1.

1 Environmental Value Systems

EVS: ​paradigm that shapes how individuals/groups perceive & evaluate environmental issues.
Conservationist: ​conserve so that nature can continue to supply goods & services sustainably
Preservationist:​ conserve nature unconditionally for its spiritual value
Environmental Movement Timeline:
Neolithic Agricultural Industrial Green Revolution Modern Environmental Environmentalism
Revolution Revolution Movement

10,000 yrs ago Early 1800s 1940s-1960s 1960s onwards Research

pop began to rise Pop growth Technology applied to Greenpeace (1971) Climate Change
Humans became Resource use ↑ agriculture 1972: 1st Earth Summit Encourage
farmers Medical revolution Food production ↑ Rise of NGOs sustainability
3 billion people GW, deforestation, fish ↓ Tech vs Eco

Ecocentric (nature centred) Anthropocentric (people centred) Technocentric

Ecology central to humanity “Use not abuse” Technology to solve issues

Intrinsic value Strong regulation by authorities Resource replacement to solve
Self-sufficiency of societies Human health necessary in decision making resource depletion
Economic growth is important

Rachel Carson (marine biologist/conservationist)

- Silent Spring (1962)
- Indiscriminate use of pesticides

Environmental Landmarks:
1987: ​Montreal Protocol 2006: ​Inconvenient Truth (Al Gore): yet to reach tipping point
1992:​ Kyoto Protocol 2015:​ COP 21 Paris Agreement on Climate Change

Case Studies & Video Links:

1. Bhopal (1984): ​pesticide plant explosion, released MIC gas, worst industrial disaster
2. Minamata Bay (Japan):​ mercury poisoning in human body (accumulated)
3. Should I Eat Meat?:​ religious value systems (hindus, muslims, 7th day adventists)
4. Seed Hunter: ​chickpea vulnerable to disease, genetic engineering (ancient to modern)
5. Vanishing Lions:​ anthropocentric solution, indingeous live with lions (tourism)
1.2 Systems & Models
System:​ a set of interrelated parts working together to make a complex whole.
- Living or nonliving
- Open, closed, isolated
- Transfers & transformations
Models:​ simplified version of reality
+ Easy to work with - Garbage in Garbage out
+ Show patterns - Missing details
+ Can be applied to other situations - Accuracy lost if long term predictions
Transfers:​ energy/matter flows and changes location, but not state
Transformations:​ energy/matter flows and changes state (chemical nature)
Open system: ​exchanges energy and matter with its surroundings (most living systems)
Closed system: ​exchanges energy but not matter with its environment (hydrological, carbon,
nitrogen cycles are closed)
Isolated:​ exchanges none (universe)
Biosphere:​ fragile skin on planet Earth; includes air (atmosphere), rocks (lithosphere), and
water (hydrosphere)

Case Studies & Video Links:

1. Biosphere 2: ​prototype space city, attempt to create closed system on Earth, failed
because of lack of enough food and low oxygen levels
2. Hans: ​human population models (2000= age of peak child)
3. Climate Change By The Numbers: ​models to predict climate change data

1.3: Energy & Equilibria

1st:​ energy is an isolated system that can be transformed but not destroyed or created
2nd:​ entropy (dispersal of energy) of an isolated system not in equilibrium increases over time
- Measure of disorder (more entropy=less order)
- Energy conversions are never 100% efficient
- Some energy is always dissipated as waste heat
Solar Energy to Sugars = ​1-2% efficiency
Herbivores assimilate only ​10%​ of the total plant energy they consume
- Rest lost in metabolic processes + escaping from carnivore
Carnivore ​10%​ too as rest is lost in catching the herbivore
HIGH COMPLEXITY = HIGH STABILITY
Efficiency: ​work/energy produced/energy consumed
Tundra​:simple (population fluctuates widely), low biodiversity but still stable
Monoculture: ​one crop, vulnerable to disease, Potato Blight Ireland (3/4th ruined in 7 yrs)
Equilibrium:​ the tendency of a system to return to original state following disturbance
- Steady state: ​continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter but system still
remains in a constant state (eg: body temperature (sweat/shiver to cool/warm body)
- Static:​ no change over time (pile of books that does not move): NON LIVING
- Unstable & Stable: ​system does not return to original vs system returns to original
 feedback:​ amplify changes & drive systems toward a tipping point (new equilibrium adopted)
- Albedo Effect:​ rising global temp→melting ice caps→dark soil exposed→more solar
radiation absorbed→drop in albedo→rising global temp
- Poverty Cycle: ​poverty→illness→poor education→bad fam planning + hygiene→illness
feedback: ​stabilizes steady-state equilibrium; counteract deviation from equilibrium
- Global Dimming:​ global temp↑ → ice caps melt→more water in atmosphere→more
clouds→more solar radiation reflected by clouds→global temp fall
Resilience:​ ability of a system to return to initial state after disturbance
- More ​diverse+complex​= more resilient due to more interactions between species
- ↑ ​species diversity​= greater chance that another species can replace this if it dies
- ↑ ​genetic diversity​= ↑ resilience (unlike monoculture)
- Faster rate of reproduction= faster recovery (r strategists)
Tipping points: ​when an ecosystem experiences a shift to a new state (significant changes to
its biodiversity and services it provides)
- Positive feedback
- Long-lasting changes
- Hard to reverse
- Threshold point cannot be predicted precisely
Examples:
1. Lake Eutrophication
2. Extinction of Keystone Species
3. Coral Reef Death
4. Permafrost loss

Case Studies & Video Links:

1. Fight for Sharks: apex predators (maintain marine biodiversity), shark-fin
overconsumption (disequilibrium in ecosystem)
2. Greater Barrier Reef: Cyclone Yasi (drowned reef) 80% repaired (resilience)
3. Climate Change: tipping point: Greenland ice melting 2x faster (high disorder)

1.4: Sustainability
Sustainability:​ management of resources that allows full natural replacement of resources
emploited & full recovery of ecosystems affected by their extinction and use
Sustainable development:​ meet needs of present without compromising ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
Natural Capital:​ natural resources producing a sustainable natural income
Natural Income: ​yield obtained from natural resources
Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2001): funded by UN (change in ecosystem: predictions)
Facts:
- 25% of all fish stock overharvested.
- Species extinction rates are 100-1000 x above background rate.
- 50% of corals lost and degraded.
Tragedy of the Commons:
- Acting in one's own self interest (max utility)
- Destroys long term future of that resource
- Eg: hunting endangered animals makes them
extinct
Environmental Impact Assessment (1969 US):
- Baseline study (assess env, soc, econ impacts)
- Pros+cons of a development (mitigation)
- Eg: dams/reservoirs, housing projects
- Con: hard to compare across countries, hard to
determine boundary of investigation
CAFO: ​concentrated animal feeding operation
+ Pollutants reduced
+ Concentrated wastage
- Poor living conditions (high pop density)
- Feces+urine+160 gases (pollutants)
Ecological footprint: ​area of land & water required to
sustainably provide all resources at the rate at which they are
being consumed by a given population.
EF>Area = unsustainability

Case Studies & Video Links:

1. MASDAR: ​self steering pod car (baseline study on a large scale), renewable energy
(zero carbon footprint): SDG
2. End of the Line: ​overfishing: maximum sustainable yield, trawling (unsustainable): peak
fish (tragedy of the commons)
3. Should I Eat Meat:​ CAFO reduces 40% emissions, methane 25x more harmful than co2

