Environmental Health and Safety

for the

Safety Officer

Adrian Estes, Ph.D., RN, RSP, RES.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Introduction

Environmental Health and Safety for the Safety Manager is intended for individuals who chose Safety as a
Profession. This book provides the fundamentals of occupational health and safety, regardless what type of
industry. Examples in this book include Construction and the Oil & Gas Upstream Operations, as these two
industries have the highest rate of workplace fatalities and serious injuries.

This book is intended to serve as a starting point (and continue as a reference) for the Safety Professional.
And, includes reference to the United States of America’s regulatory agency the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), because many countries (especially in the Middle East are now starting to
use the OSHA standards and regulations to ensure workers are safe for projects within their country.

About the Author:

Adrian A. Estes, PhD, RN, RSP, RES.

PhD in Safety Management 1999 Greenwich University. Hilo, HI
Dissertation “Controlling the Cost of Safety in Healthcare Facilities”
Master’s in Safety Management 1995 Vermont College of Norwich University, Montpelier, VT
Thesis “Safety Officer’s Role in Construction”
Registered Nurse – Arizona since 1995
Registered Safety Professional since 1999
Registered Ergonomic Specialist since 2009
RigPass since 2009

For the past 19 years, Dr. Estes has been an author, consultant, instructor, presenter and expert
witness in the field of occupational health and safety for all industries. However, his passion has
always been ergonomics.

IBOEHSinternational@[Link]

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Environmental Health and Safety
For The Safety Manager
1. What is Safety in the Workplace? Section 1
Safety Terminology pg 1-1
Safety Process pg 1-2
The Importance of Safety
- Safety Belongs to Everyone pg 1-3
- Accidents Are Preventable pg 1-3
- Cost of Workplace/Jobsite Injuries pg 1-3
- Leading by Example pg 1-4
- Safety Around the Clock pg 1-4
- Safety is Contagious Pass It On pg 1-4
Duties of a Safety Manager pg 1-5
Management’s Responsibility for Safety
- Top Management pg 1-7
- Middle Management pg 1-7
- Supervisors pg 1-7
Role of the Safety Committee pg 1-8
Employee’s Safety Responsibility pg 1-9
Service Companies (Contractors and Vendors) pg 1-10
Company Safety Policy Letter pg 1-14
Alcohol and Drugs Policy pg 1-15
Firearms and Weapons Policy pg 1-16
Usage of a Portable Fire Extinguisher - procedure pg 1-17

2. Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Workplace Safety

Occupational Safety and Health Administration
- 29 CFR Part 1910 General Industry pg 2-2
- 29 CFR Part 1926 Construction pg 2-37
International Labour Organisation
- Occupational Safety and Health Convention 1981 pg 2-63
- Occupational Safety and Health Convention 1985 pg 2-64
- Occupational Safety and Health Convention 2006 pg 2-65
- ILO Construction pg 2-65
International Standards Organization (ISO)
- ISO 9000 Quality Management pg 2-132
- ISO 14000 Environmental Management pg 2-132
- ISO 31000 Risk Management pg 2-133
- OHSAS 18001 pg 2-133

3. Communicating Safety Effectively Section 3

Principles of Communication
- Elements of Communication pg 3-1
- Methods of Communication pg 3-1
- Effectively Listening pg 3-1
Communicating Your Policy and Program pg 3-2
Safety Training
- Approaches to Safety Training pg 3-3
- Lesson Plans pg 3-5
- Training Success pg 3-6
- Conducting Training pg 3-6
- Documenting Training pg 3-6

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Data Presentation
- Data Collection pg 3-8
- Trends pg 3-8
- Methods for Data Presentation pg 3-12

4. Hazard Recognition and Control Measures Section 4

Sources of Hazards pg 4-1
Typical Hazard Incidents pg 4-3
Hazard Control Measures pg 4-4
Housekeeping – Special Note pg 4-5
Types of Personal Protective Equipment pg 4-5
- Head Protection pg 4-6
- Eye and Face Protection pg 4-9
- Hearing Protection pg 4-11
- Hand Protection pg 4-13
- Safety Shoes pg 4-15
- Reflective Vest pg 4-16
- Respiratory Protection pg 4-17
- Fall Protection pg 4-20
- Safety Nets pg 4-24
- Specialty Clothing pg 4-24
Training Requirement for PPE pg 4-25
Employee Personal Protective Equipment Checklist pg 4-26
Conducting Workplace / Jobsite Hazard Assessment pg 4-27

5. Fire Safety & Life Safety Section 5

Fire
- Fire Chemistry pg 5-1
- Combustion pg 5-2
- Causes and Contributors pg 5-4
- Classification of Fire pg 5-5
- Theory of Extinguishment pg 5-6
- Extinguishing Agents pg 5-7
- Role of the Portable Fire Extinguisher pg 5-8
- Fire Prevention Practice pg 5-9
- Fire Terminology pg 5-10
- Sample Fire Prevention Inspection Checklist pg 5-12
Life Safety
- Exits pg 5-13
- Hazard Content pg 5-13
- Human Behavior pg 5-14

6. Electrical Safety Section 6

Principles of Electricity pg 6-1
Hazards of Electricity pg 6-2
Electrical Injuries pg 6-4
Common Problem Areas pg 6-6
Electrical Accident Prevention pg 6-6
Electrical Hazard Checklist pg 6-7
Responding to an Electrical Emergency pg 6-9
Control of Hazardous Energy - sample procedure pg 6-10

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

7. Hand and Portable Power Tools Section 7
General Requirements pg 7-1
Hand Tools pg 7-2
Power Tools pg 7-3
Guards pg 7-4
Safety Switches pg 7-5
Electric Tools pg 7-5
Pneumatic Tools pg 7-5
Hydraulic Power Tools pg 7-6
Powder Actuated Tools pg 7-7
Power Tool Inspection Checklist – OSHA Standards pg 7-8
Hand and Power Tool Safety Policy pg 7-10

8. Machine Safeguarding Section 8

Basic Areas Requiring Safeguarding pg 8-2
Exposure of Blades pg 8-2
Anchoring Fixed Machinery pg 8-3
Hazardous Mechanical Motions and Actions pg 8-3
Requirement for Safeguarding pg 8-4
Employee Training for Machine Safeguarding pg 8-4

9. Material Handling Section 9

Manual Lifting pg 9-1
Safe Lifting Technique pg 9-1
Considerations for Material Handling pg 9-2
Common Manual Material Handling Problems pg 9-2
Mechanical Material Handling pg 9-3
Types of Mechanical Material Handling Equipment pg 9-3
Powered Industrial Trucks pg 9-4
Forklift Inspection Checklist – Fuel pg 9-5
Forklift Inspection Checklist – Electric pg 9-6
Rules to Follow When Working Around Material Handling Equip pg 9-6
Cranes pg 9-7
Storage of Material
- Open Yard Storage pg 9-8
- Indoor Storage pg 9-8
- Storage of General Material pg 9-9
- Storage of Bagged Material, Brick & Block pg 9-10
- Lumber Storage pg 9-10
- Storage of Materials in Bins & Hoppers pg 9-11
- Handling and Storing Reinforcing Steel / Sheets pg 9-11
- Handling and Storing Pipe, Conduit and Cylindrical pg 9-11
- Storing Sand, Gravel and Crushed Stone pg 9-11
Handling Flammable and Combustible Liquids pg 9-12

10. Compressed Gas Cylinders Section 10

Types of Compressed Gases pg 10-1
Hazards Associated with Compressed Gases pg 10-1
General Handling of Cylinders pg 10-3
Moving Cylinders pg 10-4
Storing Cylinders pg 10-4
Cylinder Usage pg 10-5
Flammable Gases pg 10-5
“The One That Got Away” Article pg 10-6

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

11. Vehicular Safety Section 11
Hazards of Driving pg 11-2
Traffic Regulations
- Traffic Signs pg 11-3
- Traffic Signals pg 11-6
- Pavement Markings pg 11-6
Driving Practice
- Defensive Driving pg 11-8
- Aggressive Driving pg 11-10
- Vehicle Control pg 11-11
Vehicle Maintenance
- Failures pg 11-15
- Safety Checks pg 11-15
Driver and Vehicle Inspection Report pg 11-16
Construction Machinery pg 11-17

12. Office Safety Section 12

Slips, Trips and Falls pg 12-1
Objects Striking or Struck By pg 12-3
Caught In or Between pg 12-3

13. Hazardous Materials Management Section 13

Hazard Communication
How Can Workplace Hazards be Minimized? pg 13-1
Why Is a Written Hazard Communication Program Necessary? pg 13-1
How Must Chemicals be Labeled? pg 13-2
Material Safety Data Sheet pg 13-3
Training Workers pg 13-3
Hazardous Materials
Common Chemicals Found in the Workplace pg 13-6
Waste Minimization pg 13-7
Hazardous Determination pg 13-7
Handling Hazardous Waste pg 13-8
Storing Hazardous Waste pg 13-8
Transporting Hazardous Waste pg 13-9
Disposal of Hazardous Waste pg 13-9
Hazardous Material Identification System pg 13-10

14. Confined Spaces and Hot Work Permits Section 14

Confined Space
Defining a Confined Space pg 14-2
Identification of Confined Spaces pg 14-3
Designated Roles pg 14-3
Permit Required Confined Space Entry Procedures pg 14-5
Pre-Entry Preparation Procedure pg 14-6
Pre-Entry Evaluation Procedure pg 14-6
Procedure for Atmospheric Testing pg 14-7
Confined Space Entry Permits pg 14-8
Termination of Entry and Cancellation of Entry Permit pg 14-9
Permit to Non-Permit Reclassification pg 14-9
Retrieval Systems pg 14-10
Employee Information and Training pg 14-10
Hot Work
Who Is Involved in Hot Work Permit? pg 14-12
Obtaining a Hot Work Permit pg 14-12
What Safety Measures are Required? pg 14-13

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Sample Hot Work Permit pg 14-14
Designated Hot Work Room pg 14-15
Operations Not Requiring a Hot Work Permit pg 14-15
Situations Where Hot Work Shall Not Permitted pg 14-15

15. Excavations Section 15

Hazards Associated with Excavations pg 15-1
General Requirements pg 15-3
Inspections of Excavation Sites pg 15-4
Employee Protection in Excavation Sites pg 15-4
Material and Equipment pg 15-5
Installation and Removal of Support pg 15-5
Sloping and Benching Systems pg 15-5
Excavations Made in Type A Soil pg 15-6
Excavations Made in Type B Soil pg 15-7
Excavations Made in Type C Soil pg 15-7
Excavations Made in Layered Soil pg 15-8
Soil Classification Requirements pg 15-11
Visual Tests pg 15-11
Manual Tests pg 15-12
Excavation Competent Person Evaluation pg 15-13

16. Demolition and Explosives Section 16

Demolition pg 16-1
Explosives pg 16-8

17. Elevated Working Platforms Section 17

Ladders pg 17-1
Scaffolding pg 17-5
Aerial Lifts pg 17-11
Fall Protection pg 17-17

18. Safety Inspections Section 18

Types of Safety Inspections pg 18-2
Documenting Safety Inspections pg 18-4
Safety Inspection Checklist pg 18-5

19. Motivation Section 19

Industrial Social Psychology Theories pg 19-2
Motivating pg 19-5

20. Occupational Health Section 20

Air Contaminants pg 20-1
Solvents pg 20-1
Particulates pg 20-2
Chemical Hazards pg 20-4
Biological Hazards pg 20-5
Bloodborne Pathogens pg 20-6
Physical Hazards pg 20-9
Non-Ionizing Radiation pg 20-10
Ionizing Radiation pg 20-11
Thermal Stress – Heat pg 20-12
Thermal Stress – Cold pg 20-13
Noise pg 20-15
Illumination pg 20-17

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Ergonomics
Ergonomic Risk Factors
Physical Demands pg 20-23
Environmental Demands pg 20-23
Mental Demands pg 20-24
Worker Wellness pg 20-25
Ergonomic Disorders pg 20-28
Ergonomic Program Development pg 20-30
Ergonomic Injury Prevention pg 20-30
Working Away from Home pg 20-33
Industrial Toxicology
- Routes of Entry pg 20-34
- Regulatory Exposure Limits pg 20-35
- Toxic Actions pg 20-35
- Physiological Response to Toxins pg 20-36
- Laboratory Tests for Toxins pg 20-36
- Chemical Excretion pg 20-37
Food Safety Management
- Part I Introduction pg 20-39
- Part II Food Hazards and Foodborne Illnesses pg 20-41
- Part III Preventing Foodborne Illnesses pg 20-49
- Part IV Food Safety Control pg 20-69

21. Accident Investigation Section 21

Principles of an Accident Investigation
Causative Factors pg 21-3
Significance of Reporting an Accident pg 21-4
Types of Accidents pg 21-4
Role of the Accident Investigator pg 21-4
Preparing and Responding to an Accidents
What Types of Accidents Occur pg 21-5
What is Needed for an Investigation pg 21-7
Responding to an Accident pg 21-8
Investigative Techniques
Gathering the Facts pg 21-9
Types of Witnesses pg 21-9
Interviewing Techniques pg 21-10
Record the Scene pg 21-10
Analysis the Data
Scientific Method pg 21-11
Change Analysis pg 21-11
Sequence Diagrams pg 21-12
Gross Hazard Analysis pg 21-12
Job Safety Analysis pg 21-12
Failure Mode and Effect pg 21-12
Fault Tree Analysis pg 21-12
Accident Investigation Report pg 21-13
Sample – Accident Investigation Report Form pg 21-14

22. Documenting Safety Section 22

Health and Safety Program pg 22-1
Safety Inspections pg 22-3
Education and Training pg 22-3
Enforcement of Safety pg 22-4
Injury and Illness Recording pg 22-4
Accident Investigation Reports pg 22-4

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety In the Workplace? 1-1

WHAT IS SAFETY IN THE WORKPLACE?

Each year thousands of workers die in the workplace and thousands more sustain a serious injury – STILL.
The need for safety in the workplace is not new and over the years hard lessons have been learned, but
workers are still dying or becoming seriously injured. And, in order for us to better appreciate and serve in
the capacity as a Safety Manager we need to have an understanding of Safety Terminology, The Importance
of Safety, Duties of a Safety Manager, Management’s Safety Role and the Role of the Safety Committee.

Safety Terminology
Safety is a term we hear more and more each day, • Tweedy defines safety as “human actions to
at work and home. At work we hear about safety control, reduce, or prevent accidental loss
in the form of preventing accidents. In our home, while still accomplishing the task.”
safety implies a need for protection. And, if we
look around we can find several definitions for
the term safety by numerous authors. Each of these definitions for safety recognizes
the need for prevention and/or control. However,
• Webster’s Dictionary defines safety as “the before we can develop a working definition for
state of being safe.” the term safety we need to have a clear
understanding of some other terms closely
• Beaver defines safety as “an ever-changing associated with safety: accident, hazard and risk.
condition in which one attempts to minimize
the risks of injury, illness, death or property Accident is considered to be an unplanned
damage in order to maximize success.” disruption to the normal operation or process,
which has the potential for producing injury,
illness or property damage.
• Hammer defines safety as “freedom from
hazards.” Hazard is any existing or potential condition in
the workplace or home that can result in an
injury, illness, and death or property damage.
• National Safety Council defines safety as
“the control of recognized hazards to attain Risk is the probability that a hazard will become
an acceptable level of risk.” an accident.

Accident Proneness one who has a tendency to

incur accidents, usually due to being
uncoordinated.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety In the Workplace? 1-2

Unsafe Act a hazardous performance by a worker.

The second step to the safety process is
Unsafe Condition a hazardous work environment. eliminating or mitigating the hazards. When the
hazard is identified then it can be determined
Safety when these definitions and terms are which means are available to either eliminate or
applied to the workplace safety actually means mitigate it. Methods for eliminating or mitigating
achieving an environment free from harm or a hazard include:
even the threat of harm. But, because we do not • Engineering – physical separates the
live in a stationary environment, achieving this worker from the hazard.
environment will require an on-going safety • Administrative – utilization of
process. management personnel to limit the amount
of exposure a worker may have to a
hazard.
• Work Practice / Personal Protective
Equipment – the worker is responsible for
protecting themselves from a hazard –
considered the least desirable.

The third step of the safety process involves

evaluating the remaining risk. Although every
effort may be made to eliminate or mitigate a
Safety Process hazard there remains a possibility that not all the
We all know that our workplaces and homes are hazard is being controlled. Furthermore we need
not places of a stationary lifestyle, and therefore it to determine if the engineering methods or worker
is not possible to eliminate all the hazards, which protection measures we implemented for the
can cause harm or accidents. With the original hazard has created a new hazard.
development of new products and procedures, we
are constantly experiencing change. Changes The fourth step to the safety process is
which effect the previous measures we had in determining if the benefits outweigh the
place to provide for our safety and the safety of remaining risk. At some point we must accept the
others. fact that we will not be able to eliminate or
mitigate all the hazards associated in the
By realizing that we are constantly experiencing workplace. And, it is at this point we must
changes in our workplace and home, we can determine if the remaining risk(s) to our workers
expect safety to be affected as well. Constant is acceptable.
change therefore will require safety to be a
continual process in our everyday operations. When the safety process is applied in the
By viewing safety as a process, we can break it workplace with the standards set by the regulatory
down into four steps: agencies, the results are a hazard free
environment for management, employees, and
(1) Identifying the hazards, visitors.
(2) Eliminating or mitigating the hazards,
(3) Evaluating the remaining risk, and Risk Management has the responsibility of
(4) Determine if the benefits outweigh the protecting the company’s assets from any kind of
remaining risk. loss. From a health and safety point of view, this
means risk management works closely with
The first step of the safety process is identifying insurance carriers for the filing and monitoring of
the hazards is generally accomplished in two injury claims (both employee and non-employee).
ways: Other functions of risk management may include
• looking for potential accidents, primarily the handling of discrimination claims, American
through informal and formal inspections; Disabilities Act complaints, Equal Employment
and Opportunity complaints, Workers’ Compensation
• conducting trend analysis of data disability actions, wrongful termination suits, and
collected such as accident reports, citations from regulatory agencies.
inspections and work orders.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety In the Workplace? 1-3

The Importance of Safety

Safety Belongs to Everyone Accidents are Preventable

In the workplace or on the jobsite, the Safety It is estimated by the National Compensation
Manager is in charge of safety, but the true for Insurance, that 90% of the accidents in
fact is everyone is responsible for safety. the workplace or on a jobsite are caused by
Although, the Safety Manager has an Injury an employee performing an unsafe act. And,
and Illness Prevention Plan designed to the other 10% being unsafe conditions –
protect the workers – it takes each of us which is estimated to actually be the cause of
workers, individually to make the plan work. a result of an unsafe act: such as section of 1
When just one of us workers, takes a short- inch pipe left in the walkway or
cut by not following a safety procedure it not management’s neglect to repair a walkway
only puts that worker at risk for an injury, but that has cracks and elevated portions of
it also sends a message to the rest of the concrete. Through the proper motivation
workers and safety is not important. Management and the Safety Manager can
develop a workplace / jobsite safety culture,
Every worker’s conduct in the workplace or which in turn will prevent both unsafe and
on a jobsite, is a reflection of their company unsafe conditions, leading to an accident.
to other companies and the community. So
when a worker performs their job in a safe
manner, this lets others know that their
company cares not only about their workers,
but the community as well.

Causes of Accidents

10%
Unsafe
Conditions 1 Fatality

300
90% Unsafe
Serious

Cost of Workplace / Jobsite Injuries 3,000

The cost of an injury or fatality producing accident
can be quite expensive for a company. Not only are Accidents
we talking the direct cost of an accident: medical
expenses, loss of production, equipment damage,
etc. But, it is further estimated by the National
Safety Council that the indirect cost to an accident 300,000
can cost 3 to 5 times as much as the direct cost:
such expenses as: overtime to pay other workers to Near Misses
make up production, training of new employee,
decrease in employee morale, etc.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety In the Workplace? 1-4

Leading by Example Safety Around the Clock

It just takes one. We have all heard this An accident can happen anywhere we let it:
saying before “it just takes one bad apple to at work, at home, while shopping or even
ruin the whole barrel of apples”. The same while playing. So, in order to stay safe, we
holds true for safety. It just takes one worker must be safe at all times. However, we have
to not follow the safety procedures and rules a bigger responsibility for being safe at
send a message to the other workers that home, because we do not have the Safety
safety is not important – that is until he/she Manager or a Supervisor to remind us to be
gets hurt. Yes, it is true that a person can safe. Therefore, safety must become a way of
perform a simple task such as drilling a piece life.
of metal without safety goggles on and not
experience an eye injury. But, we do know The most common home accidents (which
that over time, each time they perform this are easy to avoid) are:
task of drilling, the potential for a piece of - falls from make-shift ladders (using a
the metal or drill bit to break off and fly at chair instead of getting a ladder);
the worker. The problem is we never know - falls as a result of a trip or slip
when this one time for the flying metal will (tripping over a torn carpet or loose
occur – so we must practice safety at all tile, slipping on a puddle of water in
times. the kitchen or bathroom);
- electrical shocks (failure to follow
Case in point – a worker at a metal stamping lockout/tagout rules);
factory for over 25 years, use to brag to the - burns while cooking (failing to use a
newer workers that he did not need to have pot-holder when retrieving a metal pot
the machine guards in place, as a matter of from the stove); and
fact he said the machine guards only slowed - cuts (working with a dull knife).
him down (meaning he got less production).
So the newer workers would try the same
thing, remove the machine guards, but they
were not so lucky – because within the first
day of removing the machine guards – three
of the newer workers had an accident – finger
amputations. The older worker just said that
the newer workers were not coordinated to
deal with the 20 ton press. The next day the
older worker had three of his fingers on his
left hand amputated.

Safety is Contagious – Pass It On

The strive today is to achieve a safety culture in workplace / jobsite. This safety culture is merely a
reflection of the workers and managements attitude for safety. And, although we can not see attitudes,
we can see the behavior manifested from attitudes.

Workers want to be safe, they do not always know how to go about it or want to be the first to start being
safe. Case in point, while teaching a Back Wellness Program to the Otis Elevator workers on a
construction site in Bronx, New York USA – we would hold our classroom instruction in the job-shack,
but when it came time to practice the stretches, we would go out into the work area. The first couple of
times we did this the Otis workers grumbled about having to do such pansy stretches, but the third time
we went out to stretch, the other trade workers came over and asked if they could join in. Then the Otis
workers displayed real pride, because they led the way for all the workers at the jobsite to be safe.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety In the Workplace? 1-5

Duties of a Safety Manager

The most common problem a company safety 7. Review and Conduct Accident Investigations.
Manager faces, is the lack of a clear definition of To determine causative factor(s) and provide
their duties. All too often, they find themselves in recommendations for the prevention of future
a reactive mode, rather than a proactive mode for accidents. The Safety Manager does not
safety. The following provides a description of necessarily need to conduct each accident
the ten most common duties of a Safety Manager: investigation, however, the Safety Manager
should review all accident investigations
1. Monitor Regulatory Agencies. (employees and non-employees) for the
It is the employer’s responsibility to keep purpose of identifying trends.
abreast of regulatory requirements.
8. Develop Monthly Safety Summary Reports.
2. Develop Safety Related Programs To keep management and the safety
It is the employer’s responsibility to committee abreast of the safety situation.
demonstrate compliance with regulatory Members of management should not be
requirements, which usually means we must bogged down with the day-to-day activities of
present some type of written program, policy, safety, but they should be apprised of the
procedure, plan or rule. Company’s safety status.

3. Maintain or Monitor Injury and Illness Log. 9. Serve as a Liaison for Safety with
An Injury and Illness log is helpful in Contractors and Subcontractors/Vendors.
identifying trends, such as which department Under the Annings, Johnson and Grossman
or jobsite is experiencing the most problems ruling, in the United States OSHA can hold
or is there the same type of injury occurring Company’s responsibility for the safety of
throughout the company. other Company’s employees in the workplace
(or even on the premises). The Safety
4. Conduct Safety Inspections. Manager serves as a point of contact for
Used to identify unsafe acts, unsafe other companies and also provides as a
conditions, and effect of previously employed means of monitoring these companies to
safety measures. Safety inspections need to ensure compliance for all regulatory
be conducted frequently enough to identify a requirements. It is therefore imperative that
hazard in a timely manner. the Safety Manager work with
representatives from other companies who
5. Serve as a Resource for the Safety have employees in the workplace or on the
Committee. jobsite – the Safety Manager and the other
Safety Committees provide a means of company representative should set safety
involvement for both management and goals together and conduct safety inspections
employees. The Safety Manager should be together, as well.
their resource for information.
10. Accompany Regulatory Compliance
6. Arrange or Conduct Safety Training. Manager.
Regulatory agencies mandated a The person, who accompanies the Regulatory
considerable amount of training, which Compliance Officer during an inspection,
must not only be conducted, but must be needs to be knowledgeable of the regulatory
conducted in such a manner that the requirements and operations of the company,
employee understands. A determination so they can explain how the company is in
that is made by the Regulatory compliance.
Compliance Officer, when they are
talking with employees.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety In the Workplace? 1-6

The Safety Manager’s job is to protect

management. This is accomplished by ensuring
the company is in compliance with regulatory
agencies, which in turn provides the workers the
safest possible workplace. However, merely
appointing someone to be in charge of safety is
not enough. The appointed individual must
possess certain skills in order to be effective.

o Management
Management implies organizational skills.
The duties of safety can be overwhelming, if
the Safety Manager is unable to apply time
management and the capability of managing
others.

o Administrative
Documentation of the Company’s safety
efforts is crucial. It is through the written
programs, training records, safety
inspections, and disciplinary actions; the
Company is able to demonstrate compliance
with the regulatory requirements imposed by
regulatory agencies.

o Communication
Listening plays an instrumental part in
ensuring a safe workplace, because the
workers will tell you what is wrong, if you
listen to them. The other important
communication skill is writing, not elaborate
flowery reports, but concise reports that
provide enough information for management
to make a decision.

o Knowledge of Operations
Each workplace is different, however, the
standards written by regulatory agencies are
written in such a way as to apply to a variety
of industries and workplaces. Therefore, it
becomes the job of the Safety Manager to
determine if the standard applies to the
workplace. This can only be achieved when
the Safety Manager is fully aware of the
operations and procedures used throughout
the Company.

