CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POVERTY ON EDUCATIONAL

ATTAINMENT IN ZAMBIA

(A Case of Luela Primary School in Kalulushi District)

By

MUSUNTULA PEGGY

Student ID: 1704131360

A research report submitted to Chalimbana University in partial fulfilment

for the requirement of the award of the Degree in Primary Education

CHALIMBANA UNIVERSITY

© 2020
 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I, Musuntula Peggy, do hereby declare that this research report is my own work and has not been
previously submitted for any award at this or any other University and all quotations have been
acknowledged.

Candidate’s signature: ……………………………… Date: ………………………………..

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 APPROVAL

This research project of Musuntula Peggy is approved as partial fulfilment of the requirement for
the award of the Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education by Chalimbana University.

Supervisor: …………….…………………………………………….

Signed: ………………………………………………………………..

Date: ……………………………………………………………………

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 DEDICATION

This research is dedicated to my wonderful and loving husband Mr. Fred Masoka, who worked
tirelessly in providing a solid foundation for my education. I also dedicate this work to my two
children, Kukeng’a Masoka and Kwunda Masoka, for giving me strength to forge ahead.

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 COPYRIGHT DECLARATION

All copyrights reserved, stored in any retrieval system, transmitted in any form by any means,
electronic, recording mechanism, photocopying or otherwise without prior permission, from the
author or Chalimbana University.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would to extend my sincere gratitude to my research supervisor Mr. E Mwila whose

professional guidance, motivation and support made this research possible. I am indebted to all
the participants for their valuable contributions. I am also grateful to my supervisor at my
workplace and my friend Mrs. Mwenya who provided support in the initial stage of my research.

This acknowledgement will not be complete if I do not thank Mrs. Mwenya Ngosa Christabel,
Ms. Mwenya Glory and Mr. Mwenya Genesis M.G Junior for their unwavering support and they
kept me going until the finishing line. Thank you very much.

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 ABSTRACT

Poverty has however remained a stumbling block for most people to attain this basic right.
This study sought to investigate the causes and effects of poverty on academic achievement
in the Sabina community of Chambishi in Kalulushi district. As well, the researcher wanted
to determine which school initiatives teachers believed to be helpful at mitigating these
barriers. The study sought to expose the challenges poverty stricken pupils face in their quest
for education, subsequently leading them to drop out of school. The methodology which
guided this study was a case study. Data was gathered using questionnaires, face to face
interviews and document analysis. A sample of thirty (30) pupils, 10 teachers, 10 parents and
10 teenagers who have dropped out of school was surveyed using in-depth interview and
questionnaires. The study revealed that death of breadwinners and lack of education are the
prime causes of poverty in the Sabina community. The results of this study indicated that
poverty negatively impacts on the academic achievement of pupils. Findings also indicated
that poverty related barriers were significant. School initiatives that were found most helpful
were those that addressed chronic hunger, diverse learning needs, parental involvement, and
sense of belonging. Teachers found that it was important for pupils to have access to adult
mentors, to have opportunities to engage in the arts and physical activity, and to participate in
learning experiences that are meaningful. Teachers also stressed the importance of inclusive
school community. Findings indicated that most teachers felt that their teacher training had
not prepared them adequately to teach in areas of high poverty, but that their professional
development had increased their awareness and understanding of poverty related issues. The
study therefore recommends that school authorities stagger payment of school fees in order
to accommodate the less privileged students. The study further recommends that the donor
community channel resources to education and feed pupils who came from impoverished
backgrounds.

Keywords: Education, Educational barriers, Poverty, Poverty stricken, Interventions.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration….……………………………………………………………………………………...i
Certificate of approval…………………………………………………………………………….ii
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………...iii
Copyright of declaration………………………………………………………………………….iv
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………..........v
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...vi
Table of contents….……………………………………………………………………………...vii
List of tables……….……………………………………………………………..……………….xi
List of figures……………………………………………………………………..………..…….xii
Chapter One - Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1
1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...1
1.2 Background to the study……………………………………………………………………...1
1.3 Statement of the problem……………………………………………………………………..3
1.4 Purpose of the study…………………………………………………………………………..3
1.5 Objectives of the study………………………………………………………………………..3
1.6 Research questions……………………………………………………………………………4
1.7 Scope and delimitations of the study…………………………………………………………4
1.8 Limitations of the study………………………………………………………………………4
1.9 Significance of the study……………………………………………………………………...5
1.10 Theoretical framework……………………………………………………………………….5
1.11 Definition of operational terms………………………………………………………………6
Chapter Two - LiteraturE Review…………………………………………………………………7
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...7
2.2 Poverty defined……………………………………………………………………………….7
2.3 Causes of poverty in Zambia…………………………………………………………………9
2.4 Effects of Poverty on Academic Achievement……………………………………………….9
2.5 Pedagogical Implications for Teachers of Students in Poverty……………………………..10
2.6 Strategies to reduce poverty…………………………………………………………………11
Chapter Three - Research Methodology…………………………………………………………12
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….12

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3.2 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………..12
3.3 Target Population…………………………………………………………………………….12
3.4 Sample Size………………………………………………………………………………….13
3.5 Sampling Technique………………………………………………………………………...13
3.6 Research Instruments………………………………………………………………………..13
3.6.1 Questionnaires……………………………………………………………………………...14
3.6.2 Interviews…………………………………………………………………………………..14
3.7 Data Collection Procedure…………………………………………………………………..14
3.7.1 Primary Resources…………………………………………………………………………14
3.7.2 Secondary Resources………………………………………………………………………15
3.8 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………………..15
3.10 Ethical Consideration……………………………………………………………………….15
Chapter Four - Data Analysis and Interpretation………………………………………………...17
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..17
4.2 Response rate………………………………………………………………………………...17
4.3 Background information of the respondents…………………………………………………17
4.4 Socio-demographic Profile of Pupils………………………………………………………...18
4.4.1 Distribution of pupils according to their parent’s status…………………………………...19
4.4.2 Distance covered by pupils………………………………………………………………...20
4.4.3 Means of transport used by pupils…………………………………………………………21
4.4.4 Number of meals taken by pupils………………………………………………………….21
4.4.5 Occupation of parents/guardians…………………………………………………………..22
4.4.6 Education level of parents/guardians……………………………………………………...23
4.5 Socio-demographic Profile of School Drop-out Teenagers………………………………….24
4.5.1 Distribution of drop-out pupils according to their parent’s status…………………………25
4.6 Socio-demographic Profile of Parents/Guardians...………………………………………….26
4.7 Findings from teachers……………………………………………………………………….27
4.7.1 Educational barriers or challenges which impact the pupils……………………………….28
4.7.2 Challenges experienced while teaching children affected by poverty……………………..29
4.7.3 School initiatives helpful at mitigating educational barriers related to poverty…………...31
4.7.4 Additional comments on current school strengths/successes for school initiatives……….32

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Chapter Five - Conclusion and Recommendations………………………………………………33
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..33
5.2 Summary of findings..………………………………………………………………………..33
5.3 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………..35
5.4 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………35
5.5 Suggestions for further research……………………………………………………………..36
References………………………………………………………………………………………..37
Appendix I - Questionnaire for Teachers………………………………………………………...40
Appendix II: Questionnaire for Pupils…………………………………………………………...43
Appendix III: Interview schedule for Parents/Guardians...……………………………………...43
Appendix IV: Interview schedule for school drop-out teenagers...……………………………...43

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Distribution of pupils, teachers, parents and school dropouts………………………..18
Table 4.2: Socio-demographic Profile of Pupils…………………………………………………19
Table 4.3: Distribution of pupils according to their parent’s status……………………………...20
Table 4.4: Distance covered by pupils…………………………………………………………...20
Table 4.5: Number of meals taken by pupils…………………………………………………….22
Table 4.6: Occupation of parents/guardians……………………………………………………..22
Table 4.7: Education level of parents/guardians…………………………………………………23
Table 4.8: Socio-demographic Profile of School Drop-outs Teenagers……..…………………..25
Table 4.9: Distribution of drop-out pupils according to their parent’s status……………………26
Table 4.10: Socio-demographic Profile of Parents………………………………………………27
Table 4.11: Challenges experienced while teaching children affected by poverty………………30

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Distribution of pupils, teachers, parents and school dropouts……………………….18
Figure 4.2: Means of transport used by pupils…………………………………………………...21
Figure 4.3: Occupation of parents/guardians…………………………………………………….23
Figure 4.4: Education level of parents/guardians………………………………………………..24
Figure 4.5: Educational barriers or challenges which impact the pupils………………………...28
Figure 4.6: Most Helpful School Initiatives……………………………………………………..31

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
WHO: World Health Organisation
US: United States
SADC: Southern African Development Co-operation
HIV: Human Immune Deficiency Virus
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
On average, children from poorer families do less well academically at school than
those from higher income families. The associations are strong and consistent. They
are important as ‘educational outcomes are closely linked to long-term equality of
opportunity, and so closing gaps in attainment between different groups is critical to the
government’s aim of promoting a fair and inclusive society’ (Chipindi, 2006: 3). While
policy focuses, in the main, on the role schools can play in reducing the
achievement gap, the reasons for the differences are multifaceted. It is argued that the
explanations cannot be attributed solely to schools: the evidence points towards factors
outside school being of greater significance, with the family being of fundamental
importance and financial and material resources playing a key role.

