Master Electrical Designing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................................ ii
LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................iii
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................... iv
OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................................. v
AC GENERATION.........................................................................................................................1
Development of a Sine-Wave Output.................................................................................1
Summary.............................................................................................................................. 3
AC GENERATION ANALYSIS....................................................................................................4
Effective Values.................................................................................................................. 4
Phase Angle......................................................................................................................... 7
Voltage Calculations............................................................................................................8
Current Calculations............................................................................................................ 9
Frequency Calculations....................................................................................................... 9
Summary............................................................................................................................ 10
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AC GENERATION
An understanding of how an AC generator develops an AC output will help the
student analyze the AC power generation process.
EO 1.1 DESCRIBE the construction and operation of a simple
AC generator.
EO 1.2 EXPLAIN the development of a sine-wave output in an
AC generator.
The elementary AC generator (Figure 1) consists of a conductor, or loop of wire in a magnetic
field that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop are connected to slip rings,
and they are in contact with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of force,
first in one direction and then the other.
Figure 1 Simple AC Generator
Development of a Sine-Wave Output
At the instant the loop is in the vertical position (Figure 2, 0o), the coil sides are moving parallel
to the field and do not cut magnetic lines of force. In this instant, there is no voltage induced
in the loop. As the coil rotates in a counter-clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the
magnetic lines of force in opposite directions. The direction of the induced voltages depends on
the direction of movement of the coil.
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The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring X (Figure 1) positive (+) and slip ring Y
(Figure 1) negative (-). The potential across resistor R will cause a current to flow from Y to
X through the resistor. This current will increase until it reaches a maximum value when the coil
is horizontal to the magnetic lines of force (Figure 2, 90o). The horizontal coil is moving
perpendicular to the field and is cutting the greatest number of magnetic lines of force. As the
coil continues to turn, the voltage and current induced decrease until they reach zero, where the
coil is again in the vertical position (Figure 2, 180o). In the other half revolution, an equal
voltage is produced except that the polarity is reversed (Figure 2, 270o, 360o). The current flow
through R is now from X to Y (Figure 1).
Figure 2 Developing a Sine-Wave Voltage
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The periodic reversal of polarity results in the generation of a voltage, as shown in Figure 2. The
rotation of the coil through 360° results in an AC sine wave output.
Summary
AC generation is summarized below.
AC Generation Summary
A simple generator consists of a conductor loop turning in a magnetic field,
cutting across the magnetic lines of force.
The sine wave output is the result of one side of the generator loop cutting lines
of force. In the first half turn of rotation this produces a positive current and in
the second half of rotation produces a negative current. This completes one
cycle of AC generation.
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AC GENERATION ANALYSIS
Analysis of the AC power generation process and of the alternating current weuse
in almost every aspect of our lives is necessary to better understand how AC
power is used in today’s technology.
EO 1.3 DEFINE the following terms in relation to AC
generation:
a. Radians/second
b. Hertz
c. Period
EO 1.4 DEFINE effective value of an AC current relative to DC
current.
EO 1.5 Given a maximum value, CALCULATE the effective
(RMS) and average values of AC voltage.
EO 1.6 Given a diagram of two sine waves, DESCRIBE the
phase relationship between the two waves.
Effective Values
The output voltage of an AC generator can be expressed in two ways. One is graphically by use
of a sine wave (Figure 3). The second way is algebraically by the equation
e = Emax sin t, which will be covered later in the text.
Figure 3 Voltage Sine Wave
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When a voltage is produced by an AC generator, the resulting current varies in step with the
voltage. As the generator coil rotates 360°, the output voltage goes through one complete cycle.
In one cycle, the voltage increases from zero to Emax in one direction, decreases to zero, increases
to Emax in the opposite direction (negative Emax), and then decreases to zero again. The value of
Emax occurs at 90° and is referred to as peak voltage. The time it takes for the generator to
complete one cycle is called the period, and the number of cycles per second is called the
frequency (measured in hertz).
One way to refer to AC voltage or current is by peak voltage (Ep) or peak current (Ip). This is
the maximum voltage or current for an AC sine wave.
Another value, the peak-to-peak value (Ep-p or Ip-p), is the magnitude of voltage, or current range,
spanned by the sine wave. However, the value most commonly used for AC is effective value.
Effective value of AC is the amount of AC that produces the same heating effect as an equal
amount of DC. In simpler terms, one ampere effective value of AC will produce the same
amount of heat in a conductor, in a given time, as one ampere of DC. The heating effect of a
given AC current is proportional to the square of the current. Effective value of AC can be
calculated by squaring all the amplitudes of the sine wave over one period, taking the average
of these values, and then taking the square root. The effective value, being the root of the mean
(average) square of the currents, is known as the root-mean-square, or RMS value. In order to
understand the meaning of effective current applied to a sine wave, refer to Figure 4.
The values of I are plotted on the upper curve, and the corresponding values of I2 are plotted on
the lower curve. The I2 curve has twice the frequency of I and varies above and below a new axis.
The new axis is the average of the I2 values, and the square root of that value is the RMS, or
effective value, of current. The average value is ½ Imax2. The RMS value is then
2I2max 2
OR I , which is equal to 0.707 I max .
max
2 2
There are six basic equations that are used to convert a value of AC voltage or current to another
value, as listed below.
Average value = peak value x 0.637 (7-1)
Effective value (RMS) = peak value x 0.707 (7-2)
Peak value = average value x 1.57 (7-3)
Effective value (RMS) = average value x 1.11 (7-4)
Peak value = effective value (RMS) x 1.414 (7-5)
Average value = effective (RMS) x 0.9 (7-6)
The values of current (I) and voltage (E) that are normally encountered are assumed to be RMS
values; therefore, no subscript is used.