1.5 Humans & Pollution

Pollution:​ addition of a substance to the environment by human activity at a rate greater than
which it can be rendered harmless.
- Matter (solid, liquid, gas)
- Energy (light, sound, heat)
- Living organisms (invasive species)
Primary pollutants: ​active on emission (carbon monoxide)
Secondary pollutants:​ formed by primary undergoing phy/chem changes (SO3→ acid rain)
Point source:​ single identifiable source (waste disposal pipe), easy to manage
Non-point source:​ numerous widely dispersed origins, gases from vehicles, cannot detect
Acute:​ large amount of pollutant released (a lot of harm): Bhopal Disaster 1984
Chronic:​ long-term release in small amounts (Beijing air): spreads widely, diff to clean up
Persistent Organic Pollutants:​ pesticides resistant to breaking down (remain active for long)
Eg: DDT​ (bioaccumulate in animal/human tissues & biomagnify in food chains)
PCBs: ​cancers, hormone functions (polar bears in Arctic)
Biodegradable Pollutants:​ don’t persist in the environment,
break down easily
Eg:​ soap, domestic sewage
Microbeads: ​small, solid, manufactured plastic particles that
are less than 5mm and don't degrade or dissolve in water.
- Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification (aquatic animals)
Direct detection of pollution:
- pH, DO (record, measure amount)
Indirect detection of pollution:
- record changes in biotic/abiotic factors (BOD, fecal coli
bacteria, lichen, mayfly)
 Chapter 2.1 - Species and Populations
Ecosystems: ​made up of organisms and physical environment and the interactions between
living/non-living components within them
Species​: a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed and produce
fertile offspring
Population: ​a group of organisms of the ​same ​species living in the ​same ​area and that ​same
time, and are capable of interbreeding
Habitat​: environment in which a species normally lives
Population density​: average number of individuals in a stated area
Three factors affect it:​ natality, mortality, migration
Niche​: a particular set of biotic and abiotic factors to which an organism responds to and makes
a living towards
2 types/forms of niches:​ fundamental & realized
Fundamental niche: ​full range of conditions and resources in which a species survive and
reproduce
Realized niche: ​the actual conditions and resources in which a species exist due to biotic
interactions.
Biotic factors: every relationship that organisms have, where they live, and how it alters
Abiotic factors: ​how much space, availability of light, water
Limiting factors:​ factors which slow down the growth of a population as it reaches its carrying
capacity
Carrying capacity:​ maximum number of a species or ‘load’ that can be sustainably supported
by a given area
Vital categories:​ competition, predation, mutualism, parasitism
Competition Predation Mutualism Parasitism

Intraspecific: between members of the same When one animal Relationship between The relationship
species → drives evolution (natural selection) eats another two or more species between two
Example: seagull community Example: lion kills in which all benefit species in which one
zebra for food and none suffer species lives within
the other
Example: lichens,
Example: bats and
clownfish and
interstitial worms,
anemones, alga mosquitos and
(fungi and algae) human/cows
Best example:
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria (rhizobium):
they absorb nitrogen
→ less fertilizers
Interspecific: individuals of different species could used → avoids
be competing for the same resource nutricatin → reduces
They may simply out-compete each other air pollution
(competitive exclusion) Example: trees → sunlight
 Herbivory: ​ animal eating green plants
S & J-Curves:​ describes a generalized response of
populations to a particular set of conditions (biotic/abiotic)
S-Curves: ​starts with exponential growth, levels off after a
while - stabilizes at carrying capacity Example: mammals
J-Curves: ​population grows exponential curves
(overshoot) and then they suddenly collapse (diebacks)
Example: bacteria

Chapter 2.2 - Communities and Ecosystems

Three key ecological concepts:​ photosynthesis, respiration, and productivity
Photosynthesis​: process by which green plants make their own food using energy from the sun
and CO2 + transformation of energy from one state to another
Respiration: ​conversion of organic matter into CO2 and water in all living organisms,
releasing energy
Productivity
Compensation point​: where something is not adding biomass or using it to stay alive, simply
maintaining itself
Food chains:​ include producers + consumers
Producers​: organisms that make their own food;
 Autotrophs: ​make their own food using energy from the sun + CO2
Chemosynthetic organi[Link] make their own food from other simple compounds (ammonia,
methane, etc.
Consumers ​(heterotrophs): feed of autotrophs or other heterotrophs to obtain energy
Ecological pyramids: ​graphical models of the quantitative differences between amounts of
living material stored at each trophic level of a food chain → snapshots of time
3 main ecological pyramids: ​Pyramid of numbers, biomass, and productivity
Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of productivity

Number of organisms at each Contains biomass of each Rate of flow of energy or biomass (over
trophic level in a food chain at one individual(s) at each trophic level the year)
time Advantages Advantages
Advantages ▪ Overcomes some problems of ▪ Most accurate system: shows the
▪ simple and easy pyramid of numbers actual energy transferred and allows for
Disadvantages Disadvantages rate of production
▪ All organisms included regardless ▪ Samples from population used, so ▪ Allows comparison of ecosystems
of size it's impossible to measure biomass based on realtiver energy flows
▪ Does not allow for juveniles exactly ▪ Pyramids are not inverted
▪ Numbers can be too great to ▪ Organisms must be killed to ▪ Energy from solar radiation can be
represent accurately (i.e; bacteria) measure dry mass added
▪ Time of the year affects data Disadvantages
▪ Difficult + complex to collect energy
data (as the rate of biomass production
overtime is required)

Chapter 2.3 - Flows of Energy and Matter

Productivity: ​the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time and is
measured per unit area per unit time → rate of growth or biomass increase
▪ ​Gross ​- total amount
▪ ​Net ​- amount left after deductions (respiration, etc.)
▪ ​Primary ​- to do with plants
▪ ​Biomass ​- dry mass
Gross productivity​: total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time
Net productivity​: Gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time that remains after
deductions due to respiration
Gross primary productivity​: total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time by free
plants
Net primary productivity:​ total gain in energy of biomass per unit area per unit time by green
plants after allow losses to respiration (NPP = GPP - R)
Gross secondary productivity:​ total energy/biomass assimilated by consumers (GSP = food
eaten - fecal loss)
Net secondary productivity: ​total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time by
consumers after allowing for losses to respiration (NSP = GSP - R)
Carnivores Herbivores

Assimilate 80% of energy in their diets (more Assimilate 40% of energy, egest 60%
than secondary producers) Graze static plants
Egest about 20%
Usually have to chase moving animals so
higher energy intake is offset by increased
respiration during hunting = 90% respiration
usage → 5-20% passed down to the next
trophic level on average

Where is carbon stored?

◦ Organic - biomass, fossilized life forms
◦ Inorganic - locked up as sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels, soil, oceans

Nitrogen cycle:
▪ Most abundant gas in the atmosphere, but it is unavailable to plants and animals
▪ Stored in organisms, soil, fossil fuels, atmosphere
▪ Flows in the cycle: fixation, nitrification, denitrification, feeding (absorption, assimilation,
consumption), excretion, death and decomposition
 Fixation Nitrification Denitrification Decomposition Assimilation

When atmosphere Bacteria that are able Denitrifying bacteria in Supplies soil with Once taken in by
nitrogen is made to convert ammonium waterlogged and more nitrogen than living organisms, they
available to plants to nitrates, while some anaerobic conditions the fixation process assimilate it or build
through fixation of it convert Reverse the process by more complex
Can be carried out nitrites to nitrates conversion of molecules
in 5 ways - nitrogen ammonium, nitrites, and
fixing bacteria, nitrate ion to nitrogen
cyanobacteria, gas
lightning causing
oxidation of nitrogen
gas, Haber process
(to make fertilizers)

Important Facts:
● Almost all energy that drives processes on Earth comes from The Sun
● Only about 1-4% of energy from The Sun is available to plants
● About 50% of the energy from The Sun is lost by the time it reaches the atmosphere

Case Studies & Video Links:

1. Wolves Changed River: yellowstone national park → reintroduce wolves (apex predator)
trophic cascades

Chapter 2.4 - Biomes, Zonation, and Succession

Biome​: collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions
Biosphere: ​part of the Earth inhabited by organisms

Biomes are defined by:

- Temperature and precipitation (rain + snowfall + isolation)
- Latitude - north & south
- Altitude - height above sea-level
- Ocean current - latent heat (Humboldt current - El Nino) and distribute surplus heat
energy at the equator towards poles
- PIE/PE ratio
Type of biomes: ​Aquatic, Deserts, Forests, Grassland, Tundra
Ways our climate is changing:
◦ Temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5C by 2100 (IPCC)
◦ Greater warming at higher latitudes
◦ Warming in the winter more than summer (shorter winters)
◦ Stronger storms
◦ Drier regions
Biomes shifting:
◦ Africa’s Sahel region - woodlands becoming savannas
◦ Arctic - tundra becoming shrubland
Hotspots: ​area predicted to have high turnover of species due to climate change (Hawaii,
Iceland, yellowstone places, Himalayas, Mediterranean region, Madagascar, North American
Great Plain and Great Lakes)
**Fact: ​Up to one billion people live in areas vulnerable to biome changing. This can bring new
opportunities such as:
▪ Drilling for ice in the Arctic Ocean is easier with melting of ice
▪ Passages are opening up for ships and boats, which can enable extensive
trade between the North Pole and North America
Zonation: ​change in community along an environmental gradient due to change in abiotic
factors (temperature, altitude, soil type, precipitation, solar insolation, interactions between
species)
Succession: ​Change in species composition in an ecosystem over time
Primary succession: ​occurs on bare inorganic surface → ex: hydrosere (succession in use for
plants, galapagos islands (increase in volcanic activity)
Secondary succession: ​when an established community is destroyed (due to fire, flood) →
wind brings seed to colonize land, climax communities
Changes that occur during succession:
▪ Size of organisms increases
▪ Energy flow becomes more complex
▪ Soil depth, humus, mineral content increase
▪ Biodiversity increases
▪ NPP and GPP rise then fall
▪ Productivity - respiration (R) falls
Arrested and deflected successions:
▪ May be stopped at a stage due to an abiotic factor - soil conditions such
as water logging
▪ Thus, development is ceased until the limiting factor is removed
Significance of changes:
▪ In early stages, GP = low
▪ Biodiversity increases due to arrival of more species but then decreases slightly
if a stable climax community is reached
▪ Mineral cycling tends to be slow at start but increases strongly during this Period