1.2 Background to the study

Poverty presents various challenges that negatively affect academic success among
learners. Children raised in an environment where there is lack of basic necessities face
difficulties, socially and academically, that those from well-to-do families do not
confront. Besides emotional and social problems that such children tend to face in their
academic journey, cognitive lags (being slow in understanding educational material) and
issues to do with their health in general tend to slow their progress in the learning
process. However, though such factors pose a hindrance to academic and social success
among children who are raised in poverty, they offer a unique opportunity to educators
(teachers), who should be able to fully understand these challenges and take actions
aimed at helping them (children) succeed.

In poverty-stricken homes, the environment is rarely stable and safe as primary caregivers
(parents) are unable to offer their children consistent support and guidance because their
attention is directed towards just how they must struggle to make ends meet. The result is
that there is lack of development of a wider range of healthy emotions, including
gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy. Also, the absence of personalised, complex activities
in the home hinders the much-needed enrichment of a child’s mental capacity as he or she

1
grows. These factors, coupled with substandard parental education, undermine young
people’s emotional and social development (Gunnar, Frenn, Wewerka, and Van Ryzin,
2009). Poverty makes the home set-up devoid of warm emotions and unconditional love.
Parents and other people caring for children may become authoritarian with them, and in
most cases use harsh disciplinary strategies. A socially and economically rich
environment helps children to develop feelings of self-worth, confidence and
independence; qualities that are crucial to the complete attainment of the much-needed
academic success among learners. But wherever economic hardship persists, a trusting
environment that is expected to build children’s secure attachments (relationships) both in
the home and at school is unattainable.

Children from impoverished homes are more likely to develop psychiatric disturbances,
to a certain extent and disorders in the way they should function, socially, than their well-
to-do peers (McCoy, Firck, Loney, and Ellis, 1999). This may be worsened by their
parents’ diminished self-esteem, which may in turn be transferred to their children in the
form of insufficient nurturing, negativity, and a general failure to focus on children’s
needs. When they are in school, children raised in poor households are likely to exhibit
certain unexpected emotional and social behaviours. Teachers who understand the plight
of such students should not interpret such deficits as a lack of respect or manners. Instead,
they should understand that the learners come to school with a narrower range of
appropriate emotional responses than they (teachers) expect. It is important to understand
the children’s behaviour in general, and that those who come from poor families are
especially expected to display temper tantrums, impatience, gaps in politeness,
inappropriate emotional responses and lack of empathy for their peers’ misfortunes.

Children from impoverished homes, in most cases, make up the larger percentage of
absentees in school. If they are in class, it is not difficult to tell that their attention and
concentration are not at their best. They also lack motivation, determination and effort.
Also, rates of undiagnosed and/or untreated diseases or disabilities are high among such
children. Of course, teachers with less experience teaching students who have been
brought up in poverty tend to get irritated and frustrated because of such behaviours. But
one important thing every teacher must do is to avoid labelling, demeaning or

2
 unnecessarily blaming children. They must learn how to effectively deal with the hard-
wired emotions of joy, anger, surprise, disgust, sadness, and fear, among others.
Therefore, since socio-economic status of families forms a huge part of the learning
process, it is important for all stakeholders, including the government, civil society, non-
governmental organisations, and development agencies, among others, to ensure that
institutions of learning are fully sustained through fighting poverty at household level.

1.3 Statement of the problem

In many schools in Zambia pupils live with the daily reality of poverty. There is concern
about how the lives of these pupils will unfold. Research has shown that a child’s
performance in school is strongly related to socioeconomic status and that education often
offers a means of breaking the cycle of poverty for children in low income families
(Gallagher, 1991). While it is known that education can allow individuals to rise out of
poverty it has also been shown that the educational barriers related to poverty affect
academic achievement. Poverty is detrimental to academic achievement at Luela Primary
School in the Sabina area of Chambishi in Kalulushi district. Poor students suffer from
starvation at home, have no proper uniforms and fail to meet payment deadlines. These
problems negatively affect their learning progress. Although considerable research exists
on the extent of, and factors contributing to, poverty in Zambia, “less is known about the
effects of poverty on pupils, the response to poverty in schools, and what teachers view as
necessary to overcome educational barriers related to poverty.”

1.4 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to find out the causes and effects of poverty on academic
achievement at Luela Primary School in Kalulushi District of the Copperbelt Province.

1.5 Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study included:
(i) To establish the academic performance of poverty stricken pupils at Luela Primary
School in Kalulushi District in the Sabina area of Chambishi
(ii) To identify the cause of poverty in Sabina area of Chambishi in Kalulushi district

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 (iii) To evaluate the effects of poverty on academic achievement in Kalulushi district
schools.
(iv) To assess the school initiatives do teachers believe are helpful at mitigating
educational barriers related to poverty

1.6 Research questions

The following were the research questions:
(i) What is the academic performance of poverty stricken pupils at Luela Primary
School in Kalulushi District in the Sabina area of Chambishi?
(ii) What are the cause of poverty in Sabina area of Chambishi in Kalulushi district?
(iii) Which school initiatives do teachers believe are helpful at mitigating educational
barriers related to poverty?

1.7 Scope and delimitations of the study

The study was carried out in Kalulushi district of the Copperbelt Province. The study
delimited itself to the effects of poverty on education attainment at Luela primary school
in Chambishi township of Kalulushi District and not from any other area in Zambia.
Focus was also centered on dropouts as result of poverty and not of delinquency or
teenage pregnancy.

1.8 Limitations of the study

Limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that influence
the analysis of the findings of the research. They are the constraints on generalizability,
applications to practice, and usefulness of findings as a result of the ways in which the
study design was chosen or the method used to establish internal and external validity
(Babbie, 1973: 22). First, it was not possible to explore all the schools in the district
where poverty has affected education attainment. Secondly, this study was limited to only
one school in Kalulushi and the study sample may therefore not be representative of all
schools in district hence, generalization of the study findings should be done with
caution.

Although there was a high return rate to this study, the sample size was relatively small.
The school site itself is unique in that it has a very high prevalence of families living in

4
 poverty. Validity, in the case of this study, is highly context bound. Findings, although
relevant, are not considered generalizable because of the specific site demographics. As I
am a full time teacher, the researcher also found it difficult to divide time between
research field work and classroom work.

1.9 Significance of the study

This study is of great importance to the educational department, schools and the teachers.
The study will establish a true picture between poverty issues and education matters. The
study will help come up with strong programs at national level to aid children who come
from poverty stricken homes. It will also be easy to come up with a guiding policy that
might compel the central government to establish pro-poor school policies on educational
requirements. The study will compel the education authorities to come up with
educational intervention as the ideal means of reversing the academic deficits of children
living in poverty.

1.10 Theoretical framework

This study was informed by Bronfenbrenner’s (2008) ecological theory which suggests
that a child’s surroundings, including their home, school, work, church, neighbourhood,
culture and government, has an influence on the way the child develops (Woolley and
Kaylor 2006). This theory looks at learners’ development within the context of the
system of relationships that form their environment.

According to this model, the microsystem is the small, immediate environment in which
the child lives. The ecological model states that child development occurs within an
interactive system of nested influences between the child and the environment. Children’s
microsystems include any immediate relationships or organisations they interact with,
such as their immediate family, school, peers, neighbours and caregivers. How these
groups or organisations interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows.
The more encouraging and nurturing these relationships and places are, the better the
child will be able to grow.

Understanding the interactions of these systems is therefore the key to understanding how
children develop and what factors lead to their failure. While multiple environments and

5
 mechanisms exist, this study was interested in examining how poverty influences
academic achievement.

