Seenu Atoll School, Hulhumeedhoo

BIOLOGY REVISION
BOOKLET - 2

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNITS TOPICS
10. Diseases and immunity
4: Respiration and the human
11. Gas exchange in humans
transport system
12. Respiration
13. Excretion in humans
5: Coordination, response and
14. Coordination and response
homeostasis
15. Drug

6: Reproduction 16. Reproduction in plants

7: Human reproduction 16. Reproduction in humans

17. Inheritance
8: Inheritance and evolution
18. Variation and selection

9: Organisms and environment 19. Organisms and their environment

10: Human influences on the

20. Human influences on ecosystem
environment

11. Biotechnology 21. Biotechnology and genetic engineering

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 TOPIC 10 – DISEASES AND IMMUNITY
Pathogen: is a disease-causing organism.
Transmissible disease: is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to
another.

Pathogens responsible for transmissible diseases can be spread either through direct
contact, e.g. through blood or other body fluids, or indirectly, from contaminated surfaces
or food, from animals, or from the air.

Defenses against disease:

 Mechanical barriers – skin and hair in the nose.
 Chemical barriers – stomach acid, mucus produced by the lining of the trachea and
bronchi, and tears which contain an enzyme called lysozyme.
 Cells – phagocytosis and antibody production by white blood cells.
 Vaccination – can enhance the body’s defense.

Antibodies and immunity:

On the surface of all cells there are chemical substances called antigens.
Lymphocytes produce proteins called antibodies which attack the antigens of bacteria that
invade the body.
The antibodies may attach to the surface of the bacteria to mark them, making it easier for
the phagocytes to find and ingest them.
Each pathogen has its own antigens, which have specific shapes, so specific antibodies
which fit the specific shapes of the antigens are needed.
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Active immunity: is the defense against a pathogen by antibody production in the body.
This is gained after an infection by a pathogen, or by vaccination.

Vaccination:
 Inoculated (vaccinated) by harmless pathogen which has antigens.
 The antigens trigger an immune response by lymphocytes which produce antibodies.
 Memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity.

Systemic immunization can protect whole populations.

Passive immunity:
 a short-term defense against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another
individual.
 This is temporary as no memory cells are formed.
 A baby’s immune responses are not yet fully developed, so when a mother
breastfeeds her baby, the milk which contains the mother’s white blood cells
produces antibodies and provide the baby with protection against infection.

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Type 1 diabetes:
 Also known as juvenile-onset diabetes.
 Due to the inability of islet cells in the pancreas to produce sufficient insulin.
 A virus infection can cause the body’s immune system to attack the islet cells that
produce insulin. This is classed as an autoimmune
 The outcome is that the patient’s blood is deficient in insulin and he/she needs
regular injections of the hormone in order to control blood sugar levels and so lead a
normal life.

TOPIC 11 – GAS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces:

 The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a respiratory surface, as in the
lungs, depends on the diffusion of these two gases. Diffusion occurs more rapidly if:
 There is a large surface area exposed to the gas.
 The distance across which diffusion has to take place is small.
 There is a good blood supply.
 There is a big difference in the concentrations of the gas at two points brought about
by ventilation.
Lung structure:
 The lungs are enclosed in the thorax.
 They have a spongy texture and can be
expanded and compressed by movements
of the thorax in such a way that air is
sucked in and blown out.
 The lungs are joined to the back of the
mouth by the windpipe or trachea.
 The trachea divides into two smaller
tubes, called bronchi, which enters the
lungs and divide into bronchioles.
 These small branches end in microscopic
air sacs called alveoli.
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  The epiglottis and other structures at the top of the trachea stop food and drink from
entering the air passages when we swallow.
 The larynx manipulates pitch and volume.
 The diaphragm is a sheet of tissue that separates the thorax from the abdomen.
 Ribs form a cage to protect the lungs and heart, and to move to ventilate the lungs.
 Intercostal muscles are muscles between the ribs which raise the ribcage by
contracting and lower it by relaxing.

Ventilation of the lungs:

The movement of air into and out of the lungs, called ventilation, renews the oxygen supply
in the lungs and removes the surplus carbon dioxide.
Horseshoe-shaped hoops of cartilage are present in the trachea and bronchi to prevent
them collapsing when we breathe in.
The lungs contain no muscle fibers and are made to expand and contract by movements of
the ribs and diaphragm.

Inhaling:
 the internal intercostal muscles relax and the external intercostal muscles contract,
pulling the ribcage upwards and outwards
 the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards
 the volume in the thorax gets bigger, forcing the lungs to expand, and the air
pressure inside decreases
 air is pushed into the lungs
Exhaling:
 the external intercostal muscles relax and the internal intercostal muscles contract,
pulling the ribcage downwards and inwards
 the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards
 The lungs are elastic and shrink back to their relaxed volume and the air pressure
inside increases

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  air is pushed out of the lungs

Difference between inhalation and exhalation:

Inhalation Exhalation
Action of diaphragm Contracts Relaxes
Action of intercostal External inter-coastal Internal inter-coastal
muscles muscles contracts muscles contracts
Volume of Thoracic
Increases Decreases
cavity
Air pressure Decreases Increases

Gaseous exchange:
Gaseous exchange refers to the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which takes place
between the air and the blood vessels in the lungs.
Gas exchange in the lungs happens in the alveoli. Some of the features of alveoli include:
 thin walls (just one cell thick)
 large surface area
 moist surface
 many blood capillaries

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Composition of inhaled and exhaled air:
Inhaled air % Exhaled air %
Oxygen 21 16
Carbon dioxide 0.03 4
Nitrogen 79 79
Water vapour Variable Saturated
Dust Variable absent
 Some of the oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream when it enters the alveoli,
resulting in a reduction of oxygen.
 Cells of the body produce CO2 as a waste product during aerobic respiration. The
bloodstream carries CO2 to the lungs for excretion and diffuses across the walls of
the alveoli to be expired, resulting in a 100% increase of carbon dioxide breathed out.
 The lining of the alveoli is coated with a firm of moisture in which oxygen dissolves.
Some of this moisture evaporates into the alveoli and saturates the air with water
vapour. The air you breathe out, therefore, always contains a great deal more water
vapour than the air you breathe in.

Limewater turns milky in the presence of carbon dioxide, so it can be used to show the
differences between inhaled (inspired) air and exhaled (expired) air. The lime water
immediately turns milky on contact with exhaled air.

Breathing rate and exercise:

 The increased rate and depth of breathing during exercise allows more oxygen to
dissolve in the blood and supply the active muscles.
 The extra carbon dioxide that the muscles put into the blood is detected by the brain,
which instructs the intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles to contract and relax
more rapidly, increasing the breathing rate.
 Carbon dioxide will be removed by the faster, deeper breathing.

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  The rate of breathing can be measured by counting the number of breaths in one
minute. The depth of breathing can be measured using a spirometer (a device that
measures the volume of air inhaled and exhaled).
 To investigate the effects of exercise on breathing, record the rate of breathing for a
few minutes when the person is at rest. After they do some exercise, record their
rate of breathing every minute until it returns to the normal resting value.

Protection of the gas exchange system from pathogens and particles:

Pathogens are present in the air we breathe in and are potentially dangerous of not actively
removed. There are two types of cells that provide mechanisms to help achieve this.
 Goblet cells are found in the epithelial lining of the trachea, bronchi and some
bronchioles of the respiratory tract. Their role is to secrete mucus. The mucus forms
a thin film over the internal lining. This sticky liquid traps pathogens and small
particles, preventing them from entering the alveoli where they could cause infection
or physical damage.
 Ciliated cells are also present in the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract. They are
in a continually flicking motion to move the mucus, secreted by the goblet cells,
upwards and away from the lungs. When the mucus reaches the top of the trachea, it
passes down the gullet during normal swallowing.

TOPIC 12 – RESPIRATION
12.1) Respiration

Most of the processes taking place in cells need energy to make them happen. Examples of
energy-consuming processes in living organisms are:

 The contraction of muscle cells – to create movement of the organism, or peristalsis

to move food along the alimentary canal, or contraction of the uterus wall during
childbirth.
 Building up proteins from amino acids.

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  The process of cell division to create more cells, more replace damaged or worn out
cells, or to make reproductive cells.
 The process of active transport, involving the movement of molecules across a cell
membrane against a concentration gradient.
 Growth of an organism through the formation of new cells or a permanent increase
in cell size.
 The conduction of electrical impulses by nerve cells
 Maintaining a constant body temperature in homoeothermic (warm-blooded)
animals to ensure that vital chemical reactions continue at a predictable rate and do
not slow down or speed up as the surrounding temperature varies.

Respiration is a chemical process that takes place in cells and involves the action of
enzymes can sometimes be called cellular respiration, internal respiration or tissue
respiration.
12.2) Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration: is the term for chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break
down nutrient molecules to releases energy.
 The word aerobic means that oxygen is needed for this chemical reaction.
 The food molecules are combined with oxygen.
 The process is called oxidation and the food is said to be oxidized.
 glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + 2830 kJ energy

Chemical equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

12.3) Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration: is the term for the chemical reactions in cells that break down
nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen.