K-Strategists (humans, elephants)

◦ Long life
◦ Slower growth
◦ Late maturity
◦ Predators
◦ Fewer large offspring
R- Strategists (beetles, turtles)
◦ Short life
◦ Rapid growth
◦ Early maturity
◦ Many small offspring

**Note: No net productivity when there is a switch from “r” to “k”

Chapter 2.5 - Investigating Ecosystems (Practical Work)

Quadrats:​ frame of specific size )depending on what is being studied) which may be divided
into subsections.
1. Random Quadrats:​ throwing quadrat over your shoulder but this method is not
recommended as it is not only dangerous but also not random.
- Map our study area.
- Draw a grid over the study area.
- Number each square.
- Use a random number table to identify which squares you need to sample.
2. Stratified random sampling:​ used when there is an obvious difference within an area
to be sampled and two sets of samples are taken.
- Deal with each area separately.
- Draw a grid for each area.
- Number the squares in each area.
- Use a random number table to identify which squares you want to sample in each area.

Transects: ​sample path along which you record the occurrence and or distribution of plants and
animals in a particular study area.
 ● Change in organisms as a result of changes along an environmental gradient (zonation
along a slope, grassland to woodland, changes in species composition with increasing
distance from a source of pollution)
● Quick + simple to conduct
2 types of transects:
- Line transect: ​measuring tape which is laid out in the direction of the environmental
gradient and species touching the tape are recorded.
- Belt transect:​ strip of chosen width through the ecosystem. Made by laying two parallel
line transects apart between which individuals are sampled.
Additional types:
- Continuous transects: ​the whole line/belt is sampled
- Interrupted transects: ​points taken at regular intervals are sampled; quadrats are
placed at intervals along the belt

Salinity:​ concentration of salts expressed in % (parts of salt per thousand parts of water).
- Determined by measuring the electrical conductivity or the density of water.
- Seawater has pH above 7 (basic).

Temperature:
- Affects the metabolic rates of marine organisms as many are ectothermic.
- Low temperatures = low metabolic rate.

Dissolved Oxygen is affected by:

- Temperature (high temp = lower concentrations of DO)
- Water pollution = low DO concentrations

Wave action: ​areas with high wave activity have high concentrations of DO (coral reefs)

Turbidity:​ cloudiness of a body of freshwater

- Important because it limits the penetration of sunlight and the depth at which
photosynthesis can occur.
Measuring it:
- Secchi Disc: black and white disc attached to a graduated rope.
1. Slowly lower the disc until it disappears from the view.
2. Read the depth from the graduated rope.
3. Slowly raise the disc until it is just visible again.
4. Read the depth from the graduated rope.
5. Calculate the average depth (Secchi Depth)
For reliable results a standard procedure must be followed (choose 1):
- Stand OR sit
- Glasses OR no glasses
- Always work on the shady side of the boat
- Repeat on the same spot 3-5 times
Air temperature:​ temperature varies temporally and spatially and can be measured using liquid
thermometers, min-max thermometers or electronic thermometers which can be used to
measure temperature continuously during a longer time.

Light Intensity:​ measured using electronic meters. Light intensity varies with time.

Soil moisture:​ amount of water in the soil

1. Place a sample of soil in a crucible.
2. Weigh it and record the weight.
3. Dry the sample (conventional oven)
4. Set the oven to 105 degrees; hot enough to try but not too hot that it burns off the
organic matter.
5. Leave for 24 hours and weigh the sample. Repeat this until its mass becomes constant.
This takes several days.

Soil organic content:​ plant and animal residues in various stages of decay
- Supplies nutrients to soil
- Holds water
- Helps reduce crusting and compaction
- Increases infiltration
1. Dry sample
2. Heat the soil at high temp (500 to 1000 degree celcius) for several hours
3. Weight the sample and repeat this until its mass becomes constant

Plant biomass (‘constant dry biomass’):

1. Select the plant sample required
2. Simply remove it and leave it out to dry
3. Once the plants/leaves seem (completely out of water), then measure its biomass
4. Wait till it is more of a constant measure and then jot down the quantitative data

Grasses and low vegetation:

1. Place a suitably sized quadrant.
2. Harvest all the above-ground vegetation in that area.
3. Wash it to remove any insects.
4. Dry it at 60-70 degrees until it reaches a constant weight. Water content can vary
enormously so all the water should be removed and the mass given as dry weight.
5. This should be repeated 3-5 times to obtain a mean.
6. Results can be extrapolated to the total biomass of that species in the ecosystem.

Trees and bushes:

1. Select the tree or bush you want to test.
2. Harvest the leaves from 3-5 branches.
 3. Repeat steps 3-6 from the above method.

Primary productivity: ​light and dark bottle technique (gross and net productivity)
- Take two bottles filled with water from the ecosystem.
a. One bottle is made of clear glass.
b. Second bottle is of dark class or ic covered to exclude light.
- Measure the oxygen concentration of the water by an oxygen probe or the Winkler
Method and record it as mg oxygen per litre of water.
- Place equal amounts of plants of the same species into each of the bottles.
- Both bottles must be completely filled with water and capped (no air should be present).
- Allow to stand and incubate for several hours.
- Measure the oxygen levels in both bottles and compare with the original oxygen level in
the water. The incubation can take place in the lab/outdoors in the ecosystem of
investigation.
Light bottle:​ photosynthesis and respiration have been occuring
Dark bottle: ​only respiration occurs

Terrestrial ecosystem (with square patches):

Catch insects:
1. Pitfall traps
Warning:​ make sure there are no venomous insects in the local area and do not handle the
insects directly (move them with tweezers or a pooter)
- Ideal for catching insects and small crawling animals that cannot fly away.
- Insects can be attracted by decaying meat of a sweet-sugar solution that must be
covered so that the insects do not fall in it and drown; insects will fall into trap.
- Do not put any fluid in the bottom of the trap to kill the insect
- Do not leave the traps unchecked for more than 24 hrs
2. Sweep Nets
- Swept through grasses at various heights to catch many insects.
- Emptied into a large clear container and species and numbers may be counted
3. Tree beating:
- Find insects in tree branches.
- Place a catching tray beneath a tree branch and gently tap the branch.
- The tray will catch anything that falls from the tree and you can log the species and their
numbers.
- Small insects and invertebrates can be caught with a pooter.

Aquatic ecosystems:
Kick sampling
- Place a sweep net downstream from you.
- Shuffle your feet into the streambed for 30 seconds.
- Empty the contents of the net into a tray filled with stream water.
- Use a pipette to sort the various insects into small plastic cups and record your results.
 - Repeat three times to ensure good results.
Keys
- Used to identify species.
- Come in two formats (diagrammatic or dichotomous)

Lincoln Index (capture, mark, release, recapture): ​used to estimate the population size of
animals which move about or do not appear during the day.
1. Establish the study area.
2. Capture a sample of the population (method of capture depends on the size of the
animals)
3. Mark each of the organisms captured and record how many you have marked (must be
done in a non-harmful way).
4. Release the captured individuals back into the environment and allow sufficient time to
remix with the population.
5. Take a second sample in the same way as the first: count the number of organisms
captured in this sample and count how many of them are marked. At Least 10 percent of
the marked sample should be recaptured if this estimate is going to be fairly accurate.
Assumptions:
- Mixing is complete
- Marks do not disappear
- It is equally easy to catch every individual
- There are no immigration, emmigration, births or deaths in the population between the
times of the sampling.
- Trapping the organisms does not affect their chances of being trapped the second time.
- Marks are not harmful nor increase predation by making the individual more easily seen.
Chapter 3.1 - Biodiversity and Conservation
Biodiversity: ​quantifiable version of nature which helps policy-makers in suggesting them what
to do (helps make better science) ·

