C H A P TE R

11
Ground floors

Introduction
The primary function of all floors in a building is to provide support to the
occupants of the building, along with any furniture and equipment. This
chapter will consider the functional requirements of floors, both ground
floors and upper floors, and compare and contrast how the functional
requirements are affected by the location of the floor. The four main types
of ground floor used in domestic construction are then considered.

Functional requirements
These relate to all floors, both ground floors and upper floors. However
there are some distinct differences related to the location of the floor.

Strength and stability

The loads being carried by the floor need to be supported without causing
excessive deflection (bending) of the floor and for the floor to be able to
carry the loads to suitable supports. Ground floors will normally bear their
loads directly onto the ground beneath, whereas upper floors will need to
bear their loads onto supporting walls or beams. Where floors are fully
supported by the ground beneath, deflection will be minimal and well
within acceptable limits as long as the ground beneath is not subject to
excessive seasonal movement, as may occur with shrinkable clay soils.
However, when the floor is spanning freely between two supporting walls,
the tendency for the floor to bend under the load will be increased. This
deflection will be maximised at mid-span, the point furthest away from the
supports. The depth of the supporting members of the floor (the joists) will
need to be sufficient to reduce the deflection to within acceptable limits.
This aspect is considered in more detail in the next chapter.

Fire resistance
Floors act as horizontal barriers to curb the spread of fire vertically
throughout the building. This is normally only a requirement for upper
floors.
156 11 Ground floors

Sound insulation
Floors need to reduce sound transmission between storeys. Again this is
normally only a requirement for upper floors. It may be necessary to
incorporate sound insulation materials within the construction of the
upper floor.

Thermal insulation
Heat loss through the floor construction is normally only a problem with
ground floors, where heat from the building may escape to the cooler area
of the ground beneath. The extent of the heat flow through the floor
construction will be dependent upon the thermal properties of the
materials used in the floor construction, the temperature differential
between the internal surface of the floor and the ground beneath, the
climate, the physical properties of the soil, the presence and extent of
ground water near to the surface, the amount of ventilation provided
within the floor construction and whether or not underfloor heating is
used. It will therefore be necessary to incorporate thermal insulation
materials within the construction of the ground floor, and the detailing
of the floor construction will need to ensure that thermal bridges are
avoided and surface condensation and mould growth are also avoided.
The Building Regulations Approved Document L1A Section 4.21 sets out
limiting U-values for various elements of the building. These are weighted
average values (as explained in Chapter 1) and for ground floors this value
is 0.25W/m2K. In addition Approved Document C Section 4.22 stipulates
that the ground floor should be designed and constructed so that the
U-value does not exceed 0.7W/m2K at any point and junctions between
the floor and the walls are designed to avoid thermal bridging.
BS EN ISO 13370:2007 Thermal performance of buildings. Heat
transfer via the ground. Calculation methods provides methods of
calculation of heat transfer coefficients and heat flow rates for ground
floors, both the annual average rate of heat flow and the seasonal
variations of heat flow.

Damp penetration
Dampness may penetrate from the moist ground beneath the floor into
the building by capillary action through the porous materials of the
floor construction (refer back to the section on capillarity in Chapter 1
(introduction). Ground floors will therefore normally require a damp proof
barrier to be incorporated within their construction to resist this rising
damp.
The ground floor may also need to resist the passage of ground gases
such as methane or radon (refer back to the section on contaminants in
Chapter 3 (site investigation and the type of ground). In these
circumstances a gas resistant barrier will need to be incorporated in the
ground floor construction and this barrier may also function as a damp
proof membrane.
 Ground floors 11 157

Ground floors may be of either solid or suspended construction. Solid

construction is generally the easiest and cheapest to construct.

Solid floor construction

The floor is constructed on a bed of well-compacted hard material, called
hardcore. It provides the following benefits:
• a level, horizontal surface on which to place the floor slab
• a firm, dry working surface on which to place the concrete for the floor
slab
• it reduces the rise of ground moisture by virtue of the large voids
between the pieces of hardcore which eliminate capillary paths
• it provides additional support to the floor above should the ground
beneath suffer settlement or subsidence.

Self-assessment question 11.1

a) Why should the floor slab require a level, horizontal surface on
which to be laid?
b) Why should the floor slab require a firm, dry surface on which to
be placed?

