1.2.2.1.
Elasticity
When stress or force is applied to a metal, it changes shape. For example a metal under
a compressive stress will shorten and metal in tension will lengthen. This change in shape
is called strain. The ability of metal to strain under load and then return to its original size
and shape when unloaded is called elasticity. The elastic limit (proportional limit) is the
greatest load a material can withstand and still spring back into its original shape when the
load is removed. Within the elastic range stress is proportional to strain and this is known
as Hooke's law. The relationship between applied stress or load and the consequent strain
or change in length is shown in Figure 1.35. The end of the straight line portion is known
as the elastic limit. A point on the curve slightly higher than the elastic limit is known as
the yield point or yield strength. The allowable or safe load for a metal in service should
be well below the clastic limit. If higher loads are applied, however, the range of elasticity
or elastic deformation is exceeded and the metal is now permanently deformed. Now it will
not return to its original dimensions even when the load is removed. For this reason, the
area of the stress-strain curve beyond the clastic limit is called the plastic range. It is this
property that makes metals so useful. When enough force is applied by rolling, pressing
or hammer blows, metals can be formed when hot or cold into useful shapes. If the
application of load is increased in the plastic region a stage conies when the material
fractures.
A very important feature of the stress-strain curve must be pointed out: the straight-line,
or clastic, part of the stresf-strain curve of a given metal has a constant slope. That is. it
cannot be changed by changing the microstructurc or heat treatment. This slope, called the
modulus of elasticity, measures the stiffness of the metal in the elastic range; changing the
hardness or strength docs not change the stiffness of the metal. There is only one
condition that changes the stiffness of any given metal. That is temperature. The stiffness
of any metal varies inversely with its temperature: that is, as temperature increases,
stiffness decreases, and vice versa.
The above comments on the clastic portions of the stress-strain curves apply to nearly all
metals. However, there arc a few metals that do not conform to Hooke's law. The reason
in some cases e.g. gray cast iron, is the presence of graphite flakes embedded in the matrix
of the metal. The flakes act as internal notches or stress concentrations and therefore give
the metals unique and diffcrcrt properties. Typical other examples of such metals are
„N sintered metals and cold drawn steel bars.
^ 1.2.2.2. Strength
The strength of a metal is its ability to resist changing its shape or size when external
* forces arc applied. There are three basic types of stresses: tensile, comprcssivc, and shear.
When we consider strength, the type of stress to which the material will be subjected must
be known. Steel has equal comprcssivc and tensile strength, but cast iron has low tensile
strength and high compressive strength. Shear strength is less than tensile strength in
virtually all metals.
The tensile strength of a material in pounds per square inch(PSI), can be determined by
dividing the maximum load (in pounds) by the original cross-sectional area (in square
inches) before testing. Thus,
Tensile strength (PSI) = Maximum load (lb)
Original cross-sectional area (sq.in.)
To put it another way, the strength of materials is expressed in terms of pounds per square
inch. This is called unit stress. The unit stress equals the load divided by the total area.
Melals arc "pulled" on a machine culled u tensile tester. A specimen of known dimensions
is placed in the machine and loaded until it breaks. Instruments are sometimes used to
make a continuous record of the load and the amount of strain. This information is put on
a graph culled u stress-strain diagram.
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