier food choices. Government policies should support the
integration of nutrient-rich foods into diets through subsidies for healthy foods, incentives for
organic farming and investments in nutrition education programs.

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Drinking water can contain various contaminants that can impact health, taste and
odour. These contaminants range from naturally occurring minerals and bacteria to pollutants from
industrial and agricultural activities.

1. Microbial Contaminants
 Bacteria and Viruses: Can cause diseases like cholera, giardia and norovirus. Sources include
sewage, animal waste, and water run-off.
 Protozoa and Parasites: Such as Cryptosporidium which can cause gastrointestinal illness.

2. Chemical Contaminants
 Heavy Metals: Lead, mercury, arsenic and cadmium can leach into water from pipes and natural
deposits, posing serious health risks.
 Nitrate and Nitrite: Often originate from fertilizers, septic systems, and manure storage. High
levels can be particularly dangerous for infants, causing "blue baby syndrome."
 Organic Chemicals: Pesticides, herbicides, and industrial chemicals like benzene or
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can enter water sources from agricultural runoff and industrial
waste.
 Inorganic Chemicals: Fluoride, chloride, and sulphate can occur naturally or as a result of
industrial processes. While some, like fluoride, are added for health benefits, others can be
harmful.

3. Physical Contaminants
 Sediments or organic material suspended in water can affect the aesthetic quality of drinking
water, causing cloudiness, colour, taste, and odour issues.

4. Radiological Contaminants
 Uranium, radium, and radon are examples of radiological contaminants that can be naturally
occurring or result from mining activities, posing a risk of cancer.

Primary Agents Responsible for Contaminating Groundwater:

Arsenic: Arsenic is commonly found both naturally and in synthetic forms associated with
agricultural, mining, and manufacturing activities. Industrial discharge, mining operations, and fly
ash from thermal power plants can release arsenic into groundwater sources. Prolonged exposure to
arsenic may lead to Blackfoot disease, a severe vascular disorder.
Fluoride: In India, high fluoride levels in drinking water have led to widespread fluorosis. Excessive
fluoride consumption can cause neuromuscular and gastrointestinal disorders, dental and skeletal
deformities, including dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis, which are characterized by painful and
stiff joints. Knock-knee syndrome, where the legs bend outward at the knees, is another possible
outcome.
Nitrates: High concentrations of nitrates in water can interfere with the oxygen-carrying capacity of
blood by transforming haemoglobin into methemoglobin, leading to conditions such as
methemoglobinemia and blue baby syndrome in infants. This syndrome is marked by a bluish skin
discoloration due to inadequate oxygenation. Additionally, nitrates can facilitate the production of
carcinogens and promote the process of eutrophication in water bodies.

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Uranium: Naturally occurring uranium, which is mildly radioactive with a long physical half-life, can
be found in significant concentrations in specific regions of India. In places like Rajasthan and the
north-western states, uranium contamination is predominantly in alluvial aquifers, while in southern
states such as Telangana, it is mainly derived from crystalline rocks like granite. Elevated uranium
levels in drinking water are known to cause kidney toxicity.
Radon: In certain areas of Bengaluru, groundwater used for drinking has been identified to contain
high levels of the radioactive element radon. This element originates from the decay of radium
found in radioactive granite and uranium deposits. Radon exposure in air and water is a known risk
factor for lung tissue damage and increased lung cancer risk.
Other Trace Metals: Groundwater may also be contaminated with trace metals such as lead,
mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium, and nickel, all of which have carcinogenic properties.
Cadmium contamination can lead to Itai-Itai disease, characterized by severe pain and weakening of
bones. Exposure to mercury in water has been linked to Minamata disease, a debilitating
neurological syndrome observed in humans.

Fluoride
Fluoride is an important element for human health, especially for the health of bones and teeth. It's
the 13th most common element on Earth, known for being very reactive and electronegative. When
found in small amounts in drinking water, fluoride can be beneficial for our teeth. However, too
much fluoride can lead to health problems such as fluorosis, which damages bones and teeth, and
can also affect the brain, liver, thyroid, and kidneys over time. In India alone, between 60 to 70
million people suffer from dental and skeletal fluorosis due to high fluoride levels. To combat this
issue, techniques to reduce fluoride levels in water, known as defluoridation, have been developed
since the 1930s.

Fluoride contamination in water, particularly at levels higher than those recommended for
preventing tooth decay, can pose a risk to human health. The sources of fluoride contamination are
varied, encompassing both natural occurrences and human activities. Understanding these sources
is crucial for managing and mitigating the risks associated with excessive fluoride intake.