1.11 Definition of operational terms

For the purpose of this study, the following definitions will apply to the terms selected as
key to the study.
Education: Education refers to the process of teaching or training and learning in a
school or college to improve knowledge and development skills.
School: A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or “pupils”)
under the direction of teachers.
Poverty is a multifaceted concept, which may include social, economic, and political
elements. Absolute poverty, extreme poverty, or destitution refers to the complete lack of
the means necessary to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and shelter.
Educational barriers: These are the physical, technological, systemic, financial, or
attitudinal factors prevent pupils from fully participating and succeeding at school.
School initiatives: These are defined as school wide projects, programs or supports that
the school undertakes to address various pupil needs including physical and health related
needs, learning needs, and social emotional needs (Washington Central Supervisory
Union, 2014).

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Browne (1992) defines poverty as an absolute lack of the minimum requirements
necessary to sustain and maintain life, health and physical efficiency such as food, water,
clothing and shelter. According to the IMERCSA FACTSHEET Number 12 (2000)
poverty is a deprivation in health and survival, lack of knowledge, denial of opportunities
for a creative and productive life as well as deprivation in income. What emerges from
these citations is that poverty is a condition where an individual struggles to afford,
shelter, health and education. Poverty is normally consistent over a long period in one’s
life.

Education is widely accepted as the main exit route from poverty. It is the backbone of
growth and development of individuals and the nation. However, its achievement
continues to elude many Zambian who are poverty stricken. This has perpetuated the
vicious circle of poverty so much that the gap between the rich and the poor has kept on
widening as the extreme poor are denied access to education. Equally access to quality
education among some of the poor has constantly been affected by poverty in that some
access education that is marred by lack of the right instructional facilities and equipment,
poor processes of delivery, unconducive and unattractive learning environments among
others. These render them too uncompetitive in the job market. However, the efforts by
the Government of Zambia to avail educational opportunities to the poor are welcome
especially the waiver of user fees in primary schools and reduction of user fees at
secondary schools. Because this will not fully solve the problem of the poor in accessing
secondary, the educational stakeholders should further augment government efforts in
financing education.

2.2 Poverty defined

It is not easy to have a universal definition of poverty. This is because there is intense
debate about poverty by researchers and some institution. However, according to Sachs
(2005), it is generally agreed that poverty can be defined in terms of three distinguishable
degrees. These are: extreme poverty, moderate poverty and relative poverty. Extreme

7
poverty means that households cannot meet basic needs for survival. Such people are
perpetually hungry, unable to access health care; they lack amenities of safe drinking
water, and sanitation. They cannot afford education for their children; they lack basic
shelter for their families and some articles of their clothing such as shoes. Extreme
poverty occurs only in developing countries. Moderate poverty on the other hand
generally refers to conditions of life in which basic needs are met, but just barely.
Relative poverty is construed as a household income level below a given proportion of
average national income. In high income countries they lack access to cultural goods,
entertainment, recreation quality health care, education and other perquisites for upward
social mobility. The World Bank has been defining poverty in statistical terms of income
of one US dollar per day per person, measured at purchasing power parity to determine
the number of extreme poor around the world. Further to measure moderate poverty,
income between one to two US dollars per day has been used.

These measures have been widely used by government and they are mostly documented
in policy documents. These figures to define poverty have evolved heated debates about
the definition of poverty. As Sachs (2005) reports, the World Bank relies on household
surveys while other researchers rely on national income accounts. The debate is not the
focus of this research. The base line is that poverty in its extreme nature manifests itself
in terms of lack of basic standards of health, nutrition, water and sanitation, shelter, and
other minimum need for survival, well-being and participation in society.

In Zambia, poverty has been defined in terms of the condition in which poor people find
themselves in. For the purposes of this research, poverty will be defined in its multi-
dimensional nature where it includes inadequacy of income and deprivation of basic
needs and rights, and lack of access to productive assets as well as to social infrastructure
and markets (GOK, 1999). According to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper for the
period 2014-2015, qualitative approach of measuring poverty defines the poor as those
who cannot afford basic food and non-food items while the qualitative approach defines
poverty as the inability of people to meet their basic needs. It is associated with features
such as lack of land, unemployment, inability to feed oneself and family, lack of proper
housing, poor health and inability to educate children and pay medical bills.

8
2.3 Causes of poverty in Zambia
The IMERSCAS factsheet number 12 of (2000) states that in the SADC region, most
countries experience an average annual population growth rate of more three percent
against the background of slow economic growth and continuous dilapidation of the
natural resource base. The increase in population further exerts pressure on the meager
financial, material and natural resources of a nation, causing more families to become
poorer. For example, in Zimbabwe, as the population increases annually, the number of
employed citizens declines, leaving the few employees with an ever increasing number of
dependents. Bird and Shepherd (2003) conducted a research on chronic poverty in
Zimbabwe’s rural areas. Their study revealed that 20% of the poor heads of households
had schooling beyond primary. More than 60% had not completed primary school. This
study reveals the extent to which lack of education leads to poverty. An uneducated
person cannot get a gainfully paying job due to lack of skills required to perform
complicated tasks. As a result this individual does menial jobs which pay very little.

According to Bird and Shepherd (2003), another cause of poverty is the death of the male
head of household. Chief among the causes of death is HIV and AIDS. This has resulted
in many working class parents dying, leaving behind orphans who have no one to fend
for. Many poor families according to the study are the child headed households. Children
who head families cannot sufficiently fend for their younger brothers and sisters. They
may end up selling the property that was left behind by their parents in order to settle for
food and other basics. The remaining children end up living poverty stricken lives.

2.4 Effects of Poverty on Academic Achievement

Poverty has an adverse effect on pupils’ performance and studies have shown that
pupils in poverty are below grade level at much higher rates and that they generally
have poor or average grades. These educational deficits provide a serious handicap for
pupils in poverty (Murphy & Tobin, 2011). Poverty negatively affects academic
achievement in a number of ways. Poverty retards proper human development in
physical, mental language and social domains. One’s educational achievement is also
grossly affected by poverty in sense that poor parents fail to provide adequate financial
and material resources that are a pre-requisite to admission at school. Gibson (1981) says

9
 that, “…the poor tend to suffer from severe health problems directly linked to mental and
physical impairments and other birth defects.” This means that the shortage of adequate
nutritional food leads to malnutrition which impedes proper mental and physical
development. Pupils in poverty are also more likely to be exposed to food with little to no
nutritional value which effects cognitive functioning which, in turn, has adverse effects
on academic achievement.

Davidoff (1987) points out that poverty is associated with a number of educational
disadvantages that entail poor attitudes to school, low academic skills, little interest in
formal lessons and pessimism on the part of parents. In this way, lack of motivation on
the part of pupils and parents leads to academic incompetence by poor pupils and active
parental support. The absence of these two aspects yields low levels of academic
achievements. What emerges from this review is that poverty is an overall forum of
deprivation cutting across the physical, mental economic and social needs. The causes of
poverty are varied. Theorists explain the causes of poverty from different perspectives
however not a single theory can sufficiently explain this phenomenon’s.

2.5 Pedagogical Implications for Teachers of Students in Poverty

The pedagogical implications for teachers of students in poverty have been related to the
implementation of varied instructional strategies designed to ensure that students are able
to efficiently acquire, rehearse, and connect knowledge. Successful instructional
principles include frequent review sessions, division of material in small steps, modeling,
constant assessment, independent practice, and numerous questions which demand a
response from students (Rosenshine, 2012). Students in poverty may have limited access
to technology, resources, and required school materials. This deficit must not be
overlooked and attention should not be draw to it so as to place even more stress on the
students.

Enhancing family involvement and focusing on strengths are vital for enhancing the
success of students in poverty, as well as exposing the students to rigorous curriculum
that demands higher order thinking. Research has shown that students exposed to
curriculum that is learner-centered are less likely to fall into truancy than those exposed

10
 to lower-order instructional strategies. Students in poverty who are viewed as having
intellectual deficiencies based solely on socioeconomic status are less likely to succeed in
school. Unbiased instructional support is necessary in order to enhance the likelihood of
increased student performance (Gorski, 2013)

2.6 Strategies to reduce poverty

Since independence the Government of Zambia identified illiteracy, disease, ignorance
and poverty as the main problems to be addressed in order to attain sustainable
development. It was noted that there were regional and gender dimensions to this
problem. Poverty alleviation has been a subject of subsequent development plans,
sessional papers, commissions and task forces. The government of Zambia is also a
signatory of the Copenhagen protocol of March 1995 where leaders committed
themselves to goals of eradicating poverty, universal primary education, aspects of health
for all and social integration of disadvantaged groups (1999). The National Poverty
Eradication Plan was prepared on the lines of the Copenhagen Summit. It focuses on
poverty eradication, reduction of unemployment, social integration and creation of an
enabling economic, political, cultural and legal environment for social development.