3 different types of biodiversity: ​Genetic diversity, species diversity and habitat diversity
Species diversity: ​communities is a product of two variables - no. of species and relative
proportions
Genetic diversity:​ range of genetic material present in a gene pool and the amount of variation
·

that exists between different individuals within different populations of a species. Therefore to
·

conserve the maximum amount of genetic diversity, different populations of species need to be
conserved
◦ Human can alter genetic diversity by artificially breeding or genetically engineering
populations
◦ Genetic variation = good thing, according to many conservationists
Habitat diversity: ​range of different habitats per unit area in a particular ecosystem or biome
Habitat with high biodiversity
Advantages Disadvantages

resilience and stability could be a result of fragmentation of habitat

genetic diversity managing grazing can be difficult - tolerance
some plants will have deep roots so they can is different between plant species
cycle nutrients
Hotspots: ​region with high level of biodiversity that is under threat from human activities
▪ include ten in tropical rainforests
▪ near to tropics - fewer limiting factors in lower latitudes
▪ cover only 2.3% land surface
▪ threatened areas where 70% of the habitat is lost
▪ tend to have large human habitations nearby
▪ contains more than 1,500 plant species that are already endemic
Examples: Hawaii, Iceland, yellowstone places, coral reefs, mangroves (hotspots of the ocean)
Tropical rainforests​ are vulnerable because:
▪ upsetting equilibrium due to deforestation
▪ flows of nutrients has imbalanced (very few nutrients are present in the soil, they’re mainly in
living material/biomass)
Ex: palm oil extraction in Indonesia
Tropical Rainforests are hotspots (something that has a small area but high biodiversity):
6% of land occupied (originally it was 14% 40 years ago, now it is at 6%)
- Lungs of Earth
- Traps water with roots from trees (adds to system energy)
- Controls the weather (Amazon Rainforest)
Case Study​: Eco-logging companies (FSCs - Forest Stewardship Council) → Northern region of
Congo
**Look at “Vulnerability of Tropical Rainforests” in ESS book → ​case study ​example
Chapter 3.2 - Origins of Biodiversity
How new species from: ​Charles Darwin - theory of evolution “The Origin of Species” (1859)
Speciation: ​gradual change of species over a long time
When the population of the same species are ​separated:
▪ cannot interbreed if inhabited environment changes
▪ humans can speed up speciation by artificial selection of animals

Physical barriers:
◦ ​Large flightless birds ​only occur on continents that made up “Gondwana” - Africa, Australia,
NewZealand, South America
◦ ​Marsupials ​- in Australia as they split from Antarctic
◦ ​Placental mammals ​prevailed in South America
◦ ​Cichlid fish - ​◦have been isolated from each other in the lakes of East Africa
Land bridges:
◦ Allow species to invade new areas
◦ May result from lowering of sea levels instead of continental drift
Influence of plate activity on biodiversity:
◦ ​Convergence ​- created Himalayas, Andes, etc.
◦ ​Diverge ​- mid-Atlantic ridge, cause physical separation of populations
◦ ​Slide ​past each other (eg. the San Andreas Fault Line, California)
Continental drift:
◦ resulted in new habitats
◦ Antarctica was once covered with tropical forests, but its southward movement has led
to snow and ice covered-landscape
Similar group of animals:
◦ Similarities between animals on different continents
Examples: Llama and Camel, Kangaroos play a role in Australia that cattle play in most of the
world (both are large herbivores, eat grass and convert it to meat)
Background and Mass extinctions
Background extinction rate​ - natural extinction rate of all species
▪ one species per million species per year
▪ There are about 5000 mammal species alive today
▪ 169 mammal species = critically endangered
Holocene extinction - 6th mass extinction
◦ Believed that we are in it right now
◦ Caused by ​anthropogenic ​influences
◦ Wiping out of animal species
◦ Pollution, overexploitation, etc.
Dinosaur extinction - 5th mass extinction (KT boundary)
Permian - Triassic (PT) boundary - 3rd mass extinction
◦ 251 million years ago
◦ Known as ‘The Great Dying’
◦ 95-96% of all species went extinct
Chapter 3.3 - Threats to Biodiversity
Estimate of species alive:
◦ 7 million, excluding bacteria
◦ 2/3’s are in the tropics
◦ 50% of tropical rainforests have been cleared by humans
◦ However, only 1.4-1.8 million species have been named (beetles are most identified - 25% of
all named species)
Factors maintaining biodiversity:
◦ Complexity of the ecosystem (more complex a food web is, the more resilient it is)
◦ Stage of succession (communities in young ecosystems that are undergoing succession may
be more vulnerable than older, more stable and resilient ones)
◦ Limiting factors (water in a desert, competition with other organisms, temperature, etc)
◦ Inertia: property of an ecosystem to resist change when subjected to destructive force
​Factors leading to a loss of biodiversity:
◦ Natural hazards (volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes, etc)
◦ Loss of habitat (due to anthropogenic activities → Deforestation, in Mediterranean, only 10%
of the original forest cover remains)
◦ Fragmentation of habitats: Large area is divided into smaller areas due to establishment of
factories, houses, cities, etc.
◦ Pollution (pesticides, oil spills, emissions - lead to acid deposition or photochemical smog,
run-off from fertilizers, climate change - alters weather patterns and shifts biomes away from
equator)
◦ Overexploitation (overfishing - use of technology to find hotspots of fish)
◦ Introducing exotic/non-native species → It can work sometimes - potatoes from Americas to
Europe or Sometimes not: Rhododendrons were introduced to Europe from Nepal escaped into
the wild, and outcompete native plants and are toxic, Rabbits in Australia
◦ Spread of diseases (ebola in 2014/15, Swine Flu in 2010 - endemic in pigs, bird flu)
◦ Modern agricultural practices (monocropping → less destructive)
What makes a species prone to extinction?
◦ Narrow geographical range
◦ Small population
◦ Declining population
◦ Low population density and large territory
◦ Few population of species
◦ A large body
◦ Low reproductive rate
◦ Seasonal migrates
◦ Poor dispersers
◦ Specialized feeders
◦ Hunted for food/sport
◦ Minimal viable population size
•​ International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
Red List: ​determines conservation status of a species based on criteria - most are
stated above under “what makes a species prone to extinction”
Criteria of judgement include: ​Extinct ​(dodo bird & tasmanian tiger), ​Critically Endangered
(red panda, sea turtles, orangutan, sumatran rhinos),​ Endangered ​(rafflesia & sumatran/bengal
tiger, sea otters), ​Vulnerable, Least Concerned, Data Deficient, Not Evaluated
Know the story of the Dodo Bird ;)
1 species/1 million species/year = ​background role of extinction​ } 100 times above this rate

Chapter 3.4 - Conservation of Biodiversity

Why conserve biodiversity?
→ Economic, Ecological, Social, Aesthetic (PECe)
Value of biodiversity:
◦ Food sources (case studies: wheat rust disease, introduction of resistant genes from a wild
strain of wheat in Turkey
◦ Scientific and education value
◦ Biological control agents
◦ Gene Pool
◦ Recreational
◦ Ecotourism
◦ Ethical/intrinsic value
◦ environmental services
Natural products: ​Honey, oil palms, guano
If biodiversity is protected:
1st law of thermodynamics ​→ conservation of energy
▪ Energy in an isolated system can be transformed but not be created or
destroyed.
▪ Equilibrium is very important
▪ Balance isA required in the system
▪ Order to disorder
2nd law of thermodynamics ​→ Entropy (unavailability of a system’s thermal energy for
conversion into mechanical work)
▪ Amount of disorder in the system
▪ More entropy = less order
▪ Energy of the universe dispersed (order > disorder) energy spreader as
universe spreads infinitely
▪ Energy conversions are never 100% efficient
▪ Energy is always lost in the environment as heat
▪ Organisms reverse entropy
3rd law of thermodynamics ​→ entropy is at a constant level
Human health: ​Penicillin (first antibiotics) were from fungi
▪ Periwinkle is curing children from leukemia
• ​Gene/Seed banks: ​maintain genetic diversity for plants
Complexity and Stable equilibrium:
Most ecosystems are very complex:
▪ Can withstand stress better and also a more stable system
▪ Complex systems tend to fail
Monoculture farming is very simple
▪ Open to pests and diseases
▪ Increases vulnerability

Steady state equilibrium:

◦ Human body sweats to cool down and shivers to heat up to keep a steady body
temperature
◦ Non-living things are static

Approaches to conservation
◦ Human health
◦ Human rights
◦ Recreational
◦ Ecotourism
◦ Ethical/Intrinsic value

Keystone species: ​A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect
on its natural environment relative to its abundance
Examples: ​krill, beavers, bees, tuna, sea otters, elephants
4.1: Introduction to water systems
- 70% of Earth's surface is covered by water
- 2.6% of water on Earth is freshwater
- 68.7% in glaciers + ice caps, 30.1% groundwater, surface water (lakes, rivers) 0.3%
97% is saltwater
Turnover time
- Oceans = 37,000 years
- Icecaps = 16,000 years
- Groundwater = 300 days
- Rivers = 12-20 days
- Atmosphere = 9 days