Natural Sources
 Geological: The most significant source of fluoride in groundwater is the natural leaching
process from fluoride-containing minerals in rocks and soils into the water supply. Regions with
high concentrations of fluoride-bearing minerals, such as cryolite, fluorite, and apatite, often
have higher levels of fluoride in groundwater.
 Volcanic Activity: Volcanic emissions can release fluoride into the atmosphere, which then
settles into soil and water bodies, increasing fluoride levels in these areas.

Human Activities
 Agricultural Runoff: The largest contributor to groundwater pollution in India is agriculture. High
amounts of fertilizers and pesticides used in farming leach into the groundwater, increasing
nitrate and phosphate levels. Regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh are
particularly affected due to intensive agricultural practices

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 Industrial Waste: Industries, particularly tanneries, chemical plants, and metal processing
industries, release heavy metals like cadmium and lead, along with other hazardous chemicals,
into the water bodies which eventually seep into the groundwater systems
 Improper Waste Disposal: Urban areas contribute to groundwater pollution through the leakage
of sewage and disposal of untreated municipal waste, which introduces microbiological
contaminants and heavy metals into the groundwater
 Geogenic Sources: Naturally occurring elements like fluoride and arsenic are found in higher
concentrations in certain regions, which become exacerbated by over-extraction of groundwater
and reduced dilution capacity of the aquifers
 Domestic Wastewater: Household products containing fluoride, such as dental products
(toothpaste and mouth rinses) and cleaning agents, can contribute to the fluoride load in
domestic wastewater.

Effects of drinking water fluoride contents on human health:

Fluoride intake has both beneficial effects – in reducing the incidence of dental caries – and negative
effects – in causing tooth enamel and skeletal fluorosis following prolonged high exposure.

Fluoride level, mg/L Health impact

<0.5 Dental caries
0.5-1.5 Optimum dental health
1.5- 4.0 Dental fluorosis
4.0-10 Dental and skeletal fluorosis
>10.0 Crippling fluorosis

Dental Fluorosis: Dental fluorosis is a condition that affects tooth enamel, leading to changes in its
appearance. It occurs during the development of teeth, typically in children who consume excessive
fluoride.
 Symptoms: The symptoms range from mild (white streaks or specks on the teeth) to severe
(brown stains, pitting, and, in extreme cases, erosion of the enamel).
 Prevention: Limiting fluoride intake during the early years of a child's life, when teeth are
developing, is crucial for prevention.

Skeletal Fluorosis: Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by the accumulation of fluoride in
bones over many years.
 Symptoms: Early symptoms include stiffness and pain in the joints. As the condition worsens, it
can lead to more severe symptoms such as calcification of ligaments, bone deformities, and
reduced joint mobility, potentially impairing one’s ability to walk.
 Prevention: Maintaining fluoride intake within safe limits throughout one's lifetime.

Techniques for Defluoridation of Water

1. Bone Char Adsorption: Bone char is a product made from heating crushed animal bones to 500–
700°C in an airtight iron retort for 4–6 hours. This process, known as pyrolysis, carbonizes the bone
material without turning it to ash. The result is a highly porous material with a large surface area.
Calcium phosphate in bone char can remove fluoride and metal ions from water. It can also remove
other contaminants, including: cadmium, lead, iron, manganese, mercury, zinc, copper, nickel,
aluminium, and arsenic.

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Mechanism of Adsorption
Physical Adsorption: Physical adsorption on the surface of bone char is primarily due to its high
surface area and porous structure. Contaminants are trapped in the pores of the bone char particles.
Ion Exchange: Ion exchange involves the substitution of ions between the contaminant and the bone
char. Bone char contains calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2), which can exchange its calcium ions (Ca2+)
with other cations like lead (Pb2+) or fluoride ions (F-) in the water.
Chemisorption: Chemisorption may occur when there's a chemical reaction between the
contaminant and the bone char material, leading to the formation of a new compound. An example
would be the reaction of bone char with heavy metals, leading to the formation of insoluble metal
phosphates that can be easily removed.
2. Nalgonda Defluoridation Technique: Over 1.9 million residents of Nalgonda face a significant
health risk due to the high fluoride levels in groundwater, affecting 1,108 localities. To combat this,
the District Administration established the District Fluoride Monitoring Centre (DFMC) on November
14, 2013. This pioneering initiative aims to coordinate efforts across departments to tackle fluorosis
through strategic planning, resource integration, and capacity building, with UNICEF providing
ongoing support. The DFMC stands out nationally as a model for its comprehensive approach to
fluorosis mitigation and prevention, marking a first in India.

The technique was developed in 1961 by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
(NEERI) in Nagpur. The Nalgonda technique is mainly used in rural areas where groundwater
contains too much fluoride. It's effective even when the dissolved solids are above 1500 mg/l and
hardness above 600 mg/l.