The poverty reduction policy documents and the economic recovery strategy for wealth
and employment creation 2003-2007 articulate strategies to alleviate poverty, create
wealth and employment for sustainable development. Worthy mentioning are the
government efforts in provision of free primary education, increased bursary allocations
to secondary schools, increased provision of science equipment for secondary schools
especially in arid and semi-arid districts and allocation of grants to some schools and
disbursement of the constituency development funds. The recent proposal to waive
tuition fees in all public secondary school as from the year 2008 is a further welcome
effort in financing secondary education to ensure access to education by the poor. These
moves are acknowledged and welcome. However, more efforts need to be made
especially in the financing of education.

11
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The main aim of this chapter is to outline how this study found answers to the research
questions that were derived from the research problem. It looked at the data collection
instruments and how those instruments were employed so as to obtain information and
therefore achieve the research objectives.

3.2 Research Design

Research design is a mapping strategy or the choice of the researcher about components
of his/ her project (Singh, 2006: 14). It has also been defined by Cresswell, (2007: 55) as
a plan for collecting and utilizing information by interviewing or administering a
questionnaire to a sample of individuals. The research design which guided this study
was a case study. The case study allowed the researcher to explore the study over time
through detailed, in-depth at collection involving multiple sources of information
(Cresswell, 2007).

The design also adopted a descriptive survey approach with respect to the sampling
procedure, data collection instruments and data analysis methods used. The descriptive
survey approach was adopted in order to choose a smaller number to represent the whole
population. The survey also afforded the study to collect data through the use of
questionnaires, interviews and content analysis.

3.3 Target Population

Poverty stricken pupils from Luela Primary School in t in Kalulushi District participated
in the study. The pupils ranged between the ages of twelve and seventeen. They were
included in the study in order to examine the effects of poverty on school performance.
Teenagers who dropped out of school participated in the study. They participated in the
study in order to establish the extent to which poverty contributes to the school dropout
rate in the Sabina area of Chambishi in Kalulushi district. Luela Primary School teachers
were included in the study. The school has an establishment of 30 teachers most of whom
are qualified. The study sought their views on the effects of poverty on academic

12
 achievement and the competence of poverty stricken primary school pupils based on their
experience with the pupils during the learning and teaching process.

3.4 Sample Size

Sample size refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute
sample (Kothari, 2004: 44). Technically, the size of the sample depends on the type of
research design being used, desired level of confidence in the result, the amount of
accuracy wanted and the characteristics of the population of interest. Deciding on a
sample size for a qualitative enquiry can be more difficult than for a quantitative one
because there are no rules to follow. It all depends on what will be useful, what will have
credibility and what can be done within available time and resources. Thus, it is
important to note that there is no single best way that can be used to determine sample
size (Singh, 2006: 52). Regardless of the used method to determine the size, sample size
should be large enough and representative. For the purpose of this research a sample of
thirty (30) pupils, 10 teachers, 10 parents and 10 Teenagers who dropped out of school
was selected to participate in the study. Thus the sample size was 60.

3.5 Sampling Technique

The simple random sampling procedure was used to select poverty stricken primary
school pupils, parents and school dropouts in the Sabiana area of Chambishi in Kalulushi
district. The reason for choosing this sampling was that the sample would represent the
larger population.

Primary school pupils who took part in the study were randomly selected from the Luela
Primary school. Thirty (30) respondents were selected. These pupils were selected
through the ballot method. They picked cards with numbers 1 to 100 in a box at random.
Those that picked cards number 1 to 30 then participated in the study. The same
procedure was applied to teachers and parents. Teenagers who dropped out of school
were selected using purposive sampling procedure.

3.6 Research Instruments

In this study, the researcher used questionnaires and structured interview to collect data.
Questionnaires were selected as they helped in collecting more standard data and also

13
 helped in upholding the confidentiality of the respondents as they were not required to
indicate their names on the questionnaires. The researcher designed the questionnaire to
include a Likert scale, multiple choice questions, and open ended questions. Data
collected provided both quantitative and qualitative results. Interviews were selected as
they afforded the researcher to observe certain clues such as facial expressions and other
gestures which were of great help to the study.

3.6.1 Questionnaires
The questionnaires were used to collect data from the teachers and pupils. Questionnaires
are used because it is possible for the researcher to collect data within a short period of
time, get a high response rate and also reduces the financial expenses (Bowling, 1999:
96). The questionnaires were distributed to the 10 teachers and 30 pupils at Luela primary
school.

3.6.2 Interviews
According to (Kombo and Tromp, 2006: 66), interviews are based on use of interview
guide. The guide is in form of written questions that need to be covered by the
interviewer. The study used interviews to gather data from drop-out teenagers and
parents/guardians. The questions were designed in such a way as to elicit subjective
views of the research participants. Where it was noticed that the questions were falling
short in some areas and not bringing out desired responses, probes were used so that the
interviewee could open up and share a lot more. The information helped to create and
bring out the social reality of what was being sought.

3.7 Data Collection Procedure

The study obtained its data from two major sources of data namely primary and
secondary sources.

3.7.1 Primary Resources

Primary data refers to data collected for the first time in the field. Kothari, (2004: 15),
defines it as data that has been collected for the purpose for which it is originally used.
Primary data is information gathered directly from respondents through questionnaire,
interview, focused group discussions, observation and experimental studies, (Kombo and

14
 Tromp, 2006: 68). Primary data for this study was collected using questionnaires and
interviews only.

3.7.2 Secondary Resources

Kothari, (2004: 74) defines secondary data as that kind of data that is available, already
reported by some other scholars. It is an analysis of data that have already been collected
for some other purpose. Using secondary data saves time and money since the work has
already been done to collect the data. It avoids the problems associated with the data
collection process. Unlike primary data, secondary data generally provides a source of
data that is both permanent and available in a form that may be checked relatively easily
by others. The published documents gives the researcher extra information on the
research problem. Some of the information may not be found within the organization. In
the course of this study, secondary data were extensively used. The literature used in this
research therefore was extracted from books, journals, research projects and the internet.

3.8 Data Analysis

Data was analysed using qualitative and quantitative methods (Kothari, 2004: 87). First
quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics with the help of Micro-soft
Excel and presented as percentages, figures and frequency tables. Second qualitative data
involved explanation presented as themes.

3.10 Ethical Consideration

Ethical issues are cardinal in the research world and should be observed fully when one is
carrying out a research. Ethical issues in research are connected with beliefs and
principles about what is right and what is wrong (Kothari, 2004).

In conducting this study, the researcher observed a number of ethical issues regarded in
research. For example, before the commencement of the study, the researcher sought
permission from Kalulushi District Education Secretary’s office, as well as from the
Luela primary school head teacher, teachers and pupils. Further permission was sought
from the parents of the selected pupils. When getting permission, the researcher explained
the kind of study to be carried (Kothari, 2004).

15
The researcher will also inform all the participants that the information collected from
them will be for educational purposes and that confidentiality will be maintained at all
times. The participants were informed they were at liberty to withdraw from participating
in the study at any point whenever they felt uncomfortable to continue as research
respondents. In compliance to the above withdrawal right of participation, the researcher
made it clear that their participation would be purely voluntary.

16
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results and analysis of data collected from the students,
teachers, parents and school drop-outs. The findings are defined by questionaries’ and
interview schedules as such the information was grouped together and presented
following the sequence of objectives. The data was collected, interpreted and analysed in
line with the study topic. The collected data was based on the effect of poverty on
educational attainment in Zambia using Luela Primary School in Kalulushi District of the
Copperbelt Province as a case study.

4.2 Response rate

In any research, stating the response rate of respondents is important as it reflects the in-
depth of data collected. Out of 60 questionnaires and interview schedules, all the
questionnaires were properly filled and returned giving a hundred percent (100%)
response rate. Mugenda (2003: 54) argue that return of 50% and above is satisfactory for
data analysis. Therefore, a return of all the questionnaires was considered exceptional for
this study.