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  The word anaerobic means ‘in the absence of oxygen’.
 Anaerobic respiration happens in muscles during hard exercise
 glucose → lactic acid
chemical equation: C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3
 Anaerobic respiration also happens in plant cells and some microorganisms.
Anaerobic respiration in yeast is used during brewing and bread-making
 glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
 C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
 Anaerobic respiration is much less efficient than aerobic respiration because it
releases much less energy per glucose molecule broken down (respired).
 There is a buildup of lactic acid in the
muscles during vigorous exercise.
 The lactic acid needs to be oxidized to
carbon dioxide and water later.
 This causes an oxygen debt that needs
to be ‘repaid’ after the exercise stops.
 Lactic acid is removed in the
bloodstream.
 The blood needs to move more quickly during and after exercise to maintain this
lactic acid removal process, so the heart rate is rapid.
 On reaching the liver, some of the lactic acid is oxidized to CO2 and H2O, using up
oxygen in the process.
 After exercise has stopped, a high level of oxygen consumption may persist until the
excess of lactic acid has been oxidized.
 This is characterized by deeper breathing.

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 TOPIC 13 - Excretion in Humans
13) Excretion in humans
Excretion is the removal of the following substances:
 toxic materials
 waste products of metabolism
 excess substances from organisms
Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver to form glycogen and urea. The urea is
removed from the tissues by the blood and expelled by the kidneys.

Excretory organs:
 Liver – Breaks down excess amino acids and produces urea.
 Lungs – Get rid of CO2 and H2O when breathing out.
 Kidneys – Removes urea and other nitrogenous waste from the blood, and expel
excess water, salts. Hormones and drugs.
 Skin – Loses water, salt, urea but not an excretory organ.

The liver and its role in producing proteins:

 Plays an important role in assimilation (absorbing) amino acids.
 Removes amino acids from the plasma of the bloodstream and builds them up into
proteins.
 Proteins are long chains of amino acids, joined together by peptide bonds.

Deamination: is the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea.

SIGNIFICATION OF EXCRETION:
1. Removal of metabolic waste
2. Removal of unwanted by - products
3. Regulation of ionic concentration of body fluid
4. Regulation of water content of the body
5. Regulation of ph.

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STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY:

1. Cortex: this is packed with millions of nephrons. The cortex acts as a filtering layer of
the kidney
2. Medulla: this is the layer next to the cortex. Tubes caring filtered ways travel from
cortex through the medulla towards the pelvis
3. Pelvis: this is the area where all the collecting tubules come together and connect
with the ureter
4. Ureter : tube that transport the waste from the kidney to urinary bladder
5. Nephron : structural and functional unit of kidney

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The Nephron

 Each kidney contains around a million tiny structures called nephrons, also known
as kidney tubules or renal tubules
 The nephrons start in the cortex of the kidney, loop down into the medulla and back
up to the cortex
 The contents of the nephrons drain into the innermost part of the kidney and
the urine collects there before it flows into the ureter to be carried to
the bladder for storage

1) Ultrafiltration

 Arterioles branch off the renal artery and lead to each nephron, where they form a
knot of capillaries (the glomerulus) sitting inside the cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule
 The capillaries get narrower as they get further into the glomerulus which increases
the pressure on the blood moving through them (which is already at high pressure
because it is coming directly from the renal artery which is connected to the aorta)
 This eventually causes the smaller molecules being carried in the blood to be forced
out of the capillaries and into the Bowman’s capsule, where they form what is
known as the filtrate
 This process is known as ultrafiltration
 The substances forced out of the capillaries are: glucose, water, urea, salts
 Some of these are useful and will be reabsorbed back into the blood further down
the nephron

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2) Selective Reabsorption

 After the glomerular filtrate enters the Bowman’s Capsule, glucose is the first
substance to be reabsorbed at the proximal (first) convoluted tubule
 This takes place by active transport
 The nephron is adapted for this by having many mitochondria to provide energy for
the active transport of glucose molecules
 Reabsorption of glucose cannot take place anywhere else in the nephron as the
gates that facilitate the active transport of glucose are only found in the proximal
convoluted tubule
 In a person with a normal blood glucose level, there are enough gates present to
remove all of the glucose from the filtrate back into the blood
 People with diabetes cannot control their blood glucose levels and they are often
very high, meaning that not all of the glucose filtered out can be reabsorbed into the
blood in the proximal convoluted tubule
 As there is nowhere else for the glucose to be reabsorbed, it continues in the filtrate
and ends up in urine
 This is why one of the first tests a doctor may do to check if someone is diabetic is to
test their urine for the presence of glucose

Reabsorption of Water & Salts

 As the filtrate drips through the Loop of Henle’s necessary salts are reabsorbed back
into the blood by diffusion
 As salts are reabsorbed back into the blood, water follows by osmosis
 Water is also reabsorbed from the collecting duct in different amounts depending on
how much water the body needs at that time

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 14. COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

14.1 COORDINATION:
The harmonious functioning of interrelated organs and parts applied especially to the
process of the brain which provides for the co-working of particular groups of muscles for
the performance of definite adaptive useful responses.

The coordination in our body is brought about by two systems. They are:
1. Nervous system
2. Endocrine system

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:

The nervous system is a system of organs working together to detect and respond to
stimuli. The nervous system is made up of two systems. They are:
1. Central nervous system
2. Peripheral nervous system.

The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the other parts of
the body.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

It consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The central nervous system is what gives out
orders to other parts of the body to perform certain jobs.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF SPINAL CORD:

• arises from medulla oblongata and runs through backbone of mammal
• internal distribution of nerve cell bodies is similar to medulla oblongata which the
outer cortex contains white matter while the inner cortex is in H-shaped and contains
grey matter
• in the central region of grey matter is central canal and filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• reflex center for controlling involuntary actions and it also transmits impulses to and
from brain

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

• consist of cranial nerves and spinal nerves
• these nerves leave CNS and run out to every part of the body
• the main job of peripheral nervous system is to detect stimuli and send impulse to
the CNS according to the stimuli.

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NERURON STRUCTURE:

TYPES OF NEURONES:

REFLEX ACTION:
• simple reflex action is a quick, inborn and automatic response of an animal to a
stimulus and cerebrum does not involve in the response
• protective in function and need not be learnt
• same stimulus initiates the same responses at different times
• Examples like withdrawal from hot objects, blinking, coughing, sneezing and pupil
size.

REFLEX ARC:
 neural pathway between receptor and effector involved in a reflex action
 example is knee jerk reflex

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KNEE JERK REFLEX:
1. At the Receptor
• Receptor receives stimulus. In this case, tapping stimulates tendon of knee cap
2. At the Sensory Neuron
• from ending of dendron of sensory neurons, nerve impulses fired off
3. Across the Synapse to the Motor Neuron
• through dorsal root of spinal nerve, impulses are carried to spinal cord
• Impulses jump across synapses to motor neurons in grey matter but in other
reflex action, association neurons may involve.
• To the effector
• impulses are further transmitted through ventral root to effector to produce
responses

4. In knee jerk, effector is muscles in upper leg which it will contract when impulses are
received so the leg jerks up and it is an example of spinal reflex action as only spinal
cord is involved

• spinal reflexes can occur in deep sleep and do not depend on awareness but impulses
can still pass form sensory neurones up the spinal cord to brain
• other reflex actions like blinking, coughing and sneezing are cranial reflex action and
take place in medulla oblongata

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VOLUNTARY ACTION:
• conscious response to a certain stimulus
• involves cerebrum of brain and mammals are aware of all the steps of the response
• may differ from time to time as mammals can gain experiences and store them in
cerebrum so they can choose how to response to the same stimulus.

Synapses
 Where two neurons meet or join, they do so at a junction called a synapse
 Synapses allow junctions between neurones so are important in the nervous system
being a connected network of neurones
 Nerve impulses can transmit across synapses and be directed along the appropriate
route by them eg. to the correct part of the brain
 Think about the analogy of railway points that guide the trains onto the appropriate
tracks based on that train's destination.