Side Note: Chain of Command needs to be observed at all times. Many times the Safety Manager will find
themselves on in a workplace or jobsite with employees from a multiple of companies (especially
construction). It is important to note that not everyone should be giving directions to all the workers –
meaning – workers can easily get confused if they are being directed by more than one person. Therefore,
whenever, a safety rule or procedure is not being followed by a worker, a member of their management
should be informed so they can take corrective action.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-7

Management’s Responsibility for Safety

The presence of management can be felt in all  Middle Management – consist of department
aspects of business, industry and construction. managers (project managers) and they are the
Although, there are various styles of most knowledgeable about the hazards for
management, it takes management to plan, their department (project). Therefore they
organize, control, and lead the organization to should contribute to the development of
success – in other words – management is the safety procedures and rules – see page 1-17
resource controlling factor within any for Usage of a Portable Fire Extinguisher
organization. And, therefore, the responsibility procedure & page 1-9 for Company Safety
for workplace safety rest primarily on Rules.
management. Procedures provide for step-by-step
action.
This is especially identified throughout the Rules govern our behavior.
OSHA standards, which assigns the responsibility
of employee safety to the employer. However,  Supervisors (Foremen) – the key to safety,
the employer in today’s business world is they are responsible for enforcing the safety
generally not a single entity, it is a corporation program – policies, procedures, and rules.
consisting of multiple levels of management.
Another impact supervisors have on safety is
Each of these levels of management has a leading by example – meaning wearing the
responsibility for safety. Regardless, what size appropriate personal protective equipment
the organization is, there are generally three levels whenever in an area where personal
of management: Top Management, Middle protective equipment is deemed necessary. A
Management, and Supervisors (Foremen). supervisor (foreman) – first level of
management – who doesn’t abide by the
 Top Management – consist of president and safety rules clearly sends a message to the
senior members of management. Their job is workforce that safety is not important.
to plan for the future, meaning making sure
the business is still in business five years
from now, which is why they delegate much
of their responsibilities for the day-to-day
activities of a company, to include safety.
However, Top Management needs to be kept
abreast of the activities of safety, which is
why the Safety Monthly Summary Report
plays such a vital role.

Top Management’s responsibility for safety

should come in the form of a commitment for
safety, which can be achieved through
Policies, such as the Company Safety Policy
Letter (pg 1-14), Alcohol and Drug Policy
(pg 1-15), and Firearm & Weapons Policy
(pg 1-16)
Policy provides justification, explanation
and assigns responsibility.

Side Note: One of the biggest problems that will undermine a company safety program is the
inconsistent enforcement of the safety policies, procedures & rules. For example: a worker is promoted
to supervisor (foreman), this new supervisor (foreman) will tend to look the other way when his/her
buddies do something unsafe; whereas they will literally throw the book at workers who they disliked.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-8

Role of the Safety Committee

The Safety Committee is a means to provide
representation for the company by both
management and the workers. Regardless what
size a company is they should have a Safety
Committee. However, in order to be effective the
Safety Committee must have an agenda (this
prevents them from wasting time). One such
agenda may include:
 Review employee complaints, regarding
health and safety of the facilities.

 Recommend safety-training topics for

supervisors (foremen).

 Evaluate and recommend personal

protective equipment or other employee
safety measures.

 Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of

safety recommendations and
improvements.

 Review accident investigation reports.

 Analyze accident injury and illness data.

 Select area of the facilities (or job-site)

on a random basis to be inspected for
unsafe conditions.

Side Note: Workers on the Safety Committee should be volunteers and should be rotated annually, this
allows for maximum participation of as many workers as possible. This is important because even
though the worker is no longer on the Safety Committee, they will still have a sense of ownership for
Safety Policies and such that were adopted while they were on the Safety Committee – and they will get
their peers to abide by those policies and such.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-9

Employee Safety Responsibility

Every employer is required to provide a safe and healthful work place. Company’s committed to fulfilling
this requirement establish safety rules to ensure your personal conduct is appropriate. A safe and healthful
work place is one of the highest priorities a company can strive for.

While a company cannot anticipate every work place hazard, the following general principals should guide
your conduct. To be safe, you must never stop being safety conscious.

To be a safe employee one must study the guidelines contained in this manual. Discuss the work place
situation with the Safety Manager. Attend all company sponsored training and safety meetings. Read all
posters and warnings. Listen to instructions carefully. Follow the Code of Safe Work Practices contained
herein. Participate in accident investigations as requests. Accept responsibilities for the safety of others.
Maintain all required documentation.

By signing the acknowledgment of their safety responsibility, employees are under an obligation to abide
by the company’s injury and illness prevention plan, and follow the safety rules imposed upon them.

Sample Safety Rules:

(1) All injuries, regardless how minor, shall be reported to your supervisor immediately.
(2) All accidents and near misses shall be reported to your supervisor immediately.
(3) Report unsafe conditions to supervisor immediately.
(4) Do nothing to endanger self, co-workers, or residents of the community.
(5) Use the proper personal protective clothing and equipment provided.
(6) Use the correct tools and equipment for the job.
(7) Refrain from horseplay and the abuse of safety devices and equipment.
(8) Do not take short-cuts or by-pass safety measures.
(9) Maintain sanitation and personal hygiene at all times.
(10) Good housekeeping must be practices at all times in the work area; clean all spills, waste and
eliminate any dangers in the work area.
(11) The use of tobacco shall only take place in designated areas.
(12) Attend weekly safety meetings.
(13) Follow all instructions.
(14) Do not bring prohibited items into the workplace or jobsite.
(15) The use of prescription drugs shall be reported to your supervisor immediately upon reporting
for work.
(16) Comply with all Safety Regulations and Standards.

Furthermore, employees should be encouraged to bring any and all concerns over safety hazards or
suggestions for improvement of safety to their supervisor or any member of management.
Confidentiality is important and shall be maintained, if requested by the employee. Additionally,
employees are assured freedom from reprisal or discipline for speaking out on safety matters.

Side Note: Telling a joke at work, may seem funny at the time, however, it is never funny when it is at
the expense of another worker; such as ethnic jokes or jokes of gender. Please remember many of the
workplaces / jobsites around the world will have workers from all over the world. And, just as you do
not like to hear jokes about your ethnic background or gender, neither do other workers.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-10

Service Companies (Contractors and Vendors)

All contractors and their subcontractors, as well as vendors have a responsibility for safety in the
workplace, a responsibility that includes abiding by our health and safety procedures, policies and rules.

Comply with all safety procedures, directives, and other requirements imposed by (Company Name) or
jurisdiction authorities, including all Federal, State, or local laws or ordinances applicable to their
activity.

Refrain from any unsafe act that might endanger themselves, their fellow workers, or the public.

Take appropriate steps to ensure that all attractive nuisance exposures, hazardous conditions created or
unattended mobile equipment are protected from the residents and public by barriers, watchmen, or
similar.

Use all personal protective equipment or safety devices provided or required for their protection.
Enforce the use of all necessary personal protective equipment and provide such equipment where
responsible to do so.

Report any unsafe act or unsafe condition immediately to the supervisor or foreman.

Immediately report to a supervisor or foreman all property damage or bodily injury that occurs on the
job.

Refrain from using any tool or piece of equipment that is broken, damaged, not fit for use, etc., and
report such defective items immediately.

Wear the appropriate apparel when working on the job.

Meet with the (Company Name) Safety Manager every week or as needed to discuss particular safety
issues.

Designate someone within your group to be the liaison for coordination and communicating
safety between a Company Project Manager and (Company Name).

Provide a current certificate of insurance evidencing adequate workers compensation and

general liability insurance prior to beginning any work.

Provide Hazard Communication program and all SDS (Safety Data Sheets)
for hazardous chemicals brought on property.

Correct any and all unsafe acts or unsafe conditions that are identified, including those
identified by the Company Safety Manager on the Contractor’s Written Notice to Correct.

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 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-11

Service Contractor’s Written Notice to Correct

Contractor Name: _________________________________________________________

Job Name and Number: ____________________________________________________

Date: ___________________ Time: ____________ Inspected By: _________________

The following unsafe condition(s) require immediate corrective action. This is a formal
notification, in writing, of a unsafe condition(s) which are either a hazard to job personnel,
or is in violation of Federal, State, or Company Safety Regulations.

This condition(s) has been explained to, and received by:

Contractor Name: ______________________________

Job Supervisor: ________________________________

Remarks:
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

When above condition(s) is/are corrected, fill in date condition(s) is/are corrected, sign
form, and immediately return to inspector.

Date: ____________________ Signature of Authorized Person: ___________________

Date Received by Inspector: __________________________

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 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-12

Types of Service Companies:

Oil & Gas Drilling Operations

 Mud Logging Company – monitors, records or logs the content of the mud as it returns from the
well.
 Well Logging Company – runs sophisticated instruments that sense and records formation
properties.
 Casing Company – runs special pipe casing into the well to line or case it after the rig drills a
portion of the hole which formation from contamination and stabilizes the well.
 Cementing Company – cements the casing in the well which bonds the casing to the hole.

Common Job Titles Found in Oil & Gas Operations

 Company Representative – the oil company’s on board representative; not an employee of
the drilling company, represents the company paying for the drilling.
 Environmental, Health and Safety (EHS) Manager - enforces company’s accident
prevention plan and safety programs (may be a member of the oil company or drilling
contractor)
 Rig Superintendent and Assistant Rig Superintendent (Rig Manager / Tool Pusher) –
responsible for overseeing the drilling crews that work on the rig floor, drilling operations,
and coordinates operating company’s affair.
 Area Drilling Superintendent – an employee of a drilling contractor whose job is to
coordinate and oversee the contactor’s drilling projects in a particular region or area.
 Drilling Rig Crew – assemble and disassemble the drilling rig.
 Driller and Assistant Driller – responsible for making the hole.
 Derrickman – the person who climbs the derrick and goes to the monkey board and assist
racking the drill pi8pe when it is being pulled out of the hole.
 Rotary Helpers (floor hands, floor men or roughnecks) – work the rig floor in as a team of
three, who are responsible for the operation of equipment and machines as required by the
particular operation being carried out at the time.
 Roustabout – responsible for guiding the crane loads and maintain an unobstructed rig
floor.
 Offshore Personnel
 Offshore Installation Manager (OIM) - qualified and certified person with marine
and drilling knowledge who is in overall charge of all operations on a MODU. He is
sometimes called “Person in Charge” (PIC).
 Sub-Sea Engineer - responsible for the Blow-Out Prevention (BOP) Unit and the
Motion Compensation System of the rig among other duties.
 Medic - rarely a doctor but have a high level of medical training. Some are former
nurses.
 Crane Operator - responsible for all crane operations on the rig and to/from the
supply boats. He supervises his assistants and the roustabout crew.
 Rig Electrician - responsible for all electrical equipment onboard the rig right down
to the changing of light bulbs within the accommodation areas.
 Rig Mechanic - responsible for all mechanical equipment onboard including the
drilling package.
 Barge Engineer - in charge of control room operations. He will often be a time
served Master Mariner from the Merchant Navy who has crossed over into the oil
and gas industry. He is responsible for the stability of the rig, anchor handling
operations during a rig move, supply vessel operations and the like.
 Mud Engineer - in charge of the drilling fluids being used. He will likely have a
degree in chemistry and will have a good knowledge of the drilling procedures.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-13

Construction Trade Companies

 Excavation and Utilities
 Plumbing
 Concrete
 Carpenters (Framers)
 Electrical
 Drywall
 Roofing
 HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning)
 Painting

Common Job Titles Found in Construction

 Project Manager - plans, direct, and coordinate a wide variety of construction projects,
including the building of all types of residential, commercial, and industrial structures,
roads, bridges, wastewater treatment plants, and schools and hospitals. Construction
managers may oversee an entire project or just part of a project and, although they usually
play no direct role in the actual construction of a structure, they typically schedule and
coordinate all design and construction processes, including the selection, hiring, and
oversight of specialty trade contractors.
 Foreman – supervises the individual trade workers.
 Laborer - performs tasks involving physical labor at building, highway, and heavy
construction projects, tunnel and shaft excavations, and demolition sites. May operate hand
and power tools of all types: air hammers, earth tampers, cement mixers, small mechanical
hoists, surveying and measuring equipment, and a variety of other equipment and
instruments. May clean and prepare sites, dig trenches, set braces to support the sides of
excavations, erect scaffolding, clean up rubble and debris, and remove asbestos, lead, and
other hazardous waste materials. They may assist other craft workers.

References
Beaver (1988) Personal Safety
Hammer (1989) Safety Management
OSHA (1999) online Netscape
National Safety Council (1997) Supervisor’s Safety Manual

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 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-14

Safety Policy Letter

MEMORANDUM FOR ALL EMPLOYEES

Subject: Safety and Occupational Health Policy.

1. The purpose of this letter is to emphasize our policy on Safety and

Occupational Health.
(Justification)

2. Our mission, goals, and objectives can be better achieved through prudent
application of risk management and loss control programs. As a management
tool, the safety and occupational health effort will prevent, reduce and control
losses while improving efficiency and quality. We can better meet the
needs and desires of our customers and employees when we accept the
responsibility for incorporating safety and occupational health into our
planning and operating procedures.
(Explanation)

3. We must provide employment and places of employment free from

recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause serious physical harm
or death. I expect every supervisor, shift leader, and employee to implement,
enforce and comply with the Accident Prevention Plan and Safety Programs,
established for this facility.
(Responsibility)

4. Your support and implementation of this policy of Safety and Occupational

Health is a positive step towards providing quality service in an efficient
manner to our customers and fellow employees.

________________________________
President

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-15

Alcohol and Drugs Policy

The use of alcohol and drugs in and off of the workplace is strictly prohibited by all companies as both
impair the health and safety of their user. They disable the user to meet the degree of alertness, physical
mobility, coordination and stamina required by the user’s daily job and the environment he is in. The user
endangers himself as well as others including the facility that might be affected by him being drunk or high
in drugs. A sample company policy regarding Alcohol and Drug is as follows:

Alcohol and Drug Policy

MEMORANDUM FOR ALL EMPLOYEES

Subject: Alcohol and Drugs

1. The purpose of this policy is to emphasize our position on employee usage of alcohol
and drugs in the workplace.

2. Our goal is to maintain a safe, drug-free workplace/jobsite, therefore any usage of

alcohol or drugs by an employee during a time of their employment at a company
worksite is strictly prohibited.

All personnel employed by the company, shall be subject to search for alcohol or
other drugs at the discretion of management.

Possession of alcohol or other drugs at any time while at their designated place of
employee is grounds for immediate termination of employment.

3. As we are required to provide a place of employment free of recognized hazards that

includes the hazards brought on by alcohol and drug use, which can cause serious harm
or even death to the worker and his/her co-workers. This company shall enforce an
alcohol and drug free environment. I expect every supervisor, shift leader, and
employee to implement, enforce and comply with the Accident Prevention Plan and
Safety Programs, established for this facility.

4. Your support and implementation of this policy of Safety and Occupational Health is a
positive step towards providing quality service in an efficient manner to our customers
and fellow employees.

______________________
President

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-16

Firearms & Weapons Policy

Pressure at work and home can expose workers to very stressful situations, situations that can seem
unbearable at times. And, when a person is confronted with unbearable situations, they are more susceptible
to trying to solve their problem through an act of violence. Therefore, firearms and weapons are not generally
permitted in a workplace or on a jobsite. A Company policy regarding firearms and weapons will look like
the following:

(Company Name) Firearms and Weapons

MEMORANDUM FOR ALL EMPLOYEES

Subject: Firearms and Weapons are prohibited at all times in the Workplace / Jobsite

1. The purpose of this policy is to emphasize our position on firearms and weapons in the
workplace / jobsite. For the purpose of this policy the following definitions apply:

Firearms. Any rifle, shotgun, pistol or revolver or any other

firearm from which a shot or shots are discharged by an explosive.

Weapons. Any gas, liquid or other substance or instrumentality,

which, in the manner used, is calculated or likely to produce
death or great bodily harm.

2. Our mission is to ensure all of our employees have a safe place to work in.

3. We must provide employment and places of employment free from recognized

hazards that are causing or are likely to cause serious physical harm or death. I
expect every supervisor, shift leader, and employee to implement, enforce and
comply with this policy

4. Your support and implementation of this policy is a positive step towards providing a
safe work environment for all workers.

_________________________
President

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-17

Safety Procedure

Portable Fire Extinguisher Usage – P. A. S. S.

Purpose:
To ensure that all personnel understand the proper usage of a portable fire
extinguisher.

Responsibility:
Each employee is responsible for knowing how to operate a portable fire
extinguisher.

Guidelines:

P – Pull the pin.

A – Aim the discharge nozzle at the base of the fire.

S – Squeeze the lever

S – Sweep the nozzle from side-to-side

Portable fire extinguishers are designed for fighting small fires and should only be used
after sounding the fire alarm.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 What is Safety in the Workplace? 1-17

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-1

Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety

• Occupational Health and Safety Administration

• International Labour Organization
• International Standards Organization

Occupational Health and Safety Administration

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) governs the workplace by imposing
standards and regulations, of which the employer is responsible for being in compliance. Failure to be in
compliance cannot only result in a financial penalty, but could be the cause of a death/injury producing
accident.

The Williams-Steiger Act, signed into law in 1970, by President Richard M. Nixon through Public Law
91-596 brought OSHA into being. It was the intention of this act to provide a standard means under
Federal control to provide for the safety of the worker. This led to the establishment of the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA is under the control of the Department of Labor, with
the specific responsibility of providing for worker safety. OSHA’s mission is “to assure as far as possible
every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions.”

The two most applicable Parts for OSHA standards are Part 1910 General Industry and Part 1926
Construction.

The Subparts of 1910 (General Industry) include:

Subpart A General Subpart L Fire Protection
Subpart B Adoption and Extension of Subpart M Compressed Gas and
Established Fed. Standards Compressed Air Equip.
Subpart C General Safety and Health Subpart N Materials Handling and
Provisions Storage
Subpart D Walking, Working Surfaces Subpart O Machinery and Machine
Subpart E Exit Routes (Means of Egress) Guarding
Subpart F Powered Platforms, Subpart P Hand and Portable
Manlifts, and Vehicle- Powered Tools and Other
Mounted Lifts Hand-held
Subpart G Occupational Health and Subpart Q Welding, Cutting and
Environmental Control Brazing
Subpart H Hazardous Materials Subpart R Special Industries
Subpart I Personal Protective Subpart S Electrical
Equipment Subpart T Commercial Diving
Subpart J General Environmental Operations
Controls Subpart Z Toxic and Hazardous
Subpart K Medical and First Aid Substances

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-2

Title 29 CFR Part 1910 General Industry

Condensed Version
Subpart D Walking, Working Surfaces
Definitions (1910.21) • Covers and/or guardrails shall be provided to
• Floor hole; An opening measuring less than 12 protect personnel from the hazards of open pits,
inches but more than 1 inch in its least tanks, vats, ditches, etc.
dimension. • Floor loading protection;
• Floor opening; An opening measuring 12 inches • In every building or other structure, or part
or more in its least dimension, in any floor, thereof, used for mercantile, business,
platform, pavement, or yard hatchway, stair or industrial, or storage purposes, the loads
ladder opening, pit, or large manhole. approved by the building official shall be
• Handrail; A single bar or pipe supported on marked on plates of approved design which
brackets from a wall or partition, as on a shall be supplied and securely affixed by, the
stairway or ramp, to furnish persons with a owner of the building, or duly authorized
handhold in case of tripping. agent, in a conspicuous place in each space to
• Platform; A working space for persons, which they relate.
elevated above the surrounding floor or ground;
such as a balcony or platform for the operation Guarding Floor and Wall Openings and Holes
of machinery and equipment. (1910.23)
• Stair railing; A vertical barrier erected along Protection for Floor Openings;
exposed sides of a stairway to prevent falls of • Every stairway floor opening shall be guarded by
persons. a standard railing, with standard toeboard on all
• Wall hole; An opening less than 30 inches but exposed sides.
more than 1 inch high, of unrestricted width, in • Every hatchway and chute floor opening shall be
any wall or partition. guarded.
• Wall opening; An opening at least 30 inches • Every skylight floor opening and hole shall be
high and 18 inches wide, in any wall or guarded by a standard skylight screen or a fixed
partition through which persons may fall. standard railing on all exposed sides.
• Every floor hole into which persons can
General Requirements (1910.22) accidentally walk shall be guarded.
• This applies to all permanent places of • Protection for Wall Openings and Holes
employment, except where domestic, mining or • Every wall opening from which there is a drop of
agricultural work only is performed. more than 4 feet shall be guarded.
• Housekeeping; Protection of Open-Sided Floors, Platforms and
• All places of employment, passageways, Runways
storerooms, and service rooms shall be kept • Every open-sided floor or platform 4 feet or
clean and orderly and in a sanitary condition. more above adjacent floor or ground level shall
• The floor of every workroom shall be be guarded by a standard railing on all open sides
maintained in a clean and so far as possible, a except where there is entrance to a ramp,
dry condition. stairway, or fixed ladder.
• To facilitate cleaning, every floor, working • Every runway shall be guarded by a standard
place, and passageway shall be kept free from railing on all open sides 4 feet or more above
protruding nails, splinters, holes, or loose floor or ground level.
boards. Stairway Railings and Guards
Aisles and passageways; • Every flight of stairs having four or more risers
• Where mechanical handling equipment is used, shall be equipped with standard stair railings or
sufficient safe clearances shall be allowed for standard handrails.
aisles, at loading docks, through doorways and Railing, Toe Boards, and Cover Specifications
wherever turns or passage must be made. • A standard railing shall consist of top rail,
• Aisles and passageways shall be kept clear and intermediate rail, and posts, and shall have a
in good repairs, with no obstruction across or in vertical height of 42 inches nominal from upper
aisles that could create a hazard. surface of top rail to floor, platform, runway, or
• Permanent aisles and passageways shall be ramp level. The top rail shall be smooth-
appropriately marked. surfaced throughout the length of the railing.
Covers and guardrails; The intermediate rail shall be approximately