4.3 Background information of the respondents

This section presents demographic description of the respondents, so as to provide a
logical background for the study findings. The respondents’ demographic information is
presented in terms of their gender, professional qualification and level of computer
literacy where applicable. The findings presented in table 4.1 and figure 4.1 illustrate the
number of respondents who participated in the research study. Teachers who participated
in the study stood at 84% and head teachers at 16%. The study targeted 48 respondents
and all of them participated.

17
 Table 4.1: Distribution of pupils, teachers, parents and school dropouts

Respondent Frequency Percentage (%)

Pupils 30 50

Teachers 10 16.7

Parents 10 16.7

School drop-outs 10 16.7

Total 60 100
Source: Field Data, 2020

Figure 4.1: Distribution of pupils, teachers, parents and school dropouts

Source: Field Data, 2020

The findings presented in figure 4.1 illustrate the number of respondents who participated
in the research study. Pupils, teachers, parents and dropouts who participated in the study
stood at 50% for pupils and 16.7% for the other respondents. The study targeted 60
respondents and all of them participated.

4.4 Socio-demographic Profile of Pupils

In the 10-12 age group there were 2 males, 4 females which amounted to 6 students
(20%). In the 14-16 age group there were 5 males and 7 females which amounted to 12
students (40%). In the 11-13 age group there were 3 males and 3 females giving a total of

18
 6 students (20%) and in the age group 17-19 there were 4 females and 2 males. Under
normal circumstances people who belong to the 14-16 age group should have finished
primary level of education. The 11-13 age group which represents 20% of the pupils is
the normal secondary school going age. The data collected on the pupils’ educational
level indicated that there were 2 (6.7%) pupils at Grade 5 level, 10 (33.3%) at Grade 6
level and 18 (60%) at Grade 7 level. No pupils at lower primary school level participated
in the study.

Table 4.2: Socio-demographic Profile of Pupils (n = 30)

Explanatory variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Sex
Male 12 40
Female 18 60
Participant’s age (years)
10 - 12 6 20
11 - 13 6 20
14 - 16 12 40
17 - 19 6 20
Educational level of participants
Grade 5 2 6.7
Grade 6 10 33.3
Grade 7 18 60
________________________________________________________________________
Source: Field Data, 2020

4.4.1 Distribution of pupils according to their parent’s status

Results showing the distribution of pupils according to their parent’s status indicated that
6 (20%) of the pupils had both their parents alive, 9 (30%) had only the mother alive, 3
(10%) had only the father alive while 12 (40%) had both their parents late. From this data
orphans who lost a single parent or both amounted to 80%. This suggests that death is the
one of the causes of poverty in the Sabina community of Chambishi in Kalulushi district.

19
 Table 4.3: Distribution of pupils according to their parent’s status (n = 30)
Explanatory variables Frequency Percentage
(%)
Parent’s status
Both parents alive 6 20
Only mother alive 9 30
Only father alive 3 10
Both parents are late 12 40
________________________________________________________________________
Source: Field data, 2020

4.4.2 Distance covered by pupils

The study also showed that pupils have to walk long distances for them to attend school.
In the study 3 (10%) pupils confirmed that they cover a distance of between 1-3
kilometers to school. 9 (30%) had to walk between 4-6 kilometers, 6 (20%) walk for 7-9
kilometers while the longest distances among the respondents was over 10 kilometers
which was confirmed by12 (40%) of them. Considering the distances covered by these
pupils this can only reveal the fatigue they have to endure and the extent to which this
affects alertness at school.

Table 4.4: Distance covered by pupils (n = 30)

Explanatory variables Frequency Percentage
(%)
Distance covered by pupils
1-3 km 3 10
4-6 km 9 30
7-9 km 6 20
Over 10 km 12 40
________________________________________________________________________
Source: Field data, 2020

Distance is a factor that influences pupils’ performance in schools. Long distances from
their residence to schools were one of the major factors explained by respondents to have

20
 been affecting their academic performances. Long distances make pupils to wake up
early if they are to enter the classes earlier; otherwise they are likely to enter the classes
late which bring many negative impacts in relation to their academic performances.

4.4.3 Means of transport used by pupils

The major means of transport used by these pupils was walking. About (75%) of the
respondents walked to and from school while a quarter (25%) of the respondents went to
and from school by bicycles. However, none of the respondents went to and from school
by car. It is obvious that, pupils arrived at their school tired which results into lack of
attention to the subjects being taught and sometimes sleeping in the classes thus learn
nothing, consequently performing poorly in their academic work. This type of transport
was noted to be cheap and affordable to most students though it needed one to be
physically healthy to manage riding a bicycle for a distance of more than six kilometers.

Figure 4.2: Means of transport used by pupils

Source: Field data, 2020

4.4.4 Number of meals taken by pupils

Furthermore, these pupils hardly get enough meals in between times. This study revealed
that 6 (20%) only had one meal per day, 18 (60%) had two meals per day and 6 (20%)
had three meals per day. Of concern are the 20% who have one meal a day and the 56%

21
 who manage to get two meals a day making a total of 80% of pupils who do not take the
recommended three meals a day. This may directly affect these pupils’ health and school
performance.

Table 4.5: Number of meals taken by pupils (n = 30)

________________________________________________________________________
Explanatory variables Frequency Percentage
(%)
________________________________________________________________________

Number of meals
One meal 6 20
Two meals 18 60
Three meals 6 20
________________________________________________________________________
Source: Field data, 2020

4.4.5 Occupation of parents/guardians

The occupation of parents of pupils is presented on Table 4.3. About 90% of parents were
peasants, 6.7% were civil servants and 3.3% were involved in business. The study
revealed that the majority of parents were peasants whose income from their small farms
results into inadequate output not enough to sustain a households home consumptions and
for incurring scholastic requirements of a pupils such as school fees. A pupil tends to
develop fear of being chased from class and eventually lose concentration in studying.
Whence, low income of parents links to pupils’ poor academic performance.

Table 4.6: Occupation of parents/guardians

Occupation Frequency Percentage (%)

Peasant/farmer 27 90

Civil servant 2 6.7

Business 1 3.3

Total 30 100

Source: Field data, 2020

22
 Figure 4.3: Occupation of parents/guardians

Source: Field data, 2020

4.4.6 Education level of parents/guardians

The study results as presented on Table 4.7 indicate that 80% of parents have attended
primary school, 3.3% of parents have attended secondary school while 16.7% of the
parents have no formal schooling respectively. None of the patents participants have
received tertiary education.

Table 4.7: Education level of parents/guardians

Education level Frequency Percentage (%)
None 5 16.7
Primary 24 80
Secondary 1 3.3
Tertiary 0 0
Total 30 100
Source: Field data, 2020

23
 Figure 4.4: Education level of parents/guardians

Source: Field data, 2020

The implication of the study result is that education level of parents has linkage to poor
academic performance of their children. Parents have the primary responsibility of
instilling ethics of hard working and educational achievements in their children.
Inadequate awareness of parents leads to insufficient supports of their children’s
education achievement. The data from the study area reveals that parents could not
provide adequate encouragement and other educational support to their children. The
study is in line with Payne (2005) who observed that, children whose parents are of high
educational scales have a far better statistical chance of participating in secondary
education. Also, parents with high level of education greatly enhanced pupils’ academic
achievement. From this study, low level of parents’ education negatively influences
academic achievement of their children.

4.5 Socio-demographic Profile of School Drop-out Teenagers

The 14-16 age group had 2 male drop-outs and 2 female drop-outs bringing a total of 54
dropouts (40%). In the 17-19 age group 2 male drop-outs and 4 female drop-outs were
recorded which amounted to a total of 6 drop-outs (60%). The overall total of drop-outs
was 4 males (40%) and 6 females (60%). The 60% drop-outs representing females
suggests that the community might be placing greater value on educating boys than girls.

24
 As a result, educational resources though scarce might be channelled towards boys,
leaving girls with no option but to drop out of school before completion.

Table 4.8: Socio-demographic Profile of School Drop-out Teenagers (n = 10)

Explanatory variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Sex
Male 4 40
Female 6 60
Participant’s age (years)
10 - 12 0 0
11 - 13 0 0
14 - 16 4 40
17 - 19 6 60
Educational level of participants
Grade 4 0 0
Grade 5 2 20
Grade 6 2 20
Grade 7 6 60
Source: Field Data, 2020

Data collected on school drop-outs according to the highest educational level indicated
that there were 2 (20%) drop-outs at Grade 5 level, 2 (20%) at Grade 6 level, 6 (60%) at
Grade 7 level and 0 (0%) at Grade 5 level. The highest drop outs were recorded at Grade
7 suggests that pupils had tried by all means to pursue their studies to the highest level.
However the high financial demands consistent with enrolling for Grade 7 such as school
fees and other related costs barred them from getting to the final year of primary
education.