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Structure of a Synapse:

Synapses & Neurotransmitters:

 Neurones never touch each other

 The junctions (gaps) in between them are called synapses
 The electrical impulse travels along the first axon
 This triggers the nerve-ending of the presynaptic neurone to
release chemical messengers called neurotransmitters from vesicles which fuse with
the presynaptic membrane
 The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap (or cleft) and bind with
receptor molecules on the membrane of the second neurone (known as
the postsynaptic membrane)
 This stimulates the second neurone to generate an electrical impulse that travels
down the second axon
 The neurotransmitters are then destroyed to prevent continued stimulation of the
second neurone which would cause repeated impulses to be sent
 Synapses ensure that impulses only travel in one direction, avoiding confusion within
the nervous system if impulses were travelling in both directions

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  As this is the only part of the nervous system where messages are chemical as
opposed to electrical, it is the only place where drugs can act to affect the nervous
system - eg. this is where heroin works

14.2 THE SENSES - THE HUMAN EYE

The human eye consists of the following parts:

 Iris
 Coloured part of the eye
 Controls light entering the eye
 Pupil
 There is a hole in the centre of iris called the pupil
 This let in light to the rest of the eye.
 Lens
 It is a transparent structure, allows us to see the objects near and far
 It is a converging lens – convex

There are three layers in our eye. They are:

 Sclera
 The upper layer of the eye
 It is the white layer present in our eye.
 The front of the sclera is clear and allows light to enter the eye. This part is
called cornea.
 Cornea helps in focusing the light
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  Choroid
 It is the middle layer of the eye
 The pupil looks black because all the light entering the eye is absorbed by the
black pigment in the choroid.
 This layer contains blood vessels.
 Retina
 The innermost layer of the eye is retina.
 It contains light receptive cells called as photoreceptors (rods and cones).
 Rods are responsible for vision in bright light and dim light whereas cones are
responsible for colour vision.
 Here the light signals are converted to electrical signals and send to the brain
through optic nerve.
 Blind spot
 At the point where the optic nerve leaves the retina there are no sensory cells
and so no information reaches the brain about the part of the image which
falls on our eye at that spot. This part is called blind spot.
 Conjunctiva
 Membrane lining the inner layer of the eyelids and the sclera
 Helps to lubricate the eye by producing the mucus and tears but in smaller
volumes than the tear glands.
 Helps to prevent the entry of microbes.
 Ciliary muscles
 Ring of muscle fibers around the lens.
 Controls the thickness of the lens and its curvature.
 Suspensory ligaments
 This is a ligament present in between lens and Ciliary muscles.
 Holds the lens in position and connects it to the ciliary muscles.
 Aqueous humour
 Transparent, colorless, watery liquid present in between lens and cornea.
 Maintains the shape of the cornea.
 Vitreous humour
 Transparent viscous liquid which fills the chamber behind the lens.
 Maintains the shape of the eye ball.

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ACCOMMODATION OF HUMAN EYE:

The ability of the lens to change its shape to focus near and distant objects is called
accommodation.

 Images are focused onto the retina by the adjustment made in the eye.
 Ciliary muscles contract and relax to focus on near and distant objects.
 This contraction and relaxation of the muscle works to change the curvature of the
lens.
 A change in the curvature would in turn change the focal length of the lens.

Focusing on near objects Focusing on distant objects

 Ciliary muscles contract  Ciliary muscles relax
 Tension in suspensory ligaments  Tension in suspensory ligaments
reduces. increases.
 Lens thickens  Lens become flattened and thin
 Pupil size reduced  Pupil size increased.

Effect of light on eye:

 The pupil controls the amount of light entering the eye.

 Light enters as a stimulus to regulate the size of the pupil.
 Both eyes adjust the same way to the light conditions.
Low light Bright light
Pupil Dilate Constrict
Circular muscles Relax Contract
Radial muscle Contract Relax
Amount of light entering Increased Decreased
the eye.
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14.3 Hormones & Their Associated Glands:
What is a Hormone?

 A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the blood

 The hormone alters the activity of one or more specific target organs i.e. they are
chemicals which transmit information from one part of the organism to another and
bring about a change
 The glands that produce hormones in animals are known collectively as
the endocrine system

ENDOCRINE GLANDS:
• ductless glands in body
• secrete chemical messengers called hormones which diffuse directly into the blood
• Hormones are carried to target organs by bloodstream.

SPECIFICITY AND EFFECT OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS:

• Usually, target organ responds to a particular hormone only so hormones are
specific.
• Hormonal coordination is slow and takes a longer time for response to appear but its
effect can last for a long period of time.

The major endocrine glands in the body

• Transport around the body

• Endocrine glands have a good blood supply as when they make hormones, they need
to get them into the bloodstream (specifically the blood plasma) as soon as possible
so they can travel around the body to the target organs to bring about the response
• Hormones only affect cells with target receptors that the hormone can bind to. These
are either found on the cell membrane, or inside cells. Receptors have to be
complementary to hormones for there to be an effect.
• The liver regulates levels of hormones in the blood; transforming or breaking down
any that are in excess.

BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION CONTROL – HOMEOSTASIS:

 Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving the
production of two hormones - insulin and glucagon
 Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are made in the pancreas

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  Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and muscle cells to
convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored
 Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates liver and muscle cells
to convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into the blood

HORMONES, GLAND AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

HORMONES GLANDS ROLE

ADH (anti – diuretic Osmoregulation – controls
hormone) water content

FSH (Follicle stimulating Stimulates the follicles in the

hormone) PITUTARY GLAND – ovaries to mature
master gland located at the
LH (Luteinizing hormone) base of the brain Helps in ovulation

TSH (thyroid stimulating

Stimulates the thyroid gland
hormone)
Regulates metabolism and
Thyroxine Thyroid
temperature
Controls blood glucose
Insulin and glucagon Islet of Langerhans – pancreas
concentration
Readies the body for a “fight
Adrenaline Adrenaline
or flight” response
Testosterone Testis Male sex hormones

Oestrogen and progesterone Ovaries Female sex hormones

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Comparison of Nervous & Hormonal Control:

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM:

• secretion of hormones follows negative feedback mechanism which means that any
decrease in the level of a factor switches on a series of corrective actions to restore
the factor to normal level and vice versa
• an example is insulin which is secreted by islets of Langerhans in pancreas to liver
through blood vessels to control blood glucose level.

EFFECT OF SEX HORMONES:

• puberty occurs between the ages of 11-14 years when a child become sexually
mature
• ovaries in females and testes in males become functional and secrete sex hormones
for development of secondary sexual characteristics which are physical changes for
sexual awareness

SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS:

Boys Girls
1 Growth of pubic hair and hair on face Growth of pubic hair
and in armpits
2 Breaking of voice and enlargement of Growth and development of breasts
larynx
3 Muscle development Widening of hips (pelvic girdle)

4 Widening of shoulders More fat deposits under skin

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 15. DRUGS:

DRUG:

 Any externally administered substance that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body.
 They modify or affect chemical reactions in the body.
 Drugs can be taken into the body in various ways e.g. orally, by injection etc.

DRUGS FOR MEDICINE – Antibiotics:

• Antibiotics are chemical substances made by certain fungi or bacteria that affect the
working of bacterial cells, either by disrupting their structure or function or
by preventing them from reproducing.
• Antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses.
• Antibiotics target processes and structures that are specific to bacterial (prokaryotic)
cells; as such they do not generally harm animal cells.

Antibiotic Resistance & Use:

• Since the first antibiotic was discovered in 1928, many more have been discovered
and developed and antibiotics were and are widely overused
• Commonly prescribed antibiotics are becoming less effective due to a number of
reasons:
• overuse and being prescribed when not really necessary
• patients failing to complete the fully prescribed course by a doctor
• large scale use of antibiotics in farming to prevent disease when livestock are kept in
close quarters, even when animals are not actually sick
• This has led to the effectiveness of antibiotics being reduced, and the incidence of
antibiotic resistance increasing
• These bacteria are commonly known as superbugs and the most common is MRSA
• Ways individuals can help prevent the incidence of antibiotic resistance increasing
include:
• only taking antibiotics when absolutely essential
• when prescribed a course of antibiotics, ensure that the entire course is
completed even if you feel better after a few days

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 16. REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Reproduction is of two types:

a) Asexual reproduction
b) Sexual reproduction

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS:

The fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote which develops into an individual
offspring (young ones) genetically different from each other or from their parents.

The flowers are the organs of sexual reproduction in plants.

PARTS OF A FLOWER:

 Petals
 They are brightly coloured to attract insects.
 They may be scented.
 They may contain nectar (honey).
 Sepals
 They are usually green in colour.
 They hold the petals together.
 They protect the flower in bud conditions.

 Pistil (female reproductive part)

 It consists of three parts – stigma, style and ovary.
1. Stigma – it is covered in a sticky substance to which the pollen grains
adhere (sticks) during pollination.
2. Style – it raises the stigma away from the ovary to decrease the
likelihood of pollen contamination. It varies in length in each species of
flower.
3. Ovary – this protects the ovule and once fertilization has taken place, it
becomes the fruit.
 Stamen (male reproductive part)
 It consists of two parts – anther and the filament.
1. Anther – it contains the pollen sac, which makes the pollen grains which
contains the male nucleus for fertilization.
2. Filament – this is the stalk of the anther.

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  Receptacle
 This is the expanded end of the flower stalk, where all the floral parts are
attached.

 Pollen grains are light and smooth.