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-3

halfway between the top rail and the floor, o Ladders shall not be placed on boxes,
platform, runway or ramp. The ends of the rails barrels, or other unstable bases to obtain
shall not overhang the terminal posts except additional height;
where such overhang does not constitute a o No ladder shall be used to gain access to a
projection hazard. roof unless the top of the ladder shall extend
at least 3 feet above the point of support, at
Fixed Industrial Stairs (1910.24) eave, gutter, or roofline;
Where Fixed Stairs Are Required o The user shall equip all portable rung
• Fixed stairs shall be provided for access from ladders with nonslip bases when there is a
one structure level to another where operations hazard of slipping; and
necessitate regular travel between levels, and for o The bracing on the back legs of step ladders
access to operating platforms at any equipment is designed solely for increasing stability
which requires attention routinely during and not for climbing.
operations.
• Stair Strength shall be designed and constructed Portable Metal Ladders (1910.26)
to carry a load of five times the normal live load. Requirements
• Stair width shall be a minimum of 22 inches and • The length of single ladders or individual
platforms shall be no less than width of stairs sections of ladders shall not exceed 30 feet.
and minimum length of 30 inches in the direction Two-section ladders shall not exceed 48 feet in
of travel. length and over two-section ladders shall not
• Stair treads shall be reasonably slip-resistant and exceed 60 feet in length.
the angle of rise between 30 and 50 Care and Maintenance of Ladders
• Railings and handrails shall be provided on the • To get maximum serviceability, safety, and to
opens ides of all exposed stairways. eliminate unnecessary damage of equipment,
• Vertical clearance shall be at least 7 feet. good safe practices in the use and care of ladder
equipment must be employed by the user. The
Portable Wood Ladders (1910.25) following rules and regulations are essential to
Care and Use the life of the equipment and the safety of the
• Care; to ensure safety and serviceability the user.
following precautions on the care of ladders shall o Ladders must be maintained in good usable
be observed: condition at all times;
o Ladders shall be maintained in good o A simple rule for setting up a ladder at the
condition at all times, the joint between the proper angle is to place the base a distance
steps and side rails shall be tight, all from the vertical wall equal to one-fourth
hardware and fittings securely attached, and the working length of the ladder and the
the movable parts shall operate freely ladder base must be placed with a secure
without binding or undue play; footing; and
o Safety feet and other auxiliary equipment o When ascending or descending the climber
shall be kept in good condition to insure must face the ladder;
proper performance;
o Rungs shall be kept free of grease; and Fixed Ladders (1910.27)
o Ladders shall be inspected frequently and Design Requirements
those which have developed defects shall be • All ladders, appurtenances, and fastenings shall
withdrawn from service for repair or be designed for a minimum live load with a
destruction and tagged or marked as single concentrated of 200 pounds.
“Dangerous, Do Not Use.” Specific Features
• Use; the following safety precautions shall be • All rungs shall have a minimum diameter of ¾
observed in connection with the use of ladders: inch for metal ladders and 1 1/8 inch for wood
o Portable ladders shall be so placed that the ladders.
side rails have a secure footing, and shall not Clearances
be placed in front of door openings toward • Climbing side; the perpendicular distance from
the ladder unless the door is blocked, locked the centerline of the rungs to the nearest
or guarded; permanent object on the climbing side of the
ladder shall be 36 inches for a pitch of 76
degrees and 30 inches for a pitch of 90 degrees.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-4

Safety Requirements for Scaffolding (1910.28) Manually Propelled Mobile Ladder Stands and
General Requirements for Scaffolding Scaffolds (1910.29)
• Scaffolds shall be furnished and erected for General Requirements
persons engaged in work that cannot be done • Work platforms & scaffolds shall be capable of
safely from the ground or from solid carrying the design load under varying
construction and shall be capable of supporting circumstances depending upon the use.
without failure at least four times the maximum • The maximum work level height shall not exceed
intended load. four times the minimum or least base
• The footing or anchorage for scaffolds shall be dimensions.
sound, rigid, and capable of carrying the • All scaffold work levels 10 feet or higher above
maximum intended load without settling or the ground or floor shall have a standard
displacement. Unstable objects such as barrels, toeboard and guardrail system.
boxes, loose brick, or concrete blocks shall not
be used to support scaffolds or planks.
• Any scaffold damaged or weakened from any
cause shall be immediately repaired and shall not
be used until repairs have been completed.
• Scaffold shall not be moved while occupied with
workers/equipment.
• Entry and exit to the scaffold platform shall only
be made by an access ladder or equivalent
means, the side panels are not an acceptable
means of entry or exit.
• Workers shall not be permitted on scaffold
during high winds or when snow and ice cover
the planks.
• All scaffold work levels 10 feet or higher above
the ground or floor shall have a standard
toeboard and guardrail system.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-5

Subpart E – Exit Routes, Emergency Action Plans, and Fire Prevention Plans

• Compliance with NFPA 101-2000 Life Safety Maintenance, Safeguards, and Operational Features
Code (1910.35) for Exit Routes (1910.37)
• Definitions: • The danger to employees must be minimized.
o Exit Routes; a means a continuous and Exit routes must be kept free of explosive or
unobstructed way of exit travel from any highly flammable furnishings or other
point in a building or structure to a public decorations.
way and consists of three separate and • Exit routes must be free and unobstructed with
distinct parts: the way of exit access, the adequate lighting and a clear direction of
exit, and the way of exit discharge. travel identified by signs. Doors that may be
o Exit Access; portion which leads to an confused as being exit must be marked Not An
entrance to an exit. Exit.
o Exit; portion which is separated from all • The fire retardant properties of paints or
other spaces of the building or structure by solutions must be maintained.
construction or equipment to provide a • Exit routes must be maintained during
protected way of travel to the exit discharge. construction, repairs, or alterations.
o Exit Discharge; portion between the • Employee alarm system must be operable.
termination of an exit and a public way.
o High Hazard; an area inside a workplace in Employee Emergency Plans and Fire Prevention
which operations include high hazard Plans (1910.38)
materials, processes, or contents. Emergency Action Plan;
o Occupant Load; total number of persons that • The written emergency action plan (for
may occupy a workplace or portion of a companies with eleven or more employees)
workplace at any one time. shall be kept at the workplace and made
available for employee review.
Design and Construction Requirements for Exit • Plan elements, shall include:
Routes (1910.36) o to be Procedures for reporting a fire or other
• An exit route must be permanent. emergency;
• An exit must be separated by fire resistant o Procedures for emergency evacuation,
materials. including type of evacuation and exit route
• Openings into an exit must be limited and assignments;
protected by a self-closing fire door that o Procedures followed by employees who
remains open or automatically closes in an remain to operate critical plant operations
emergency upon sounding of a fire alarm or before they evacuate;
employee alarm system. o Procedures to account for all employees after
• Number of exit routes must be adequate – evacuation;
minimum two. o Procedures to be followed by employees
• Exit discharge must lead directly outside or to performing rescue or medical duties; and
a street, walkway, refuge area, public way, or o The name or job title of every employee who
open space with access to the outside. This may be contacted by employees who need
discharge area must be large enough to more information about the plan or an
accommodate building occupants. explanation of their duties under the plan.
• Exit door must be unlocked. Exception: • Employer shall establish an employee alarm
mental, penal or correctional facilities and then system that is distinctive and audible above
only if supervisory personnel are continuously ambulant noise.
on duty. • Employer must designate and train employees
• Side-hinged exit door must be used and swing to assist in a safe and orderly evacuation of
out in the direction of exit travel. other employees.
• The capacity of an exit route must be • Review of emergency action plan with
adequate. employee upon initial assignment, change in
• Exit route minimum dimensions: 7’6” height; plan or change in employee’s responsibility.
28” width.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-6

Fire Prevention Plan (1910.39) o Procedures for regular maintenance of

• The written fire prevention plan (for companies safeguards installed on heat-producing
with eleven or more employees) shall be kept at equipment to prevent the accidental ignition
the workplace and made available for employee of combustible materials;
review. o The name or job title of employees
• Plan elements: responsible for maintaining equipment to
o List of all major fire hazards, proper prevent or control sources of ignition or
handling and storage procedures for fires; and
hazardous materials, potential ignition o The name or job title of employees
sources and their control, and the type of fire responsible for the control of fuel source
protection equipment necessary to control hazards.
each major hazard; • Employee information:
o Procedures to control accumulations of o Upon initial assignment
flammable and combustible waste materials;
.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-7

Subpart F - Powered Platforms, Manlifts, and Vehicle-Mounted Work Platforms

Powered platforms for building maintenance Vehicle-mounted elevating and rotating work platforms
(1910.66) (1910.67)
This section covers powered platform installations Specific Requirements
permanently dedicated to interior or exterior building • Ladder trucks and tower trucks; before the truck
maintenance of a specific structure or group of is moved for highway travel, aerial ladders shall
structures. be secured in the lower traveling position by the
• General Requirements; the following locking device above the truck cab, and the
requirement applies to equipment which are part manually operated device at the base of the
of a powered platform installation, such as ladder.
platforms, stabilizing components, carriages, • Extensible and articulating boom platforms; lift
outriggers, davits, hoisting machines, wire ropes controls shall be tested each day prior to use to
and electrical components. determine that such controls are in safe working
• Equipment installations shall be designed by or condition.
under the direction of a registered professional • Only trained persons shall operate an aerial lift.
engineer experienced in such design. • A body belt shall be worn and a lanyard attached
• General Maintenance; to the boom or basket when working from an
• All parts of the equipment affecting safe aerial lift. Belting off to an adjacent pole,
operation shall be maintained in proper working structure, or equipment while working from an
order so that they may perform the functions for aerial lift shall not be permitted.
which they were intended. The equipment shall • Employees shall always stand firmly on the floor
be taken out of service when it is not in proper of the basket.
working order. • Boom and basket load limits specified by the
Operations; manufacturer shall not be exceeded.
• Training; Working platforms shall be operated • The brakes shall be set and outriggers, when
only by persons who are proficient n the used, shall be positioned on pads or a solid
operation, safe use and inspection of the surface. Wheel chocks shall be installed before
particular working platform to be operated. All using an aerial lift on an incline.
employees who operate working platforms shall • An aerial lift truck may not be moved when the
be trained in the following boom is elevated in a working position with men
o Recognition of, and preventive measures in the basket.
for, the safety hazards associated with their
individual work tasks. Manlifts (1910.68)
o Training of employees in the operation and A device consisting of a power-driven endless belt
inspection of working platforms shall be moving in one direction only, and provided with
done by a competent person. steps or platforms and handholds attached to it for the
o The employer shall certify that employees transportation of personnel from floor to floor.
have been trained in operating and General Requirements
inspecting a working platform by preparing • Instruction signs at landings or belts; signs of
a certification record which includes the conspicuous and easily read style giving
identify of the person trained, the signature instructions for the use of the manlift shall be
of the employer or the person who posted at each landing or stenciled on the belt.
conducted the training and the date that • Top floor warning sign and light; at the top floor
training was completed. an illuminated sign shall be displayed bearing
• Use; working platforms shall not be loaded in the following wording: TOP FLOOR – GET
excess of the rated load, as stated on the platform OFF. Signs shall be in block letters not less 2
load rating plate. inches in height. This sign shall be located
o Employees shall be prohibited from working within easy view of an ascending passenger and
on snow, ice, or other slippery material not more than 2 feet above the top terminal
covering platform, except for the removal of landing. A red warning light of not less than 40
such materials. watt rating shall be provided immediately below
o Employees on working platforms shall be the upper landing terminal and so located as to
protected by a personal fall arrest system. shine in the passenger’s face.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-8

• Visitor warning; a conspicuous sign having the • All manlifts shall be inspected by a competent
following legend: AUTHORIZED designated person at intervals of not more than
PERSONNEL ONLY, shall be displayed at each 30 days. Limit switches shall be checked
landing. weekly.
Operating Rules • A certification record shall be kept of each
• Proper use of manlifts. No freight, packaged inspection which includes the date of the
goods, pipe, lumber, or construction materials of inspection, the signature of the person who
any kind shall be handled on any manlift. performed the inspection and the serial number,
• Periodic Inspections or other identifier, of the manlift.

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Subpart G - Occupational Health and Environmental Controls

Ventilation (1910.94) Hearing Conservation Program

Abrasive Blasting • The employer shall administer a continuing,
• The forcible application of an abrasive to a effective hearing conservation program,
surface by pneumatic pressure, hydraulic wherever employee noise exposures equal or
pressure, or centrifugal force. exceed an 8-hour time-weighted average sound
o Abrasives and the surface coatings on the level of 85 decibels.
materials blasted are shattered and Monitoring
pulverized during blasting operations and • When information indicates that any employee’s
the dust formed will contain particles of exposure may equal or exceed an 8-hour time-
respirable size. The composition and weighted average of 85 decibels, the employer
toxicity of the dust from these sources shall shall develop and implement a monitoring
be considered in making an evaluation of the program.
potential health hazard. Employee Notification
o Employees must use only respirators • The employer shall notify each employee
approved by NIOSH to protect employees exposed at or above an 8-hour time-weighted
from dusts produced during abrasive- average of 85 decibels of the results of the
blasting operations. monitoring.
o Dusts shall not be permitted to accumulate Observation of Monitoring
on the floor or on ledges outside of an • The employer shall provide affected employees
abrasive-blasting enclosure, and dust spills or their representatives with an opportunity to
shall be cleaned up promptly. Aisles and observe any noise measurements conducted
walkways shall be kept clear of steel shot or pursuant to this section.
similar abrasive which may create a slipping Audiometric Testing Program
hazard. • The employer shall establish and maintain an
Grinding, Polishing and Buffing Operations audiometric testing program for all employees
• Wherever dry grinding, dry polishing or buffing whose exposure equal or exceed an 8-hour time-
is performed, and employee exposure, without weighted average of 85 decibels, at no cost to the
regard to the use of respirators, exceeds the employees.
permissible exposure limits prescribed in Hearing Protectors
1910.1000 (air contaminants), a local exhaust • Employers shall make hearing protectors
ventilation system shall be provided and used to available to all employees exposed to an 8-hour
maintain employee exposures within the time-weighted average of 85 decibels or greater
prescribed limits. at no cost to the employees.
Spray Finishing Operations • Hearing Protector Attenuation
• Spray-finishing operations are employment of • The employer shall evaluate hearing protector
methods wherein organic or inorganic materials attenuation for the specific noise environments in
are utilized in dispersed form for deposit on which the protector will be used.
surfaces to be coated, treated, or cleaned. • Training Program
• The employer shall institute a training program
Occupational Noise Exposure (1910.95)
for all employees who are exposed to noise at or
Application
above an 8-hour time-weighted average of 85
• Protection against the effects of noise exposure decibels, and shall ensure employee participation
shall be provided when the sound levels exceed in such program;
those shown below: o Training program shall be repeated annually
Duration per day/hrs Sound Level for each employee in the program and they
8 90 shall be informed on the effects of noise on
6 92 hearing, the purpose of hearing protectors
4 95 and the purpose of audiometric testing.
3 97
2 100
1½ 102
1 105
½ 110
¼ or less 115

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-10

Access to Information and Training Materials defined as the radio frequency region, which for
• The employer shall make available to affected the purpose of this standard shall include the
employees or their representatives copies of this microwave frequency region.
standard and shall also post a copy in the • Warning symbol for radio frequency radiation
workplace. hazards shall consist of a red isosceles triangle
Recordkeeping above an inverted black isosceles triangle,
• The employer shall maintain an accurate record separated and outlined by an aluminum color
of all employee exposure measurements. border. The works “Warning – Radio-Frequency
Radiation Hazard” shall appear in the upper
Nonionizing Radiation (1910.97) triangle.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• The term electromagnetic radiation is restricted
to that portion of the spectrum commonly

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-11

Subpart H – Hazardous Material

Compressed Gases (1910.101) General Hazard

Inspection of Compressed Gas Cylinders • No person shall store, handle or transport
• Each employer shall determine that compressed explosives or blasting agents when such storage,
gas cylinders under his control are in a safe handling and transpiration of explosives or
condition to the extent that this can be blasting agents constitutes an undue hazard to
determined by visual inspection. Visual and life.
other inspections shall be conducted in • All Class A, Class B, Class C explosives and
accordance with Compressed Gas Association special industrial explosives and any newly
Pamphlets C-6-1968 and C-8-1962. developed and unclassified explosives, shall be
Compressed Gases kept in magazines.
• The in-plant handling, storage and utilization of • Blasting caps, electric blasting caps, detonation
all compressed gases in cylinders shall be in primers, and primed cartridges shall not be
accordance with Compressed Gas Association stored in the same magazine with other
Pamphlet P-1-1965. explosives.
Safety Relief Devices for Compressed Gas • Ground around magazines shall slope away for
Containers draining. The land surrounding magazines shall
• Compressed gas cylinders shall have pressure be kept clear of brush, dried grass, leaves, and
relief devices installed and maintained in other materials for a distance of at least 25 feet.
accordance with Compressed Gas Association
Pamphlets S-1.1-1963 and 1965. Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous
Chemicals (1910.119)
Flammable and Combustible Liquids (1910.106) • Application; a process which involves a
• Flammable liquids means any liquid having a chemical at or above the specified threshold
flashpoint below 100 F. quantities or flammable liquid or gas on site in
• Combustible liquids means any liquid having a one location in a quantity of 10,000 pounds or
flashpoint at or above 100 F. more.
• Fire Control; • Employee Participation;
• Extinguishers; suitable for control devices, such • Employers shall develop a written plan of action
as small hose or portable fire extinguishers, shall regarding the implementation of the employee
be available at locations where flammable or participation.
combustible liquids are stored. • Employers shall consult with employees and
o At least one portable fire extinguisher their representatives on the conduct and
having a rating of not less than 12-B units development of process hazards analyses and on
shall be located outside of, but not more the development of the other elements of process
than 10 feet from, the door opening into any safety management.
room used for storage. • Employers shall provide to employees and their
o At least one portable fire extinguisher representatives access to process hazard analyses
having a rating of not less than 12-B units and to all other information required to be
must be located not less than 10 feet, nor develop under this standard.
more than 25 feet, from any Class I or Class Process Safety Information;
II liquid storage area located outside of a • The employer shall complete a compilation of
storage room but inside a building. written process safety information before
conducting any process hazard analysis:
Explosives and Blasting Agents (1910.109) o Toxicity information;
• Blasting Agent; any material or mixture, o Permissible exposure limits;
consisting of a fuel and oxidizer, intended for o Physical data;
blasting, not otherwise classified as an explosive o Reactivity data;
and in which none of the ingredients are o Corrosive data;
classified as an explosive. o Thermal and chemical stability data; and
• Explosive; any chemical compound, mixture, or o Hazardous effects of inadvertent mixing of
device the primary or common purpose of which different materials that could foreseeably
is to function by explosion. occur.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-12

• Operations involving hazardous waste that are

Process Hazard Analysis conducted at treatment, storage, disposal (TSD)
• The employer shall perform an initial process facilities; and
hazard analysis on processes covered by this • Emergency response operations for releases of,
standard. or substantial threats of releases of, hazardous
Operating Procedures substances without regard to the location of the
• The employer shall develop and implement hazard.
written operating procedures that provide clear Safety and Health Program
instructions for safely conducting activities • Employers shall develop and implement a
involved in each covered process consistent with written safety and health program for their
the process safety information. employees involved in hazardous waste
• Training operations, this program shall include:
• Initial training; each employee presently o An organizational structure;
involved in operating a process, and each o A comprehensive workplan;
employee before being involved in operating a o A site-specific safety and health plan;
newly assigned process, shall be trained in an o Safety and health training program;
overview of the process and in the operating o Medical surveillance program;
procedures. o Employer’s standard operating procedures
• Refresher training; shall be provided at least for safety and health; and
every three years, and more often if necessary, to o Any necessary interface between general
each employee involved in operating a process to program and site specific activities.
assure that the employee understands and • Site Characterization and Analysis; hazardous
adheres to the current operating procedures of waste sites shall be evaluated to identify specific
the process. site hazards and to determine the appropriate
Emergency Planning and Response safety and health control procedures needed to
• The employer shall establish and implement an protect employees.
emergency action plan. • Site Control; procedures shall be implemented to
control employee exposure to hazardous
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency substances before clean-up work begins.
Response (1910.120) • Training; all employees exposed to hazardous
• This section covers, the following operations, substances, health hazards, or safety hazards and
unless the can demonstrate that the operation their supervisors shall receive training:
does not involve employee exposure or the • Names of personnel and alternate responsible for
reasonable possibility for employee exposure to site safety and health;
safety or health hazards. • Safety, health and other hazards present on the
• Clean-up operations required by a governmental site;
body, involving hazardous substances that are • PPE, work practices, and engineering controls.
conducted at uncontrolled hazardous waste sites; • Medical Surveillance; and contents of this
• Corrective actions involving clean-up operations standard.
at sites covered by RCRA;
• Voluntary clean-up operations at sites recognized
by Federal, state, local or other governmental
bodies as uncontrolled hazardous waste sites;

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-13

Subpart I - Personal Protective Equipment

• When the employer has reason to believe that
General Requirements (1910.132) any affected employee who has already been
Application trained does not have the understanding and skill
• Protective equipment, including ppe for eyes, required to use ppe, then retraining shall occur.
face, head, and extremities, protective clothing,
respiratory devices and protective shields and Eye and Face Protection (1910.133)
barriers, shall be provided, used, and maintained • The employer shall ensure that each affected
in a sanitary and reliable condition wherever it is employee uses appropriate eye or face protection
necessary by reason of hazards of processes or when exposed to eye or face hazards from flying
environment, chemical hazards, radiological particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids
hazards, or mechanical irritants encountered in a or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, or
manner capable of causing injury or impairment potentially injurious light radiation.
in the function of any part of the body through • The employer shall ensure that each affected
absorption, inhalation or physical contact. employee uses eye protection that provides side
Employee-Owned Equipment protection when there is a hazard from flying
• Where employees provide their own protective objects.
equipment, the employer shall be responsible to • The employer shall ensure that each affected
assure its adequacy, including proper employee who wears prescription lenses while
maintenance, and sanitation of such equipment. engaged in operations that involve eye hazards
Design wears eye protection that incorporates the
• All ppe shall be of safe design and construction prescription in its design, or wears eye protection
for the work to be performed. that can be worn over the prescription lenses
• Hazard Assessment and Equipment Selection without disturbing the proper position of the
• The employer shall assess the workplace to prescription lenses or the protective lenses.
determine if hazards are present, or are likely to • Eye and face ppe shall be distinctly marked to
be present which necessitate the use of ppe. If facilitate identification of the manufacturer.
such hazards are present or likely to be present, • The employer shall ensure that each affected
the employer shall: employee uses equipment with filter lenses that
o Select and have each affected employee use, have a shade number appropriate for the work
the types of ppe that will protect the affected being performed for protection from injurious
employee from the hazards identified; light radiation.
o Communicate selection decisions to each
affected employee; and Respiratory Protection (1910.134)
o Verify that the required workplace hazard • Respirators shall be provided by the employer
assessment has been performed through a when such equipment is necessary to protect the
written certification that identifies the health of the employee.
workplace evaluated, the person certifying • Requirements for a minimal acceptable program.
that the evaluation has been performed, the • Written standard operating procedures governing
date(s) of the hazard assessment, and which the selection and use of respirators shall be
identifies the document as a certification of established.
hazard assessment. • Respirators shall be selected on the basis of
Defective and Damaged Equipment hazards to which the worker is exposed.
• Defective or damaged ppe shall not be used. • The user shall be instructed and trained in the
• Training proper use of respirators and their limitations.
• The employer shall provide training to each • Respirators shall be regularly cleaned and
employee who is required to use ppe. This disinfected. Those used by more than one
training shall include: worker shall be thoroughly cleaned and
o When is ppe necessary; disinfected after each use.
o What ppe is necessary; • Respirators shall be stored in a convenient, clean
o How to properly don, doff, adjust, and wear and sanitary location.
ppe; and • Respirators used routinely shall be inspected
- Limitations of ppe. during cleaning.
• Each affected employee shall demonstrate an
understanding of the training.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-14

• Appropriate surveillance of work area conditions labels. The secondary means of identifying a gas
and degree of employee exposure or stress shall mask canister shall be by a color code.
be maintained.
• There shall be regular inspection and evaluation Appendix D (1910.134) Mandatory Information for
to determine the continued effectiveness of the Employees Using Respirators When Not Required
program. Under the Standard.
• Persons should not be assigned to tasks requiring If your employer provides you respirators for your
use of respirators unless it has been determined voluntary use, or if you provide your own respirator,
that they are physically able to perform the work you need to take certain precautions to be sure that
and use the equipment. the respirator itself does not present a hazard.
• Respirators shall be selected from among those
jointly approved MSHA and NIOSH. You should do the following:
• Air Quality 1. Read and heed all instructions provided by the
• Compressed air, compressed oxygen, liquid air, manufacturer on use, maintenance, cleaning and care,
and liquid oxygen used for respiration shall be of and warnings regarding the respirators limitations.
high purity.
• Breathing air may be supplied to respirators form 2. Choose respirators certified for use to protect
cylinders or air compressors. against the contaminant of concern.
• Use of Respirators
3. Do not wear your respirator into atmospheres
• Standard procedures shall be developed for
containing contaminants for which your respirator is
respirator use.
not designed to protect against. For example, a
• The correct respirator shall be specified for each respirator designed to filter dust particles will not
job. protect you against gases, vapors, or very small solid
• Written procedures shall be prepared covering particles of fumes or smoke.
safe use of respirators in dangerous atmospheres.
• Both supervisors and workers shall be so 4. Keep track of your respirator so that you do not
instructed by competent person. mistakenly use someone else’s respirator.
• Every respirator wearer shall receive fitting • Head Protection (1910.135)
instructions. • The employer shall ensure that each affected
• If corrective spectacles or goggles are required, employee wears a protective helmet when
they shall be worn so as not to affect the fit of working in areas where there is a potential for
the facepiece. injury to the head from falling objects.
• Maintenance and Care of Respirators • The employer shall ensure that a protective
• A program for maintenance and care of helmet designed to reduce electrical shock
respirators shall be adjusted to type of plant, hazard is worn by each such affected employee
working conditions, and hazards involved, and when near exposed electrical conductors which
shall include: could contact the head.
o Inspection for defects; Cleaning and
disinfecting; Foot Protection (1910.136)
o Repair; and Storage. • The employer shall ensure that each affected
• All respirators shall be inspected routinely before employee uses protective footwear when
and after each use. working in areas where there is a danger of foot
o Self contained breathing apparatus shall be injuries due to falling or rolling objects, or
inspected monthly. objects piercing the sole, and where such
o Respirator inspection shall include a check employee’s feet are exposed to electrical
of the tightness of connections and the hazards.
condition of the facepiece, headband, valve,
connecting tube, and canisters.
• A record shall be kept of inspection dates and
findings for respirators maintained for
emergency use.
• Identification of Gas Mask Canisters
• The primary means of identifying a gas mask
canister shall be by means of properly worked