4.5.1 Distribution of school drop-out pupils according to their parent’s status

Results also showed distribution of school drop-outs according to their parental status.
Only 1 (10%) drop-out had both parents alive, 2 (20%) only the mother alive, 1 (10%)
had only the father alive while 6 (60%) had both parents late. That 60% of the pupils who

25
 did not finish secondary education had both of their parents deceased suggests that one of
the causes of poverty is the death of their parents. This leaves young people exposed to
the harsh effects of poverty and hence they fail to further their studies.

Table 4.9: Distribution of drop-out pupils according to their parent’s status (n = 10)
Explanatory variables Frequency Percentage
(%)
Parent’s status
Both parents alive 1 10
Only mother alive 2 20
Only mother alive 1 10
Both parents are late 6 60
________________________________________________________________________
Source: Field data, 2020

4.6 Socio-demographic Profile of Parents/Guardians

Parents who responded to the questionnaire were grouped in the following categories. In
the 30-39 age group there was only 1 respondent, a female (10%). The 40-49 age group
had 1 male and 1 female giving a total of 2 respondents (20%). In the 50-59 age group
there were 1 males and 2 females which amounted to 3 respondents (30%). The over 60
age group had 31 males and 4 females giving a total of 4 respondents (40%). The grand
total of male respondents was 4 (40%) and the total for female respondents was 6 (60%).
The 60% female respondents indicate that women are more prone poverty than men
probably because they would be preoccupied with household duties than be gainfully
employed. That 60% of this population are the elderly shows that the elderly are at a
much higher risk of being poverty stricken than the younger people. The reason being
that they are not able to work compared to the energetic young people. Parents who
responded to the questionnaire were also grouped according to their marital status. 2
(20%) of them were married, 2 (20%) were single, 4 (40%) were widowed while 2 (20%)
were divorced. That 40% were widowed suggests that death is the major cause of poverty
especially when the deceased was the bread winner. Put together the single, widowed and
divorced, the percentage of single parents becomes 80%.this suggests that single parents
are more prone to poverty than their married colleagues. This supports the view that
single parenthood is a common cause of poverty. This is also supported by the study

26
 conducted by Fransoo, Noralou, Martens, Heaman, Levin and & Chateau (2008), who
noted that almost all of the social, economic, and demographic factors were significant
predictors of progress and performance in school.

Table 4.10: Socio-demographic Profile of Parents (n = 10)

Explanatory variables Frequency Percentage
(%)
Sex
Male 4 40
Female 6 60
Participant’s age
30-39 years 1 10
40-49 years 2 20
50-59 years 3 30
60 and above 4 40
Marital status of participants
Married 20 20
Single 20 20
Widowed 4 40
Divorced 3 20
Source: Field data, 2020

4.7 Findings from teachers

All of the participants had at least 6 years of teaching experience; 8 respondents had
taught this particular school site for 1 to 5 years, and 2 respondents had taught at the
school for 6 to 10 years. The first question had teachers respond to which percentage of
their pupils they believed were living in poverty. Over half of the respondents (56%),
thought more than 75% of their pupils lived in poverty, 31% of the respondents thought
that between 51-75% of their students lived in poverty, and two respondents (13%)
indicated don’t know for this question, but one of these suspected that the percentage of
pupils living in poverty is “very high”. Responses to this question indicate that most

27
 teachers are aware of the high incidence of children living in poverty in their pupil
population.

4.7.1 Educational barriers or challenges which impact the pupils

The second question asked teachers to identify educational barriers or challenges that
impact the pupils they work with by means of a checklist as illustrated in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: Educational barriers or challenges which impact the pupils

Source: Field data, 2020

Language and cognitive development was identified as a barrier by all respondents. Low
attendance, nutrition and health, emotional concerns (including anxiety and stress related
concerns), social knowledge and competence (social skills, ability to self-regulate), and
lack of parental involvement and engagement were identified by 94% of the respondents,
all but one. Achievement gaps and lack of adult mentorship were identified by 81% of
teachers, and transportation was identified by 75%. Teachers were also given space to
identify other barriers. Teachers identified an extensive list of additional barriers

28
 including: no preschool experience, lack of experience to make connections to learning,
low family literacy levels, lack of extracurricular involvement, lack of agency - the belief
in personal ability to make change, intergenerational trauma related to residential school
mistreatment and cultural “near genocide” of assimilation policies toward aboriginal
parents, grandparents, and great grandparents. Also listed were domestic violence in the
home, homelessness, and addiction by parents or other family members. This in line with
White’s (2009) findings that barriers to education can include access to adequate health
care, lack of adequate food and clothing, lack of funds to participate in field trips and
before and after school recreational opportunities, lack of home access to technology, and
lack of mentorship. One respondent mentioned children in care, causing feelings of
sadness, depression and disconnect. Lack of sleep was also mentioned.

4.7.2 Challenges experienced while teaching children affected by poverty

The third question asked teachers what challenges they experienced while teaching
children affected by poverty. Some of the teachers’ responses read:
 “Basic needs must be met before you can begin teaching. We spend a lot of time
feeding, clothing, solving personal issues, providing emotional support”.
 “Pupils often feel tired and hungry and not able to focus on learning activities”.
 “Basic needs have to be met before academics; establishing trust can take time, needs
to occur for successful academic, many pupils significantly below grade level”.
 “Lack of time/people to help with social-emotional needs of pupils, large gaps in
learning, need much more smart teaching”.
 “Low literacy levels make curriculum access hard. Poverty equals hunger equals
fatigue”.
 “Poor attendance, resulting in minimal progress, lack of background knowledge,
overall development delays”.
 “Every day brings new challenges and you need to be prepared to change things on
the fly. When you are dealing with children of poverty there are often crisis
situations. Often academic learning is put on hold until emotional calm is restored”.

Other research statements asked teachers to respond using a five point Likert scale. The
Likert scale statements and the tally of the teachers’ responses are illustrated in the Table

29
4.11. The numbers in the table illustrate the range of teachers’ perceptions with respect to
various poverty related issues.

Table 4.11: Challenges experienced while teaching children affected by poverty

disagree
Strongly

Disagree

Neutral

Agree
agree
Strongly
Likert scale questions

The school feeding program is adequate to meet 1 3 1 4 1

the nutritional needs of pupils who come
to school hungry
I feel that there are adequate staffing resources at 8 2
my school to meet the learning needs of
students who require extra support to address
learning gaps
The resources at the school are adequate to meet 6 4
the social emotional needs of pupils living in
poverty
I feel well prepared to teach in a school where 1 1 1 5 2
poverty related issues are present on a regular
basis
I feel my teacher training was adequate in 3 5 1 1
preparing me for teaching students who live in
poverty
My professional development and school in- 4 3
service opportunities had increased their
awareness of poverty related issues
Source: Field data, 2020

Approximately half of the teachers either agreed or strongly agreed that the school
feeding programs were adequate. All teachers either strongly disagreed or disagreed that
the staffing resources at the school are adequate to meet the learning needs of pupils who
require extra support to address learning gaps. Again, 100% of teachers either strongly
disagreed or disagreed that the resources at the school are adequate to meet the social
emotional needs of pupils living in poverty. Interestingly, 70% of teachers agreed or
strongly agreed that they felt well prepared to teach in a school where poverty related
issues are present on a regular basis. Most teachers, 80%, either strongly disagreed or
disagreed that their teacher training had prepared them adequately for teaching students
who live in poverty. And yet, 75% agreed or strongly agreed that professional

30
 development and school in-service opportunities had increased their awareness of poverty
related issues. This corresponds to the findings by White et al., (2013) who indicated that
most teachers felt that their teacher training had not prepared them adequately to teach in
areas of high poverty, but that their professional development and school in-service
opportunities had increased their awareness and understanding of poverty related issues.