Hardcore consists of broken bricks, stones, concrete or rubble. It must

not contain materials that are soft or can crumble easily and must not
contain deleterious material that will either rot or corrode, leaving voids,
or contain sulphate salts that could react with the concrete.

Self-assessment question 11.2

Why is it important that hardcore should not contain materials that
are soft or can crumble easily?

The lumps of hardcore should be relatively large, but generally not

larger than 75mm in diameter.

Self-assessment question 11.3

Why is it important that the lumps of hardcore should be relatively
large?

It should be laid to a minimum thickness of 100mm, be well-

compacted and have its surface ‘blinded’ with a layer of sand. This helps
to fill in the large voids between the pieces of hardcore on the surface,
preventing loss of concrete into these voids, and also covers the sharp
158 11 Ground floors

arrises on the surface pieces of hardcore that could puncture a damp

proof membrane placed above.
The damp proof membrane (DPM) prevents the rise of ground moisture
through the floor construction. In order for it to be functional it must be
continuous, impervious and join up with the damp proof courses in the
walls.

Self-assessment question 11.4

Why should the damp proof membrane join up with the damp proof
course in the walls?

There are three positions in which the damp proof membrane may be
located within the floor construction:
• sandwiched between the blinding above the hardcore and the
concrete slab
• sandwiched between the top of the concrete slab and the screed
• sandwiched between the surface of the slab and the floor finish.
If the DPM is to be placed between the blinding and the concrete
slab it will normally comprise a 1200 gauge low density polyethylene
sheet to BS EN 13967:2004 + Amendment 1:2006 Flexible sheets for
waterproofing. Plastic and rubber damp proof sheets including plastic
and rubber basement tanking sheet. Definitions and characteristics
(see Figure 11.1). This sheet, being of finite width, must be sealed
effectively at its edge joints. Alternatively bitumen sheet to BS EN
13969:2004 Flexible sheets for waterproofing. Bitumen damp proof
sheets including bitumen basement tanking sheet. Definitions and
characteristics may be used as a damp proof membrane in this
position.

Figure 11.1 Solid ground floor with DPM below the floor slab
 Ground floors 11 159

Self-assessment question 11.5

Why does the polyethylene sheet need to be sealed effectively at its
edge joints?

If the DPM is to be placed above the concrete slab then it may comprise
a 1200 gauge polyethylene sheet or bitumen sheet as previously
considered, or 3 coats of a cold applied bituminous solution that can be
applied by brush, or 2 coats of hot applied mastic asphalt similar to the
tanking used in basements. In these cases the screed will need to be
thicker and reinforced with chicken wire to prevent cracking, as it will not
be bonded to the slab beneath (see Figure 11.2). This will be considered in
more detail in Chapter 21 (internal finishes).

Self-assessment question 11.6

What disadvantage does the cold applied bituminous solution have
compared with the 1200 gauge polyethylene sheet as a DPM?

Where the DPM is applied to the surface of the floor slab it should
comprise 3 coats of a cold applied bituminous solution that can be
applied by brush, or 2 coats of hot applied mastic asphalt as considered
previously.
The concrete slab should be a minimum of 100mm thick to mix ST2 in
BS 8500-1:2006 Concrete, and the surface either finished with a float or
tamped to receive a screed for an applied finish. Tamping involves
bouncing a timber beam over the surface of the concrete slab. The beam
is normally operated by an operative at each end and it produces a ripple
effect to the surface of the concrete slab.

Figure 11.2 Solid ground floor with DPM above the floor slab
160 11 Ground floors

Self-assessment question 11.7

What benefits does tamping provide to the concrete slab?

The slab may also contain a layer of fabric mesh reinforcement, which
helps to provide some structural strength to the slab over areas of
potential weakness. The concrete to a reinforced slab should be to mix
ST4 in BS 8500.
In order to comply with the requirements of the Building Regulations,
Approved Document L1A 2010 Conservation of fuel and power, stipulates
that thermal insulation must be incorporated into the ground floor
construction to prevent loss of heat from the building to the ground
beneath. Section 4.21 of Approved Document L1A sets out in Table 2 the
worst acceptable U-value standards for various elements of the building
fabric to meet the energy performance requirements of a new dwelling.
The U-values are calculated using the methods and conventions set out
in BR 443 Conventions for U-value calculations 2006. For a floor this
maximum U-value is 0.25W/m2K.
The insulation should, where possible, be laid above the DPM and
should also be placed at the side of the slab where the slab abuts the
walls, so that heat will not be lost from the building through this path.
The insulation will normally be a board material to prevent compression
by the weight of the floor slab or the occupants, furniture and equipment
above.