Water is renewable in atmosphere & rivers, replenishable in groundwater aquifers, and

nonrenewable in oceans & icecaps
Hydrological Cycle
Transfers: ​stays in the same state
▪ Flooding, Surface run-off
▪ Stream flow/currents
Transformation: ​changes state
▪ Evapotranspiration: liquid to water vapor
▪ Condensation: Water vapor to liquid
Human impact on water cycle
Withdrawals (domestic use)
Discharge ( pollutants to water)
Changing speed of water flow and where it
flows (canals, dams)
Diverting river sections to avoid flood
damage

Examples of changes caused by humans:​ ​Ganges Basin​ (deforestation increases flooding

because precipitation is not absorbed by vegetation)
Ocean Currents: ​movements of water horizontally and vertically.
1. Surface currents
2. Deep water currents: ​cause the oceanic conveyor belt
- Due to differences in water density caused by salt and temperature
- Warm water holds less salt and is less dense so it rises
- Cold water holds more salt and sinks because it is denser
- When warm water rises, cold water uasto come up to replace it (upwellings)
- When cold water rises, it has to be replaced by warm water (downwellings)
- In this way, water circulates.
Cold Currents​ (pole to equator): Humboldt Current (Peru)
Warm Currents ​(equator to poles): Angola Current
4.2: Access to Freshwater
- 1.1 billion people live without clean drinking water
- 2.6 billion lack adequate sanitation
- 3900 children die every day from waterborne diseases
- Water can be made usable through desalination plants, but these are very expensive
and only found in economically strong countries like Saudi Arabia
- WHO says a human should have 20L of fresh water access everyday
- Egypt imports half of its food because they don’t have enough water to grow
Freshwater Issues:
- Climate change disrupting rainfall patterns: causing inequality of supplies
- Contaminated and unusable freshwater
- Fertilizers + pesticides pollute streams and rivers
- Underground aquifers are being exhausted (affects agriculture)
- Irrigation leads to soil degradation
Solutions:
- Increase freshwater supplies by reservoirs, desalination plants, and rainwater harvesting
- Grey water recycling from shower, baths
- Replace chemical fertilizers with organic ones + reduce fertilizer use
- Irrigation: select drought resistant crops
- Water treatment plants
***LOOK INTO EXAMPLES OF WATER CONFLICTS AND MEMORIZE 2

4.3: Aquatic Food Production Systems

Continental shelf: ​extension of continents under the seas and oceans (creates shallow water)
- Important because it has 50 percent of oceanic productivity but 15 percent of its area
- Light reaches shallow seas so producers can photosynthesize
- Countries can claim it as theirs to exploit and harvest
Phytoplankton: ​single celled organisms that can photosynthesize (produce 99 percent of
primary productivity)
Zooplankton: ​single-celled animals that eat phytoplankton and their waste
Fishery:​ exists when fish are harvested in some way (capture of wild fish, aquaculture, fish
farming)
- 90% happens in oceans and 10% in freshwater
- 70% of world 's fisheries are exploited
- Each person on average eats 20kg of fish and 8kg of meat annually
Aquaculture: ​farming of aquatic organisms in both coastal and inland areas involving
interventions in the rearing process to enhance production.
Example: ​China produces 62% of farmed fish worldwide (carp/catfish): grown in rice paddies
and their waste provides fertilizer for the rice
Impacts of fish farms
- Loss of habitats
- Pollution (antibiotics, feed)
- Spread of diseases
- Escaped species (genetically modified organisms) may survive to interbreed with wild
fish
- Escaped species may outcompete native species (pop crash)
Tragedy of the commons
- Idea of overexploiting a resource that seems to belong to everyone
Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)
- SY: ​Increase in natural capital (natural income that can be exploited each year without
depleting the original stock)
- MSY:​ highest amount that can be taken without permanently depleting the stock
The force that pushes the curve back is known as environmental resistance
Levels off at carrying capacity
Much better = Optimal Sustainable Yield (fishing quotas)

Carrying Capacity for each species depends on its :

- Longevity
- reproductive strategy
- Ecosystem

4.4: Water Pollution

Pollutants can be:

- Anthropogenic or natural
- Point/Non- Point source
- Organic or inorganic
- Direct or indirect
Organic Inorganic Both

Pollutant: Pollutant: Pollutant:

- Sewage - Nitrates and phosphates - Solid Domestic waste
- Animal waste - Radioactive material - Debris
- Pesticides - Heavy toxic materials - Suspended solids

Example: Example: Example:

- Human waste - Fertilizers - Silt from construction
- Manure - Industry - Household garbage
- insecticides - Nuclear power stations
Effects:
- Damage corals
 Effects: Effects: - Plastics (great pacific
- Eutrophication - Eutrophication garbage patch)
- Loss of - Bioaccumulation and
biodiversity biomagnification

Freshwater pollution​: Agricultural runoff, sewage, solid domestic waste

Marine pollution: ​Rivers, pipelines, human activities
Measuring water pollution:
- BOD​: amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down organic material in a given
volume of water.
- Indicator species: ​plants and animals that show something about the environment by
their presence, absence, abundance, or scarcity.
- Biotic Index: indirectly​ measures pollution by assaying the impact on species within
the community according to their tolerance, diversity, and relative abundance.

Eutrophication: ​when lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters receive inputs of nutrients (nitrates
and phosphates) that result in an excess growth of plants and phytoplankton.
- When severe = dead zones; too less oxygen to support life
- Anaerobic water
- Loss of biodiversity and shorter food chains
- Increased turbidity of water
- Death of higher plants
Excess nutrients come from:
- Detergents and fertilizers
- Drainage (intensive livestock rearing units)
- Sewage
- Increased erosion of topsoil into water

Process of eutrophication:
1. Fertilizer enter river/lake
2. High level of phosphate lets algae grow faster
3. Algae blooms form; blocks out light to plants that thus die
4. More algae = more food for zooplankton/small animals that feed on them. They are food
to fish, hence there becomes a lack of zooplankton/small animals, thus less are there to
eat algae.
5. Algae die and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria.
6. Not enough oxygen nonetheless, hence everything dies as the food chain collapses.
7. Oxygen levels fall lower. Dead organic material forms sediments on the lake or river bed
and turbidity increases.
8. All life is gone and sediment settles to leave a clear blue lake.
Eutrophication Management Strategies:
Before:
- Ban or limit detergents with phosphates or use eco detergents
- Stop leaching of animal waste
- Educate farmers about effective timing for fertilizer application

During:
- Treat wastewater before release to remove phosphates and nitrates.
- Divert or treat sewage waste effectively.

After:
- Pumping air through lakes
- Remove excess weeds physically or by herbicides
Chapter 5.1 - Introduction to Soil Systems
Soil: ​Is a mixture of mineral particles and organic material that covers the land, and in which
terrestrial plants grow. It is made up of minerals, organic material, gases, and liquid
Pedosphere: ​Soil sphere