4.7.3 School initiatives helpful at mitigating educational barriers related to poverty

The fifth question asked teachers to identify school initiatives that they believed were
helpful at mitigating educational barriers related to poverty. All respondents felt the
feeding programs was helpful; 94% thought that school wide literacy support, and events
to welcome parents and families were helpful; 75% identified mentorship programs as
helpful. The following initiatives were identified as helpful by 63% of the respondents:
extracurricular activities available to pupils, school celebrations, cultural dancing and
Parents as Literacy Support. Figure 4.6 illustrates which school initiatives teachers
believed to be helpful ranked in descending order.

Figure 4.6: Most helpful School Initiatives

Source: Field data, 2020

31
 Teachers added a variety of comments including suggestions for initiatives not yet in
place:
 “All sports initiatives are great. Dance is important, especially performances”.
 “Many students seem positively impacted by extra-curricular activities. Our school
seems to have less compared to others, less parent support, rides, etc.
 “Any events or activities that provide social development and community building are
beneficial to any child’s development. Confidence comes from experience so the
more opportunities the better.”

4.7.4 Additional comments on current school strengths/successes for school initiatives

The final study question asked teachers for additional comments and thoughts on current
school strengths and successes, and recommendations for school initiatives that they
would like to see in place for the future. Suggestions were varied and included references
to current successes:
 “This school does a great job of trying to help break the cycle of poverty. We need to
make sure all staff are on board working with each individual child”.
 “Continue professional development on issues of poverty and culture. Systematically
use literature that demonstrates hopefulness, optimism, success, resiliency, celebrate
pupil success in a BIG WAY. Integrate art, dance, Media as alternate ways of
demonstrating learning”.
 “Consider a section on trauma and some of the research around neuro-scientific
treatment of trauma in teaching”.

Collectively, the participants’ comments provided rich qualitative data to inform this
research. The following comment illustrates the importance of belief in teacher agency:
“this school does a great job of trying to help break the cycle of poverty. Other
suggestions included the systematic use of literature that demonstrates hopefulness,
optimism, success, and resiliency; celebrating pupil success in a big way; and integrating
art, dance, and media as alternative ways of demonstrating learning. Overall, comments
expressed hope and a belief that pupils need to work from their strengths.

32
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the general conclusions reached in the study. The section also
includes recommendations which, when applied appropriately would enable the
concerned authorities initiate changes in areas they fall short and also improve upon areas
where they function well in order to enhance the performance of children from poverty
stricken homes.

5.2 Summary of Findings

The study revealed that death of breadwinners; unemployment and lack of education are
the prime causes of poverty in the Sabina community of Chambishi in Kalulushi district.
The results of this study indicated that poverty negatively impacts on the academic
achievement of students. Teachers’ responses indicated a high awareness and
understanding of poverty related issues. The majority felt that their teacher training was
inadequate in preparing them to teach pupils who live in poverty and that their
professional development had increased their awareness of poverty related issues.
Increased awareness of poverty and education issues can improve teacher efficacy and
increase teacher agency in high poverty contexts (Flessa, 2007). With respect to adequacy
of resources, all teachers felt that current staffing resources at the school were inadequate
to meet the learning needs of pupils who require extra support to address learning gaps.
Teachers identified many poverty related barriers that affected their pupils. The most
prevalent barriers included language and cognitive development, low attendance,
nutrition and health concerns, emotional concerns, lack of social knowledge and
competence, lack of parental involvement and engagement, achievement gaps and lack of
adult mentorship. Other barriers identified by teachers included no pre-school experience,
lack of experience to make connections to learning, low family literacy levels, lack of
extra-curricular involvement and the belief in personal ability to make change.

In terms of effective school initiatives, teachers found that many of the school initiatives
currently in place are helpful at mitigating educational barriers related to poverty. All
participants identified the school meals programs, 94% identified the school wide literacy

33
support program and events to welcome parents and families. Also identified as helpful at
mitigating barriers were: the Parents as Literacy Support, school and extra-curricular
activities available to pupils, including ball games, cross-country and track and field.

Having taught at this school, the researcher is familiar with current school initiatives. The
school does not charge for any school supplies or books. This school is already making
many attempts to make education as inclusive as possible for its pupils, and to maintain
the dignity of pupils and families by avoiding situations where families are asked to pay
for things that they may not be able to afford. Almost all the pupils participate in the
school’s fully funded feeding program. Pupils and families do not need to sign up for
these programs so there is no shame or stigma attached. Pupils simply indicate by show
of hands, after classroom attendance is taken, how many will be participating in the
feeding program that day. Although 100% of the teachers felt that nutrition and health
were barriers, about 50% of the teachers agreed or strongly agreed that the feeding
program was adequate to meet pupils’ nutritional needs. This indicates some degree of
effectiveness of the school meals programs, however, approximately 30% of teachers felt
that the meal programs were not adequate. Teachers provided thoughtful suggestions
including comments illustrating the systematic use of literature that demonstrates
hopefulness, optimism, success, and resiliency; celebrating pupil success in a big way;
and integrating art, dance, and media as alternative ways of demonstrating learning.
Overall, comments expressed hope and a belief that pupils need to work from their
strengths.

Although the relationship between poverty and schooling is extremely complex there are
numerous steps that schools can undertake to mitigate the effects of poverty. These
include initiatives to address basic needs such as hunger, including school meals
programs that do not stigmatize pupils. It is also important to ensure that school budgets
provide for all the costs of education, including school supplies and after school
activities, so that pupils do not miss out on crucial learning and social activities. Nelson et
al., (2013) recommend the creation of schools with mixed cohorts of pupils from both
advantaged and disadvantaged backgrounds. Although this is a sound recommendation, it
is not always possible to implement, as school populations are largely determined by the

34
 community demographics. Interventions to include parents in their children’s education
are also recommended. Findings in this study indicate that this is a school that is working
hard to strengthen school community connections, including relationships with parents.

5.3 Conclusions
The study found out that although there are numerous causes of poverty in the Sabina
community of Chambishi in Kalulushi district, death, unemployment and lack of
education emerged as the prime ones. Poverty presents a number of negative effects on
academic achievement. It was noted that most poverty stricken pupils eat two meals a
day, walk long distances to school and arrive late for lessons. Poverty stricken pupils
revealed that they had been suspended from attending lessons for failure to pay fees to
contribute to the running of the school thereby losing valuable learning time. School
drop-outs revealed that their main reason for not finishing their studies was financial
shortages. School records on pupils’ performance revealed that poverty stricken pupils
performed lower than their non-poor counterparts. Although the majority of pupils were
beneficiaries of the government’s free education, they expressed facing shortages of
stationery, school levies and other basic necessities. This would suggest that the financial
aid given by government to poverty stricken pupils does not meet all the educational
requirements needed by pupils.

5.4 Recommendations
In light of the aforementioned conclusions, it is recommended that school administrators
should find other more positive ways of encouraging poverty stricken pupils to pay
school fees. For example, school heads can stagger the payments of fees in order to allow
poverty stricken pupils to pay in small and affordable amounts throughout the year.
While parents’ low level of education may be the cause of their unemployment and low
incomes, it is recommended government and donor organizations embark on poverty
alleviation programs that will make poverty stricken parents earn a living. Donor
community is urged to consider funding education for orphans and those pupils who
belong to impoverished families in order to reduce the rate of school drop-outs.

35
 The study also makes recommendations specifically related to instruction and improving
achievement. The study pointed out that children raised in low-income families score
lower than children from more affluent families on assessments of health, cognitive
development, school achievement, and emotional well-being. The study therefore
identified developmental preschool programs, supplemental reading programs, reducing
class size, and school wide projects in prevention and support as being effective in
promoting learning for at-risk students.

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommends that:

1. The Ministry of General Education include teacher training programs that support
new teachers to be agents of social change.
2. The need for teacher training programs to educate teachers so they are knowledgeable
about going into those situations that are under-resourced and disadvantaged. Teacher
training programs could play a role in emphasizing social justice issues and could
teach teachers how to be advocates for their students.
3. The creation of genuine professional learning communities to develop a common
sense of purpose and create the notion of collective efficacy among teachers,
particularly among those teachers who work in high poverty communities.

5.5 Suggestions for further research

Suggestions for further research include recommendations to investigate how schools,
communities, and social agencies can work together to improve educational outcomes
and life chances for students living in poverty.

36
REFERENCES

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Poverty Research Centre.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (2008). Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge MA: Harvard

University Press

Browne, K., (1992). An introduction to sociology. Oxford: Blackwell publishers Ltd.

Chipindi, F. (2006, January). How to fight poverty in Zambia. Education for all magazines.
Volume 154. No 1

Cresswell, J., (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design choosing among five approaches.
London: Sage Publications.