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1. Alum Addition: Aluminium sulphate (Alum- Al2 (SO4)3) is added to the water. Alum acts as a
coagulating agent to form flocs.
2. Lime Addition: Along with Alum, lime (Calcium Hydroxide, Ca (OH) 2) is added to the water. Lime
is used to adjust the pH of the water, making the conditions favorable for the removal of
fluoride.
3. Mixing: The water is then stirred rapidly to ensure that the chemicals are well distributed
throughout the water.
4. Flocculation: After rapid mixing, the water is gently stirred to promote the formation of larger
flocs. This stage allows the aluminium to react with the fluoride ions, forming larger particles
that can be settled out or filtered.
5. Sedimentation: The water is then allowed to stand (without disturbance) to enable the flocs to
settle at the bottom. This process can take several hours.
6. Filtration: The clear water above the settled flocs is passed through a filter (sand filter or any
other suitable filtration method) to remove any remaining particles.
7. Disinfection: Finally, the water is disinfected (usually with chlorine) to kill any pathogens
present, making it safe for drinking.

Disadvantages of the Nalgonda Technique

 Alum will increase the sulphate concentration of water. In case of improper treatment, it is
possible that the concentration of aluminium ion will exceed 0.2 mg/l in the treated water. This
may raise the possibility of other diseases. (Central Pollution Control Board)
 Sludge as a byproduct – The process generates sludge (containing aluminium, fluoride, and other
impurities) that must be carefully disposed of to avoid environmental contamination.
 Treatment efficiency is limited to about 70%
 Skills necessary to operate the Nalgonda process.

Despite its disadvantages, this technique remains a valuable option for areas where water fluoride
exceeds recommended levels, particularly in resource-constrained settings. Continuous efforts to
improve the method, including the development of more efficient filtration systems to remove
residual aluminium and the safe disposal of sludge, could enhance its applicability and safety.

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 ANSWER WRITING (SAMPLE)
1. Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How
has this activity benefitted the field of biopharma?

Key Demand of the Question:

 Analyze the reasons behind the surge in biotechnology activities in India.
 Assess how these activities have benefited the biopharma sector.

Directive Word:
Discuss: Mention different aspects – examining each one of them and give reasons for both for and
against arguments.

Structure of the Answer:

Introduction:
 Briefly introduce the growth of biotechnology in India.

Body:
Part 1: Reasons for Growth in Biotechnology
 Discuss various factors: government initiatives, research and development, education and skill
development, and private sector investment.

Part 2: Benefits to Biopharma

 Explain how advancements in biotechnology have propelled the biopharma sector, focusing on
drug development, personalized medicine, and vaccine production.
 Include specific examples or case studies relevant to India.

Conclusion:
 Conclude by highlighting the potential future trajectory of biotechnology and its sustained
impact on biopharma in India.

2. With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy
programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy.

Key Demand of the Question:

 Debate the necessity of expanding nuclear energy in India.
 Discuss the associated facts and fears.

Directive Word:
Discuss: Argue the pros and cons in a balanced manner.

Structure of the Answer:

Introduction:

 Introduce India's current energy landscape and the role of nuclear energy.

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Body:
Part 1: Necessity of Nuclear Energy Expansion
 Discuss the reasons for expanding nuclear energy - energy demands, climate change concerns,
and energy security.

Part 2: Facts and Fears

 Outline the factual benefits: efficiency, low carbon emissions, and long-term viability.
 Address fears and concerns: safety risks, nuclear waste management, and public perception.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a balanced view on the future of nuclear energy in India, considering both the needs
and the challenges.

3. How can biotechnology help to improve the living standards of farmers?

Structure of the Answer:
Introduction:
 Define biotechnology and its relevance in agriculture.

Body:
Part 1: Enhancements in Crop Production
 Discuss biotechnological innovations like genetically modified crops, pest-resistant varieties, and
improvements in crop yield and nutrition.
 Explain how these lead to increased productivity and income for farmers.
Part 2: Sustainability and Risk Mitigation
 Describe how biotechnology helps in sustainable farming practices, soil and water conservation,
and adapting to climate change.
 Discuss risk mitigation through disease-resistant crops and reduced dependence on chemical
pesticides.
Part 3: Economic and Social Benefits
 Elaborate on the economic benefits such as increased profits, market access, & reduced labor
costs and post-harvest losses.
 Touch upon social aspects, including improved health due to less chemical use and better
nutritional outcomes.
Conclusion:
 Sum up by emphasizing the potential of biotechnology in transforming agriculture and
significantly improving the lives of farmers in India.

Dear Aspirants,
I am thrilled to announce that my upcoming book on Science and Technology is poised to hit the
bookstores in a week. This book promises to be a transformative tool in your exam journey,
meticulously crafted to save your time and simplify the most complex topics. Designed to meet
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Experience science in a more interesting and accessible way than ever before.
Warmest regards,
Author

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