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-15

Electrical Protective Equipment (1910.137) Hand Protection (1910.138)

• Electrical protective equipment shall be • General Requirements
maintained in a safe, reliable condition. • Employers shall select and require employees to
• Insulating equipment shall be clearly marked use appropriate hand protection when
with its rating. employees’ hands are exposed to hazards such as
• Insulating equipment shall be inspected for those from skin absorption of harmful
damage before each day’s use and immediately substances; severe cuts or lacerations; severe
following any incident that can be reasonably be abrasions; punctures; chemical burns; thermal
suspected of having caused damage. burns; and harmful temperature extremes.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-16

Subpart J - General Environmental Controls

Sanitation (1910.141) • Hand soap or similar cleansing agents shall be

General provided.
• All places of employment shall be kept clean to • Individual hand towels or sections thereof, of
the extent that the nature of the work allows. cloth or paper, warm air blowers or clean
• The floor of every workroom shall be individual sections of continuous cloth toweling,
maintained, so far as practicable, in a dry convenient to the lavatories, shall be provided.
condition. • Whenever showers are required, one shower
• To facilitate cleaning, every floor, working shall be provided for each 10 employees of each
place, and passageway shall be kept free from sex.
protruding nails, splinters, loose boards, and Change Rooms
unnecessary holes or openings. Whenever employees are required by a particular
• Any receptacle used for putrescible solid or standard to wear protective clothing because of
liquid waste or refuse shall be so constructed that the possibility of contamination with toxic
it does not leak and may be thoroughly cleaned materials, change rooms equipped with storage
and maintained in a sanitary condition. facilities for street clothes and separate storage
• Every enclosed workplace shall be so facilities for the protective clothing shall be
constructed so as to prevent the entrance or provided.
harborage of rodents, insects, and other vermin. Clothes Drying Facilities
Water Supply • Where working clothes are provided by the
• Potable water shall be provided in all places of employer and become wet or are washed
employment, for drinking, washing of the between shifts, provision shall be made to insure
person, cooking, washing of foods, washing of that such clothing is dry before reuse.
cooking or eating utensils, washing of food • Consumption of Food and Beverages on the
preparation or processing premises, and personal Premises
service rooms. • No employee shall be allowed to consume food
• Portable drinking water dispensers shall be or beverages in a toilet room nor in any area
designed, constructed, and serviced so that exposed to a toxic material.
sanitary conditions are maintained, shall be • No food or beverages shall be stored in toilet
capable of being closed, and shall be equipped rooms or in an area exposed to a toxic material.
with a tap. • Food Handling
• A common drinking cup and other common All employee food service facilities and
utensils are prohibited. operations shall be carried out in accordance
• Outlets for nonpotable water, such as water for with sound hygienic principles.
industrial or firefighting purposes, shall be
posted. Safety Color Code for Marking Physical Hazards
Toilet Facilities (1910.144)
• Toilet rooms separate for each sex, shall be Color Identification
provided in all places of employment: • Red; shall be the basic color for the identification
Number of Employees Minimum of:
Number Toilets o Fire protection equipment and apparatus.
1 – 15 1 o Danger; such as safety cans or other portable
16 – 35 2 containers of flammable liquids.
36 – 55 3 o Stop; such as emergency stop bars on
56 – 80 4 hazardous machines.
81 – 111 5 • Yellow; shall be the basic color for designating
112 – 150 6 caution and for marking physical hazards such
over 150 1 additional per 40 as: striking against, stumbling, falling, tripping,
Washing Facilities and “caught in between.”
• Washing facilities shall be maintained in a
sanitary condition.
• Each lavatory shall be provided with hot and
cold running water, or tepid running water.

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Specifications for Accident Prevention Signs and

Tags (1910.145) Permit-Required Confined Spaces (1910.146)
Classification of Signs According to Use A confined space is large enough and so
• Danger Signs – indicate immediate danger and configured that an employee can bodily enter and
that special precautions are necessary. perform assigned work; and has limited or
• Caution Signs – shall be used only to warn restricted means for entry or exit, plus this space is
against potential hazards or to caution against not designed for continuous employee occupancy.
unsafe practices. General Requirements
• Safety Instruction Signs – shall be used where • The employer shall evaluate the workplace to
there is a need for general instructions and determine if any spaces are permit-required
suggestions relative to safety measures. confined spaces.
Sign Design • If the workplace contains permit spaces, the
All signs shall be furnished with rounded or employer shall inform exposed employees, by
blunt corners and shall be free from sharp edges, posting danger signs or by any other equally
burrs, splinters, or other sharp projections. The effective means. A sign reading “DANGER –
ends or heads of blots or other fastening devices PERMIT-REQUIRED CONFINED SPACE, DO
shall be located in such a way that they do not NOT ENTER,” or similar wording.
constitute a hazard. • If employees will enter a confined space, the
• Danger Signs – color red, black and white shall employer shall develop and implement a written
be those of opaque glossy samples. permit space program.
• Caution Signs – color of background shall be • If the employer can demonstrate that the only
yellow; and the panel, black with yellow letters. hazard possed by the permit space is not an
Any letters used against the yellow background actual or potential hazardous atmosphere, then
shall be black. he/she need not comply with a permit-required
• Safety Instruction Signs – standard color of the confined space program.
background shall be white; and the panel, green Permit-Required Confined Space Program
with white letters. Any letters used against the • Implement the measures necessary to prevent
white background shall be black. unauthorized entry;
• Biological Hazard Signs – shall be used to • Identify and evaluate the hazards of permit
signify the actual or potential presence of a spaces before employees enter them;
biohazard and to identify equipment, containers, • Develop and implement the means, procedures,
rooms, materials, experimental animals, or and practices necessary for safe permit space
combinations thereof. entry operations;
Accident Prevention Tags • Provide equipment at no cost to employees;
• Use – tags shall be used as a means to prevent • Evaluate permit space conditions:
accidental injury or illness to employees who are o Oxygen; Flammable / Combustible; and
exposed to hazardous or potentially hazardous Toxicity.
conditions, equipment or operations; by • Provide personnel:
providing a message to the employees. o At least one attendant outside the permit
• Danger Tags – shall be used in major hazard space into which entry is authorized, for the
situations where an immediate hazard presents a duration of entry operations;
threat of death or serious injury to employees. o Designate the persons who are to have
• Caution Tags – shall be used in minor hazard active roles;
situations where a non-immediate or potential • Develop and implement procedures for
hazard or unsafe practice presents a lesser threat summoning rescue and emergency services,
of employee injury. • Develop and implement a system for the
• Warning Tags – may be used to represent a preparation, issuance, use, and cancellation of
hazard level between “Caution” and “Danger,” entry permits.
instead of the required “Caution” tag, provided • Permit System
that they have a signal word of “Warning.” • Before entry is authorized, the employer shall
• Biological Hazard Tags – shall be used to document the completion of measures required
identify the actual or potential presence of a in an Entry Permit Confined Space Program.
biological hazard and to identify equipment, Entry Permit
containers, rooms, experimental animals, or • Documents compliance with this section and
combinations thereof. authorizes entry to a permit space.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-18

Training Control of Hazardous Energy (1910.147)

• The employer shall provide training so that all This standard covers the servicing and maintenance
employees whose work is regulated by this of machines and equipment in which the unexpected
standard acquire the understanding, knowledge, energization or start up of the machines or
and skills necessary for the safe performance of equipment, or release of stored energy could cause
the duties assigned. injury to employees.
• The training shall establish employee proficiency Definition
in the duties assigned and certification of such • Affected Employee – an employee whose job
training shall be maintained. requires him/her to operate or use a machine or
Duties of Authorized Entrants equipment on which servicing or maintenance is
• The employer shall ensure that all authorized being performed under lockout or tagout, or
entrants: whose job requires him/her to work in an area in
o Knows the hazards that may be faced during which such servicing or maintenance is being
entry, including signs and symptoms and performed.
consequences of the exposure; • Authorized Employee – a person who locks out
o Properly use equipment as required; or tags out machines or equipment in order to
o Communicate with the attendant as perform servicing or maintenance on the
necessary; machine or equipment.
o Exit from the permit space as quickly as • Employers are required to establish a program
possible, when necessary. and utilize procedures for affixing appropriate
Duties of Attendants lockout devices or tagout devices to energy
• The employer shall ensure that each attendant: isolating devices, and to otherwise disable
o Knows the hazards that may be faced during machines or equipment to prevent unexpected
entry, including signs and symptoms and energization, start up or release of stored energy
consequences of the exposure; in order to prevent injury to employees.
o Is aware of possible behavioral effects of Energy Control Program
hazard exposure in authorized entrants; • Employer shall establish a program consisting of
o Continuously maintains an accurate count of energy control procedures, employee training
authorized entrants in the permit space; and periodic inspections to ensure that before
o Remains outside the permit space during any employee performs any servicing or
entry operations; and maintenance on a machine or equipment where
o Monitors activities inside and outside the the unexpected energizing, start up or release of
space to determine if it is safe for entrants. stored energy could occur and cause injury, the
Duties of Entry Supervisors machine or equipment shall be isolated from the
• The employer shall ensure that each entry energy source and rendered inoperative.
supervisor: • Lockout/tagout; if an energy isolating device is
o Knows the hazards that may be faced during not capable of being locked out, the employer’s
entry, including signs and symptoms and energy control program shall utilize a tagout
consequences of the exposure; system.
o Verifies, by checking that the appropriate • Full employee protection; when a tagout device
entries have been made on the permit; and is used on an energy isolating device which is
terminates the entry and cancels the permit. capable of being locked out, the tagout device
Rescue and Emergency Services shall be attached at the same location that the
• The employer shall ensure that each member of lockout device would have been attached, and
the rescue service is: the employer shall demonstrate that the tagout
o Provided with, and is trained to use program will provide a level of safety equivalent
properly, the ppe and rescue equipment to that obtained by using a lockout program.
necessary for making rescues from permit • Energy control procedure; procedures shall be
spaces; developed, documented and utilized for the
o Trained to perform the assigned rescue control of potentially hazardous energy.
duties; • Protective materials and hardware; locks, tags,
o Shall practice making permit space rescues chains, wedges, key blocks, adapter pins, self-
at least once every 12 months; and trained in locking fasteners, or other hardware shall be
basic first aid and CPR. provided by the employer.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-19

• Periodic inspections; the employer shall conduct operated in such a manner as to isolate the
a periodic inspection of the energy control machine or equipment from the energy source.
procedure at least annually to ensure that the • Lockout or tagout device application; these
procedure an the requirements of this standard devices shall be affixed by authorized
are being followed. The periodic inspection employees.
shall be conducted by an authorized employee • Stored energy; all potentially hazardous stored or
other than the one(s) utilizing the procedure residual energy shall be relieved, disconnected,
being inspected. restrained, and otherwise rendered safe.
• Training and communication; the employer shall • Verification of isolation; prior to starting work
provide training to ensure that the purpose and on machines or equipment that have been locked
function of the energy control program are out or tagged out, the authorized employee shall
understood by employees and that the knowledge verify that isolating and deenergization of the
and skills required for the safe application, machine or equipment have been accomplished.
usage, and removal of the energy controls are Release From Lockout or Tagout
acquired by employees. • Before lockout or tagout devices are removed
• Energy isolation; lockout or tagout shall be and energy is restored to the machine or
performed only by the authorized employees equipment, procedures shall be followed and
who are performing the servicing or actions taken by the authorized employee.
maintenance. o The work area shall be inspected to ensure
• Notification of employees; affected employees that nonessential items have been removed
shall be notified by the employer or authorized and to ensure that machine or equipment
employee of the application and removal of components are operationally intact.
lockout devices or tagout devices. Notification o Work area shall be checked to ensure that all
shall be made before the devices are installed employees have been safely positioned or
and after the devices are removed. removed.
Application of Control o Each lockout or tagout device shall be
• Preparation; before an authorized or affected removed form each energy isolating device
employee turns off a machine or equipment, the by the employee who applied the device.
authorized employee shall have knowledge of o When servicing and/or maintenance is
the type and magnitude of the energy. performed by a crew, craft, department or
• Machine or equipment shutdown; the machine or other group, they shall utilize a procedure
equipment shall be turned off or shut down using which affords the employees a level of
the procedures established for the machine or protection equivalent to that provided by the
equipment. implementation of a personal lockout or
• Isolation; all energy isolating devices that are tagout device.
needed to control the energy to the machine or
equipment shall be physically located and

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-20

Subpart K - Medical and First Aid

Medical Services and First Aid (1910.151)

• The employer shall ensure the ready availability of medical personnel for advice and consultation on matters of
plant health.
• In the absence of an infirmary, clinic, or hospital in near proximity to the work place which is used for the
treatment of all injured employees, a person or persons shall be adequately trained to render first aid. First aid
supplies approved by the consulting physician shall be readily available.
• Where the eyes or body of any person may be exposed to injurious corrosive materials, suitable facilities for
quick drenching or flushing of the eyes and body shall be provided within the work area for immediate
emergency use.

Subpart L - Fire Protection

Fire Brigades (1910.156); charged and operable condition and kept in their
• Scope; this section contains requirements for designated places at all times except during use.
organization, training, and ppe of fire brigades • Selection and Distribution; portable fire
whenever they are established by an employer. extinguishers shall be provided for employee use
• Organization; the employer shall prepare and and selected and distributed based on the classes
maintain a statement or written policy which of anticipated workplace fires, and on the size
establishes the existence of a fire brigade and and degree of hazard which would affect their
assure that employees who are expected to do use.
interior structural fire fighting are physically • The employer shall distribute portable fire
capable of performing duties which may be extinguishers for use by employees on Class A
assigned to them during emergencies. fires so that the travel distance for employees to
• Training and Education; employer shall provide any extinguisher is 75 feet or less (standpipe
training and education for all fire brigade systems may also be used instead).
members commensurate with those duties and • The employer shall distribute portable fire
functions that fire brigade members are expected extinguishers for use by employees on Class B
to perform. fires so that the travel distance form the Class B
• Fire Fighting Equipment; shall be maintained hazard area to any extinguisher is 50 feet or less.
and inspected, at least annually, to assure safe • The employer shall distribute portable fire
operational condition. Portable fire extinguishers used for Class C hazards on the
extinguishers and respirators shall be inspected basis of the appropriate pattern for the existing
at least monthly. Class A or Class B hazards.
• Protective Clothing; shall be provided at no cost • Inspection, Maintenance and Testing; the
to the employee. employer shall be responsible for the inspection,
maintenance and testing of all portable fire
Portable Fire Extinguishers (1910.157); extinguishers in the workplace.
• Scope; the requirements of this section apply to • Portable extinguishers or hose used in lieu
the placement, use, maintenance, and testing of thereof, shall be visually inspected monthly.
portable fire extinguishers provided for the use • The employer shall assure that portable fire
of employees. extinguishers are subjected to an annual
• General; the employer shall provide portable fire maintenance check.
extinguishers and shall mount, locate and • Alternate equivalent protection shall be provided
identify them so that they are readily accessible when portable fire extinguishers are removed
to employees without subjecting the employees from service for maintenance or recharging.
to possible injury.
• Carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane
extinguishing agents shall not be used.
• The employer shall further assure that portable
fire extinguishers are maintained in a fully

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-21

Standpipe and Hose Systems (1910.158); • Employer shall train employees designated to
• The employer shall assure that standpipes are inspect, maintain, operate, or repair fixed
located or otherwise protected against extinguishing systems and annually review their
mechanical damage. training to keep them up-to-date in the functions
• The minimum water supply for standpipe and they are to perform.
hose systems, which are provided for the use of
employees, shall be sufficient to provide 100 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Dry Chemical
gals, per minute for a period of at least 30 (1910.161);
minutes. • The employer may not mix together dry
chemical extinguishing agents of different
Automatic Sprinkler Systems (1910.159); compositions.
• All automatic sprinkler designs shall provide • When dry chemical discharge may obscure
the necessary discharge patterns, densities, and vision, the employer shall provide a pre-
water flow characteristics for complete discharge employee alarm, giving employees
coverage, in a particular workplace or zoned time to safely exit form the discharge area prior
subdivision of the workplace. to system discharge.
• The employer shall assure that a main drain
flow test is performed on each system Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Gaseous Agent
annually. The inspector’s test valve shall be (1910.162);
opened at least every two years, to assure that • The employer shall assure that employees are not
the sprinkler system operates properly. exposed to toxic levels of gaseous agent or its
• The employer shall assure that every automatic decomposition products.
sprinkler system is provided with at least one • The employer shall provide a distinctive pre-
automatic water supply capable of providing discharge employee alarm capable of being
design water flow for at least 30 minutes. perceived above ambient light or noise levels
• On all sprinkler systems having more than 20 when agent design, concentrations exceed the
sprinklers, the employer shall assure that a maximum safe level for employee exposure.
local waterflow alarm is provided which
sounds an audible signal on the premises upon Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Water Spray and Foam
water flow through the system equal to the (1910.163);
flow from a single sprinkler. • The employer shall assure that foam and water
spray systems are designed to be effective in at
Fixed Extinguishing Systems, General (1910.160); least controlling fire in the protected area or on
• Fixed extinguishing system components and protected equipment.
agents shall be designed and approved for use on
the specific fire hazards they are expected to Fire Detection Systems (1910.164);
control or extinguish. • Restoration; the employer shall restore all fire
• Employer shall provide effective safeguards to detection systems and components to normal
warn employees against entry into discharge operating condition as promptly as possible after
areas where the atmosphere remains hazardous each test or alarm.
to employee safety or health. • Maintenance and Testing; the employer shall
• Employer shall post hazard warning or caution maintain all systems in an operable condition
signs at the entrance to, and inside of, areas except during repairs or maintenance. The
protected by fixed extinguishing systems which employer shall further assure that fire detectors
use agents in concentrations known to be and fire detection systems are tested and adjusted
hazardous to employee safety and health. as often as needed to maintain proper reliability
• Employer shall assure that fixed systems are and operating condition except that of factory
inspected annually by a person knowledgeable in calibrated detectors.
the design and function of the system a to assure • Response Time; the employer shall assure that
that the system is maintained in good operating fire detection systems installed for the purpose of
condition. employee alarm and evacuation be designed and
installed to provide a warning for emergency
action and safe escape of employees.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-22

• Number, Location and Spacing of Detecting • The employer shall establish procedures for
Devices; the employer shall assure that the sounding emergency alarms in the workplace.
number, spacing and location of fire detectors is For those with 10 or fewer employees this may
based upon design data obtained from field be done verbally.
experience, or tests, engineering surveys, the • Restoration; the employer shall assure that a test
manufacturer’s recommendations, or a of the reliability and adequacy of non-supervised
recognized testing laboratory listing. employee alarm systems is made every two
months. A different actuation device shall be
Employee Alarm Systems (1910.165); used in each test of a multi-actuation device
• General; the employee alarm system shall system so that no individual device is used for
provide warning for necessary emergency two consecutive tests.
actions as called for in the emergency action • Servicing, maintenance and testing of employee
plan, or for reaction time for safe escape of alarms, shall be done by persons trained in the
employees from the workplace or the immediate designed operation an functions necessary for
work area, or both. reliable and safe operation of the system.
• The employee alarm shall be capable of being
perceived above ambient noise or light levels by
all employees.
• The employee alarm shall be distinctive and
recognizable as a signal to evacuate the work
area or to perform actions designated under the
emergency action plan.

Subpart M - Compressed Gas and Compressed Air Equipment

Air Receivers (1910.169)

This standard applies to compressed air receivers, and other equipment used in providing and utilizing compressed
air for performing operations such as cleaning, drilling, hoisting, and chipping.
• Air receivers shall be so installed that all drains, handholes and manholes therein are easily accessible.
• A drain pipe and valve shall be installed at the lowest point of every air receiver to provide for the removal of
accumulated oil and water.
• Every air receiver shall be equipped with an indicating pressure gage and with one or more spring-loaded safety
valves.
• All safety valves shall be tested frequently and at regular intervals to determine whether they are in good
operating condition.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-23

Subpart N - Materials Handling and Storage

Handling Materials, General (1910.176)

• Use of Mechanical Equipment • E – units are electrically powered that have
• Where mechanical handling equipment is used, minimum acceptable safeguards against inherent
sufficient safe clearances shall be allowed for fire hazards.
aisles, at loading docks, through doorways and • ES – units are electrically powered that in
wherever turns or passage must be made. addition to all of the requirements for the E units,
• Secure Storage are provided with additional safeguards to the
• Storage of material shall not create a hazard. electrical system to prevent emission of
Bags, containers, bundles, etc., stored in tiers hazardous sparks and to limit surface
shall be stacked, blocked, interlocked and limited temperatures.
in height so that they are stable and secure • EE – units are electrically powered that have, in
against sliding or collapse. addition to all of the requirements for the E and
• Housekeeping ES units, the electric motors and all other
• Storage areas shall be kept free from electrical equipment completely enclosed.
accumulation of materials that constitute hazards • EX – units are electrically powered that differ
from tripping, fire, explosion, or pest harborage. from the E, ES, or EE units in that the electrical
Vegetation control will be exercised when fittings and equipment are so designed,
necessary. constructed and assembled that the units may be
used in certain atmospheres containing
Servicing Multi-Piece and Single Piece Rim Wheels flammable vapors or dusts.
(1910.177) • G – units are gasoline powered having minimum
This section applies to the servicing of multi-piece acceptable safeguards against inherent fire
and single piece rim wheels used on large vehicles hazards.
such as trucks, tractors, trailer, buses and off-road • GS – units are gasoline powered that are
machines. provided with additional safeguards to the
• Training exhaust, fuel, and electrical systems.
• The employer shall provide a program to train all • LP – unit is similar to the G unit except that
employees who service rim wheels in the hazards liquefied petroleum gas is used for fuel.
involved in servicing those rim wheels and the • LPS – units are liquefied petroleum gas powered
safety procedures to be followed. that are provided with additional safeguards to
• Tire Servicing Equipment the exhaust, fuel, and electrical system.
• The employer shall furnish a restraining device • Batteries
for inflating tires on multi-piece wheels. • Battery charging shall be in areas designated for
that purpose.
Powered Industrial Trucks (1910.178) • Operating Training
This section contains safety requirements relating to • Only trained and authorized operators shall be
fire protection, design, maintenance, and use of fork permitted to operate a powered industrial truck.
trucks, tractors, platform lift trucks, motorized hand
trucks, and other specialized industrial trucks Overhead and Gantry Cranes (1910.179)
powered by electric motors or internal combustion This section applies to overhead and gantry cranes,
engines. including semigantry, cantilever gantry, wall cranes,
• Designations storage bridge cranes, and others having the same
• D – units similar to the G units except that they fundamental characteristics.
are diesel engine powered instead of gasoline.
• DS – units are diesel powered that are provided Derricks (1910.181)
with additional safeguards to the exhaust, fuel A derrick is an apparatus consisting of a mast or
and electrical systems. equivalent member held at the head by guys or
• DY – units are diesel powered that have all the braces, with or without a boom, for use with a
safeguards of the DS units and in addition do not hoisting mechanism and operating ropes.
have any electrical equipment including the
ignition and are equipped with temperature
limitation features.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-24

Helicopters (1910.183) o Slings used in a basket hitch shall have the

• Helicopter cranes shall be expected to comply loads balanced to prevent slippage;
with any applicable regulations of the FAA. o Slings shall be securely attached to their
• Prior to each day’s operation a briefing shall be loads;
conducted. o Slings shall be padded or protected from the
sharp edges of their loads;
Slings (1910.184) o Suspended loads shall be kept clear of all
This section applies to slings used in conjunction obstructions;
with other material handling equipment for the o All employees shall be kept clear of loads
movement of material by hoisting, in employments about to be lifted and of suspended loads;
covered by this part. The types of slings covered are o Hands or fingers shall not be placed between
those made from alloy steel chain, wire rope, metal the sling and its load while the sling is being
mesh, natural or synthetic fiber rope and synthetic tightened around the load;
web. o A sling shall not be pulled from under a load
• Safe Operating Practices when the load is resting on the sling.
• Whenever any sling is used, the following • Inspections
practices shall be observed: o Each day before being used, the sling and all
o Slings that are damaged or defective shall fastenings and attachments shall be
not be used; inspected for damage or defects by a
o Slings shall not be shortened with knots or competent person designated by the
bolts or other makeshift devices; employer.
o Sling legs shall not be kinked; o Additional inspections shall be performed
o Slings shall not be loaded in excess of their during sling use, where service conditions
rated capacities; warrant.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-25

Subpart O - Machinery and Machine Guarding

Mills and Calenders in the Rubber and Plastic
General Requirements for All Machines (1910.212) Industries (1910.216)
• One or more methods of machine guarding shall • Mill Safety Controls; a safety trip control shall
be provided to protect the operator and other be provided in front and in back of each mill.
employees in the machine area form hazards • Calender Safety Controls; a safety triprod, cable
such as those created by point of operation, or wire center cord shall be provided across each
ingoing nip points, rotating parts, flying chips pair of in-running rods extending the length of
and sparks. the face of the rolls. On both sides of the
• Guards shall be affixed to the machine where calender and near each end of the face of the roll,
possible and secured elsewhere if for any reason there shall be a cable or wire center cord
attachment to the machine is not possible. connected to the safety trip.