Self-assessment question 11.8

Why is it important that the insulation is, where possible, laid above
the DPM?

If the insulation layer has to be placed below the DPM it should

comprise a material that has low water absorption and is resistant to
contaminants in the ground, where they exist.

Suspended floor construction

Suspended floors do not bear directly onto the ground but bear onto
supports that will themselves indirectly bear onto the ground. They
are often utilised on sloping sites to reduce the amount of fill materials.
Fill will be required beneath the ground floor on sloping sites in order to
provide a level, horizontal surface on which to lay the floor. It will normally
comprise hardcore not greater than 600mm in thickness.
 Ground floors 11 161

Self-assessment question 11.9

Why should the hardcore fill not be greater than 600mm in thickness?

Suspended floors may be constructed from timber or concrete.

Suspended timber ground floor

As timber is warmer to the touch than concrete, this floor may be
considered to provide increased thermal comfort to the user.
The floor comprises small timber beams or joists which span between
points of support called dwarf walls and carry floor decking of timber
boards or particle board or plywood sheets.
The joists are sized according to the loads that are to be carried and
the distances that are to be spanned.
Suitable sizes are given in the Building Regulations Approved
Document A. However, a rule of thumb method may be used:

Span in mm
Depth in mm = + 50mm
24

Self-assessment question 11.10

Using the rule of thumb method, what would be the depth of a joist
spanning 2.00m between supports?

The floor is constructed on a 100mm thick concrete oversite slab to mix

ST1 in BS 8500-1, laid on a minimum 100mm thick layer of compacted
hardcore. The Building Regulations Approved Document C section 4.14
stipulates that the top of the slab must not be below ground level, or on
sloping sites land drainage needs to be installed to the outside of the
building on the upper slope. This is to prevent water seeping from the
surrounding ground and collecting on the top of the slab.
The joists are supported on half brick dwarf or sleeper walls, spaced at
1–2m centres and topped by a 100 x 75mm wall plate, laid over a damp
proof course.
The wall plate is used to provide a suitable fixing for the floor joists, as
it is difficult to fix the joists directly to the sleeper walls. The wall plate
itself is fixed to the sleeper walls by means of galvanised steel straps
(see Figure 11.3).
Timber is susceptible to attack by dry rot fungus if its moisture content
is allowed to increase above 20 per cent of its dry weight (see Chapter 10
on timber). The air in the void beneath the timber members in the floor
will have an artificially high moisture content, caused by the rising
dampness from the ground beneath.
A DPM should be incorporated between the concrete oversite slab
and the hardcore. However in areas such as kitchens, utility rooms and
162 11 Ground floors

Figure 11.3 Suspended timber ground floor

bathrooms, where water may be spilled and could remain undetected on

the top of the oversite concrete slab and would not have the opportunity
to drain away, any board used as flooring should be moisture resistant.

Self-assessment question 11.11

Why should a damp proof course be laid beneath the wall plate?

The Building Regulations Approved Document C Section 4.14 requires

a ventilated air space from the ground covering to the underside of the
wall plate of at least 75mm and a minimum space to the underside of the
joists of 150mm, which must be kept free from debris. Where suspended
timber floors are constructed in areas where shrinkable clay subsoils are
prevalent, the depth of the underfloor air space may need to be increased
to allow for any subsequent ground heave.
In areas where flooding may occur, a means of inspecting and cleaning
out the space beneath the suspended floor should be provided.
Ventilation to the sub-floor space is provided by air bricks within the
external walls, which should incorporate suitable grilles to prevent the
entry of vermin into the underfloor area. These air bricks must provide a
minimum opening of 1500mm2 per metre run of wall, or 500mm2 per
square metre of floor area, whichever is the least. This ventilation helps to
remove the damp air beneath the floor construction and replace it with
drier air from outside. Unfortunately this replacement air is not only drier
but also colder. In order to ensure that this air flow does not detrimentally
affect the thermal insulation value of the floor it is recommended that the
amount of openings in the external wall should be sufficient to encourage
 Ground floors 11 163