Soil model:
Translocation: ​Materials are sorted and layers are formed by water carrying particles either up
or down
Horizons: ​Processes such as downward and upward movement of minerals leads to soil being
processed into distinct horizons (levels)
Types of Horizons
● O Horizon​: Uppermost layer; has newly added organic material
● A Horizon​: Humus builds up - Humus Layer = "Good stuff”and forms via organic matter
mixed with organic matter
● B Horizon​: Soluble minerals and organic matter tend to be deposited from the layer
above
● C Horizo​n: Mainly weathered rock from which soil forms
● R Horizon​: Parent material (bedrock)
**Note: Not ALL soils HAVE A, B and C.
Types of soil texture
1. Sandy: Gritty and fall apart easily
2. Silty: Slippery and wet; hold together better than sandy soil
3. Clay: Sticky and can be rolled into a ball easily
4. Loam soil: Ideal for agriculture
Porosity: ​Amount of space between particles
Permeability: ​The ease at which gases and liquids and pass through the soil
Acidification of soil​: Acid rain causing pollution, adversely affecting soil and causing damage
to evergreen forestry
Fertile soil = non renewable resource
● Main nutrients are Nitrates, Phosphates and Potassium (NPK)
- N: For leaf and stem
- P: For root system
- K: Flower head/fruit
Chapter 5.2 - Terrestrial Food Production Systems And Choices
**There is enough food in the world but an imbalance in its distribution
Types of farming systems
1. Subsistence farming
- Provision of food by farmers for their community or family
- No surplus
- Low inputs of energy: they are unlikely to produce more than they need
2. Commercial farming
- Large, profit making scale
- Monoculture or of one type of animal
- High levels of technology
3. Extensive and Intensive
- Extensive: more use of land with lower density
- Intensive: uses intensive amount off land with higher input
Basic food facts
- World food production is concentrated in the northern hemisphere temperate zone
- Africa: only 7% of the land area is cultivated
- LEDCs have 80% of the world’s human population
Factors that influence choice of food eaten and grown:
- Climate
- Cultural and religious
- Political
- Socio-economic
History of farming and domestication
- Animal domestication: came before crop farming
- Livestock are a useful means of converting plant material
Arable Farming
- Seeds of crop plants deliberately sown into a soil
- Plants are monoculture → they are grown in high density
Harvesting
- Requires the removal of biomass from the field
- Net loss of biomass, nutrients, minerals
Crop Rotation
- One way of addressing loss of soil fertility
- Leguminous crops (beans, peas, soya) add nitrogen to soil
Farming energy budget
- Energy contained within the crop of harvested product per unit area
- Efficiency: a system with inputs, outputs, and storage
Example: Rice Production in Borneo and California
Borneo: ​Traditional, extensive rice production
- Low inputs of chemical and energy
- High labour intensity
- Low productivity
California: ​Intensive
- High inputs of chemical and energy
- Low labour intensity
- High productivity
Terrestrial vs. aquatic food production systems
Terrestrial
- Usually harvested at first (crops) or second trophic level
- Meat comes from primary consumers (pig, chicken)
Aquatic
- Mostly from higher trophic levels
- Less efficient than terrestrial because of lack of balance in consumption from trophic
levels
Factors causing decrease in agricultural land
- Soil erosion
- Salinization
- Desertification
- Urbanization
How to increase sustainability of food supplies
1. Maximizing yield:​ Improve technology, Alter what we grow or a new Green Revolution
2. Reduce food waste:​ Improve storage
- LEDC: waste mostly in production and storage (eg: no refrigeration, lack of good
storage, severe weather)
- MEDC: mostly in consumption → buying more than what's needed, stricter standards in
supermarket (round apples only)
3. Monitoring and control:​ Regulate imports and exports to reduce unsustainable
agricultural practices
4. Change attitudes towards diet and food:​ eat less meat, eat different crops, increase
insect consumption → more protein
5. Reduce food processing:​ Decreases use of transport and packaging (ex: plastic, fuel,
etc. - overall decrease in energy use)
Predictions
- More people will eat meat
- Population - grow to 8 billion by 2030
- Decrease in hungry people to about 440m
- Extra billion tonnes of cereal will be needed
Chapter 5.3 - Soil Degradation
2 types of processes (which give rise to soil degradation):
1. Taking away soil (erosion): Occurs when there is no vegetation in the soil
2. Making soil less suitable for use:
- Chemicals entering soil which render soil useless in the long run
- Human activities: overgrazing, deforestation, unsustainable agriculture
Overgrazing:
- When too many animals graze in the same area
- Leaves bare patches where roots don’t hold soil together
**Sahel region: Africa → occurs there (1970-80s)
Overcropping:
- Depletes soil nutrients and makes soil dry (hence risk of erosion)
- Reduced soil fertility
Deforestation: ​Removal of forests
- Removal of vegetation leads to erosion → through water as areas with forests are
relatively wet
Unsustainable agriculture techniques
- Total removal of crops after harvest
- Plowing in direction of the slope → makes ready-made channels for rainwater to flow
down
- Excessive use of pesticide
- Irrigation - can cause salinization as minerals dissolved in irrigation water remain in the
top layer of the soil and form a hard salty crust making the land unsuitable for farming.
Case study: Drip technology → Israel
- Monocropping: nutrients are depleted and soil loses fertility
Urbanization:​ refers to the increasing number of people that live in urban areas
- More people live in urban regions than in rural for the first time in human history
- A lot of potential agriculturally suitable land is used for cities
Soil Erosion: ​3 major processes:
1. Sheet wash: surface soil washed away during storm periods/landslides
2. Gullying: channels developing on hillsides after rainfall; become deeper over time.
3. Wind erosion: drier soils are removed from the surface from high winds
Soil conservation
- Insert soil conditioners
a. Chalk, crushed limestone
b. Counters soil acidification
c. Lime
- Wind reduction
a. Plant trees/bushes between fields or alternate low and high crops (strip
cultivation); or build fences
- Soil conserving cultivation techniques
a. Terracing
b. Plowing
 c. Contour farming
- Improve irrigation techniques
6.1 Introduction to the atmosphere
Atmosphere:​ dynamic system with inputs, outputs, storages and flows
- 78% nitrogen (triple-bonded N2), 21% oxygen, rest (Co2, argon, ozone etc)
Stratosphere (space) and Troposphere (earth) are where most reactions affecting life occur
Factors influencing climate:
- Abiotic factors - temperature and precipitation
- Biotic - plants and animals
Greenhouse effect:​ natural and essential phenomenon for maintaining suitable temperatures
for living systems - good thing for life on Earth (no life without it)
- Caused by trapping gases in the atmosphere reducing heat losses by radiation back into
space.
- Solar radiation -​ nearly 50% is absorbed, scattered or reflected by the atmosphere
before it reaches Earth’s surface.
- Main gases involved: ​water vapor, methane, Co2

6.2 Stratospheric ozone

Ozone:​ found in two layers of the atmosphere (​Stratosphere​ = good,​ Troposphere​ = bad)
- Ozone is a molecule made of three oxygen atoms
- Stratospheric ozone blocks incoming UV radiation from the sun
- Ozone is also a GHG which is reactive + found in lower stratosphere
- Ozone layer: example of dynamic equilibrium as it is continuously made of oxygen atoms
and converted back to oxygen
- UV radiation is absorbed in formation and destruction of ozone
Three types of UV radiation:
UV-B , UV-C = most harmful type, UV-A = least harmful
Damaging:
- Genetic mutation
- Skin cancer: high in Australia & NZ
- Damage to photosynthetic organism (phytoplankton) and their consumers (zooplankton)
Beneficial:
- Vitamin D production is stimulated (in animals)
- Used as a sterilizer: water/air purifier
- Lasers, forensic analysis
ODS - Ozone Depleting Substances
1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
- Extremely stable, persist in the atmosphere for up to 100 years
- Refrigerants, spray cans
- Release chlorine atoms: Leads to ozone destruction
2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
- Replacement for CFCs (stronger GHGs)
3. Halons
- Fire extinguishers
- Releases bromine atoms
1 chlorine atom can destroy many molecules of ozone in a chain reaction with positive feedback
Reducing ODS:
1. Before - Alter human activity
- Replace CFCs with CO2 or replace gas-blown plastics
2. During - regulate and reduce pollutants
- Recover and recycle CFCs from refrigerators/AC units or capture CFCs from scrap car
AC units ​OZONE CYCLE
3. After - Clean up and restore
- Add ozone to or remove chlorine from
stratosphere (not practical)
Montreal Protocol
- Agreement to phase out the production of
ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
- Best example of international cooperation on
an environmental issue
- Many experts came together to research
and solve problems
- First time regulations were carefully
monitored

6.3 Photochemical smog

Urban air pollution
- 1 billion people are exposed to outdoor air pollution p/year
- 1 million people die prematurely due to air pollution.
Primary pollutants: ​emitted directly from a process and produced:
- Carbon monoxide/dioxide
- Nitrogen oxides
- Sulphur oxides
Other sources:​ Building sites and forest fires
Secondary pollutants: ​when primary pollutants undergo reactions with other chemicals
- Tropospheric ozone
- Particles produced from gaseous primary pollutants
Tropospheric ozone: ​10% of atmosphere ozone is in troposphere
- Ozone = GHG with GW potential of 2000x more than CO2
Formation of tropospheric ozone
Nitric Oxide + oxygen→nitrogen oxide (brown gas = urban haze)
Nitrogen oxide absorbs sunlight and breaks up into nitric oxide & oxygen atoms
These oxygen atoms react with oxygen molecules to form ozone
Possible effects of ozone
- Toxic gas
- Breathing issues (humans), photosynthesis problems (plants)
- Attacks rubber, plastic, cellulose
Formation of particulates
- Burning fossil fuels releases small particles of carbon and other substances
Dangers of particulates
- Our respiratory filters (nose) cannot filter them out, thus resulting in asthma,
lung cancer, and other respiratory problems
- Many are cancerous
Formation of photochemical smog
- Sunny days with a lot of traffic can
lead to photochemical smog
- Burning of forests can contribute
- Mainly composed of nitrogen dioxide
and ozone
- However has a mixture of 100 different
primary and secondary air pollutants
- Formed when ozone, nitrogen oxide
and gaseous hydrocarbons from
vehicle exhausts interact with strong
sunlight.
Occurrence of photochemical smog is influenced by factors such as​ local topography, climate,
pop. density, fossil fuel use
Pollution Management Model for reducing urban air pollution
Before:
- Consume less, burn less fossil fuel.
- Lobby governments to increase renewable energy use.
During:
- Government regulation/taxation
After:
- Re-greening of cities (more trees + parks to absorb Co2)
- Afforestation to filter air