Woodworking Machinery Requirements (1910.213) Mechanical Power Presses (1910.217)

• Inspection and Maintenance of Woodworking • Machine components shall be designed, secured,
Machinery; or covered to minimize hazards caused by
• Dull, badly set, improperly filed, or improperly breakage, or loosening and falling or release of
tensioned saws shall be immediately removed mechanical energy, i.e. broken springs.
from service, before they begin to cause the • Hand Operated Levers; hand-lever-operated
material to stock, jam, or kick back when it is fed power presses shall be equipped with a spring
to the saw at normal speed. Saws to which gum latch on the operating level to prevent premature
has adhered on the sides shall be immediately or accidental tripping.
cleaned. • Safeguarding the Point of Operation; usage of
• All knives and cutting heads of woodworking “point of operation guards” or properly applied
machines shall be kept sharp, properly adjusted, and adjusted point of operation devices on every
and firmly secured. Where two or more knives operation performed on a mechanical power
are used in one head, they shall be properly press.
balanced.
• Bearings shall be kept free from lost motion and Forging Machines (1910.218)
shall be well lubricated. • It shall be the responsibility of the employer to
• Arbors of all circular saws shall be free from maintain all forge shop equipment in a condition
play. which will insure continued safe operation.
• Sharpening or tensioning of saw blades or cutters • Establish periodic and regular maintenance
shall be done only by person of demonstrated safety checks and keeping certification records
skill in this kind of work. of these inspections;
• Push sticks or push blocks shall be provided at • Scheduling and recording the inspection of
the work place in the several sizes and types guards and point of operation protection devices
suitable for the work to be done. at frequent and regular intervals;
• Training personnel for the proper inspection and
Abrasive Wheel Machinery (1910.215) maintenance of forging machinery and
• Machine Guarding; abrasive wheels shall be equipment; and
used only on machines provided with safety • All overhead parts shall be fastened or protected
guards. in such a manner that they will not fly off or fall
• Work Rests; on offhand grinding machines, in event of failure.
work rests shall be used to support work. Work
rests shall be kept adjusted closely to the wheel Mechanical Power-Transmission Apparatus
with a maximum opening of one-eight inch to (1910.219)
prevent the work from being jammed between This standard covers all types and shapes of power
the wheel and the rest, which may cause wheel transmission belts, unless operating at 250 feet per
breakage. minute or less.
• Prime Mover Guards
• Flywheels located so that any part is 7 feet or
less above floor or platform shall be guarded.
• Cranks and connecting rods when exposed to
contact, shall be guarded.

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• Tail rods or extension piston rods shall be • All projections in revolving parts shall be
guarded. removed or made flush or guarded by metal
Shafting cover.
• Each continuous line of shafting shall be secured Bearings and Facilities for Oiling
in position against excessive endwise movement. • All drip cups and pans shall be securely fastened.
• All exposed parts of horizontal shafting 7 feet or • Guarding Clutches, Cutoff Couplings and Clutch
less from floor or working platform shall be Pulleys
protected by a stationary casing enclosing • When located 7 feet or less above the floor or
shafting completely or by a trough enclosure work platform they shall be enclosed by a
sides and top or sides and bottom of shafting as stationary guard.
location requires. • Belt Shifters, Clutches, Shippers, Poles, Perches
• Pulleys and Fasteners
• When located 7 feet or less from floor or • These shall be rounded and be located as far as
working platform shall be guarded. possible from danger of accidental contact, but
• Belt, Rope and Chain Drives within easy reach of the operator.
• When located 7 feet or less above from floor or • Care of Equipment
working platform shall be guarded. • All power-transmission equipment shall be
• Gears, Sprockets and Chains inspected at intervals not exceeding 60 days and
• All shall be guarded. be kept in good working condition at all times.
• Keys, Setscrews, and Other Projections

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-27

Subpart P Hand and Portable Powered Tools and Other Hand-Held Equipment

Hand and Portable Powered Tools and Equipment, be equipped with either a positive “on-off”
General (1910.242) control, or other controls.
General • Portable belt sanding machines; belt sanding
• Each employer shall be responsible for the safe machines shall be provided with guards at each
condition of tools and equipment used by nip point where the sanding belt runs onto a
employees, including tools and equipment which pulley.
may be furnished by employees. Pneumatic Powered Tools and Hose
Compressed Air Used For Cleaning • Tool Retainer; a tool retainer shall be installed
• Compressed air shall not be used for cleaning on each piece of utilization equipment which,
purposes except where reduced to less than 30 without such a retainer, may eject the tool.
psi and then only with effective chip guarding • Airhose; hose and hose connections used for
and ppe. conducting compressed air to utilization
equipment shall be designed for pressure and
Guarding of Portable Powered Tools (1910.243) service to which they are subjected.
Portable Powered Tools Portable Abrasive Wheels
• Portable Circular Says; all saws having a blade • Abrasive wheels shall be used only on machine
diameter greater than 2 inch shall be equipped provided with safety guards.
with guards above and below the base plate or • Explosive Actuated Fastening Tools
shoe. • Operators and assistants using tools shall be
• Switches and controls; all hand held powered safeguarded by means of eye protection. Head
circular saws having a blade diameter greater and face protection shall be used, as required.
than 2 inches, electric, hydraulic or pneumatic Power Lawnmowers
chain saws, and percussion tools without positive • All power-driven chains, belts, and gears shall be
accessory holding means shall be equipped with so positioned or otherwise guarded to prevent the
a constant pressure switch or control that will operator’s accidental contact therewith, during
shut off the power when the pressure is released. normal starting, mounting and operation of the
• All hand held powered drills, tappers, fastener machine.
drives, horizontal, vertical, and angle grinders • A shutoff device shall be provided to stop
with wheels greater than 2 inches in diameter, operation of the motor or engine.
disc sanders with discs greater than 2 inches in • All positions of the operating controls shall be
diameter, belt sanders, reciprocating saws, saber, clearly identified.
scroll, and jig saws with blade shanks greater
than a nominal one-fourth inch, and other Other Portable Tools and Equipment (1910.244)
similarly operating powered tools shall be Jacks
equipped with a constant pressure switch or • The operator shall make sure that the jack used
control, and may have a lock-on control provided has a rating sufficient to lift and sustain the load.
that turnoff can be accomplished by a single • Each jack shall be thoroughly inspected at times
motion of the same finger or fingers that turn it which depend upon the service conditions.
on. Inspections shall be not less frequent than once
• All other hand held powered tools such as but every 6 months or whenever a misuse is
not limited to, platen sanders, grinders with suspected.
wheels 2 inches in diameter or less, disc sanders Abrasive Blast Cleaning Nozzles
with discs 2 inches in diameter or less, routers, • The blast cleaning nozzles shall be equipped
planers, laminate trimmers, nibblers, shears, with an operating valve which must be held open
saber, scroll, and jig saws with blade shanks a manually.
nominal one-fourth of an inch wide or less, may

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Subpart Q - Welding, Cutting and Brazing

General Requirements (1910.252)

Fire Prevention and Protection Oxygen-Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting (1910.253)
• Basic Precautions; General
o Fire Hazards; if the object to be welded or • Flammable Mixture; mixtures of fuel gases and
cut cannot readily be moved, all movable air or oxygen may be explosive and shall be
fire hazards in the vicinity shall be taken to a guarded against. No device or attachment
safe place. facilitating or permitting mixtures of air or
o Guards; if the object to be welded or cut oxygen with flammable gases prior to
cannot be moved and if all the fire hazards consumption shall be allowed unless approved
cannot be removed, then guards shall be for the purpose.
used to confine the heat, sparks, and slag, • Maximum Pressure; under no condition shall
and to protect the immovable fire hazards. acetylene be generated, piped or utilized at a
o Fire Extinguishers; suitable fire pressure in excess of 15 psig, except in approved
extinguishing equipment shall be maintained cylinder manifolds.
in a state of readiness for instant use. • Apparatus; only approved apparatus such as
o Fire Watch; fire watchers shall be required torches, regulators or pressure-reducing valves,
whenever welding or cutting is performed in acetylene generators, and manifolds shall be
locations where other than a minor fire used.
might develop. Fire watchers shall have fire • Personnel; workmen in charge of oxygen or fuel-
extinguishing equipment readily available gas supply equipment, including generators and
and be trained in its use. They shall be oxygen or fuel-gas distribution piping systems
familiar with facilities for sounding an alarm shall be instructed and judged competent by their
in the event of a fire. A fire watch shall be employer. Rules and instructions covering the
maintained for at least a 30 minutes after operation and maintenance of oxygen or fuel-gas
completion of welding or cutting operations supply equipment shall be readily available.
to detect and extinguish possible smoldering Cylinders and Containers
fires. • Approval and Marking; all portable cylinders
Protection of Personnel used for the storage and shipment of compressed
• General gases shall be constructed and maintained in
o Railing; a welder or helper working on accordance with 49 CFR Parts 171-179.
platforms, scaffold, or runways shall be Compressed gas cylinders shall be legibly
protected against falling. marked, for the purpose of identifying the gas
o Welding Cables; welders shall place content.
welding cable and other equipment so that it • Storage of Cylinders; cylinders shall be kept
is clear of passageways, ladders, and away from radiators and other sources of heat.
stairways. o Inside of buildings, cylinders shall be stored
o Welder and helper shall use appropriate ppe. in a well-protected, well-ventilated, dry
• Health Protection and Ventilation location, at least 20 feet from highly
• Screens; when welding must be performed in a combustible materials such as oil or
space entirely screened on all sides, the screens excelsior.
shall be so arranged that no serious restriction of o Empty cylinders shall have their valves
ventilation exists. closed.
• Maximum allowable concentrations; local o Valve protection caps, where cylinder is
exhaust or general ventilation systems shall be designed to accept a cap, shall always be in
provided and arranged to keep the amount of place, hand-tight, except when cylinders are
toxic fumes, gases or dusts below the maximum in use or connected for use.
allowable concentration as specified in o Fuel-gas cylinder storage inside buildings,
1910.1000 (air contaminants). shall be limited to a total gas capacity of
• Precautionary labels; a number of potentially 2,000 cubic feet or 300 pounds of liquefied
hazardous materials are employed in fluxes, petroleum gas.
coatings, coverings and filler metals used in o Acetylene cylinders shall be stored valve
welding and cutting are released to the end up.
atmosphere during welding and cutting.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-29

o Oxygen storage, cylinders shall not be • Terminals for welding leads should be protected
stored near highly combustible materials, from accidental electrical contact by personnel or
especially oil and grease; or near reserve by metal objects.
stocks of carbide and acetylene or other Grounding
fuel-gas cylinders, or near any other • Chains, wire ropes, cranes, hoists, and elevators
substance likely to cause or accelerate fire; shall not be used to carry welding current.
or in an acetylene generator compartment. • All ground connections shall be checked to
• Operating procedures, cylinders, cylinder valves, determine that they are mechanical strong and
couplings, regulators, hose and apparatus shall electrically adequate for the required current.
be kept free from oily or greasy substances. • Operation and Maintenance
o Cylinders shall not be dropped or struck or • Before starting operations all connections to the
permitted to strike each other violently. machine shall be checked to make certain they
o Valve-protection caps shall not be used for are properly made.
lifting cylinders from one vertical position to • Grounding of the welding machine frame shall
another. be checked.
o Cylinder valves shall be closed before • It shall be determined that proper switching
moving cylinders. equipment for shutting down the machine is
o Cylinder valves shall be closed when work provided.
is finished. • Printed rules and instructions covering operation
o Cylinders shall be kept far enough away of equipment supplied by the manufacturers shall
from the actual welding or cutting operation be strictly followed.
so that sparks, hot slag, or flame will not
• Electrode holders when not in use shall be so
reach them, or fire-resistant shields shall be
placed that they cannot make electrical contact
provided.
with person, conducting objects, fuel or
o Cylinders shall never be used as rollers or
compressed gas tanks.
supports, where full or empty.
• Cables with splices within 10 feet of the holder
o Cylinders shall not be dropped or otherwise
shall not be used. The welder should not coil or
roughly handled.
loop welding electrode cable around parts of his
o A hammer or wrench shall not be used to
body.
open cylinder valves.
• The operator should report any equipment defect
Arc Welding and Cutting (1910.254) or safety hazards to his supervisor and the use of
General the equipment shall be discontinued until its
• Equipment Selection; welding equipment shall safety has been assured.
be chosen for safe application to the work to be • Machines which have become wet shall be
done. thoroughly dried and tested before being used.
• Workmen designated to operate arc welding • Cables with damaged insulation or exposed bare
equipment shall have been properly instructed conductors shall be replaced.
and qualified to operate such equipment.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-30

Subpart R - Special Industries

Pulp, Paper and Paperboard mills (1910.261) Sawmills (1910.265)

This standard applies to establishments where pulp, This standard includes safety requirements for
paper, and paperboard are manufactured and sawmill operations including, but not limited to, log
converted. and lumber handling, sawing, trimming, and planing,
waste disposal, operations of dry kilns, finishing,
Textiles (1910.262) shipping, storage, yard and yard equipment and for
The requirements of this standard apply to the design, power tools and affiliated equipment used in
installation, processes, operation, and maintenance of connection with such operations.
textile machinery, equipment and other plant
facilities in all plants engaged in the manufacture and Logging Operations (1910.266)
processing of textiles. This standard establishes safety practices, means,
methods and operations for all types of logging,
Bakery Equipment (1910.263) regardless of the end use of the wood. These types of
The requirements of this standard shall apply to the logging include, but are not limited to, pulpwood and
design, installation, operation and maintenance of timer harvesting and the logging of sawlogs, veneer
machinery and equipment used within a bakery. bolts, poles, pilings and other forest products.

Laundry Machinery and Operations (1910.264) Telecommunications (1910.268)

This standard applies to moving parts of equipment This standard sets forth safety and health standards
used in laundries and to conditions peculiar to this that apply to the work conditions, practices, means,
industry. methods, operations, installations and processes
Point of Operation Guards perfor4med at telecommunications centers and at
• Washing machine; shall be provided with means telecommunications field installs, which are located
for holding open the doors or covers of inner and outdoors or in building spaces used for such filed
outer cylinders or shells while being loaded or installations.
unloaded.
• Drying tumbler; shall be provided with means Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
for holding open the doors or covers of inner and Distribution (1910.269)
outer cylinders or shells while being loaded or This standard covers the operation and maintenance
unloaded. of electric power generation, control, transformation,
Operating Rules transmission, and distribution lines and equipment.
• Employees shall be properly instructed as to the
hazards of their work and be instructed in safe Grain Handling Facilities (1910.272)
practices, by bulletins, printed rules, and verbal This standard applies to grain elevators, feed mills,
instructions. flour mills, rice mills, dust pelletizing plants, dry corn
mills, soybean flaking operations and the dry
grinding operations of soycake.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-31

Subpart S - Electrical

General Requirements (1910.303) Class I, Division 2

Examination, Installation, and Use of Equipment • A location in which volatile flammable liquids or
• Electrical equipment shall be fee from flammable gases are handled, processed, or used,
recognized hazards that are likely to cause death but in which the hazardous liquids, vapors or
or serious physical harm to employees gases will normally be confined within closed
Splices containers or closed systems from which they
• Conductors shall be spliced or joined with can escape only incase or accidental rupture or
splicing devices suitable for the use or by breakdown of such containers or systems, or in
brazing, welding, or soldering with a fusible case of abnormal operation of equipment.
metal or alloy. Class II, Division 1
Arcing Parts • A location in which combustible dust is or may
• Parts of electric equipment which in ordinary be in suspension in the air under normal
operation produce arcs, sparks, flames, or molten operating conditions, in quantities sufficient to
metal shall be enclosed or separated and isolated produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
from all combustible material. Class II, Division 2
Marking • A location which combustible dust will not
• Electrical equipment may not be used unless the normally be in suspension in the air in quantities
manufacturer’s name, trademark, or other sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable
descriptive marking by which the organization mixtures, and dust accumulations are normally
responsible for the product may be identified is insufficient to interfere with the normal
place on the equipment. operation of electrical equipment or other
Identification of Disconnecting apparatus.
• Each disconnecting means required for motors Class III, Division 1
and appliances shall be legibly marked to • A location in which easily ignitable fibers or
indicate its purpose, unless located and arranged materials producing combustible fibers or
so the purpose is evident. materials producing combustible flyings are
600 Volts, Nominal, or Less handled, manufactured, or used.
• Sufficient access and working space shall be Class III, Division 2
provided and maintained about all electric • A location in which easily ignitable fibers are
equipment to permit ready and safe operation stored or handled, except in process of
and maintenance of such equipment. manufacture.
Over 600 Volts, Nominal
• Sufficient access and working space shall be Training (1910.332)
provided and maintained about all electric Content of Training
equipment to permit ready and safe operation • Employees shall be trained in and familiar with
and maintenance of such equipment. Where the safety-related work practices.
energized parts are exposed, the minimum clear • Qualified persons shall, at a minimum, be trained
workspace may not be less than 6 feet 6 inches in and familiar with the following:
high or less than 3 feet wide. o Skills and techniques necessary to
• Adequate illumination shall be provided for all distinguish exposed live parts from other
working spaces about electric equipment. parts of electric equipment;
o Skills and techniques necessary to determine
Hazardous Locations (1910.307) the nominal voltage of exposed live parts;
Class I, Division 1 and
• A location in which hazardous concentrations of o Clearance distance for voltages to which the
flammable gases or vapors may exist under qualified person will be exposed
normal operating conditions. Type of Training
• Training required shall be of the classroom or
on-the-job type. The degree of training provided
shall be determined by the risk to the employee

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-32

Selection and Use of Work Practices (1910.333) Use of Equipment (1910.334)

General Portable Electric Equipment
• Safety-related work practices shall be employed • Handling; portable equipment shall be handled in
to prevent electric shock or other injuries a manner which will not cause damage. Flexible
resulting form either direct or indirect electrical electric cords may not be used for raising or
contacts, when work is performed near or on lowering the equipment.
equipment or circuits which are or may be • Visual inspection; portable cord and plug
energized. connected equipment and flexible cord sets shall
• Live parts to which an employee may be exposed be visually inspected before use on any shift for
shall be deenergized before the employee works external defects and for evidence of possible
on or near then, unless the employer can internal damage.
demonstrate that deenergizing introduces • Adapters which interrupt the continuity of the
additional or increased hazards or is infeasible equipment grounding connection may not be
due to equipment design or operational used.
limitations. Electric Power and Lighting Circuits
Working On or Near Exposed Deenergized Parts • Routine opening and closing of circuits; load
• While any employee is exposed to contact with rated switches, circuit breakers, or other devices
parts of fixed electric equipment or circuits specifically designed as disconnecting means
which have been deenergized, the circuits shall be used for the opening, reversing, or
energizing the parts shall be locked out or tagged closing of circuits under load conditions.
or both. Test Instruments and Equipment
Working On or Near Exposed Energized Parts • Use; only qualified persons may perform testing
• Only qualified persons may work on electric work on electric circuits or equipment.
circuit parts or equipment that have not been • Visual inspections; test instruments and
deenergized. equipment and all associated test leads, cables,
• If work is to be performed near overhead lines, power cords, probes, and connectors shall be
the lines shall be deenergized and grounded, or visually inspected for external defects and
other protective measures shall be provided, damage before the equipment is used.
before work starts. • Rating; test instruments and equipment and their
• Employees may not enter spaces containing accessories shall be rated for the circuits and
exposed energized parts, unless illumination is equipment to which they will be connected.
provided that enables the employees to perform Occasional Use of Flammable or Ignitable Materials
the work safely. • Where flammable materials are present only
• When an employee works in a confined or occasionally, electric equipment capable of
enclosed space that contains exposed energized igniting them shall not be used, unless measures
parts, the employer shall provide, and the are taken to prevent hazardous conditions from
employee shall use, protective shields, protective developing.
barriers, or insulating materials as necessary to
avoid inadvertent contact. Safeguards for Personnel Protection (1910.335)
• Conductive materials and equipment that are in Use of Protective Equipment
contact with any part of an employee’s body • PPE shall be provided employees working in
shall be handled in a manner that will prevent areas where there are potential electrical hazards,
them from contacting exposed energized appropriate for the specific parts of the body to
conductors or circuit parts. be protected and from the work to be performed.
• Portable ladders shall have nonconductive • Insulated tools or handling equipment shall be
siderails if they are used where the employee or used when working near exposed energized
the ladder could contact exposed energized parts. conductors or circuit parts.
• Conductive articles of jewelry and clothing may Alerting Techniques
not be worn if they might contact exposed • The following alerting techniques shall be used
energized parts. to warn and protect employees from hazards
• Where live parts present an electrical contact which could cause injury due to electric shock,
hazard, employees may not perform burns, or failure of electric equipment parts:
housekeeping duties at such close distances to o Safety signs and tags;
the parts that there is a possibility of contact, o Barricades; or
unless adequate safeguards are provided. o Attendants.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-33

Subpart Z - Toxic and Hazardous Substances

Access to Employee Exposure and Medical Records gowns, laboratory coasts, face shields or masks and
(1910.1020) eye protection and mouthpieces, resuscitation bags,
To provide employees and their designated pocket masks, or other ventilation devices.
representatives a right of access to relevant exposure - The employer shall ensure that employees
and medical records; and to provide representatives use ppe when it is necessary.
of the Assistant Secretary a right of access to these Housekeeping
records. - Employers shall ensure that the worksite is
Preservation of Records maintained in a clean and sanitary condition.
• Medical records must be maintained for the - The employer shall determine and
duration of employment, plus 30 years; unless implement an appropriate written schedule for
employee worked less than one year and his/her cleaning and method of decontamination based
records were provided upon termination. upon the location within the facility, type of
First Aid records need not be maintained. surface to be cleaned, type of soil present, and
• Exposure records must be maintained for 30 tasks or procedures being performed in the area.
years. • HIV and HBV Research Laboratories and
Access to Records Production Facilities
• Records shall be provided in a reasonable time • Research laboratories and production facilities
(15 working days). shall comply with the criteria set forth by the
Standard Microbiological Practices.
Bloodborne Pathogens (1910.1030) • Hepatitis B Vaccination and Post-Exposure
This standard applies to all occupational exposure to Evaluation and Follow-up
blood or other potentially infectious materials. • Vaccination; the employer shall make available
Exposure Control Plan the hepatitis B vaccine and vaccination series to
• Each employer having an employee(s) with all employees who have occupational exposure
occupational exposure shall establish a written potential.
Exposure Control Plan designed to eliminate or - Vaccination shall be at no cost to the
minimize employee exposure, this plan shall be employee;
available to employees. - Available at reasonable times; after
• The exposure control plan shall contain: bloodborne pathogen training and within 10
o Exposure determination; working days.
o Schedule and method of implementation; - If employee initially declines the vaccine,
o Procedure for the evaluation of but at a later date while still covered under the
circumstances surrounding exposure standard decides to accept the vaccination, the
incidents; employer shall provide it at that time.
Exposure control plan shall be reviewed and updated  Post-Exposure Evaluation
annually. - Following a report of an exposure incident
• Methods of Compliance the employer shall make immediately available to
• General; universal precautions shall be the exposed employee a confidential medical
observed to prevent contact with blood or evaluation and follow-up, including:
other potentially infectious materials. • Documentation of the route(s) of exposure and
• Engineering and Work Practice Controls the circumstances under which the exposure
- Engineering and work practices shall be incident occurred;
used to eliminate or minimize employee exposure. • Identification and documentation of the source
- Engineering controls shall be examined and individual, unless prohibited by State law;
maintained or replaced on a regular schedule. • Collection and testing of blood ;
- Employers shall provide handwashing • Post-exposure prophylaxis, when medically
facilities, which are readily accessible. indicated.
• Personal Protective Equipment • Counseling; and evaluation of reported illnesses.
- When there is occupational exposure, the - Must be at no cost to the employee and
employer shall provide, at no cost to the employee, made available at a reasonable time.
appropriate ppe such as, but not limited to, gloves, • Communication of Hazards to Employees