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Figure 4 Effective Value of Current
Another useful value is the average value of the amplitude during the positive half of the cycle.
Equation (7-7) is the mathematical relationship between Iav , Imax , and I.
Iav 0.637 Imax 0.90 I (7-7)
Equation (7-8) is the mathematical relationship between Eav , Emax , and E.
Eav 0.637 Emax 0.90 E (7-8)
Example 1: The peak value of voltage in an AC circuit is 200 V. What is the RMS value of
the voltage?
E = 0.707 Emax
E = 0.707 (200 V)
E = 141.4 V
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Example 2: The peak current in an AC circuit is 10 amps. What is the average value of
current in the circuit?
Iav = 0.637 Imax
Iav = 0.637 (10 amps)
Iav = 6.37 amps
Phase Angle
Phase angle is the fraction of a cycle, in degrees, that has gone by since a voltage or current has
passed through a given value. The given value is normally zero. Referring back to Figure 3,
take point 1 as the starting point or zero phase. The phase at Point 2 is 30°, Point 3 is 60°, Point
4 is 90°, and so on, until Point 13 where the phase is 360°, or zero. A term more commonly
used is phase difference. The phase difference can be used to describe two different voltages that
have the same frequency, which pass through zero values in the same direction at different times.
In Figure 5, the angles along the axis indicate the phases of voltages e1 and e2 at any point in time.
At 120°, e1 passes through the zero value, which is 60° ahead of e2 (e2 equals zero at 180°).
The voltage e1 is said to lead e2 by 60 electrical degrees, or it can be said that e2 lags e1 by 60
electrical degrees.
Figure 5 Phase Relationship
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Phase difference is also used to compare two different currents or a current and a voltage. If the
phase difference between two currents, two voltages, or a voltage and a current is zero degrees,
they are said to be "in-phase." If the phase difference is an amount other than zero, they are said
to be "out-of-phase."
Voltage Calculations
Equation (7-9) is a mathematical representation of the voltage associated with any particular
orientation of a coil (inductor).
e Emax sin (7-9)
where
e = induced EMF
Emax = maximum induced EMF
= angle from reference (degrees or radians)
Example 1: What is the induced EMF in a coil producing a maximum EMF of 120 V when
the angle from reference is 45°?
e = Emax sin
e = 120 V (sin 45°)
e = 84.84 V
The maximum induced voltage can also be called peak voltage Ep. If (t) is the time in which the
coil turns through the angle (), then the angular velocity () of the coil is equal to /t and is
expressed in units of radians/sec. Equation (7-10) is the mathematical representation of the
angular velocity.
t (7-10)
where
= angular velocity (radians/sec)
t = time to turn through the angle from reference (sec)
= angle from reference (radians)
Using substitution laws, a relationship between the voltage induced, the maximum induced
voltage, and the angular velocity can be expressed. Equation (7-11) is the mathematical
representation of the relationship between the voltage induced, the maximum voltage, and the
angular velocity, and is equal to the output of an AC Generator.
e Emax sin(t) (7-11)
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where
e = induced EMF (volts)
Emax = maximum induced EMF (volts)
= angular velocity (radians/sec)
t = time to turn through the angle from reference (sec)
Current Calculations
Maximum induced current is calculated in a similar fashion. Equation (7-12) is a mathematical
representation of the relationship between the maximum induced current and the angular velocity.
i Imax sin(t) (7-12)
where
i = induced current (amps)
Imax = maximum induced current (amps)
= angular velocity (radians/sec)
t = time to turn through the angle from reference (sec)
Frequency Calculations
The frequency of an alternating voltage or current can be related directly to the angular velocity
of a rotating coil. The units of angular velocity are radians per second, and 2 radians is a full
revolution. A radian is an angle that subtends an arc equal to the radius of a circle. One radian
equals 57.3 degrees. One cycle of the sine wave is generated when the coil rotates 2 radians.
Equation (7-13) is the mathematical relationship between frequency (f) and the angular velocity
() in an AC circuit.
2f (7-13)
where
= angular velocity (radians/sec)
f = frequency (HZ)
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Example 1: The frequency of a 120 V AC circuit is 60 Hz. Find the following:
1. Angular velocity
2. Angle from reference at 1 msec
3. Induced EMF at that point
Solution:
1. = 2f
= 2 (3.14) (60 Hz)
= 376.8 radians/sec
2. = t
= (376.8 radian/sec) (.001 sec)
= 0.3768 radians
3. e = Emax sin
= (120 V) (sin 0.3768 radians)
= (120 V) (0.3679)
= 44.15 V
Summary
AC generation analysis is summarized below.
Voltage, Current, and Frequency Summary
The following terms relate to the AC cycle: radians/second, the velocity the loop
turns; hertz, the number of cycles in one second; period, the time to complete
one cycle.
Effective value of AC equals effective value of DC.
Root mean square (RMS) values equate AC to DC equivalents:
- I = 0.707 Imax = Effective Current
- E = 0.707 Emax = Effective Voltage
- Iav = 0.636 Imax = 0.9 I = Average Current
- Eav = 0.636 Emax = 0.9 E = Average Voltage
Phase angle is used to compare two wave forms. It references the start, or zero
point, of each wave. It compares differences by degrees of rotation. Wave
forms with the same start point are "in-phase" while wave forms "out-of-phase"
either lead or lag.
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