6.4 Acid Deposition

Acid coming down from the air
- Wet: ​rain or snow form
- Dry:​ ash/dry particles
Acidity:​ No acid rain until pH is below 5.6
Acid Deposition Pollutants
- Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). They react with water to
form sulphuric and nitric acids.
- CO2 also makes acid, but its weak (carbonic)
▪ Nitrogen dioxide + water —> nitric acid
▪ Sulphur dioxide + water —> sulphuric acid
Acid Deposition Sources
- Sulphur dioxide: produced by volcanic eruptions
- Sulfur is common in oil and coal, but usually absent in natural gas
- Nitrogen oxides (formed by reaction of oxygen and nitrogen in the air)
- Emitted by human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels
If primary air pollutants remain in the atmosphere for long enough, a variety of secondary air
pollutants can be formed
Effects of acid deposition on soil, plants, water:
- Direct: weakening coniferous (pine trees) forests growth, reducing pH of water in lakes
- Indirect: toxic effects and leaching of nutrients
Effects of acid deposition on coniferous forests:
- Leaves and buds become yellow
- Reduced growth
- Releases toxic aluminum ions from soil particles which damages root hairs
Toxic effects of acid deposition:
1. Aluminum ions: effects on aquatic organisms
- Fish are sensitive to aluminum in water
- Low concentrations: aluminum disturbs ability to regulate the amount of salt in the body
- High concentrations: solid is formed on the gills, leading to death
2. Lichens
- Sensitive to gaseous pollutants (like sulphur dioxide)
- Indicator species of high levels of air pollution (indirect measure of pollution)
3. Buildings
- Limestone buildings react with acid and dissolve
4. Peat bogs affected by acid rain
- Produce 40% less methane than before (reduces methane in atmosphere
5. Human health: ​dry deposition (lung diseases)
Regional effect of acid deposition
- Dry: closer to source of acidic substances, consists of sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide,
and nitrogen oxides.
- Wet: slightly longer distances than source, consists of sulphurous acid, nitric acid, and
sulphuric acid.
Geology effects
Acid rain does little harm to limestones and chalks (they are derived from calcium
carbonate rocks). They are alkaline soils; neutralizing the acids
Role of international agreements in reducing acid deposition
Clean Air Act (1995) - to reduce SO2
- 50% reductions on average achieved in 2000 (Europe)
- Due to clean technology and changes in lifestyle
Reducing effect of acid depositions
Before
- Reducing emissions (renewable energy sources)
- Reduce demand for electricity through education campaigns (evaluate India+China)
- Reducing SO2 emissions by removing sulphur from fuel before combustion
During
- End of pipe measures (removes SO2 and NOx from waste gases)
- Catalytic converters (converts NOx to nitrogen gas): expensive to buy
After
- Liming lakes to neutralize acidity
- Expensive, and only treats symptoms, not the cause
- International agreements (difficult to establish+monitor)
7.1 Energy Choices & Security
Energy security:​ ability to secure affordable, reliable, efficient energy for needs of a country.
Depends on: ​availability of supply, technological developments, politics, economics,
sustainability, environmental considerations
Coal = 230 yrs Gas= 170 yrs Oil= 100 yrs
Nuclear Fusion: ​extracting heavy water from water and fusing 2 hydrogen atoms to make
helium.
There is low investment in renewables:
- TNCs are committed to carbon economy
- Fossils are cheaper (ignore environmental cost)
- Countries are locked into trade agreements
- Renewables are location dependent
Bridge fuel: ​promoting natural gas consumption through oil/gas companies convincing govts to
get the country off coal until renewables are developed.
Co2 emissions: China, USA, EU (industrial) Per capita: USA, Singapore

Coal +Cheap to burn -co2 (non-renewable)

+ plentiful supply -smog + lung disease

Oil +high heat of combustion -oil spill danger

+ once found = cheap -co2 emitted when burned

Natural Gas +cheap -Leaks are dangerous

+cleaner than oil/coal -30% cleaner than oil/coal

Nuclear fission +no co2 -high extraction costs

Small mass of radioactive material -reactors are expensive
produced a lot

Hydroelectric +good safety record -dams (ecological impacts)

+creates water reserves - costly to build + run

Biomass +cheap/readily available -not replanted: unsustainable

+if crops replanted: sustainable burned= GHG

Wood +cheap/readily available -low heat of combustion

+trees replaced = sustainable -high transportation costs

Solar photovoltaic +can be distributed (green jobs) -costly maintenance

Safe to use + infinite -needs sunshine

Concentrated solar +renewable -new so still improving

+cost same as fossil stations -tropics (high insolation area)

Solar passive +Minimal cost if properly designed -Needs good architects

Wind +Green jobs -Noise pollution

 +Clean energy -Needs wind to blow

Tidal +Ideal for island countries -Construction is costly

+Prevent flooding -Impact on wildlife

Wave +Island countries -Storms damage them

+Small operations -Construction is costly

Geothermal +Infinite supply -expensive to set up

+Used successfully in NZ -only volcanic activity areas

7.2: Climate Change: causes and impacts

Weather:​ daily result of changes in temperature, pressure, and precipitation in the atmosphere.
Climate: ​average weather patterns over many years for a location on Earth.
Difference: ​timescale
Similarities: ​both are affected by clouds, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, human activities
Climate Change: long term change and has always happened
Factors that affect it:
- Fluctuations in solar insolation affecting temperature
- Changing proportions of gases in atmosphere released by organisms
Anthropogenic activities: human activities (that increase GHGs)
Gases include: water vapor, Co2, methane, CFCs, HFCs, nitrous oxide, ozone
3 points that are confusing when reading about climate change:
- Role of ozone and CFCs
- Role of water vapor
- Whether figures refer to total GHG effects of enhanced greenhouse gas effect
GWP:​ relative measure of how much heat a known mass of GHG traps over a number of years
compared to the same mass of Co2
GWP of different gases:
- Co2 is 1
- Methane is 21
- Nitrous oxide is 206
- CFC-11 is 3500
- Ozone is 2000
Ozone in troposphere: GHG
Ozone in stratosphere: acts as a coolant
CFCs: chemicals made by humans
Sources of methane:
- Cattle:​ they are ruminants with bacteria in their stomachs that break down cellulose in
the grass they eat, release methane as a waste product. Solution =high sugar diets
- Rice paddy fields: ​releases methane due to anaerobic respiration by bacteria in soil
(release only when flooded)
- Swamps and bogs
 - Termites
- Tundra: ​permafrost melting releases methane (positive feedback loop)
Impacts of Climate Change:
- Oceans and sea levels:​ water expands and ice melting on land slips off into the sea
increasing the volume of seawater (thermal expansion) + ocean buffering: MALDIVES
- Polar ice caps:​ Melting of land ice (glaciers), could open trade routes, make travel
easier, allow exploitation of undersea resources but con is undersea ice (methane):
GREENLAND AND ANTARCTICA
- On glaciers:​ glacial summer melt provides a fresh water supply to people but also
causes flooding and landslides (GANGES)
- Weather patterns: ​more heat means more energy in climate so weather will be more
violent (global weirding)
- Food production: ​warmer temperatures increase photosynthesis but there may be no
increase in NPP, small increase in temperature kills plankton
- Biodiversity and ecosystems: ​plants cannot move (can become extinct), wildfires &
droughts affect animals. Increase in temperature of water can kill sensitive animals
- Water supplies: increased evaporation rates can cause lakes/rivers to dry up
- Human health: algal blooms/red tides (asthma/chest infections)
- Human migration: ​if people can’t grow food, they will migrate (environmental refugees)
- National Economies: ​gains and losses
Positive Feedback Negative feedback

- More evaporation leads to more - More evaporation leads to more

clouds which traps more heat clouds which reflects more heat
- Ice has high albedo which means that - Warmer air carries more water vapor
when it melts, it has low albedo and it so more rainfall, some of which will be
absorbs more heat and more ice snow so more snow, more reflection,
melts lower temperatures, more ice.
- As temperature rises, permafrost - Forests absorb Co2 and act as a
melts and methane is released carbon sink to decrease temperature