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-34

• Labels • Post-exposure evaluation and follow-up to an

- Warning labels shall be affixed to containers exposure incident; signs and labels and/or color
of regulated waste, refrigerators and freezers coding for blood or other potentially infectious
containing blood or other potentially infectious materials; and
material; and other containers used to store, • Opportunity for interactive questions and
transport or ship blood or other potentially answers with the person conducting the training.
infectious material. • Recordkeeping
• Medical Records, shall be maintained for each
- Labels shall be fluorescent orange or employee exposed and include:
orange-red or predominantly so, with lettering or - Name and social security number of the
symbols in a contrasting color. employee;
- Labels shall be affixed as close as feasible to - Copy of the employee’s hepatitis B
the container by string, wire, adhesive, or other vaccination status and dates of inoculation; copy of
method that prevents their loss or unintentional all results of examinations, medical testing and
removal. follow-up procedures;
- Red bags or red containers may be - Employer’s copy of the health care
substituted for labels. professional’s written opinion; and confidentiality
• Signs of the medical records.
- Employer shall post signs at the entrance to - Medical records shall be maintained for the
HIV and HBV Research Laboratory and duration of employment plus 30 years.
Production Facilities work areas. • Training Records, shall be maintained for 3 years
- Signs shall be fluorescent orange-red or and include:
predominantly so, with lettering or symbols in a - Dates of training sessions; contents or a
contrasting color. summary of the training;
• Information and Training shall be provided: - Names and qualifications of persons
- To all employees with occupational conducting the training; and
exposure participate in a training program which - Names and job titles of all persons attending
must be provided at no cost to the employee and the training.
during working hours; • Availability of Records
- At the time of initial assignment to tasks - The employer shall ensure that all records
where occupational exposure may take place; and required to be maintained shall be made available
- At least annually thereafter. upon request to the Assistant Secretary and the
- Training shall include: Director for examination and copying.
• Explanation and availability of the bloodborne
pathogens standard; epidemiology and symptoms Hazard Communication (1910.1200)
of bloodborne diseases; modes of transmission of The purpose of this standard is to ensure that the
bloodborne pathogens; hazards of all chemicals produced or imported are
• Employer’s exposure control plan and the means evaluated, and that information concerning their
by which the employee can obtain a copy of the hazards is transmitted to employers and employees.
plan; This transmittal of information is to be accomplished
• Methods for recognizing tasks and other by means of comprehensive hazard communication
activities that may involve exposure to blood and programs, which are to include container labeling and
other potentially infectious materials; use and other forms of warning, material safety data sheets
limitations of methods that will prevent or and employee training.
reduce exposure including: engineering, work Hazard Determination
practices and ppe. information on the types, • Chemical manufacturers and importers shall
proper use, location, removal, handling, evaluate chemicals produced in their workplaces
decontamination and disposal of ppe; or imported by them to determine if they are
• Basis for selection of ppe; hazardous.
• Hepatitis B vaccination;
• Actions to take and persons to contact in an
emergency involving blood or other potentially
infectious materials;
• Procedure to follow if an exposure incident
occurs;

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-35

Written hazard communication program generally recognized as being aggravated by

• Employers shall develop, implement, and exposure to the chemical;
maintain at each workplace, a written hazard o Primary route(s) of entry; OSHA
communication program which at least describes permissible exposure limit;
how the criteria of labeling, material safety data o Whether the hazardous chemical is listed in
sheets, and employee information and training the National Toxicology Program Annual
will be met, and which also includes: Report on Carcinogens or has been found to
- A list of hazardous chemicals known to be be a potential carcinogen;
present using an identify that is referenced on the o Any generally applicable precautions for
appropriate material safety data sheet; and safe handling and use, including appropriate
- The methods the employer will use to hygienic practices, protective measures
inform employees of the hazards of non-routine during repair and maintenance of
tasks, and the hazards associated with chemicals contaminated equipment, and procedures for
contained in unlabeled pipes in their work area. clean-up of spills and leaks;
• Multi-Employer workplaces, each employer shall o Any generally applicable control measures:
provide: engineering, work practice or ppe;
- On-site access to material safety data sheets emergency and first aid procedures;
and availability of written hazard communication o Date of preparation of the material safety
program. data sheet; and
- Precautionary measures that need to be o Name, address and telephone number of the
taken to protect employees. chemical manufacturer, importer, employer
- Information on the labeling system utilized. or other responsible party.
Labels and Other Forms of Warning Employee Information and Training
• Chemical manufacturer, importer, or distributor • Employers shall provide employees with
shall ensure that each container of hazardous effective information and training on hazardous
chemicals leaving the workplace is labeled, chemicals in their work area at the time of their
tagged or marked with the following initial assignment, and whenever a new physical
information: or health hazard the employees have not
- Identity of the hazardous chemical; previously been trained about is introduced into
- Appropriate hazard warnings; and their work area.
- Name and address of the chemical • Employees shall be informed of:
manufacturer, importer, or other responsible party. o Requirements of the hazard communication
• For solid metal, solid wood, or plastic items that standard;
are not exempted as articles due to their o Any operations in their work area where
downstream use, the required label may be hazardous chemicals are present; and
transmitted to the customer at the time of the o The location and availability of the written
initial shipment, and need not be included with hazard communication program, including
subsequent shipments to the same employer. the required lists of hazardous chemicals and
Safety Data Sheet material safety data sheets.
• Chemical manufacturers and importers shall • Employee training shall include:
obtain or develop a material safety data sheet for o Methods and observations that may be used
each hazardous chemical they produce or import. to detect the presence or release of a
Employers shall have a material safety data sheet hazardous chemical in the work area;
in the workplace for each hazardous chemical o Physical and health hazards of the chemicals
which they use. in the work area;
Each material safety data sheet shall be in o Measures employees can take to protect
English and shall contain at least the following: themselves from these hazards;
o Identity used on the label; o Details of the hazard communication
o Physical and chemical characteristics of the program developed by the employer,
hazardous chemical; including explanation of the labeling system
o Physical hazards of the hazardous chemical, and the material safety data sheet, and how
including the potential for fire, explosion employees can obtain and use the
and reactivity; appropriate hazard information.
o Health hazards of the hazardous chemical,
including signs and symptoms of exposure,
and any medical conditions which are

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-36

Trade Secrets Chemical Hygiene Plan;

• Chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer • A written Chemical Hygiene Plan shall be
may withhold the specific chemical identity, developed and implemented, which is capable of
including the chemical name and other specific protecting employees from health hazards and
identification of a hazardous chemical, from the keeping exposures below the specified limits.
material safety data sheet, provided: o Standard operating procedures;
o The claim that the information withheld is a o Control measures, to include fume hoods;
trade secret can be supported; o Employee information and training;
o The specific chemical identity is made o Circumstances under which a particular
available to health professionals and laboratory operation, procedure or activity
employees in the event of a medical shall require prior approval.
emergency. o Provision for medical consultation.
o Designated person responsible for the
Retention of DOT Markings, Placards and Labels Chemical Hygiene Plan.
(1910.1201); Employee Information and Training;
• Any employer who receives a package of • Information; on the contents of this standard,
hazardous material which is required to be location and availability of the Chemical
marked, label or placard in accordance with 49 Hygiene Plan, permissible exposure limits, signs
CFR 171, shall retain those markings, labels and and symptoms associated with the hazardous
placards on the package until the package is chemicals, and location of MSDS.
sufficiently cleaned of residue and purged of • Training; on methods and observations to detect
vapors to remove any potential hazards. the presence of a hazardous chemical, physical
and health hazards associated with the hazardous
Occupational Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals in chemical, and applicable details of the
Laboratories (1910.1450) employer’s written Chemical Hygiene Plan.
This section shall apply to all employers engaged
in the laboratory use of hazardous chemicals.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-37

Title 29 CFR Part 1926 Construction

The Subparts of 1926 (Construction) include:

Subpart A General Subpart O Motor Vehicles,
Subpart B General Interpretations Mechanized Equipment
Subpart C General Safety and Health Subpart P Excavations
Provisions Subpart Q Concrete and Masonry
Subpart D Occupational Health and Construction
Environmental Controls Subpart R Steel Erection
Subpart E Personal Protective & Life Subpart S Underground Construction,
Saving Equipment Caissons, Cofferdams and
Subpart F Fire Protection and Compressed Air
Prevention Subpart T Demolition
Subpart G Signs, Signals and Subpart U Blasting and Use of
Barricades Explosives
Subpart H Materials Handling, Subpart V Power Transmission and
Storage, Use & Disposal Distribution
Subpart I Tools – Hand and Power Subpart W Rollover Protective
Subpart J Welding and Cutting Structures; Overhead Protection
Subpart K Electrical Subpart X Stairways and Ladders
Subpart L Scaffolds Subpart Y Diving
Subpart M Fall Protection Subpart Z Toxic and Hazardous
Subpart N Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Substances
Elevators & Conveyors

Subpart A General

Inspections – Right of Entry (1926.3)

The Secretary of Labor or any authorized representative shall have a right of entry to any site of contract
performance to inspect or investigate the matter of compliance with the safety and health standards.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-38

Subpart C General Safety and Health Provisions

General Safety and Health Provisions (1926.20) • during the course of construction, alteration, or
• accident prevention responsibilities: repairs, form and scrap lumber with protruding
o employer shall initiate and maintain such nails, and all other debris shall be kept cleared
programs as may be necessary to comply from work areas, passageways, and stairs, in and
o such programs shall provide for frequent and around buildings or other structures.
regular inspections of the job sites, • containers shall be provided for the collection
materials, and equipment to be made by and separation of waste, trash, oily and used
competent persons. rags, and other refuse - containers shall be
o the use of any machinery, tool, material, or equipped with covers - garbage and other waste
equipment which is not in compliance with shall be disposed of at regular intervals.
this part is prohibited.
o the employer shall permit only those Illumination (1926.26)
employees qualified by training or • Construction areas, aisles, stairs, ramps,
experience to operate equipment and runways, corridors, offices, shops, and storage
machinery. areas where work is in progress shall be lighted
with either natural or artificial illumination.
Safety Training and Education (1926.21)
• employer responsibility; Personal Protective Equipment (1926.28)
o the employer shall instruct each employee in • The employer is responsible for requiring the
the recognition and avoidance of unsafe wearing of appropriate personal protective
conditions and the regulations applicable to equipment in all operations where there is an
his work environment to control or eliminate exposure to hazardous conditions or where this
any hazards part indicates the need for using such equipment
o employees required to handle or use to reduce the hazards to the employees
poisons, caustics, and other harmful
substances shall be instructed regarding the Routes of Exits (1926.34)
safe handling and use, and be made aware of • In every building or structure exits shall be so
the potential hazards, personal hygiene, and arranged and maintained as to provide free and
personal protective measures required. unobstructed egress from all parts of the building
o in job site areas where harmful plants or or structure at all times when it is occupied.
animals are present, employees who may be
exposed shall be instructed regarding the Employee Emergency Action Plan (1926.35)
potential hazards, and how to avoid injury, • All emergency action plans required shall be in
and the first aid procedures to be used in the writing and identify the actions of designated
event of injury. employees to ensure employee safety from fire
o employees required to enter into confined or and other emergencies, they shall include:
enclosed spaces shall be instructed as to the o escape procedures and routes
nature of the hazards involved, the necessary o designated personnel to operate critical
precautions to be take equipment
o accountability
First Aid and Medical Attention (1926.23) o medical services and first aid
• first aid services and provisions for medical care o contact name
shall be made available by the employer o teach upon initial hire and whenever change
in job
Fire Protection and Prevention (1926.24)
• the employer shall be responsible for the Employee Alarm System (1926.159)
development and maintenance of an effective • the employer shall provide an employee alarm
fire protection and prevention program at the job system that is capable of being perceived above
site throughout all phases of construction. ambient noise or light levels;
• the alarm shall be distinctive and recognizable as
Housekeeping (1926.25) a signal to evacuate;
• combustible scrap and debris shall be removed at • procedures shall be established for sounding the
regular intervals alarm.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-39

Subpart D Occupational Health & Environmental

Medical Services and First Aid (1926.50) Occupational Noise Exposure (1926.52)
• the employer shall insure the availability of • duration 90 dBA
medical personnel for advice and consultation on
matters of occupational health. Ionizing Radiation (1926.53)
• provisions shall be made prior to commencement • in construction and related activities involving
of the project for prompt medical attention in the use of sources of ionizing radiation, the
case of serious injury. pertinent provisions of the Nuclear Regulatory
• in the absence of a health care facility that is Commission Standard for Protection Against
reasonably accessible in terms of time and Radiation (10 CFR Part 20) shall apply.
distance to the worksite, a person who has a
valid certificate in first-aid shall be available at Non-Ionizing Radiation (1926.54)
the worksite to render first aid. • only qualified & trained employees shall install,
• first-aid supplies approved by the consulting adjust, and operate laser equipment.
physician shall be easily accessible when
required, container shall be weatherproof and the Gases, Vapors, Fumes. Dusts and Mists (1926.55)
contents checked by the employer before being • exposure of employees to inhalation, ingestion,
sent out on each job and at least weekly on each skin absorption, or contact with any material or
job. substance at a concentration above those
• proper equipment for prompt transportation of specified in the “Threshold Limit Values of
injured to medical facilities, or communication Airborne Contaminants for 1970” of the ACGIH,
system to obtain transport provided shall be avoided.
• where eyes or body of any person may be
exposed to injuries corrosives materials, suitable Illumination (1926.56)
facilities for quick drenching or flushing of the • construction areas, ramps, runways, corridors,
eyes and body shall be provided. offices, shops, & storage areas: foot-candle chart

Sanitation (1926.51) Hazard Communication (1926.59)

• potable water shall be provided in all places of Purpose to ensure that the hazards of all chemicals
employment and the container used shall be are evaluated, and information concerning their
capable of being tightly closed and equipped hazards is transmitted to employers and employees.
with a tap • hazard determination;
• where single service cups are supplied, both a o chemical manufacturers and importers shall
sanitary container for the unused cups and a evaluate chemicals produced in their
receptacle for disposing of the used cups shall be workplaces or imported by them to
provided. determine if they are hazardous.
• non-potable water • written hazard communication program;
• used for fire fighting or industrial use shall be o employers shall develop, implement, and
identified by signs. maintain at each workplace, a written hazard
• toilets communication program which at least
• washing facilities shall be provided for describes how the criteria of labels and other
employees engaged in the application of paints, forms of warning, material safety data
coating, herbicides, or insecticides, or in other sheets, and employee information and
operations where contaminants may be harmful training will be met, and which also includes
to the employees the following:
• eating and drinking; no employee shall be o a list of the hazardous chemicals known to
allowed to consume food or beverages in a toilet be present using an identify that is
room nor in any area exposed to a toxic material. referenced on the appropriate material safety
• vermin control; every enclosed workplace shall data sheet; and
be so constructed, equipped, and maintained, so o methods the employer will use to inform
far as reasonable practicable, as to prevent the employees of the hazards of non-routine
entrance or harborage of rodents, insects, and tasks and hazards associated with chemicals
other vermin. in unlabeled pipes in their work area.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-40

• labels and other forms of warning; o emergency and first aid procedures;
o chemical manufacturer or importer, or o date of preparation of the material safety
distributor shall ensure that each container data sheet or the last change; and
of hazardous chemicals leaving the o name, address and telephone number of
workplace is labeled, tagged or marked with responsible party for preparing MSDS, who
the following information: can provide additional information.
o identity of the hazardous chemicals; • employee information and training;
o appropriate hazard warnings; and o employers’ shall provide employees with
o name and address of the chemical information and training on hazardous
manufacturer, importer, or other responsible chemicals in their work area at the time of
party. initial assignment, and whenever a new
• safety data sheets; physical or health hazard the employees
o chemical manufacturer and importers shall have not previously been trained about.
obtain or develop a safety data sheet for • employees shall be informed of:
each hazardous chemical they produce or o the requirements of this section;
import. Employers shall have a safety data o any operations in their work area where
sheet in the workplace for each hazardous hazardous chemicals are present; and
chemical which they use. Material safety o location and availability of the written
data sheets shall be in English and contain hazard communication program, including
the following: the required list(s) of hazardous chemicals
o physical and chemical characteristics of the and material safety data sheets;
o hazardous chemical • employees training shall include:
o (such as vapor pressure, flash point); o methods and observations used to detect the
o physical hazards of the hazardous chemical, presence or release of a hazardous chemical
including the potential for fire, explosion, in the work area;
and reactivity; o the physical and health hazards of the
o health hazards of the hazardous chemical, chemicals in the work area;
including signs and symptoms of exposure, o the measures employees can take to protect
and any medical conditions which are themselves from these hazards; and
generally recognized as being aggravated by o details of the hazard communication
exposure to the chemical; program, an explanation of the labeling
o the primary routes of entry; system and the safety data sheet, and how
o OSHA PELs, ACGIH TLVs, and any other employees can obtain and use the
exposure limit used or recommended. appropriate hazard information.
o whether the hazardous chemical is listed in
the National Toxicology Program.
o any general precautions for safe handling
and use which are known to the chemical
manufacturer or importer;
o any general applicable control measures
which are known to the chemical
manufacturer or importer;

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-41

Subpart E Personal Protective Equipment

Criteria for Personal Protective Equipment (1926.95)

• protective equipment, including personal Eye and Face Protection (1926.102)
protective equipment for eyes, face, head, and • employees shall be provided with eye and face
extremities, protective clothing, respiratory protection equipment when machines or
devices, and protective shields and barriers, shall operations present potential eye or face injury
be provided, used, and maintained in a sanitary from physical, chemical, or radiation agents.
and reliable condition
• where employees provide their own protective Respiratory Protection (1926.103)
equipment, the employer shall be responsible to • in emergencies, or when controls either fail or
assure its adequacy, including proper are inadequate to prevent harmful exposure to
maintenance, and sanitation of such equipment. employees, appropriate respiratory protective
• all personal protective equipment shall be of safe devices shall be provided by the employer and
design and construction for the work to be shall be used.
performed.
• employer shall pay – except boots and clothes, Safety Belts, Lifelines and Lanyards (1926.104)
unless specialty items for work • lifelines, safety belts, and lanyards shall be used
only for employee safeguarding. Any lifeline,
Occupational Foot Protection (1926.96) safety belt, or lanyard actually subjected to in-
• safety-toe footwear for employees shall meet the service loading, as distinguished from static load
requirements and specification in American testing, shall be immediately removed from
National Standard for Men’s Safety-Toe service and shall not be used again for employee
Footwear, Z41.1-1967 safeguarding.
• secured above point of operation
Head Protection (1926.100)
• employees working in areas where there is a Safety Nets (1926.105)
possible danger of head injury from impact, or • safety nets shall be provided when workplaces
from falling or flying objects, or from electrical are more than 25 feet above the ground or water
shock and burns, shall be protected by protective surface, or other surfaces where the use of
helmets ladders, scaffolds, catch platforms, temporary
floors, safety lines, or safety belts is impractical.
Hearing Protection (1926.101)
• wherever it is not feasible to reduce the noise Working Over or Near Water (1926.106)
levels or duration of exposure to those specified • employees working over or near water, where
in Table D-2, the danger of drowning exists, shall be provided
• ear protective devices inserted in the ear shall be with U.S. Coast Guard approved life jacket or
fitted or determined individually by competent buoyant work vests.
persons. • buoyant vest inspected prior and after use

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-42

Subpart F Fire Protection and Prevention

Fire Protection (1926.150) o combustible materials shall be piled with

• the employer shall be responsible for the due regard to the stability of piles and in no
development of a fire protection program to be case higher than 20 feet.
followed throughout all phases of the o 15 feet wide driveways between piles
construction and demolition work, and shall • indoor storage
provide fire-fighting equipment o storage shall not obstruct or adversely affect,
o access to all available firefighting equipment routes of exit. Material shall be piled to
shall be maintained at all times. minimize the spread of fire and clearance of
o all firefighting equipment, provided by the 36 inches shall be maintained between the
employer, shall be conspicuously located. top of the pile and the sprinkler deflectors.
o all firefighting equipment shall be
periodically inspected and maintained in Flammable Combustible Liquids (1026.152)
operating condition. • only approved containers and portable tanks
• water supply shall be used for storage and handling of
o a temporary or permanent water supply of flammable and combustible liquids.
sufficient volume, duration, and pressure, • flammable or combustible liquids shall not be
required to properly operate the firefighting stored in areas used for exits, stairways, or
equipment shall be made available as soon normally used for the safe passage of people
as combustible materials accumulate. • indoor storage
• portable firefighting equipment o no more than 25 gallons of flammable or
o a fire extinguisher rated not less than 2A, combustible liquids shall be stored in a room
shall be provided for each 3,000 sqft of the outside of an approved storage cabinet.
protected building area, or major fraction o not more than 60 gallons of flammable or
thereof. 120 gallons of combustible liquids shall be
o travel distance from any point of the stored in any one storage cabinet.
protected area to the nearest fire • storage outside buildings
extinguisher shall not exceed 100 feet. o storage of containers (not more than 60
o a fire extinguisher rated not less than 10B gallons each) shall not exceed 1,100 gallons
shall be provided within 50 feet of wherever in any one pile or area – 12 feet access way
more than 5 gallons of flammable or • fire control
combustible liquids. o at least one portable fire extinguisher,
• fire alarm device having a rating of not less than 20B shall be
o an alarm system shall be established located outside of but not more than 10 feet
whereby employees on the site and the local from the room used to store more than 60
fire department can be alerted for an gallons of flammable or combustible liquids.
emergency. • dispensing liquids
o alarm code and reporting instructions shall areas in which flammable or combustible liquids are
be conspicuously posted at phones and at transferred at one time, in quantities greater than 5
employee entrances. gallons from one tank or container to another tank or
container, shall be separated from other operations by
Fire Prevention (1926.151) 25 feet distance or by construction having a fire
• ignition hazards resistance of at least 1 hour.
o such as electrical and combustion engines • handling liquids at final use point
shall be identified and preventative o flammable liquids shall be kept in closed
measures to prevent fire initiated. containers when not actually in use.
• open yard storage o leakage or spillage of flammable or
combustible liquids shall be disposed of
promptly and safely.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-43

Subpart G Signs, Signals, and Barricades

Accident Prevention Signs and Tags (1926.200) shall be white with a black panel and a white
• danger signs; directional symbol and additional wording on the
shall be used only where an immediate hazard sign shall be black letters on the white
exists and shall have red as the predominating background.
color for the upper panel, black outline on the • traffic signs;
borders, and a while lower panel for additional construction areas shall be posted with legible
sign wording. traffic signs at points of hazards.
• caution signs; • accident prevention tags;
shall be used only to warn against potential shall be used as a temporary means of warning
hazards or to caution against unsafe practices and employees of an existing hazard, such as
shall have yellow as the predominating color, defective tools, equipment, etc.
black upper panel and borders: yellow lettering
of “caution” on the black panel and the lower Signaling (1926.201)
yellow panel for additional sign wording in black • flagmen;
letters. o when operations are such that signs, signals
• exit signs; and barricades do not provide the necessary
when required, shall be lettered in legible red protection on or adjacent to a highway or
letters, not less than 6 inches high, on a white street, flagmen or other appropriate traffic
field and the principal stroke of the letters shall controls shall be provided.
be at least three-fourths inch in width. o flagmen shall be provided with and shall
• safety instruction signs; wear a red or orange warning garment and
shall be white with green upper panel with white use red flags at least 18 inches square or
letters to convey the principal message, sign paddles, and periods of darkness, red
additional wording shall be black letters on the lights.
white background. • crane and hoist signals;
• directional signs; regulations for crane and hoist signaling will be
found in applicable ANSI standards.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-44

Subpart H Material Handling, Storage, Use and Disposal

General (1926.250) stacked and blocked so as to prevent spreading

• all materials stored in tiers shall be stacked, or tilting.
racked, blocked, interlocked, or otherwise • housekeeping;
secured to prevent sliding, falling or collapse. storage areas shall be kept free from
• maximum safe load limits of floors within accumulation of materials that constitute hazards
buildings and structures, in pounds per square from tripping, fire, explosion, or pest harborage.
foot, shall be conspicuously posted in all storage Vegetation control will be exercised when
areas. necessary.
• aisles and passageways shall be kept clear to • dockboards (bridge plates);
provide for the free and safe movement of o portable and powered dockboards shall be
material handling equipment or employees. strong enough to carry the load imposed on
Such areas shall be kept in good repair. them.
• when a difference in road or working levels o portable dockboards shall be secured in
exist, means such as ramps, blocking, or grading position, either by being anchored or
shall be used to ensure the safe movement of equipped with devices which will prevent
vehicles between the two levels. their slipping.
• material storage; o handholds, or other effective means, shall be
• material stored inside buildings under provided on portable dockboards to permit
construction shall not be placed within 6 feet of safe handling.
any hoistway or inside floor openings, nor within
10 feet of an exterior wall which does not extend Rigging Equipment for Material Handling (1926.251)
above the top of the material stored. • general;
• each employee required to work on stored o rigging equipment for material handling
materials in silos, hoppers, tanks, and similar shall be inspected prior to use on each shift
storage areas shall be equipped with personal fall and as necessary during its use to ensure that
arrest equipment. it is safe.
• noncompatible materials shall be segregated in o rigging equipment shall not be loaded in
storage. excess of its recommended safe working
• bagged materials shall be stacked by stepping load.
back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least o rigging equipment, when not in use, shall be
every 10 bags high. removed from the immediate work area so
• materials shall not be stored on scaffolds or as not to present a hazard to employees.
runways in excess of supplies needed for o special custom design grabs, hooks, clamps,
immediate operations. or other lifting accessories, for such units as
modular panels, prefabricated structures and
• brick stacks shall not be more than 7 feet in
similar materials, shall be marked to indicate
height. When a loose brick stack reaches a
the safe working loads and shall be proof-
height of 4 feet, it shall be tapered back 2 inches
tested prior to use to 125 percent of their
in every foot of height above the 4 foot level.
rated load.
• when masonry blocks are stacked higher than 6
o each day before being used, the sling and all
feet, the stack shall be tapered back one-half
fastenings and attachments shall be
block per tier above the 6 foot level.
inspected for damage or defects by a
• lumber: competent person designated by the
• used lumber shall have all nails withdrawn employer. Additional inspections shall be
before stacking; performed during sling use, where service
• lumber shall be stacked on level and solidly conditions warrant.
supported sills; • alloy steel chains;
• lumber shall be so stacked as to be stable and o welded alloy steel chain slings shall have
self-supporting; and permanently affixed durable identification
• lumber piles shall not exceed 20 feet in height stating size, grade, rated capacity, and sling
provided that lumber to be handled manually manufacturer.
shall not be stacked more than 16 feet high.
• structural steel, poles, pipe, bar stock and other
cylindrical materials, unless racked, shall be