ADAPTATION OF FLOWERS FOR INSECT POLLINATION:

 Brightly coloured petals

 Scented
 Produce nectar
 Male and female reproductive structures are enclosed inside the petals

FERTILIZATION:

The process of fusion of male and female gamete which results in the formation of zygote is
called fertilization.

STAGES OF FERTILIZATION IN PISTIL:

 Pollen grains land on the stigma by pollination.

 Here they absorbs water and germinates to form pollen tube (stigma has sugary
substance which acts as the nutritive medium for the pollen to germinate).
 Pollen tube penetrates the stigma and passed down through the style to reach the
micropyle of the ovule.
 As pollen tube grows down the male gamete passes through the pollen tube and
reaches the ovule.
 The end of the pollen tube bursts open to release the male gamete into the ovule.
 Fertilization occurs inside the ovule where female gamete is present.
 This results in the formation of zygote.

FORMATION OF FRUIT AND SEEDS:

 Once fertilization has occurred the following changes takes place:

1. Ovary becomes the fruit.
2. Ovule becomes the seed.
3. Integuments become the seed coat or testa.

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ADAPTATIONS ON WIND POLLINATED AND INSECT POLLINATED FLOWER:

TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS FOR WIND DISPERSAL:

1. Parachute type - fruit and seeds will have feathery hairs that project from the
seed/ fruit surface.
Example: dandelion
2. Winged fruits – have a wing – like structure / outgrowths from the wall or leaf –
like structure on the flower stalk. Example: sycamore
3. Explosive fruits – especially pods disperse by this method. The pods dry in the sun,
shrivel, the fruit wall shrinks and splits open, curls back and throws the seeds out.
Example: beans.

SEED STRUCTURE:

The seed consists of the following parts:

1. Radicle: develops into root.

2. Plumule: develops into shoots.
3. Cotyledon: it is the part of a seed where the food for the growing plant is stored.

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 4. Micropyle: small hole in the seed through which the pollen tube enters after
germination.
5. Testa: seed coat, which protects the seed from damaging.

GERMINATION OF SEED:

 Germination is the process of seeds developing into seedlings to give rise to a new
plant.
 Seeds once land on the soil absorbs water and starts to germinate once they obtain
the favorable conditions.
 The radicle grows first and burst through the testa.
 The radicle continues to grow down the soil, gives out lateral roots and develops root
hairs which help in fixing the plant to the soil and to absorb water needed for the
growing plant.
 Now the plumule starts to grow, getting its nutrients from the cotyledons.
 Once the cotyledons are above the soil, the leaves develop and this gives rise to a
new shoot.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SEED GERMINATION:

1. Water:
 Activates the enzymes in the seed.
 Maintains the turgor of the cells thus keeping the shoot upright.
 Transports the required mineral salts from the roots to the shoots.

2. Temperature:
 Optimum temperature and sunlight (in some species) is needed to activate
the enzyme reaction in seeds which converts starch to sucrose and
transports to the growing region.
3. Oxygen:
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  Needed for respiration in growing cells.
 Provides energy for many chemical reactions in the growing cells.
 To make new cytoplasm and cell wall for growing seedlings.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

 Asexual reproduction is also called vegetative propagation.

 The formation of new individuals from single parents without the fusion of gametes.
 Individuals so formed have a genetic constitution identical to that of their parents.
 They are clones.

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

There are four types of asexual reproduction. They are:

1. Runner or stolon
2. Rhizome
3. Bulb
4. Tubers

STOLON:

A horizontally growing stem that bears adventitious roots at the nodes and have lateral
buds in them, which when touches the ground or soil may develop new plants. Example:
strawberry.

RHIZHOME:

It is a modified underground stem bearing buds in the scale leaves. It is usually horizontal
and serves for vegetative propagation. Examples: ginger and couch grass.

BULB:

A fleshy underground part formed by many fleshy scales. It is a modified shoot or leaf base
which stores food and also serves for vegetative propagation
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TUBER:

A swollen underground stem or root containing stores food and serves as an organ for
vegetative propagation. Example: potato.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

ROLES OF HORMONES IN MENSTRUATION:

 Onset of menstruation (starting from day one): The pituitary gland secretes follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) into the bloodstream and from here it is then transported
to the Target organ (Ovary)
 In the ovary FSH stimulates one primary follicle to ripen (mature) into Graafian
follicle
 FSH also stimulates the follicles in the ovary to secrete oestrogen
 Oestrogen causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining (after menstruation)
 Oestrogen (in high concentration) also inhibits FSH production (therefore preventing
ripening of more follicles)
 Oestrogen also stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH)
 LH causes ovulation
 LH also causes the formation of corpus luteum
 Corpus luteum secretes progesterone
 Progesterone keeps the uterine lining thick to prepare itself for implantation if there
is fertilization
 Progesterone inhibits both FSH and LH production
 If there is no fertilization, the corpus luteum breaks; Progesterone production
stops; Uterine lining breaks; MENSTRUATION occurs.

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HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR REPRODUCTION:

 Oestrogen – responsible for initiating the female secondary sexual characteristics in

female such as ovulation, broadening of hip and initiating menstrual cycle.
 Progesterone – prepares the reproductive tract for pregnancy.
 Testosterone – responsible for bringing secondary sexual characteristics in male such
as broadening of shoulders, deepening of voice , growth of body hair, development
of musculature and production of sperms.

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

Each month women of reproductive age who are not pregnant go through a cycle of fertility
which results either in pregnancy or menstruation. The average menstrual cycle is 28 days
but ranges from 24 to 35 days.

Menstruation:

Menstruation is a monthly shedding of a female's uteral lining; it lasts about 3 to 5 days

(average) and contains blood and tissue that exits her body through the cervix and vagina.

Day 1-5:

The first day of a women’s period is considered the first day of the menstrual cycle. If an
egg has not been fertilized, it degenerates. Low levels of hormones – oestrogen and

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progesterone during this phase causes the endometrium (the lining of the uterus) to break
down and be shed in the form of blood and tissues. Bleeding lasts for average of 5 days.

Day 6-12:

A hormone (FSH- Follicle Stimulating Hormone) is produced from the pituitary gland which
promotes the development of several follicles, each one containing an egg. Only one follicle
reaches maturity. During this phase the blood capillaries in the uterine lining starts to grow
again and begin to thicken in preparation for a potential fertilized egg.

Day 13-15:

A mature follicle bulge out from the surface of the ovary and burst out releasing the egg.
Ovulation (the release of mature ovum from the ovary into the oviduct or the fallopian
tube) usually occurs around day 14 of the cycle. The egg then travels down the fallopian
tube by the help of cilia.

Day 15-28:

Once the uterus wall has recovered, it begins to rebuild its spongy lining. The endometrium
thickens further and prepares to support embryonic development. Meanwhile a new ovum
matures in the ovary and is released at around two weeks after menstruation. The cycle
continues in this way under the influence of hormones as long as the female is healthy.

If an ovum is fertilized and the women become pregnant her menstrual cycle stops until
after the baby is born.

When a woman reaches menopause (stop of the menstrual cycle) usually at around at 50
years of age, she stops ovulating and can no longer become pregnant.

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Factors affecting menstrual cycle:

1. Stress – at the time of emotional stress the menstrual cycle may become irregular.
2. Diet – an inadequate diet can lead to an irregular cycle and starvation can stop the
menstrual cycle completely.

Fertile and infertile phases of the menstrual cycle:

 When there is no ovum in the oviducts, the fertilization cannot occur.

 Sperms can live in the oviduct only for a few days, allowing the ovum a chance to
arrive.
 A women’s most fertile period is therefore from a few days before ovulation (
allowing for the possible survival of sperms in the oviduct) to a few days after
ovulation. This is called as the fertile period.
 Outside this time she is likely to become pregnant.

FERTILIZATON:
The fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization.
The new cell contains a set of genetic material from both the parents.
Fertilization takes place in the oviduct. Out of several hundred sperms only one sperm is
able to penetrate the ovum.

HUMAN FERTILIZATION:
Sperm reaching the fallopian tube has a chance to meet with the ovum. It penetrates the
ovum, fertilizes it to produce zygote. The zygote rapidly divides by mitosis to form a ball of
cells called blastula. Blastula implants itself in the uterus and grows to form an embryo.