7.3: Climate Change - mitigation and adaptation

Mitigation: ​reduction/stabilization of GHG emissions and their removal from the atmosphere.
Adaptation:​ adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic
stimuli or their effects which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities
PRECAUTIONARY STRATEGY: ACT NOW IN CASE
Mitigation strategies:
A: Stabilize or reduce GHG Emissions
- Reduce energy waste by using it more efficiently (hybrid/electric vehicles)
- Changing lifestyles and business practices (public transport)
- Adopt carbon taxes and remove fossil fuel subsidy
- Improve efficiency of energy production
- Reduce methane production (change cow diets)
 - Sustainable agriculture
B: Remove Co2 from atmosphere
- Increase photosynthesis
- Carbon capture and storage
- Use more biomass as a source of fuel (if same crop is planted in the following year, an =
amount of Co2 to that is released by burning the fuel is then captured by photosynthesis)
C: Geoengineering
- Release sulphur dioxide from airplanes to increase global dimming
- Send mirrors to space between the Earth and Sun to deflect solar radiations
- Build with light colored roofs to increase albedo and reflect more sunlight
Adaptation strategies:
- Change land use through planning legislation
- Build to resist flooding
- Change agricultural production (rainwater harvesting, growing diff crops, drought tolerant
crops)
- Managing the weather (planting trees)
- Migrating to other areas
- Managing water supplies (desalination, increasing reservoirs)
- Vaccination against water borne diseases
8.1 Human Population Dynamics
Demographics:​ study of dynamics of population change
Crude Birth Rate:​ (# of births/pop)*1000
Crude Death Rate: ​(# of deaths/pop)*1000
Natural Increase Rate: ​rate of human growth ((CBR-CDR)/10)
Doubling Time: time it takes in years for pop to double in size
Total Fertility Rate:​ avrg #of children/woman/lifetime
NIR of 1%= will double pop in 70 years Doubling Time = 70/NIR
MEDCs​: 2.03 (Italy, Japan) ​LEDCs:​ 2.16 (India)
Human Development Index: ​a measure of well being of a country
MEDCs LEDCs

Europe, North America, South Africa, Israel, Japan Sub-Saharan, Asian, South America
Industrialized nations + high GDP Less industrialized/barely any industries
Rich population Natural capital processed in MEDCs
No poverty/starving Lower GDP: high poverty
High resource use per capita Low standards of living
Low pop growth due to low CBR but high CDR High pop growth rates (falling CDR)
High ecological footprints Low ecological footprints
Why are we more flexible than other species: carrying capacity
- import food Reducing family size:
- adaptation/mitigation - education, health, enhance income
- Adop to food choices (microfinance), resource management
Reasons for large families:
- High infant mortality rate
- Security in old age
- Economic assets: agriculture
- Status of women
- Contraceptives
Demographic Transition Model:
Stage 1: ​high stationary (high birth due to no birth control,
high infant mortality rates, large families due to cultural
factors, high death rates due to famine and little medicine)
Stage 2: ​early expanding (death rate drops, disease
reduces, lifespan increases, birth rate still high, child
mortality falls)
Stage 3: ​late expanding (birth rates fall due to contraceptives, education, empowerment, pop
levels off, smaller families, low infant death rate)
Stage 4:​low stationary, low birth and death rates, industrialized countries, stable pop)
Stage 5: ​declining, fertility rate low, problems of ageing workforce
Limitations:
● Initial model didn’t have 5th stage - only recently countries have become part of this
(Germany, Sweden)
● Fall in death rate hasn’t been as steep
● Death from AIDS-related diseases can affect this
● Fall in birth rate assumes availability of contraceptives and allowances from religious
practices
● Assumes increasing education and literacy for women (not always the case)

Malthusian Theory: Boserup Theory:

- Food supply was a limit to pop growth Technology to increase food production
- Pop can never increase beyond food supplies pop growth leads to development
Necessary to support it. Assumption of closed community
- Too simplistic Migration happens in overpopulated areas
- Ignores reality (only poor go hungry) Overpopulation can lead to bad farming
- Did not consider technology (globalization)

Case Studies & Video Links:

1. Sahel Africa: pop growth, overusing natural resources, degradation

8.2 Resource Use in Society

Renewable natural capital:​ can be generated/replaced as fast as it is being used
Non-renewable natural capital: ​either irreplaceable or only replaced over geological
timescales (fossils, minerals)
Natural capital: ​resource that has value to humans
Capital includes:
- Natural sources with value (trees, water)
- Natural sources that provides services (flood protection)
- Processes (water cycle)
 Renewable natural capital Non-renewable natural capital

Living species and ecosystems that use solar Finite amounts: not renewed/replaced after
energy and photosynthesis they’ve been used/depleted

Groundwater and ozone layer Alternatives need to be found

Recyclable resources: iron ore is non-renewable
Steel & iron in cars can be recycled
Iron extracted from ore = renewable
Arctic:
- Mineral riches surrounding Arctic Ocean (hydrocarbons)
- Climate change causing it to warm up (more ice-free days)
- Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia, US have Arctic Ocean coastlines
- They are j​ostling for ownership of the region's frozen seas.
Antarctic:
- 98% covered in ice and snow
- Humans exploit it through tourism, fishing and whaling
- Nobody owns it but seven have staked territorial claims via “The Antarctic Treaty”
Changing value of natural capital
● Cork forests
- Previously used to seal wine bottles
- Being replaced by screw top bottles and plastic corks
- Forests losing value due to not being used as natural capital to humans
- Not a good thing because they are not biodegradable
● Lithium
- More than half of lithium reserves are under a desert salt plain in Bolivia
- Lithium production not enough to power electric cars if they were to replace cars with
petrol engines
Valuing Natural Capital
● Use Valuation - use natural capital we can put prices on
- Economic price of marketable goods
- Recreational functions (tourism)
● Non-use Valuation - natural capital that it is impossible to put a price on
- If it has intrinsic value (right to exist)
- If it has future uses we aren’t aware of (Science, Medicine)
- If it has existential value (Amazon rainforest)
8.3 Solid Domestic Waste:
- Trash, garbage, rubbish
- Something is waste when there is no value for the producer
Linear model of producing:​ take, make, dump
The circular economy aims to:
- Be restorative of the environment
- Use renewable energy source
- Eliminate or reduce toxic wastes
- Eradicate waste through careful design
Strategies to minimize waste
1. Reduce
- Change shopping habits, buy things that will last
- Buy energy efficient, recyclable goods
2. Reuse
- Compost food waste
- Use old clothes as cleaning rags
- Read E Books
3. Recycle
Strategies for waste disposal
1. Landfills
+ Cheap initial cost
+ Away from highly populated areas
+ Lined with special plastic liners to prevent liquid waste from leaving the area
+ Methane used to generate electricity
- Issues with leaking gases
- Contaminate groundwater & crops
- Cause health problems
2. Incinerators
- Burning waste causes air pollution (release harmful gases)
- Expensive
- Need a lot of waste to use this (does not discourage waste reduction)
+ Generates steam and powers heat powered buildings nearby
+ Ash can be used in road building
+ Space taken up is smaller than landfills
3. Anaerobic digestion: ​biodegradable matter broken down by microorganisms in the
absence of oxygen
+ Renewable
+ Methane used as fuel and waste used as fertilizer
- HIgh set up cost
- Feasible for large farms mainly
4. Domestic Organic Waste: ​ can be composted or put into anaerobic bio-digesters
+ Eco-friendly and methane produced can be used as fuel, improve soil health
- Takes up space, only organic matter can be used, health and safety concerns (smell)
8.4 Human Systems & Resource Use
Carrying capacity: ​the maximum number of species or load that can be sustainably supported
by a given area.
Difficulties in measuring human carrying capacity
- Greater range of resources used
- Substitution of resources if others run out
- Resource use varies person to person
- Import resources from outside our immediate environment
- Developments in technology
Importing resources —> increases carrying capacity for local population (no influence on global
carrying capacity)
Ways to change human carrying capacity
1. Ecocentric
- Try to reduce their use of non-renewable resources
- Use solar cells for electricity and rain water for water supply
2. Technocentric
- HCC can be expanded through technological innovation
- Reuse, recycle and remanufacturing
Ecological footprint: ​area of land and water required to support a defined human population at
a given standard of living
- The model estimates demands that human population place on the environment
- Vary country to country (due to lifestyle choices)
- 2012: EF of all people was equivalent to 1.5 Earths
Depends on several factors
- Area of land needed to absorb wastes (water, sewage, CO2)
- Pop size
- Cropland to grow food
- WORLD CARRYING CAPACITY DOES NOT CHANGE BUT LOCAL DOES.

Case Studies & Video Links:

1. Qatar and Kuwait are rich and use a lot of resources (above carrying capacity)
2. Japan: efficient but use a lot of resources
3. Thailand: below carrying capacity (there are more poor than rich)