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-45

o hooks, rings, oblong links, pear-shaped o in manila rope, eye splices shall contain at
links, welded or mechanical coupling links, least three full tucks and short splices shall
or other attachments, when used with alloy contain at least six full tucks.
steel chains, shall have a rated capacity at o in layed synthetic fiber rope, eye splices
least equal to that of the chain. shall contain at least four full tucks, and
o job or shop hooks and links, or makeshift short splices shall contain at least eight full
fasteners, formed from bolts, rods, etc., or tucks.
other such attachments, shall not be used. o strand end tails shall not be trimmed short
o periodic inspection of alloy steel chain immediately adjacent to the full tucks.
slings in use shall be made on a regular o for all eye splices, the eye shall be
basis, to be determined on the basis of (A) sufficiently large to provide an included
frequency of sling use; (B) severity of angle of not greater than 60 degrees at the
service conditions; (C) nature of lifts being splice with the eye is placed over the load
made; and (D) experience gained on the o knots shall not be used in lieu of splices.
service life of slings used in similar • synthetic webbing;
circumstances. Such inspections shall in no o the employer shall have each synthetic web
event be at intervals greater than once every sling marked or coded to show:
12 months. o name or trademark of manufacturer;
o the employer shall make and maintain a o rated capacities for the type of hitch; and
record of the most recent month in which o type of material.
each alloy steel chain sling was thoroughly o rated capacity shall not be exceeded.
inspected, and shall make such record environmental conditions; when synthetic web
available for examination. slings are used:
• wire rope; o nylon web slings shall not be used where
o to determine the safe working loads of fumes, vapors, sprays, mists or liquids of
various sizes and classifications, refer to the acids or phenolics are present.
tables in the OSHA standards for o polyester and polypropylene web slings
construction. shall not be used where fumes, vapors,
o protruding ends of strands in splices on sprays, mists or liquids of caustics are
slings and bridles shall be covered or present.
blunted. o web slings with aluminum fittings shall not
o wire rope shall not be secured by knots, be used where fumes, vapors, sprays, mists
except on haul back lines on scrapers. or liquids of caustics are present.
o an eye splice made in any wire rope shall • shackles and hooks;
have not less than three full tucks. the manufacturer’s recommendations shall be
o wire rope shall not be used if, in any length followed in determining the safe working loads
of eight diameters, the total number of
visible broken wires exceeds 10 percent of Disposal of Waste Material (1926.252)l
the total number of wires, or if the rope • whenever materials are dropped more than 20
shows other signs of excessive wear, feet to any point lying outside the exterior walls
corrosion, or defect. of the building, an enclosed chute of word, or
o when used for eye splices, the u-bolt shall be equivalent material shall be used.
applied so the “u” section is in contact with • when debris is dropped through holes in the floor
the dead end of the rope. without the use of chutes, the area on to which
o slings shall not be shortened with knots or the material is dropped shall be completely
bolts or other makeshift devices, nor shall enclosed with barriers not less than 42 inches
the legs be kinked. high and not less than 6 feet back from projected
o hands or fingers shall not be placed between edge of the opening above. Signs warning of the
the sling and its load while the sling is being falling hazard shall be posted at each level.
tightened around the load. o all scrap lumber, waste material, and rubbish
o shocking load is prohibited. shall be removed as the work progresses.
• natural rope, and synthetic fiber; o disposal of waste material or debris by
o all splices in rope slings provided by the burning shall comply with local regulations.
employer shall be made in accordance with o all solvent waste, oily rags, and flammable
fiber rope manufacturers recommendations. liquids shall be kept in fire resistant covered
containers until removed from the worksite.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-46

Subpart I Tools - - Hand and Power

Hand Tools (1926.301) o the use of hose for hoisting or lowering tools
• employers shall not issue or permit the use of shall not be permitted.
unsafe hand tools. • fuel powered tools;
• employers shall not issue or permit the use of all fuel powered tools shall be stopped while
unsafe hand tools. being refueled, service, or maintained.
• wrenches, including adjustable, pipe, end, and • hydraulic power tools;
socket wrenches shall not be used when jaws are the fluid used in hydraulic powered tools shall be
sprung to the point that slippage occurs. fire-resistant fluids. The manufacturer’s safe
• the wooden handles of tools shall be kept free of operating pressures for hoses, valves, pipes,
splinters or cracks and shall be kept tight in the filter, and other fittings shall not be exceeded.
tool. • powder-actuated tools;
o only employees who have been trained in
Power-Operated Hand Tools (1926.302) the operation of the particular tool in use
• electric power-operated tools; shall be allowed to operate a powder-
shall either be of the approved double-insulated actuated tool.
type or grounded. o the tool shall be tested each day before
• pneumatic power tools; loading to see that safety devices are in
o shall be secured to the hose or whip by some proper working condition.
positive means to prevent the tool from o tools shall not be loaded until just prior to
becoming accidentally disconnected. the intended firing time.
o safety clips or retainers shall be securely o neither loaded nor empty tools are to be
installed and maintained on pneumatic pointed at any employees.
impact tools to prevent attachments from o hands shall be kept clear of the open barrel
being accidentally expelled. end.
o compressed air shall not be used for o loaded tools shall not be left unattended
cleaning purposes except where reduced to
less than 30 psi and then only with effective
chip guarding and personal protective
equipment.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-47

Subpart J Welding and Cutting

Gas Welding and Cutting (1926.350) employee, shall be inspected at the

• transporting, moving, and storing compressed beginning of each working shift.
gas cylinders; o hose couplings shall be of the type that
o valve protection caps shall be in place and cannot be unlocked or disconnected by
secured. means of a straight pull without rotary
o when cylinders are hoisted they shall be motion.
secured on a cradle, slingboard, or pallet. o boxes used for the storage of gas hose shall
o they shall not be hoisted or transported by be vented.
means of magnets or choker slings. • torches;
o cylinders shall be moved by tilting and o clogged torch tip openings shall be cleaned
rolling them on their bottom edges. with suitable cleaning wires, drills, or other
o they shall not be intentionally dropped, devices designed for such purpose.
struck, or permitted to strike each other o torches in use shall be inspected at the
violently. beginning of each working shift for leaking
o cylinders transported by powered vehicles shutoff valves, hose couplings, and tip
they shall be secured in a vertical position. connections.
• placing cylinders; o torches shall be lighted by friction lighters
o cylinders shall be kept far enough away or other approved devices.
from the actual welding or cutting operation • regulators and gauges;
so that sparks, hot slag, or flame will not oxygen and fuel gas pressure regulators,
reach them. including their related gauges, shall be in proper
o when this is impractical, fire resistant working order while in use.
shields shall be provided. • oil and grease hazards;
o cylinders shall be placed where they cannot oxygen cylinders and fittings shall be kept away
become part of an electrical circuit. from oil or grease.
o fuel gas cylinders shall be placed with valve
end up whenever they are in use and oxygen Arc Welding and Cutting (1926.351)
nor fuel gas cylinders shall not be taken into • manual electrode holders;
confined spaces. only manual electrode holders which are
• treatment of cylinders; specifically designed for arc welding and cutting,
cylinders, whether full or empty, shall not be and are of a capacity capable of safely handling
used as rollers or supports. the maximum rated current required by the
• use of fuel gas; electrodes, shall be used.
the employer shall thoroughly instruct • welding cables and connectors;
employees in the safe use of fuel gas. all arch welding and cutting cables shall be of the
• fuel gas and oxygen manifolds; completely insulated, flexible type, capable of
fuel gas and oxygen manifolds shall bear the handling the maximum current requirements of
name of the substance they contain in letters at the work in progress, taking into account the
least 1 inch high, either painted on the manifold duty cycle under which the arc welder or cutter is
or on a sign permanently attached to it. working.
• hose; • ground returns and machine grounding;
o fuel gas hose and oxygen hose shall be o a ground return cable shall have a safe
easily distinguishable from each other. current carrying capacity equal to or
o oxygen and fuel gas hoses shall not be exceeding the specified maximum output
interchangeable. capacity of the arc welding or cutting unit
o when parallel sections of oxygen and fuel which it services.
gas hose are taped together, not more than 4 o pipelines containing gases or flammable
inches out of 12 inches shall be covered by liquids, or conduits containing electrical
tape. circuits, shall not be used as a ground return.
o all hose in use, carrying acetylene, oxygen, o all ground connections shall be inspected to
natural or manufactured fuel gas, or any gas ensure that they are mechanically strong and
or substance which may ignite or enter into electrically adequate for the required
combustion, or be in any way harmful to current.

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-48

• operating instructions; removed, positive means shall be taken to

employers shall instruct employee in the safe confine the heat, sparks, and slag, and to protect
means of arc welding and cutting. the immovable fire hazards from them.
• shielding; • suitable fire extinguishing equipment shall be
whenever practicable, all arc welding and cutting immediately available in the work area and shall
operations shall be shielded by noncombustible be maintained in a state of readiness for instant
or flameproof screens which will protect use.
employees and other persons working in the • when the welding, cutting or heating operation is
vicinity from the direct rays of the arc. such that normal fire prevention precautions are
not sufficient, additional personnel shall be
Welding and Cutting Fire Prevention (1926.352) assigned to guard against fire while the actual
• when practical, objects to be welded, cut, or welding, cutting or heating operation is being
heated shall be moved to a designated safe performed and for a sufficient period of time
location or, if the objects to be welded, cut, or after completion of the work to ensure that no
heated cannot be readily moved, all movable fire possibility of fire exists. Such personnel shall be
hazards in the vicinity shall be taken to a safe instructed as to the specific anticipated fire
place, or otherwise protected. hazards and how the fire-fighting equipment
• if the object to be welded, cut, or heated cannot provided is to be used.
be moved and if all the fire hazards cannot be

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 Regulatory Agencies for Occupational Health and Safety 2-49

Subpart K Electrical

General Requirements (1926.403) water from entering and accumulating within the
• the employer shall ensure that electrical enclosures.
equipment is free from recognized hazards that • all conductors used for general wiring shall be
are likely to cause death or serious physical harm insulated unless otherwise permitted.
to employees • fixture wires shall be suitable for the voltage,
• equipment intended to break current shall have temperature, and location of use.
an interrupting rating at system voltage sufficient
for the current that must be interrupted Safety-Related Work Practices (1926.416)
• conductors shall be spliced or joined with • no employer shall permit an employee to work in
splicing devices designed for the use or by such proximity to any part of an electric power
brazing, welding, or soldering with a fusible circuit that the employee could contact the
metal or alloy. electric power circuit in the course of work.
• parts of electric equipment which in ordinary • in work areas where the exact location of
operation produce arcs, sparks, flames, or molten underground electric power-lines is unknown,
metal shall be enclosed or separated and isolated employees using jack-hammers, bars, or other
from all combustible material. hand tools which may contact a line shall be
• electrical equipment shall not be used unless the provided with insulated protective gloves
manufacturer’s name, trademark, or other • barriers or other means of guarding shall be
descriptive marking by which the organization provided to ensure that workspace for electrical
responsible for the product may be identified equipment will not be used as a passageway
• each disconnecting means required by this during periods when energized parts of electrical
subpart for motors and appliance shall be legibly equipment are exposed.
marked to indicate its purpose, unless located • when fuses are installed or removed with one or
and arranged so the purpose is evident. both terminals energized, special tools insulated
• sufficient access and working space shall be for the voltage shall be used.
provided and maintained about all electric • worn or frayed electric cords or cables shall not
equipment to permit ready and safe operation be used.
and maintenance of such equipment. • extension cords shall not be fastened with
staples, hung from nails, or suspended by wire.
Wiring Design and Protection (1926.404)
• a conductor used as a grounded conductor shall Lockout Tagout (1926.417)
be identifiable and distinguishable from all other • that are to be deactivated during the course of
conductors work on energized or deenergized equipment or
• means shall be provided to disconnect all circuits shall be tagged.
conductors in a building or other structure from • that are deenergized shall be rendered
the service-entrance conductors. inoperative and shall have tags attached at all
points where such equipment or circuits can be
Wiring Methods and Components (1926.405) energized
• no wiring systems of any type shall be installed • shall be placed to identify plainly the equipment
in ducts used to transport dust, loose stock or or circuits being worked on
flammable vapors.
• conductors entering boxes, cabinets, or fittings Batteries and Battery Charging (1926.441)
shall be protected from abrasion, and openings • batteries of the unsealed type shall be located in
through which conductors enter shall be enclosures with outside vents or in well
effectively closed. ventilated rooms and shall be arranged so as to
• single-throw knife switches shall be so prevent the escape of fumes, gases, or electrolyte
connected that the blades are dead when the spray into other areas.
switch is in the open position and shall be so • ventilation shall be provided to ensure diffusion
placed that gravity will not close them. of the gases from the battery and to prevent the
• cabinets, cutout boxes, fittings, and boxes and accumulation of an explosive mixture.
panelboard enclosures in damp or wet locations • racks and trays shall be substantial and shall be
shall be installed so as to prevent moisture or treated to make them resistant to the electrolyte.

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• floors shall be of acid resistant construction • facilities shall be provided for flushing and
unless protected from acid accumulation. neutralizing spilled electrolyte and for fire
• face shields, aprons, and rubber gloves shall be protection.
provided for workers handling acids or batteries.
• facilities for quick drenching of the eyes and
body shall be provided within 25 feet of battery
handing area

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Subpart L Scaffolds

General Requirements (1926.451) after any occurrence which could affect a

• capacity; each scaffold and scaffold component scaffold’s structural integrity.
shall be capable of supporting without failure, its o scaffolds shall not be moved horizontally
own weight and at least 4 times the maximum while employees are on them, unless they
intended load applied or transmitted to it. have been designed by a registered
o scaffolds shall be designed by a qualified professional engineer specifically for such
person and shall be constructed and loaded movement.
in accordance with that design. o any part of a scaffold damaged or weakened
• scaffold platform construction; each platform on shall be immediately repaired or replaced,
all working levels of scaffolds shall be fully braced or removed from service.
planked or decked between the front uprights and o the clearance between scaffolds and power
the guardrail supports. lines shall be:
o each platform unit shall be installed so that
the space between the platform and the Insulated Lines
uprights is no more than 1 inch wide. Voltage Distance in Feet
o wood platforms shall not be covered with Less than 300 volts 3 feet
opaque finishes. 300 volts to 50 kv 10 feet
o scaffold components manufactured by More than 50 kv 10 feet plus 0.4
different manufacturers shall not be inch for each 1
intermixed unless the components fit kv over 50 kv
together without force and the scaffold’s
structural integrity is maintained by the user. Uninsulated Lines
• criteria for supported scaffolds; support scaffolds Voltage Distance in Feet
with a height to base width (including outrigger Less than 50 kv 10 feet
supports, if used) ratio of more than four to one More than 50 kv 10 feet plus o.4
(4:1) shall be restrained from tipping by guying, inch for each 1
tying, bracing or equivalent. kv over 50 kv
• criteria for suspension scaffolds; all suspension
scaffold support devices, such as outrigger o scaffolds shall be erected, moved,
beans, cornice hooks, parapet clamps, and dismantled, or altered only under the
similar devices shall rest on surfaces capable of supervision and direction of a competent
supporting at least 4 times the load imposed on person qualified in scaffold erection,
them by the scaffold operation at the rated load moving, dismantling or alteration.
of the hoist and before the scaffold is used, direct o employees shall be prohibited from working
connections shall be evaluated by a competent on scaffolds covered with snow, ice, or other
person who shall confirm, based on the slippery material.
evaluation, that the supporting surfaces are o work on or from scaffolds is prohibited
capable of supporting the loads to be imposed. during storms or high winds unless a
• access; when scaffold platforms are more than 2 competent person has determined that it is
feet above or below a point of access, portable safe fore employees to be on the scaffold
ladders, hook-on ladders, attachable ladders, stair and those employees are protected by a
towers, stairway-type ladders, ramps, walkways, personal fall arrest system or wind screens.
integral prefabricated scaffold access, or direct o debris shall not be allowed to accumulate on
access from another scaffold, structure, platforms.
personnel hoist, or similar surface shall be used. o makeshift devices, such as but not limited to
o cross-braces shall not be used as a means of boxes and barrels, shall not be used on top
access. of scaffold platforms to increase the working
• use; scaffolds and scaffold components shall not level height of employees.
be loaded in excess of their maximum intended o ladders shall not be used on scaffolds to
loads or rated capacity, whichever is less and increase the working level height of
shall be inspected for visible defects by a employees, except on large area scaffolds.
competent person before each work shift, and

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• fall protection; each employee on a scaffold Aerial Lifts (1926.453)

more than 10 feet above a lower level shall be • shall be in compliance with ANSI A92.2-1969
protected from falling to that lower level. “Vehicle Mounted Elevating and Rotating Work
o if guardrail is used then they shall be Platforms.”
installed along all open sides and ends of • aerial ladders secured in the lower traveling
platforms. position by the locking device on top of the truck
• falling object protection; in addition to wearing cab, and the manually operated device a the base
hardhats each employee on a scaffold shall be of the ladder before the truck is moved for
provided with additional protection from falling highway travel
hand tools, debris, and other small objects • employees shall always stand firmly on the floor
through the installation of toeboards, screens, or of the basket and wear a body belt with a lanyard
guardrail systems, or through the erection of attached to the boom or basket, at no time is it
debris nets, catch platforms, or canopy structures permitted to belt off to an adjacent pole, structure
that contain or deflect the falling objects. or equipment
o where there is a danger of tools, materials,
or equipment falling from a scaffold and Training (1926.454)
striking employees below, then the area • the employer shall have each employee who
shall be barricaded and employees not performs work while on a scaffold trained by a
permitted to enter the hazard area or a person qualified in the subject matter to
toeboard shall be erected along the edge of recognize the hazards associated with the type of
platforms more than 10 feet above lower scaffold being used and to understand the
levels for a distance sufficient to protect procedures to control or minimize those hazards.
employees below.

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Subpart M Fall Protection

Duty to Have Fall Protection (1926.501) • dangerous equipment;

• general; each employee working above dangerous
the employer shall determine if the equipment shall be protected from falling by
walking/working surfaces on which its guardrail systems or by equipment guards, if less
employees are to work have the strength and than 6 feet; employees at a high greater than 6
structural integrity to support employees safely. feet shall be protected by guardrails, personal fall
• unprotected sides and edges; arrest system or safety net systems.
each employee on a walking/working surface • wall openings;
with an unprotected side or edge which is 6 feet each employee working on, at, above, or near
or more above a lower level shall be protected wall openings where the outside bottom edge of
from falling by the use of guardrail systems, the wall opening is 6 feet or more above lower
safety net systems, or personal fall arrest levels and the inside bottom edge of the wall
systems. opening is less than 39 inches above the
• leading edges; walking/working surface, shall be protected from
o each employee who is constructing a leading falling by the use of a guardrail system, a safety
edge 6 feet or more above lower levels shall net system, or a personal fall arrest system.
be protected from falling by guardrail • protection from falling objects;
systems, safety net systems, or personal fall o when an employee is exposed to falling
arrest systems. objects, the employer shall have each
o each employee on a walking/working employee wear a hard hat and shall
surface 6 feet or more above a lower level implement one of the following measures:
where leading edges are under construction, o erect toeboards, screens, or guardrail
but who is not engaged in the leading edge systems to prevent objects from falling from
work, shall be protected from falling. higher levels; or
• hoist areas; o erect a canopy structure and keep potential
each employee in a hoist area shall be protected fall objects far enough from the edge of the
from falling 6 feet or more to lower levels by higher level so that those objects would not
personal fall arrest systems or guardrails. go over the edge if they were accidentally
• holes; displaced; or
each employee on walking/working surfaces o barricade the area to which objects could
shall be protected from falling though holes fall, prohibit employees from entering the
(including skylights) more than 6 feet above barricaded area.
lower levels, by personal fall arrest systems,
cover, or guardrail systems erected around such Fall Protection System Criteria and Practices
holes. (1926.502)
• formwork and reinforcing steel; • general;
each employee on the face of formwork or employers shall provide and install all fall
reinforcing steel shall be protected from falling 6 protection systems, required by this subpart for
feet or more to lower levels by personal fall an employee and shall comply with all other
arrest systems, safety net systems, or positioning pertinent requirements of this subpart before that
device systems. employee begins the work that necessitates the
• ramps, runways and other walkways; fall protection.
each employee on ramps, runways, and other • guardrail systems;
walkways shall be protected from falling 6 feet o top edge height of top rails, or equivalent
or more to lower levels by guardrail systems. guardrail system members, shall be 42
• excavations; inches above the walking/working level;
each employee at the edge of an excavation 6 o midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate
feet or more in depth shall be protected from vertical members, or equivalent intermediate
falling by guardrail systems, fences, or structural members shall be installed
barricades when the excavations are not readily between the top edge of the guardrail system
seen because of plant growth, or other visual and the walking/working surface when there
barrier. is no wall or parapet wall at least 21 inches
high;

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o shall be capable of withstanding without o dee-rings and snaphooks shall be proof-

failure a force of at least 200 pounds applied tested to a minimum tensile load of 3,600
within 2 inches of the top edge, in any pounds without cracking, breaking, or taking
outward or downward direction at any point permanent deformation;
along the top edge; o snaphooks shall be sized to be compatible
o when the 200 pounds test load is applied in a with the member to which they are
downward direction, the top edge of the connected to prevent unintentional
guardrail shall not deflect to a height less disengagement of the snaphook by
than 39 inches above the walking/working depression of the snaphook keeper by the
surface; connected member;
o midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate o horizontal lifelines shall be designed,
vertical members, solid panels, and installed, and used, under the supervision of
equivalent structural members shall be a qualified person, as part of a complete
capable of withstanding, without failure, a personal fall arrest system;
force of at least 150 pounds applied in any o anchorage used for attachment shall be
downward or outward direction at any point independent of any anchorage being used to
along the midrail or other member; support or suspend platforms and capable of
o shall be so surfaced as to prevent injury to supporting at least 5,000 pounds;
an employee from punctures or lacerations o the attachment point of the body harness
and to prevent snagging of clothing; shall be located in the center of the wearer’s
o the ends of all top rails and midrails shall back near shoulder level, or above the
not overhang the terminal posts, except wearer’s head;
where such overhang does not constitute a o systems subject to impact loading shall be
projection hazard; and immediately removed from service and shall
o top rails and midrails shall be at least one- not be used again for employee protection
quarter inch nominal diameter or thickness until inspected and determined by a
to prevent cuts and lacerations, if wire rope competent person to be undamaged and
is used it must be flagged every 6 feet. suitable for reuse; and
• safety net systems; o shall be inspected prior to each use for wear,
o shall be installed as close as practicable damage and other deterioration, and
under the walking/working surface on which defective components shall be removed
employees are working, but in no case more from service.
than 30 feet below such level; • positioning device systems;
o safety nets and safety net installations shall o shall be rigged such that an employee cannot
be drop-tested at the jobsite after initial free fall more than 2 feet;
installation and before being used as a fall o shall be secured to an anchorage capable of
protection system, whenever relocated, after supporting at least twice the potential impact
major repair and at 6 month intervals if left load of an employee’s fall or 3,000 pounds;
in one place, the drop test shall consist of a and
400 pound bag of sand (30 inches in o shall be inspected prior to each use for wear,
diameter) dropped into the net from the damage, and other deterioration, and
highest walking/working surface at which defective components shall be removed
employees are exposed to fall hazards, but from service.
not less than 42 inches; and • warning line systems;
o materials, scrap pieces, equipment, and tools  shall be erected around all sides of the roof
which have fallen into the safety net shall be work area;
removed as soon as possible from the net  when mechanical equipment is not being
and at least before the next work-shift. used, the warning lines shall be erected not less
• personal fall arrest systems; than 6 feet from the roof edge;
o connectors shall be drop forged, pressed or  points of access, materials handling areas,
formed steel, or made of equivalent storage areas, and hoisting areas shall be
materials; connected to the work area by an access path
o connectors shall have a corrosion-resistant formed by two warning lines; and
finish, and all surfaces and edges shall be  warning lines shall consist of ropes, wires,
smooth to prevent damage to interfacing or chains and supporting stanchions, the line
parts of the system; shall be flagged every 6 feet, rigged and