The events of fertilization:

Sperm swims towards the ovum. One sperm passes through the outer membrane, zona
pellicuda, a barrier forms to prevent the entry of more than one sperm. The rest of the
sperms dies and disintegrates in the uterus. Head of the sperm crosses ovum cell
membrane and moves towards the nucleus of the ovum. The two nuclear membrane
breaks down and paternal and maternal chromosomes combine. It restores the diploid
number of chromosomes. The fertilized egg (zygote) now starts to divide and starts to move
towards the uterus.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO:

 After fertilization, the zygote passes along the oviduct to the uterus and as it does so,
it begins to divide (by mitosis) to form a ball of cells which later develops into an
embryo
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  It takes about five days for the embryo to reach the uterus and upon reaching the
uterus, it will eventually sinks in or embeds itself in the uterine lining, hence
IMPLANTATION takes place
 The embedded embryo will then develop into a foetus
 Function of amniotic fluid: to enclose the foetus in a fluid-filled space known as the
amniotic cavity
 The amnion/amniotic cavity functions in supporting and cushioning the foetus, thus
preventing it from mechanical damage
 The amniotic fluid also acts as a shock absorber
 During birth, the amniotic fluid lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina
 The amniotic fluid also buoys the foetus and allows it to move freely during growth
 Generally the umbilical cord functions in supplying the foetus with oxygen and
dissolved food nutrients as well as removing waste products (carbon dioxide and
urea) from the foetus
 Inside the umbilical cord, there are three blood vessels. Two of these blood vessels
are the umbilical arteries whereas one is an umbilical vein
 The umbilical arteries function in carrying deoxygenated blood from the foetus to the
placenta
 The umbilical vein functions in carrying oxygenated blood (rich in oxygen and food
substances as well as antibodies) from the placenta to the foetus

FUNCTIONS OF THE AMNIOTIC FLUID:

 To protect the embryo from physical damage.
 To support the embryo, keeping even pressure all around it, allowing the organs to
develop without restrictions.
 To allow the fetus some restricted movement.
 Protect the fetus against temperature fluctuations.
 Prevents the fetus from drying.

After the implantation an organic connection is established between the embryonic

membranes of the embryo and the uterine wall of the mother known as PLACENTA. It is the
protective layer that surrounds the fetus and is richly supplied with blood vessels.

FUNCTIONS OF PLACENTA:
 Receiving dissolved food substances from mother’s blood.
 Receiving oxygen from the mother’s blood.
 Excreting CO2 and nitrogenous wastes.
 Serving as an important but temporary endocrine gland.

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[Materials diffusing from mother to fetus – dissolved nutrients such as glucose, amino
acids, ions, vitamins, water]

A cord that connects the fetus with the placenta is the UMBLICAL CORD, inside which run
the fetal blood vessels. The umbilical vein brings substances to the fetus; the umbilical
artery carries substances from the fetus.

17. INHERITANCE

CELL DIVISION, CHROMOSOMES AND GENES

What is genetics?

 It is the branch of biology that deals with the study of heredity and variation of
inherited characteristics in living organisms.

What is heredity?

 Heredity is the passing of traits or characteristics to offspring from its parents or from
one generation to the next generation.

What is chromosome?

 A chromosome is a genetic material found inside the cell which is made up of DNA,
and protein.
 It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes and nucleotide sequences.
 Inside the nucleus they are packed as thread like structures.
 Each chromosome has a center point called the centromere, which divides the
chromosomes into two sections- short arm and long arm.
 Each cell in each type of organism has a definite number of chromosomes. For
example human have 46 chromosomes which exists as 23 pairs.
 Each pair of chromosome is made up of a single strand called chromatid.
 Each cell has a diploid number of chromosome - one from father and one from
mother.

What is a gene?

 Gene is a short length of DNA on a chromosome, which is a unit determining an

inherited characters.
 It consists of a chemical substance called DNA (Deoxy ribose Nucleic Acid).
 DNA is responsible for instructing the cell to make the type of protein and control the
metabolic activities of the cell
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What is an allele?

 Alternative form of genes on the same position of homologous chromosomes which

controls the same character but different expressions.

What are homologous chromosomes?

 Chromosomes always exist in pairs. The chromosome of each pair is called

homologous chromosomes, one from father and one from mother.

What is DNA?

 Deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material which is present in nearly all living

organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic
information.
 In fact, nearly every cell in a multicellular organism possesses the full set of DNA
required for that organism.

Structure of DNA

DNA is usually a double-helix structure and has two strands running in opposite directions.
Each strand has a backbone made up of sugar molecules (Deoxy-ribose) linked together by
phosphate molecules

Each sugar molecule is linked to one of the 4 possible bases (Adenine, Guanine, Thyamine,
and Cytosine).

DNA replication

 Replication is the process where DNA makes a copy of itself.

Why does DNA need to copy?

 Simple: Cells divide for an organism to grow or reproduce; every new cell needs a
copy of the DNA or instructions to know how to be a cell. DNA replicates right before
a cell divides.
 The Double Helix is untwisted and the strands are unzipped - the Hydrogen
bonds between the bases are broken.
 The new Nucleotides are bonded together by the enzyme DNA Polymerase, which
form complete strands opposite the original strands.
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  The two new DNA molecules form Double Helices.
 The new molecules contain one strand of the original and one new strand, and so this
type of replication is called Semi-Conservative Replication

What is mutation?

 A sudden change in the gene or chromosome, which may affect the appearance or
psychology of an organism.
 In gene it may be that one or more genes are not replicated correctly.
 A chromosome mutation may result from damage or loss of a part of chromosome or
even gain of an extra chromosome during cell division.

What are mutagens?

 Substances which cause mutation are mutagens.

 Mutagens may be X-rays, radiations, U-V rays and even some of the substances in the
tobacco smoke which cause mutation.

What is down syndromes?

 A congenital disorder arising from a chromosome defect, causing intellectual

impairment and physical abnormalities including short stature and a broad facial
profile. It arises from a defect involving chromosome 21, usually an extra copy
(trisomy-21).

What is sickle cell anemia?

 Sickle cell anemia is an inherited form of anemia — a condition in which there aren't
enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen throughout your body. In
sickle cell anemia, the red blood cells become rigid and sticky and are shaped like
sickles or crescent moons. This sickling occurs because of a mutation in
the haemoglobin gene.

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 Terms Definition
Chromosome A thread-like structure found in the nucleus on which genetic material is
organised. Chromosomes carry the information for making new animal or
plant bodies. This information is carried in the molecule, deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
Gene A small segment of DNA in a chromosome where a piece of genetic
information is stored. The place on the chromosome where the gene
resides is called the gene locus. Each gene has a specific function
Allele Different forms of the same gene. They occupy the same relative positions
in a pair of homologous chromosomes

 Dominant allele: a form of a gene that expressed itself and give the
same phenotype in both the homozygous and heterozygous
conditions
 Recessive allele: a form of a gene that expressed itself only in the
homozygous condition

Monohybrid Inheritance involving only one pair of contrasting characteristics

inheritance
Discontinuous Traits that show limited variation in their phenotypes which are easily
variation distinguishable. It is usually controlled by only one or a few genes. It is not
affected by the environment.
Continuous Traits with phenotypes ranging from one extreme to the other. It is
variation brought about by combined (or additive) effects of many genes. It is
affected by environmental conditions eg intelligence, height, skin colour
Phenotype The expressed trait in an individual eg outward appearances such as
height
Genotype The genetic combination in an individual
Homozygous An individual who has identical alleles for a particular trait
Heterozygous An individual who has unlike alleles for a particular trait
Co- A condition when both alleles express themselves in the hybrid
dominance
Mutation The sudden or spontaneous change in gene structure or a chromosome, or
even the chromosome number, and may be inheritable
Meiosis A form of nuclear division in which the daughter nuclei produced have half
the number of chromosomes or hereditary materials as the parent nucleus
Artificial A method used by man to produce plants and animals with desirable
selection qualities
Test cross The crossing of an organism of unknown genotype with a homozygous
recessive organism. This is carried out to determine the genotype of an
organism.

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 Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
Continuous variation exhibits many Has sharply contrasting characteristics
intermediate characteristics. with no intermediate forms between
characteristics.
controlled by many genes controlled by one or few genes
The characters are not easily The characters can be distinguished easily.
distinguishable.
Environmental factors affect the way The environment has little or no effect on
the genes express themselves. the way the genes express themselves.
Environmental changes prevent the
genes from expressing its full effects.
Examples : intelligence, height, weight, Examples: blood group, ability to roll
skin color tongue, sex of a person.

Monohybrid inheritance:

 Monohybrid inheritance refers to only one pair of contrasting characters, such as

curly hair or straight hair controlled in the individual by one pair of alleles.
 There are two types of monohybrid inheritance:
1. Complete dominance
2. Co-dominance

Complete dominance:

 A pair of alleles in which one allele is dominant over the recessive allele or both
alleles dominant in which the dominant allele have an effect in the phenotype. This is
known as complete dominance.
 The dominant form is expressed in capital letters and the recessive form is expressed
in small letters.

Incomplete dominance:

 Pair of alleles in which one is not dominant over each other so both alleles have
an effect on phenotype resulting in an intermediate phenotype between the two
parents phenotype.
 In incomplete dominance the offspring’s will have a phenotype which is not
present in either of the two parents.

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Codominance:

 Pair of alleles in which one is not dominant over each other, so both alleles have an
effect o phenotype, where the phenotype of both parents have been expressed. The
resulting individual will have a heterozygous genotype.
 The inheritance of ABO blood group in man IA and IB alleles are codominant in the AB
blood group.