Davidoff, L., (1987). Introduction to psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Donald D, Lazarus S, Lolwana, P (2010). Educational Psychology in Social Context Ecosystem

Applications in Southern Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press

Flessa, J. (2007). Poverty and Education: Towards Effective Action: A Review of the Literature.
Toronto: Elementary Teachers’ Federation of Ontario.

Fransoo, R. R., Noralou, P. R., Martens, P. J., Heaman, M., Levin, B., & Chateau, D. (2008).
How Health Status Affects Progress and Performance in School: A Population-based Study.
Canadian Journal of Public Health, 99(4), 344-249.

Gallagher, J. J. (1991). Longitudinal interventions: Virtues and limitations. American

Behavioural Scientist, 34, 431-439.

Gibson, J., (1981). Psychology of the classroom. New York: Prentice Hall.

IMERCSA FACTSHEET Number 12, (2000). Poverty. Gaborone: Musokotwane Environment.

GOK (2001). Poverty Reduction. Strategy Paper for the period 2001 – 2004, Nairobi:
Government Printer

37
Gorski, P. (2013). Building a pedagogy of engagement for students in poverty. Phi Delta
Kappan, 95(1), 48-52. Retrieved March 4, 2014, from [Link]

Jensen, E. (2013). Engaging Students with Poverty in Mind: Practical Strategies for Raising
Achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Jensen, E. (2009). Teaching with Poverty in Mind. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Kombo, D. K and Tromp, K. (2006). Proposal and Thesis Writing. Mukumya: Pauline
Publishing, Kenya.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology and Teaching. New Delhi: New age International.

Kothari, C. R (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: New Age
Publishers.

Mugenda, M. (2003). Research methods, African center for Technology studies, Nairobi Kenya

Murphy, J. F & Tobin, K. J. (2011). Homelessness comes to school: how homeless children and
youths can succeed. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(3), 32-37.

Nelson, J., Martin, K. & Featherstone, G. (2013). What Works in Supporting Children and Young
People to Overcome Persistent Poverty? A Review of UK and International Literature.
Belfast: Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister (OFMDFM).

Kombo, D. K. & Orodho, A. J. (2003). Research Methods. Nairobi: Kenyatta University Institute
of Open Learning.

Payne, R. K. (2005). A Framework for Understanding Poverty (4th Ed.). Highlands, TX: aha!
Process, Inc.

Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: research-based strategies that all teachers should
know. American Educator, 39(1), 12-19.

Sachs J, D. (2005). The end of poverty, Economic possibilities of our time. New York: The
Penguin press.

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Sigh, Y. K (2006). Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics, New Delhi: New age
International.

Washington Central Supervisory Union. (2014) Blue Ribbon Document. Montpelier, VT:WSCU
District Board.

White, M. (2009). Poverty and Education Report: Students are not to Blame Understanding
the Structural Causes of Poverty. Vancouver: BC Teachers’ Federation.

White, M., Field, A., & Kuehn, L (2013). 2012 Poverty and Education survey: A teacher’s
perspective. Overview of the findings. Vancouver: BC Teacher’s Federation.

Woolley M E, Kaylor A G (2006). Protective family factors in the context of neighbourhood:

Promoting positive school outcomes. Family Relations, 55(2): 93-104.

39
Appendix I - Questionnaire for Teachers

CHALIMBANA UNIVERSITY

I, Peggy Musuntula, a student of Chalimbana University am conducting a research study topic:

Causes and effects of poverty on Educational Attainment in Kalulushi District. You are among
the respondents selected to participate in this questionnaire. Please note that the information you
will avail shall be treated anonymously therefore, you are not required to reveal your name on
the questionnaire. This research is purely for academic purposes as it is a partial fulfilment for
the award of a Degree in Primary Education.

Instructions
1. Do not indicate your name on the questionnaire.
2. Put a tick () where appropriate or fill in the required information.
3. Be as sincere as possible in your responses.
4. Please attach another sheet if you need more room for any of the open-ended responses in
this survey.

Basic Demographic Information

Years of teaching experience:
0 – 5 years 6 – 10 years Over 10 years
Years of teaching experience:
0 – 5 years 6 – 10 years Over 10 years

Teacher’s Perspective
1. What percentage of your pupils do you believe are living in poverty?
None Less than 20% Between 25% to 50%
Between 51-75% More than 75% Don’t know

40
2. Which of the following educational barriers or challenges impact the students you work
with?
Low attendance Nutrition and health
Language and cognitive development Transportation
Low attendance Lack of adult mentorship
Emotional concerns No pre-school experience
Social knowledge and competence Low family literacy levels
Lack of parental involvement and engagement
Other (Please describe):………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3. What challenges do you experience while teaching children affected by poverty?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Please put a tick () in the appropriate box to show your level of agreement with the
following statements on a scale of 1 to 5.
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree
disagree
Strongly

Disagree

Neutral

Agree
agree
Strongly
Statement

1 2 3 4 5

The school feeding program is adequate to meet the

nutritional needs of pupils who come
to school hungry
I feel that there are adequate staffing resources at my
school to meet the learning needs of
students who require extra support to address
learning gaps
The resources at the school are adequate to meet the
social emotional needs of pupils living in poverty
I feel well prepared to teach in a school where
poverty related issues are present on a regular
basis
I feel my teacher training was adequate in preparing
me for teaching students who live in

41
 poverty
My professional development and school in-service
opportunities had increased their awareness of
poverty related issues

5. Which of the following school initiatives do you believe are helpful at mitigating educational
barriers related to poverty? Please put a tick () in the appropriate box
School celebrations (sports day, assemblies, performances)

School wide literacy support

School feeding programs

Extra-curricular activities available to students (volleyball, basketball, cross

country, track and field)
Parents as Literacy Support

Other (Please describe):………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. In your opinion, what school initiatives have been most helpful in decreasing the learning
gaps and improving learning outcomes for students affected by poverty? (e.g., school wide
literacy support program, school feeding programs, etc.) Please comment or explain your
response
………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. Please include any additional comments which you believe would aid my research, including
your thoughts on current school strengths/successes and recommendations for school
initiatives you would like to see in place in the future.
………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
Thank you for your co-operation

42
Appendix II: Questionnaire for Pupils

Dear pupil, I am Peggy Musuntula, a student of Chalimbana University doing a research on “The
causes and effects of poverty on educational attainment in Kalulushi District.” Your contribution
is very important. I request you to answer the following questions. All the information will
remain confidential and will be used for academic purposes of this research only.

Instructions:
Choose the correct answer from the multiple choices in the box by ticking the option that best
suits your view. Other instructions are indicated as per requirement of the question.

Section A: General information:

Tick () the appropriate answer
1. Sex of respondent:
Male
Female
2. Age:
10 – 12
11 – 13
14 – 16
17 - 19
3. Current level of education:
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7

43
4. Indicate your parents who are still living:
Both parents are alive
Only mother is alive
Only father is alive
Both parents are late
5. What is the distance from home to school?
1-3 km
3-6 km
7-9 km
Over 10 km
6. What type of transport does your child use when going to school?
Walking
Uses bicycle
Uses vehicle
7. How many meals do you have in a day?
1 meal
2 meals
3 meals
8. What is your parents’/guardians’ occupation?
Peasants
Business
Civil servant
Others (specify) .....................................................................................................................
10. What is the level of education of your parents?
Non-formal education
Primary education
Secondary education
Tertiary education

Thank you for your co-operation

44
Appendix III: Interview schedule for school drop-out teenagers
CHALIMBANA UNIVERSITY
1. Gender:
Male
Female
2. Age (years):
10-12
13-16
14-16
17-19
3. Where do you stay?
4. How far have you gone in education?
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
5. Why did you drop out of school?
6. Who paid for your schools fees?
7. Indicate your parents who are still living
Both parents are alive
Only mother is alive
Only father is alive
Both parents are late
Thank you for your co-operation

45
Appendix IV: Interview schedule for parents/guardians
CHALIMBANA UNIVERSITY
1. Gender:
Male
Female
2. Age (years):
30-39
40-49
50-59
Above 60
3. How far have you gone in education?
4. What is your marital status?
Married
Single
Widowed
Divorced
5. Do you have problems providing school fees for your children?
6. If not, what are the reasons for your failure to pay school fees?
7. What do you do for a living?
8. Do you manage to provide end meets for your family?
Thank you for your co-operation

46