Figure 11.4 Honeycomb bonding to sleeper walls

cross flow ventilation, but not so much that the thermal insulation value
of the floor will be detrimentally affected.
The cross flow of air within the void beneath the timber floor is
maintained by building the sleeper walls in a honeycomb bond, which
consists of a stretcher bond with voids of half brick width being left
between the stretcher bricks (see Figure 11.4).

Self-assessment question 11.12

Why should the space to the underside of the joists be kept free from
debris?

Thermal insulation can be in the form of quilt draped over the top of
the joists or a slab spanning between the joists and supported by timber
battens nailed to the side of the joists.
The boarding to a suspended timber ground floor should be from
durable species or treated with preservative and should be a minimum of
20mm in thickness. Alternatively moisture resistant grade plywood,
particleboard, oriented strand board or flaxboard may be used. The gap
between the edge of the boarding and the skirting around the base of the
walls must be caulked to provide a complete seal from draughts.

Suspended concrete ground floor

This form of construction overcomes three problems:
• dry rot in timber floors
• excessive fill beneath floors of buildings situated on steeply sloping
sites
• variable loadbearing capacity soil beneath the floor.
164 11 Ground floors

Figure 11.5 In situ concrete suspended ground floor

The floor may be constructed from in situ concrete, similar to a solid

floor or from precast concrete components.
Where the depth of fill will exceed 600mm on steeply sloping sites or
where the loadbearing capacity or nature of the ground beneath the floor
varies, a floor bearing directly onto the ground may not be considered
suitable. In such cases the floor will need to span between loadbearing
walls.
An in situ concrete suspended ground floor slab should be at least
100mm in thickness, containing at least 300kg of cement per cubic metre
of concrete and incorporating sufficient steel reinforcement in its lower
section to enable it to effectively carry the loads bearing upon it between
the loadbearing wall supports, protected by a concrete cover of at least
40mm (see Figure 11.5).
As the floor is cast, the concrete will require support until it has
hardened sufficiently to carry its own weight. It will therefore be
necessary to place fill materials onto the ground to provide a firm, dry,
level horizontal surface onto which the slab may be cast. Although this fill
will need to be compacted initially to provide a firm surface for the slab,
any subsequent settlement of this fill will not adversely affect the floor
above, since the slab will be supported by the loadbearing walls.

Self-assessment question 11.13

Where should the DPM be placed in an in situ concrete suspended
ground floor?

The precast concrete suspended ground floor utilises precast concrete

joists, infilled with concrete blocks and topped with a screed. The joists
and blocks are light enough to be lifted and positioned by two men, thus
eliminating the need for lifting plant.
 Ground floors 11 165

Figure 11.6 Precast concrete suspended floor

The joists are generally an inverted T shape and are prestressed to

reduce their size and weight. They span between external walls and, as
the precast concrete components do not require support during the
construction of the floor, the need for fill beneath the floor is eliminated.
Thus all that will be required is for the topsoil to be removed from the
ground beneath the floor and for the subsoil to be treated with a weedkiller
prior to the installation of the floor components.
Thermal insulation is generally placed above the precast concrete
beam and block components and beneath the screed (see Figure 11.6).
A minimum void of 150mm should be provided between the soil
beneath and the underside of the floor slab in an in situ concrete
suspended floor or the underside of the precast concrete rib beams in a
precast concrete suspended floor. As before, this space may need to be
increased to account for any possible heave where the soil beneath is
shrinkable clay. The underfloor void created should be ventilated by
airbricks positioned in the external walls to create 1500mm2 of ventilation
per metre run of wall or 500mm2 per square metre of floor area as before.
This ventilation is also beneficial where gas is supplied to the property,
since any potential gas leaks could collect in the void beneath an
unventilated suspended floor and build up to form an explosive mixture
with the air.

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of Chapter 11 with a multiple choice questionnaire, and
to see 16 full-colour photos illustrating this chapter.