The inheritance of blood group:

 IA and IB are codominant and IO is recessive to both IA and IB alleles.

 The table given below shows the distribution of the 3 types of alleles in blood group.

Blood group Blood group

phenotype genotype
A IA IA or IA IO
B IB IB or IB IO
AB IA IB
O IO IO

THE INHERITANCE OF SEX:

Whether a child is born male or female is determined at the moment of fertilization. The
nuclei of human cells contain 22 autosomes (not a sex chromosome) and one set of sex
chromosome. In females, the sex chromosomes are the XX chromosomes. Males have one
X chromosome and one Y chromosome.

In the male they are not identical. One of them is an X chromosome exactly like those in the
female, but the other is the shorter Y chromosome. Males only have one X chromosome,
but they also have a Y chromosome in every cell. When sperms are produced, 50% of the
sperm carry an X chromosome and 50% of the sperm carry Y chromosome instead.

There is an exactly equal chance of the X chromosome in the ovum.

(i) Fusing with an X – carrying sperm to produce a daughter or

(ii) Fusing with a Y – carrying sperm to produce a son.

Females always carry two X chromosomes in every cell of their bodies. When female
gametes are produced by the ovaries by meiosis, the number of chromosomes is cut into
half; so eggs only contain one X chromosome.

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 XX makes female and XY makes male.

Variation can have some effect on the chances of survival of an organism in its
environment.

For example in the population of birds there might be birds which have a much sharper
visions then the others. So these birds would be at an advantage they are more likely to
find a meal during food shortages. These birds will be able to compete with others for
resources. In other words these birds are the fittest of all and will survive to reproduce. The
others will die quickly. Those individuals who survive are able to pass their character via
genes to the next generation.

NATURAL SELECTION:

 Natural selection is the survival of those organisms most effectively adapted to their
environment and having a greater opportunity to reproduce them.
 It involves a struggle for life and the fittest of all survives. Competition among
members of the same species for the same requirement (e.g. food, water, space) and
the pressure on the environment forces the weaker ones to die off r become limited
in number.
 Organisms with these advantageous variations tend to survive and reproduce and
therefore pass on their offspring’s the favorable characteristics.
 Mutation can also give rise to beneficial variations allowing a species to adapt better
for the changes in the environment.

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EVOLUTON:

Most biologists believe that the natural selection among other processes contributes to the
evolution of new species and great variety of living organisms on the earth.

THE STORY ABOUT DARK PEPPER MOTH:

Before the industrial revolution in England, light coloured pepper moth which rest on tree
trunk during the days are camouflaged by the light coloured lichens on the bark making it
difficult for the predators to see them.

When the area became polluted, the bark of the tree became dark. This made the dark
peppered moth to camouflage better than the light peppered moth and they survived from
the predators. Hence dark peppered moth were naturally selected and were better
adapted, so their population increased more than the light peppered moth.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION:

In artificial selection, men deliberately select animals and plants with desirable
characteristics and interbreed them to produce individuals of completely new varieties.

SELECTIVE BREEDING is done as follows:

 The individuals showing the quality required are selected.

 Those individuals are allowed to breed.
 Only those off springs showing the desired quality to the greatest extent are selected.
 These selected individuals are used for breeding.
 This process is continued over many generations until it becomes the pure breed.
 Artificial selection allows farmers to gain profit from greater quantities of better
quality. It improves agricultural livestock and crop plant.
 There is danger in that it might increase the chances of two recessive alleles coming
together. This may give rise to genetically controlled deformity (e.g. heart defect).

18. Variation & Selection

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Types of Variation

Variation is defined as differences between individuals of the same species

Phenotypic variation is the difference in features between individuals of the same species

Some of these differences are caused by differences in genes, which is genetic variation

Phenotypic variation can be divided into two types depending on how you are able to group
the measurements:

Continuous Variation is when there are very many small degrees of difference for a
particular characteristic between individuals and they are arranged in order and can usually
be measured on a scale

Examples include height, mass, finger length etc. where there can be many ‘inbetween’
groups

Discontinuous Variation is when there are distinct differences for a characteristic

For example, people are either blood group A, B, AB or O; are either male or female; can
either roll their tongue or not - there are no ‘inbetweens’

When graphs of these data are plotted, continuous variation gives smooth bell curves (a
result of all the small degrees of difference), whereas discontinuous gives a ‘step – like’
shape

Height is an example of continuous variation which gives rise to a smooth bell-shaped

curve when plotted as a graph

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 Blood group is an example of discontinuous variation which gives rise to a step-shaped
graph

Phenotypic Variation

Phenotypic variation can be caused in two main ways:

 It can be genetic - controlled entirely by genes Or it can be environmental - caused
entirely by the environment in which the organism lives
Genetic Variation: Examples of genetic variation in humans include:
 blood group
 eye colour
 gender
 ability to roll tongue
 whether ear lobes are free or fixed

Environmental Variation
 Characteristics of all species can be affected by environmental factors such as
climate, diet, accidents, culture and lifestyle
 In this instance ‘environmental’ simply means ‘outside of the organism’ and so can
include factors like climate, diet, culture, lifestyle and accidents during lifetime
 Examples include:
 An accident may lead to scarring on the body

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  Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain
 Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain language with a
certain accent
 A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light
Genetic and Environmental Causes
Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genetic variation alone
Continuous features often vary because of a combination of genetic and environmental
causes, for example:
 tall parents will pass genes to their children for height
 their children have the genetic potential to also be tall
 however, if their diet is poor then they will not grow very well
 therefore, their environment also has an impact on their height
Another way of looking at this is that although genes decide what characteristics we inherit,
the surrounding environment will affect how these inherited characteristics develop

Mutation:
Mutations are genetic changes. Most mutations have no effect on the phenotype as the
protein that a mutated gene produces may work just as well as the protein from the non -
mutated gene.
Rarely, mutations lead to the development of new alleles and so new phenotypes and if
they do, most have a small effect on the organism.
Occasionally, the new allele gives the individual a survival advantage over other members
of the species
For example:
 A bird develops a mutation leading to a change in feather colours
 This makes it more attractive to birds of the opposite sex
 Which causes the bird to breed more frequently and have more chances of passing
on the mutated phenotype to the next generation
Mutations can also lead to harmful changes that can have dramatic effects on the organism
- for example, sickle cell anaemia in humans
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Mutations happen spontaneously and continuously but their frequency can be increased by
exposure to the following:
 Gamma rays, x - rays and ultraviolet rays - all types of ionising radiation which can
damage bonds and cause changes in base sequences
 Certain types of chemicals - for example chemicals such as tar in tobacco
Increased rates of mutation can cause cells to become cancerous, which is why the above
are linked to increased incidence of different types of cancer

Mutation: Extended
Mutations are random genetic changes to the base sequence of DNA. Most mutations
have no effect on the phenotype as the protein that a mutated gene produces may work
just as well as the protein from the non - mutated gene
Rarely, mutations lead to the development of new alleles and so new phenotypes and if
they do, most have a small effect on the organism
Occasionally, the new allele gives the individual a survival advantage over other members
of the species
For example:
 A bird develops a mutation leading to a change in feather colours
 This makes it more attractive to birds of the opposite sex
 Which causes the bird to breed more frequently and have more chances of passing
on the mutated phenotype to the next generation
Mutations can also lead to harmful changes that can have dramatic effects on the organism
- for example, sickle cell anaemia in humans
Mutations happen spontaneously and continuously but their frequency can be increased by
exposure to the following:
 Gamma rays, x - rays and ultraviolet rays - all types of ionising radiation which can
damage bonds and cause changes in base sequences
 Certain types of chemicals - for example chemicals such as tar in tobacco
Increased rates of mutation can cause cells to become cancerous, which is why the above
are linked to increased incidence of different types of cancer
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 TOPIC: 19 – ORGANISMS & THEIR ENVIRONMENT
The ecosystem
 Many organisms live together in an ecosystem, and each of them have an important
role to play in maintaining the balance of that ecosystem

Roles of organisms
 Producer – An organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually from sunlight
via photosynthesis
 Consumer – An organism that gains energy by feeding on other organisms. They can
be further classified into primary, secondary, tertiary consumers
 Herbivores – Animals that gain energy by eating plants
 Carnivores – Animals that gain energy by eating other consumers
 Decomposers – Organisms that gain energy by breaking down dead, or organic waste
material

Energy flow through an ecosystem

 The principle source of energy input into the ecosystem is the sun.
 Plants use photosynthesis to convert light energy (from sunlight) into chemical
energy in nutrients.
 The chemical energy stored in food gets transferred to the environment.

Trophic levels:
A trophic level is the position of an organism in a food chain, food web, pyramid of
numbers, or the pyramid of biomass.
All the things mentioned above demonstrate the direction of energy transfer within
organisms.
All feeding relationships begin with the producers. Producers then are eaten by consumers.
The energy flow is as follows:
Primary producers -> Primary consumers -> Secondary consumers -> Tertiary consumers -
> Quaternary consumers

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Energy transfer along trophic levels:
Starting from the producers, energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next.
At each level, 90% of the original energy is lost due to various factors:
 Respiration – Energy is used to respire
 Movement – Energy is used for movement
 Maintenance of body temperature – Energy is used in homeostasis
 Indigestible material within an organism – Some parts of eaten material cannot be
digested or used by the consumer
Therefore higher the trophic level, the smaller the amount of energy that is available to
them.
For this reason it is rare to see more than 5 trophic levels. Organisms higher up would not
be able to sustain themselves due to the lack of energy.

Food chains & food webs:

Food chains show the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with
producers.

A food web is a network of interconnected food chains

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Food pyramids:

Food pyramids are graphical representations (in the form of pyramids) that show feeding
relationships of organisms at each trophic level.

The pyramid of numbers simply show the number of organisms in each trophic level.
Unfortunately, this can at times be somewhat misleading. It is misleading because it may
not depict the true amount of energy in each trophic level.

For instance, 10000 aphids may feed off a single large oak tree. Using this information for
the pyramid of numbers gives us a fairly odd looking pyramid. It makes it feel as if there
may not be ‘enough’ producers to support the food chain.

Instead, the pyramid of biomass is a much more accurate representation of the actual
energy levels in each trophic level. The oak tree has more than enough energy to support
the food chain.

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  Not all biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next
 Approximately, only 10% of the biomass of each trophic level is passed on to the
next

Losses of biomass are due to:

Efficiency of Biomass Transfers:

 Being able to calculate the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic levels by
percentages is an important skill for a biologist:

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Seenu atoll school/ IGCSE Biology Revision Booklet Page 53 of 68
 NUTRIENT CYCLES
 Nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen are not endless resources
 There is a finite amount of each element on the planet and as such, they need to
be recycled in order to allow new organisms to be made and grow

The Carbon Cycle:

 Carbon is taken out of the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide by plants to be
used for photosynthesis
 It is passed on to animals (and microorganisms) by feeding
 It is returned to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide by plants, animals and
microorganisms as a result of respiration
 If animals and plants die in conditions where decomposing microorganisms are not
present the carbon in their bodies can be converted, over millions of years and
significant pressure, into fossil fuels
 When fossil fuels are burned (the process is known as combustion), the carbon
combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere
 Increased use of fossil fuels is contributing to an increase in the carbon dioxide
content of the atmosphere
 In addition, mass deforestation is reducing the amount of producers available to
take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis
 This problem is exacerbated by the fact that in many areas of the world,
deforestation is taking place for land rather than for the trees themselves, and as
such they are burnt down, releasing yet more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

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NITROGEN CYCLE:
Processes in the Nitrogen Cycle:
1. Fixation - Fixation is the first step in the process of making nitrogen. There are two ways
to fix atmospheric nitrogen;
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria found ‘free living’ in soil and also in the root nodules of
certain plants (peas, beans, clover – we call them leguminous plants) take N2 gas and
change it into nitrates in the soil
 Lightning can ‘fix’ N2 gas, splitting the bond between the two atoms and turning
them into nitrous oxides like N2O and NO2 that dissolve in rainwater and ‘leach’ into
the soil

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2. Decomposition – When the animals and plants die, they decay and all the proteins inside
them are broken down into ammonium compounds and put back into the soil by
decomposers

3. Nitrification - The plants can’t absorb ammonium compounds though, so a second type
of soil bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, convert the ammonium compounds to nitrites and then
to nitrates, which can then be absorbed by plants – and so the cycle goes on

4. Denitrification - Extra nitrates in the soil is broken down and sent back into the air. There
are special bacteria that perform this task known as denitrifying bacteria.

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 Population size
A population is a group of organisms of one species living in the same area at the same
time.
A community is a combination of all populations of different species in an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a unit containing the community of organisms and their environment,
interacting together.

Factors Affecting Population Growth:

All living organisms compete with each other for food, water and living space
Those which are the best adapted to their environments generally increase their
populations at the expense of those less well adapted
Population growth in most organisms is controlled by the following three factors:
 Food supply
 Predation
 Disease

Human Population Growth:

Human population growth globally has been increasing exponentially for the last 150 years.
There are many reasons for this exponential growth, including:

 Improved technology leading to an abundance of food = rapid increase in birth rate

 Improved medicine, hygiene and health care = decrease in death rate

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Sigmoid population growth curves:
If the growth of microorganisms in the fermenter is measured over time, the population
growth looks like the graph below:

The shape of this curve (a little like an ‘S’), gives it its name – a sigmoid growth curve

The curve has four distinct phases:

Lag phase – organisms are adapting to the environment before they are able to reproduce;
in addition, at this stage there are very few organisms and so reproduction is not producing
larger numbers of offspring
Log phase (aka exponential phase) – food supply is abundant, birth rate is rapid and death
rate is low; growth is exponential and only limited by the number of new individuals that
can be produced
Stationary phase – population levels out due to a factor in the environment, such as a
nutrient, becoming limited as it is not being replenished; birth rate and death rate are equal
and will remain so until either the nutrient is replenished or becomes severely limited
Death phase – population decreases as death rate is now greater than birth rate; this is
usually because food supply is short or metabolic wastes produced by the population have
built up to toxic levels

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Organisms in a natural environment are unlikely to show population growth like a sigmoid
growth curve because they are affected by many other factors, including:
 changing temperature or light
 predators
 disease
 immigration (individuals moving into the area)
 emigration (individuals moving out of the area)

TOPIC: 20 – HUMAN INFLUENCES ON THE ECOSYSTEMS

The ecosystem
 Many organisms live together in an ecosystem, and each of them have an important
role to play in maintaining the balance of that ecosystem

Food supply
Modern technology has dramatically increased food supply:
 Agricultural machinery to use in larger land areas and improve efficiency
 Chemical fertilizers to improve yields
 Insecticides to improve crop quality and yield
 Herbicides to reduce competition with weed
 Selective breeding to improve production by crop plants and livestock

Monocultures and livestock production: Large scale mono-cultures of crop plants

Monoculture farming means that on a given agricultural land is grown only one species of a
crop at a time. If two or more species are sown in the field together (for example beans and
corn), it is not a monoculture but a polyculture system.
The main benefits of monoculture farming are:
 Easier to manage
 More efficient
 Promotes technological advances in agriculture
 Offers higher earnings
 The disadvantages of monoculture farming are:
 Reduced diversity in ecosystem
 Increased pests
 Problems associated with insecticides

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Intensive livestock production

Livestock farming involves the rearing of animals for food and other human uses, such as
producing leather, wool and even fertilizer. This type of farming primarily applies to cattle
or dairy cows, chickens, goats, pigs, horses and sheep.
The benefits of intensive livestock production are:
 Helps the economy and the agricultural industry
 Provides food security
 The disadvantages of are:
 Easier spread of disease
 Welfare issues of livestock i.e. living in confined space

Providing sufficient food for the world population

Famine is an extreme scarcity of food. There are various factors as to why it exists today:
 Uneven distribution of food
 Drought/flooding
 Poverty

Increasing population
Nearly 1 000 million people do not get enough to eat and over 400 million are chronically
malnourished today.
It is therefore important to understand what it takes to find a solution to this problem:
Social implications:
 Strategic plans that incorporate population concerns such as population growth,
distribution and rural-urban migration patterns are crucial
 Community development strategies which integrate essential social services as well
as production resources should be encouraged
Economic implications:
 Financial support must be given to research on the integration of technologies for
food production.
Environmental implications:
 Reducing soil erosion and impoverishment, deforestation, falling agricultural output,
and poor water management should be implemented,

Habitat destruction
Animal habitat destruction is a big issue that exists today. Whilst habitats can be destroyed
naturally i.e. tsunami, earthquakes etc, a lot of it cause solely from human activity:
 Increased area for food crop growth, livestock production, and housing
 Extraction of natural resources (such as trees)

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  Marine pollution

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available
for other uses.
There are many undesirable effects of deforestation:
 Loss of habitat for animals living in the forest
 Reduction of food resources and breeding grounds of animals, potentially leading to
extinction
 Soil erosion due to the lack of soil support from tree roots
 Less photosynthesis leading to increased atmospheric CO2 levels and thus
contributing to the greenhouse effect
 Reduction of rainfall due to less plants to transpire water in the water cycle
POLLUTION
Pollution is the presence in or introduction into the environment of a substance which has
harmful or poisonous effects.

There are various causes of land and water pollution you need to be aware of.

Land & water pollution

Insecticides
 Insecticides are used to kill pests to enhance crop yields but they can often also kill
other harmless animals.
 For example, DDT was used to kill mosquitos but it also remained in the environment
and was absorbed into food chains resulting in bioaccumulation which killed a lot of
other good animals. DDT is now banned.
Herbicides
 Herbicides are used to kill weeds and other unwanted crops to reduce competition
and increase crop yields.
 Herbicides can get washed into water systems and kill aquatic plants which result in a
disruption of the food chain.
Chemical waste
Inorganic waste waste (i.e. nickel, aluminium, lead, mercury) that are dumped into water
bodies can lead to the bioaccumulation of these metals.
Plastics
Plastics can not only physically trap and harm animals, but they can deteriorated into
smaller pieces and be consumed by them too. To make matters worse, toxic gases are
produced when plastics are burned.
Untreated sewage
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Sewage is untreated organic waste produced along with household and industrial waste
material.
Dumping untreated sewage into the environment can lead to a lot of problems such as:
 Eutrophication
 Death of aquatic animals due to pathogens in the sewage
 Spread of water borne diseases which can infect people by drinking polluted water

Eutrophication
Eutrophication
is has
the excessive
come up multiple
richness times
of nutrients
in previous
in a lake
examinations,
or other body
so of
make
water,
sure you
learn this!
frequently due to run-off from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life.

The stages of eutrophication are as follows:

 Sewage or fertilizers somehow leak into a water body i.e. lake
 Various things are present in sewage/fertilizers such as phosphates, organic matter,
bacteria
 Phosphates promote algae growth while bacteria reproduce by feeding on organic
matter
 Excessive algae forms a blanket on the water surface
 Aquatic animals die due to the lack of light
 As plants die, bacteria aerobically decompose dead matter
 Oxygen supply becomes depleted and aquatic animals die
 The entire food chain becomes disrupted

Greenhouse effect (climate change)

Greenhouse gases are gases in the atmosphere that prevent infrared radiation to pass
through.
These gases are very important in maintaining the surface temperature of the earth.
Examples of greenhouse gases are:
 Carbon dioxide
 Methane
 Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
 Nitrogen oxides
 Water vapour
With industrial revolution we are now produced excessive amounts of greenhouse gases.
This leads to the enhanced greenhouse effect, where more and more infra-red radiation is
becoming trapped. This is resulting unstable climate conditions which is causing harm to
the entire globe.
Conservation
Sustainable development:
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  This is a complex process, requiring the management of conflicting demands. As the
world’s population grows, so does the demand for the extraction of resources from
the environment.
 However, this needs to be carried out in a controlled way to prevent environmental
damage and strategies need to be put in place to ensure habitats and species
diversity are not threatened.
 Planning the removal of resources need to be done at local, national and
international levels.
 This is to make sure that everyone involved with the process is aware of the potential
consequences of the process on the environment, and that appropriate strategies are
put in place, and adhered to, to minimise any risk.
Sustaining Fish Stocks:

 Managing fish stocks sustainably includes:

 Controlling the number of fish caught each year (quotas)
 Controlling the size of fish caught (to ensure there are enough fish of a suitable age
for breeding remaining)
 Controlling the time of year that certain fish can be caught (to prevent large scale
depletion of stocks when fish come together in large numbers in certain areas to
breed)
 Restocking (breeding and keeping offspring until they are large enough to survive in
their natural habitat then releasing)
 Educating fishermen as to local and international laws and consumers so they are
aware of types of fish which are not produced sustainably and can avoid them when
buying fish

Extinction and endangerment of a species

Extinction is the dying out or extermination of a species. Some factors that may cause
extinction are:
 Climate change
 Habitat destruction
 Hunting
 Pollution
 Introduced species i.e. species that are not native to a particular location, and has the
tendency to spread and cause damage to the environment

An endangered species of animal or plant is that they are seriously at risk of extinction.

Conservation of endangered species:

It is important to conserve endangered species in order to prevent extinction.
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Conservation may involve:
 Monitoring and protecting habitats
 Education
 Captive breeding programs
 Seed banks
 Conservation programmes

TOPIC: 21 – BIOTECHNOLOGY & GENETIC ENGINEERING

Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to
manufacturing and service industries.

Genetic engineering involves the transfer of genes from one organism to (usually) an
unrelated species.

Examples of genetic engineering:

 Insertion of human genes into bacteria for the production of insulin
 Insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to herbicides
 Insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests
 Insertion of genes into crop plants to provide additional vitamins

Biofuels:
Yeast is a single celled fungus that uses sugar as its food source
When it respires, ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced (and energy is released)
The ethanol produced in this reaction is increasingly being used as a biofuel (a fuel made
from living organisms rather than a fossil fuel like oil, coal or gas)
In countries such as Brazil, biofuel is partly replacing petrol as the fuel for cars and other
vehicles
Plant material is used as the substrate for producing ethanol (as a source of glucose) – it is
chopped up into small pieces and mixed with yeast which respires anaerobically and
produces ethanol
The liquid is separated from the remaining solids and any water is removed, leaving
a concentrated solution of ethanol
Sometimes the waste parts of crop plants, such as the stalks or outer leaves, are used, but
in other places, crops are grown specifically to be harvested for making ethanol
In some places, this is causing concern that there is less land available for local people to
grow food crops needed for survival

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 Bread-making

 Yeast is activated by mixing it with sugar and water

 The mixture is then added to flour to
form dough
 Dough is left in a warm place to rise
 The dough rises due to trapped
carbon dioxide (a product of
anaerobic respiration)
 Appropriate temperature must be
maintained as enzymes control
respiration
 When the bread is fully cooked, high
temperatures kill the active yeast
and the ethanol evaporates

Fruit Juice Production:

 Fruit juice is produced by squeezing the fruits to remove the juice
 Chopping the fruit up before squeezing helps to release a lot more juice, but this
does not break open all the cells so a lot of juice is lost
 By adding an enzyme called pectinase to the chopped up fruit, more juice is released
 Pectinase works by breaking down a chemical called pectin that is found inside plant
cell walls
 Once pectin is broken down, the cell walls break more easily and more juice can be
squeezed out of the fruit
 Adding pectinase to fruits also helps to produce a clearer juice as larger
polysaccharides like pectin can make the juice seem cloudy – once they are broken
down into smaller molecules, the juice becomes clearer

Biological Washing Powders:

 Many stains on clothes are organic molecules – oil
from skin, protein from blood, fat and protein from
food
 Detergents that only contain soap can remove some
of these stains when mixed with hot water, but it can
take a lot of time and effort and very high
temperatures to remove the stains entirely
 Biological washing powders contain enzymes similar to the digestive enzymes
produced in the alimentary canal that help to break down large food molecules
Using biological washing powders has several advantages, including:

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  Quickly breaking down large, insoluble molecules such as fats and proteins
into smaller, soluble ones that will dissolve in washing water
 They are effective at lower temperatures, meaning less energy (and money) has to
be used in order to wash clothes to get them clean as washing water does not need
to be heated to higher temperatures
 They can be used to clean delicate fabrics that would not be suitable for washing at
high temperatures

Lactose-Free Milk
 Lactose is the sugar found in milk
 Human babies are born with the ability to produce lactase, the enzyme that breaks
down lactose
 In certain areas of the world, many people lose the ability to produce lactase as they
get older
 This means that they can become lactose intolerant and react badly to the lactose in
milk and products made from milk (cheese, yoghurt etc)
 Symptoms of lactose intolerance include nausea, flatulence and diarrhoea as their
digestive system is upset by the lactose
 Milk can be made lactose free by adding the enzyme lactase to it and leaving it to
stand for a while to allow the enzyme to break down the lactose

Penicillin production
Penicillin is an antibiotic made by a fungus called penicillium. A fermenter is used to mass
produce penicillin. Sugars, ammonium salt, and penicillium are added to the fermenter.

 Sugar is for respiration

 Ammonium is for protein and nucleic acid production

Here are some features about fermenters that you must be aware of:

 Monitors pH and temperatures

 Air provides oxygen for respiration
 Has cooling mechanisms to maintain an optimum temperature of approximately 24
degrees Celsius
 Stirrer keeps the contents suspended

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 GENETIC ENGINEERING
Useful human proteins such as insulin (for management of type 1 diabetes) can be made by
bacteria. This is an example of genetic engineering.

Here are the important steps of this process that you need to be aware of:

1. Human cells with human insulin genes are selected

2. Chromosomes from those cells are extracted
3. Insulin gene from the chromosome is removed via an enzyme called restriction
endonuclease enzyme
4. A suitable bacterial cell is selected
5. Bacteria have loose DNA called plasmids
6. Plasmid is removed from the bacteria
7. Plasmids are cut open via the same restriction endonuclease enzyme used to cut out
the insulin gene from the human chromosome
8. Human insulin gene is inserted into plasmids via ligase enzymes
9. Plasmids are returned back to the bacterial cell
10.The bacteria is left in a fermenter to reproduce
11.Rapid asexual reproduction produces a huge colony of bacteria that all have the human
insulin gene, and hence produces insulin
12.The insulin can be extracted from the fermenter and used to treat diabetic patients

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Selective breeding involves choosing parents with particular characteristics to breed
together and produce offspring with more desirable characteristics.

Advantages and disadvantages of GM crops

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