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supported in such a way that its lowest point is o all other covers shall be capable of
no less than 34 inches and its highest point no supporting at least twice the weight of
more than 39 inches from the walking/working employees, equipment, and materials that
surface. Stanchions (after the line is attached) may be imposed on the cover at any one
shall be capable to resisting without tipping over time.
a force of at least 16 pounds applied horizontally o all covers shall be secured when installed so
against the stanchion at a height of 30 inches as to prevent accident displacement by the
from the walking/working surface. wind, equipment or employees.
• controlled access zones; o all covers shall be color coded or they shall
o when used to control access to areas where be marked with the word “HOLE” or
leading edge and other operations are taking “COVER” to provide waning of the hazard
place the controlled access zone shall be (except street manhole covers).
defined by a control line or by any other • protection from falling objects;
means that restricts access; o toeboards, when used as falling object
o when control lines are used, they shall be protection, shall be erected along the edge of
erected not less than 6 feet nor more than 25 the overhead walking/working surface for a
feet from the unprotected or leading edge, distance sufficient to protect employees
except when erecting precast concrete below.
members; o toeboards shall be capable of withstanding
o control lines shall consist of ropes, wires, without failure a force of at least 50 pounds
tapes, or equivalent materials, and applied in any downward or outward
supporting stanchions, with each line direction at any point along the toeboard.
flagged or otherwise clearly marked at not o toeboards shall be a minimum of 3 ½ inches
more than 6 foot intervals with high- in vertical height from their top edge to the
visibility material; and level of the walking/working surface.
o each line shall have a minimum breaking • fall protection plan;
strength of 200 pounds. o this option is available only to employees
• safety monitoring systems; engaged in leading edge work, precast
o the employer shall designate a competent concrete erection work, or residential
person to monitor the safety of other construction work who can demonstrate that
employees and the employer shall ensure it is infeasible or it creates a greater hazard
that the safety monitor complies with the to use conventional fall protection
following requirements: equipment. The fall protection plan must
o safety monitor shall warn the employee conform to the following provisions:
when it appears that the employee is o prepared by a qualified person and
unaware of a fall hazard or is acting in an developed specifically for the site where the
unsafe manner; work is being performed and maintained up
o safety monitor shall be on the same, to date.
walking/working surface and within visual o any changes to the plan shall be approved by
sighting distance of the employee being a qualified person.
monitored and shall be close enough to o a copy of the fall protection plan with all
communicate orally with the employee; approved changes shall be maintained at the
o safety monitor shall not have other job site.
responsibilities which could take the o the implementation of the fall protection
monitor’s attention from the monitoring plan shall be under the supervision of a
function; competent person.
o each employee working in a controlled o the fall protection plan shall document the
access zone shall be directed to comply reasons why the use of conventional fall
promptly with fall hazard warnings from protection system are infeasible or why their
safety monitors. use would create a greater hazard.
• covers; o fall protection plan shall include a written
o located in roadways and vehicular sites shall discussion of other measure that will be
be capable of supporting at least twice the taken to reduce or eliminate the fall hazard
maximum axle load of the largest vehicle for workers who cannot be provided with
expected to cross over the cover. protection from the conventional fall
protection systems.

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o fall protection plan shall identify each monitoring systems, controlled access zones,
location where conventional fall protection and other protection to be used.
methods cannot be used. o role for each employee in the safety
o where no other alternative measure has been monitoring system when used;
implemented, the employer shall implement o limitations on the use of mechanical
a safety monitoring system. equipment;
o fall protection plan must include a statement o correct procedures for the handling and
which provides the name or other method of storage of equipment and materials and the
identification for each employee who is erection of overhead protection;
designated to work in controlled access o role of employees in fall protection plans;
zones. and
o in the event an employee falls, the employer o the standards contained in OSHA’s fall
shall evaluate his plan and make changes as protection standard.
needed. • certification of training;
the employer shall verify compliance with the
Fall Protection Training Requirements (1926.503) training program by preparing a written
• training program; certification record.
o the employer shall provide a training • retraining;
program for each employee who might be o when the employer has reason to believe
exposed to fall hazards. The program shall that any affected employee who has already
enable each employee to recognize the been trained does not have the
hazards of falling and shall train each understanding and skill required as provided
employee in the procedures to be followed in the training program, the employer shall
in order to minimize these hazards. The retrain each such employee. Circumstances
employer shall assure that each employee where retraining is required include, but are
has been trained, as necessary, by a not limited to, situations where:
competent person qualified in the following o changes in the workplace render previous
areas: training obsolete; or
o nature of fall hazards in the work area; o changes in the types of fall protection
o correct procedures for erecting, maintaining, systems or equipment to be used render
disassembling, and inspecting the fall previous training obsolete; or
protection systems to be used; o inadequacies in an affected employee’s
o use and operation of guardrail systems, knowledge or use of fall protection systems
personal fall arrest systems, safety net or equipment indicate
systems, warning line systems, safety o that the employee has not retained the
requisite understanding or skill.

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Subpart N Helicopters, Hoists, Elevators, and Conveyors

Helicopters (1926.551) o all hoistways entrance bars and gates shall

• helicopter cranes shall be expected to comply be painted with diagonal contrasting colors,
with any applicable regulations of the Federal such as black and yellow stripes.
Aviation Administration. • personnel hoists
• briefing conducted daily o hoist towers outside the structure shall be
• tag line of length so not to get into rotors enclosed for the full height on the side or
• electrically controlled cargo hooks tested daily sides used for entrance and exit to the
• ppe- goggles, hard hat (secured) - no loose structure.
clothing o towers inside of structures shall be enclosed
• loose gear within 100 feet secured on all four sides throughout the full height.
• housekeeping – maintained at loading &
unloading site Base Mounted Drum Hoist (1926.553)
• exposed moving parts such as gears, projecting
Material Hoists, Personnel Hoist (1926.552) screws, set-screws, chain, cables, chain
• material hoists sprockets, and reciprocating or rotating parts,
o the employer shall comply with the which constitute a hazard, shall be guarded.
manufacturer’s specifications and • all controls used during the normal operation
limitations applicable to the operation of all cycle shall be located within easy reach of the
hoists and elevators operator’s station.
o rated load capacities, recommended
operating speeds, and special hazard Overhead Hoist (1926.554)
warnings or instructions shall be posted on • the safe working load of the overhead hoist,
cars and platforms. shall be indicated on the hoist, and this safe
o operating rules shall be established and working load shall not be exceeded.
posted at the operator’s station
o no person shall be allowed to ride on Conveyors (1926.555)
material hoists except for the purposes of • means of stopping the motor or engine shall be
inspection and maintenance. provided at the operator’s station
o all entrances of the hoistways shall be
protected by substantial gates, or bars which
shall guard the full width of the landing
entrance

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Subpart O Motor Vehicles

Motor Vehicles (1926.601) • seat belts shall be provided on all earth moving
motor vehicles as covered by this part are those equipment; seat belts need not be provided for
vehicles that operate within an off-highway jobsite, equipment which is designed only for standup
not open to public traffic operation
all vehicles shall have a service brake system, an • all bi-directional equipment shall be equipped
emergency brake system and a parking brake system. with a horn that is audible above ambulant noise.
whenever visibility conditions warrant additional
light, all vehicles or combinations of vehicles, in use Site Clearing (1926.604)
shall be equipped with at least two headlights and • employees engaged in site clearing shall be
two taillights in operable condition. protected from hazards of irritant and toxic
plants and suitably instructed in the first aid
Material Handling Equipment (1926.602) treatment available.
• earth moving equipment includes scrapers, • all equipment used in site clearing operations
loaders, crawler or wheel tractors, bulldozers, shall be equipped with ROPS
off-highway trucks, graders, agricultural and
industrial tractors, and similar equipment.

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Subpart P Excavations

Excavation Requirements (1926.651) excavation site shall be tested when a hazardous

• surface encumbrances; atmosphere exists or could reasonably be
all surface encumbrances that are located so as to expected to exist.
create a hazard to employees shall be removed or • protection from hazards associated with water
supported, as necessary, to safeguard employees. accumulation;
• underground installations; o employees shall not work in excavations in
the estimated location of utility installations, which there is accumulated water, or in
such as sewer, telephone, fuel, electric, water excavations in which water, or in
lines, or any other underground installations that excavations in which water is accumulating,
reasonably may be expected to be encountered unless adequate precautions have been taken
during excavation work, shall be determined to protect employees against the hazards
prior to opening an excavation. posed by water accumulation.
• access and egress; • stability of adjacent structures;
o structural ramps that are used solely by where the stability of adjoining buildings, walls,
employees as a means of access or egress or other structures is endangered by excavation
from excavations shall be designed by a operations, support systems such as shoring,
competent person. bracing, or underpinning shall be provided to
o structural ramps used for access or egress of ensure the stability of such structures for the
equipment shall be designed by a competent protection of employees.
person qualified in structural design, and • protection of employees from loose rock and
shall be constructed in accordance with soil;
design. o adequate protection shall be provided to
o means of egress from trench excavations - a protect employees from the face of an
stairway, ladder, ramp or other safe means excavation.
of egress shall be located in trench o such protection shall consist of scaling to
excavations that are 4 feet or more in depth remove loose material; installation of
so as to require no more than 25 feet of protective barricades at intervals as
lateral travel for employees. necessary on the face to stop and contain
• exposure to vehicular traffic; falling material; or other means that provide
employees exposed to public vehicular traffic equivalent protection.
shall be provided with, and shall wear, warning • inspections;
vests or other suitable garments marked with or o daily inspections of excavations, the
made of reflectorized or high-visibility material. adjacent areas, and protective systems shall
• exposure to falling loads; be made by a competent person for evidence
o no employee shall be permitted underneath of a situation that could result in possible
loads handled by lifting or digging cave-ins, indications of failure of protective
equipment. systems, hazardous conditions.
o employees shall be required to stand away o an inspection shall be conducted by the
from any vehicle being loaded or unloaded competent person prior to the start of work
to avoid being struck by any spillage or and as needed throughout the shift.
falling materials. o inspections shall also be made after every
• warning system for mobile equipment; rainstorm or other hazard increasing
when mobile equipment is operated adjacent to occurrence.
an excavation, or when such equipment is o these inspections are only required when
required to approach the edge of an excavation, employee exposure can be reasonably
and the operator does not have a clear and direct anticipated.
view of the edge of the excavation, a warning o when the competent person finds a
system shall be utilized such as barricades, hand hazardous condition, the exposed employees
or mechanical signals, or stop logs. shall be removed until the necessary
• hazardous atmospheres; precautions have been taken to ensure their
to prevent exposure to harmful levels of safety.
atmospheric contaminants and to assure
acceptable atmospheric conditions the

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• fall protection; person shall examine the material or

walkways shall be provided where employees or equipment and evaluate its suitability for
equipment are required or permitted to cross over continued used.
excavations (if the walkway is 6 feet or higher • installation and removal of support;
above the bottom of the trench – guardrails shall o members of support systems shall be
be provided). securely connected together to prevent
sliding, falling, kickouts, or other predicable
Excavation Protective Systems failure.
• protection of employees in excavations; o support systems shall be installed and
o each employee shall be protected from cave- removed in a manner that protects
ins by an adequate protective system, unless: employees from cave-ins, structural
o excavations are made entirely in stable rock; collapses, or from being struck by members
o excavations are less than 5 feet in depth and of the support system.
examination of the ground by a competent o before temporary removal of individual
person provides no indication of a potential members begins, additional precautions
cave-in. shall be taken to ensure the safety of
• design of sloping and benching systems; employees, such as installing other structural
 the slopes and configurations of sloping and members to carry the loads imposed on the
benching systems shall be selected and support system.
constructed by the employer or his designee. • sloping and benching systems;
• design of support systems, shield systems, and employees shall not be permitted to work on the
other protective systems; faces of sloped or benched excavations at levels
 these designs shall be selected and above other employees except when employees
constructed by the employer or his designee. at the lower levels are adequately protected from
• materials and equipment; the hazard of falling, rolling, or sliding material
o used for protection systems shall be free or equipment.
from damage or defects that might impair • shield systems;
their proper function. o shall not be subjected to loads exceeding
o manufactured materials and equipment, used those which the system was designed to
for protective systems shall be used and withstand and shall be installed in a manner
maintained in a manner that is consistent to restrict lateral or other hazardous
with the recommendations of the movement .
manufacturer, and in a manner that will o employees shall be protected from the hazard of
prevent employee exposure to hazards. cave-ins when entering or exiting the areas
o when material or equipment that is used for protected by shields
protective systems is damaged, a competent

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Subpart Q Concrete

General Requirements (1926.701) Requirements for Cast In Place Concrete (1926.703)

• no construction loads shall be placed on a • formwork shall be designed, fabricated, erected,
structure or portion of a concrete structure unless supported, braced and maintained so that it will
the employer determines based on information be capable of supporting without failure all loads
received from a person who is qualified in • all shoring equipment (including equipment used
structural design, that the structure or portion of in reshoring operations) shall be inspected prior
the structure is capable of supporting the loads. to erection to determine that the equipment meets
• all protruding reinforcing steel, onto and into the requirements specified in the formwork
which employees could fall, shall be guarded to drawings.
eliminate the hazard of impalement.
• no employee shall be permitted to ride concrete Requirements for Precast Concrete (1926.704)
buckets nor shall an employee be permitted to • precast concrete wall units, structural framing,
work under concrete buckets while buckets are and tilt-up wall panels shall be adequately
being elevated or lowered into position. supported to prevent overturning and to prevent
• no employee shall be permitted to apply cement, collapse until permanent connections are
sand, and water mixture through a pneumatic completed.
hose unless the employee is wearing protective • no employee shall be permitted under precast
head and face equipment. concrete members being lifted or tilted into
position except those employees required for the
Requirements for Equipment and Tools (1926.702) erection
• powered and rotating type concrete troweling
machines that are manually guided shall be Requirements for Lift Slabs (1926.705)
equipped with a control switch that will • lift-slab operations shall be designed and planned
automatically shut off the power whenever the by a registered professional engineer who has
hands of the operator are removed from the experience to lift-slab construction.
equipment handles.
• concrete buckets equipped with hydraulic or Requirements for Masonry Construction (1926.706)
pneumatic gates shall have positive safety • a limited access zone shall be established
latches or similar safety devices installed to whenever a masonry wall is being constructed
prevent premature or accidental dumping. • masonry walls over eight feet in height shall be
• handles, used where they might contact adequately braced to prevent overturning and to
energized electrical conductors, shall be prevent collapse unless the wall is adequately
constructed of nonconductive material or supported so that it will not overturn or collapse.
insulated with nonconductive sheath
• masonry saws, shall be guarded with a
semicircular enclosure over the blade

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Subpart X Stairways and Ladders

Stairways and Ladders General Requirements Ladders (1926.1053)

(1926.1051) • general;
• a stairway or ladder shall be provided at all o ladders shall be capable of supporting at
personnel points of access where there is a break least 4 times their intended load.
in elevation of 19 inches or more, and no ramp, o ladder rungs, cleats, and steps shall be
runway, sloped embankment, or personnel hoist parallel, level, and uniformly spaced when
is provided; spiral stairways are not acceptable. the ladder is in position for use ( to include
• a double cleated-ladder or two or more separate job made ladders).
ladders shall be provided when ladders are the o wood ladders shall not be coated with any
only mean of access or exit from a working areas opaque covering, except for identification or
for 25 or more employees, or when a ladders is warning labels which may be placed on one
to serve simultaneous two-way traffic. face only of a side rail.
• when a building or structure has only one point • use;
of access between levels, that point of access o when portable ladders are used for access to
shall be kept clear to permit free passage of an upper landing surface, the ladder side
employees rails shall extend at least 3 feet above the
• when a building or structure has two or more upper landing surface to which the ladder is
points of access between levels, at least one point used to gain access.
of access shall be kept clear to permit free o ladders shall be maintained free of oil,
passage of employees. grease, and other slipping hazards.
o ladders shall be used only for the purpose
Stairways (1926.1052) for which they were designed.
• general; o the area around the top and bottom of
o stairways that will not be a permanent part ladders shall be kept clear.
of the structure on which construction work o ladders shall not be moved, shifted, or
is being performed, shall have landings of extended while occupied.
not less than 30 inches in the direction of o ladders shall be inspected by a competent
travel and extend at least 22 inches in width person for visible defects on a periodic basis
at every 12 feet or less of vertical rise. and after any occurrence that could affect
o stairs shall be installed between 30 degrees their safe use.
and 50 degrees from horizontal. o when ascending or descending a ladder, the
o riser height and tread depth shall be uniform user shall face the ladder and shall use at
within each flight of stairs, including any least one hand to grasp the ladder.
foundation structure used as one or more o an employee shall not carry any object or
treads of the stairs. load that could cause the employee to lose
o where doors or gates open directly on a balance and fall.
stairway, a platform shall be provided
o all parts of stairways shall be free of Training Requirements (1926.1060)
hazardous projections, such as protruding • the employer shall provide a training program for
nails. each employee using ladders and stairways, as
o slippery conditions on stairways shall be necessary.
eliminated before the stairways are used to • training shall be conducted by a competent
reach other levels. person and include:
o stairways having four or more risers or o the nature of fall hazards in the work area;
rising more than 30 inches shall be equipped o correct procedures for erecting, maintaining,
with: and disassembling the fall protection
o at least one handrail; and systems to be used;
o one stair-rail system along each unprotected o the proper construction, use, placement, and
side or edge, which are not less than 36 care in handling of all stairways and ladders;
inches from the upper surface of the stair- o the maximum intended load-carrying
rail system to the surface of the forward capacities of ladders used; and
edge of the tread. o these OSHA standards.

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International Labour Organisation

The ILO Constitution sets forth the principle that workers should be protected from sickness, disease and injury
arising from their employment.

Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (#155)

This convention adopted 30 Articles, however the main ones of interest are as follows:

Part I – Scope and Definitions

Article 1- This Convention applies to all branches of economic activity.

Article 2- This Convention applies to all workers in the branches of economic activity covered.

Article 3- provides definitions

Part II – Principles of National Policy

Article 4- 1. Each Member shall, in the light of national conditions and practice, and in
consultation with the most representative organisations of employers and workers, formulate,
implement and periodically review a coherent national policy on occupational safety,
occupational health and the working environment.

2. The aim of the policy shall be to prevent accidents and injury to health arising out of, linked
with or occurring in the course of work, by minimising, so far as is reasonably practicable, the
causes of hazards inherent in the working environment.

Part III – Action at the National Level

Part IV – Action at the Level of the Undertaking

Article 16- 1. Employers shall be required to ensure that, so far as is reasonably practicable,
the workplaces, machinery, equipment and processes under their control are safe and without
risk to health.

2. Employers shall be required to ensure that, so far as is reasonably practicable, the chemical,
physical and biological substances and agents under their control are without risk to health
when the appropriate measures of protection are taken.

3. Employers shall be required to provide, where necessary, adequate protective clothing and
protective equipment to prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable, risk of accidents or of
adverse effects on health.

Article 17- Whenever two or more undertakings engage in activities simultaneously at one
workplace, they shall collaborate in applying the requirements of this Convention.

Article 18- Employers shall be required to provide, where necessary, for measures to deal
with emergencies and accidents, including adequate first-aid arrangements.

Article 21- Occupational safety and health measures shall not involve any expenditure for
the workers.

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Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1985 (#161)

This convention made amendments and reduce them to 24 Articles, the ones of interest to us are as follows:

Part I – Principles of National Policy

Article 1- For the purpose of this Convention-
(a) the term occupational health services means services entrusted with essentially
preventive functions and responsible for advising the employer, the workers and their
representatives in the undertaking on-
(i) the requirements for establishing and maintaining a safe and healthy working
environment which will facilitate optimal physical and mental health in relation to
work;
(ii) the adaptation of work to the capabilities of workers in the light of their state of
physical and mental health;
(b) the term workers' representatives in the undertaking means persons who are
recognised as such under national law or practice.

Article 3- 1. Each Member undertakes to develop progressively occupational health

services for all workers, including those in the public sector and the members of
production co-operatives, in all branches of economic activity and all undertakings. The
provision made should be adequate and appropriate to the specific risks of the
undertakings.

2. If occupational health services cannot be immediately established for all undertakings,

each Member concerned shall draw up plans for the establishment of such services in
consultation with the most representative organisations of employers and workers, where
they exist.

3. Each Member concerned shall indicate, in the first report on the application of the
Convention submitted under article 22 of the Constitution of the International Labour
Organisation, the plans drawn up pursuant to paragraph 2 of this Article, and indicate in
subsequent reports any progress in their application.

Part II – Functions
Article 5- Without prejudice to the responsibility of each employer for the health and safety
of the workers in his employment, and with due regard to the necessity for the workers to
participate in matters of occupational health and safety, occupational health services shall
have such of the following functions as are adequate and appropriate to the occupational
risks of the undertaking:
(a) identification and assessment of the risks from health hazards in the workplace;
(b) surveillance of the factors in the working environment and working practices which
may affect workers' health, including sanitary installations, canteens and housing where
these facilities are provided by the employer;
(c) advice on planning and organisation of work, including the design of workplaces, on
the choice, maintenance and condition of machinery and other equipment and on
substances used in work;
(d) participation in the development of programmes for the improvement of working
practices as well as testing and evaluation of health aspects of new equipment;
(e) advice on occupational health, safety and hygiene and on ergonomics and individual
and collective protective equipment;
(f) surveillance of workers' health in relation to work;
(g) promoting the adaptation of work to the worker;
(h) contribution to measures of vocational rehabilitation;
(i) collaboration in providing information, training and education in the fields of
occupational health and hygiene and ergonomics;
(j) organising of first aid and emergency treatment;
(k) participation in analysis of occupational accidents and occupational diseases.

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Part III – Organisation

No Articles pertain

Part IV – Conditions of Operations

Article 13- All workers shall be informed of health hazards involved in their work.

Article 14- Occupational health services shall be informed by the employer and workers of any
known factors and any suspected factors in the working environment which may affect the
workers' health.

Article 15- Occupational health services shall be informed of occurrences of ill health amongst
workers and absence from work for health reasons, in order to be able to identify whether there
is any relation between the reasons for ill health or absence and any health hazards which may
be present at the workplace. Personnel providing occupational health services shall not be
required by the employer to verify the reasons for absence from work.

Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 2006 (#187)
Part III – National Policy
Article 3- 1. Each Member shall promote a safe and healthy working environment by formulating
a national policy.

2. Each Member shall promote and advance, at all relevant levels, the right of workers to a safe
and healthy working environment.

3. In formulating its national policy, each Member, in light of national conditions and practice
and in consultation with the most representative organizations of employers and workers, shall
promote basic principles such as assessing occupational risks or hazards; combating
occupational risks or hazards at source; and developing a national preventative safety and health
culture that includes information, consultation and training.

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ILO – Construction Safety

1. General Provisions 8. Work at heights including

Definitions roof work
Roof work
2. General Duties Work on tall chimneys
Competent authorities
Employers 9. Excavations, shafts, earthworks,
Co-operation underground works & tunnels
Rights and duties of workers Excavations
Clients Underground construction
Drilling
3. Safety of Workplace Transport, storage and handling
Means of access and egress of explosives
Housekeeping Blasting
Precautions against falling material Haulage
Unauthorised entry Dust control
Fire prevention and protection Underground pipelines
Lighting
10. Cofferdams and caissons and work
4. Scaffolds and ladders in compressed air
Materials Work in cofferdams & caissons
Inspection and maintenance Work in tunnels in compressed air
Lifting appliances on scaffolds
Prefabricated scaffolds 11. Structural frames, formwork and
Use of scaffolds Concrete work
Suspended scaffolds Erection & dismantling of steel and
prefabricated structures
5. Lifting appliances and gear Cast-in-situ concrete structures
Hoists Provision of temporary floors
Derricks Stiff-leg derricks Formwork
Gin poles & tower cranes
Lifting ropes 12. Pile-driving
Inspection & maintenance of
6. Transport, earth-moving and pile-driving equipment
Materials-handling equipment Operation of pile-driving equipment
Power shovels, excavators Floating pile-drivers
Bulldozers Sheet piling
Scrapers
Mobile asphalt layers & finishers 13. Work over water
Pavers Boats
Road rollers Rescue and emergency procedures

7. Plant machinery, equipment and 14. Demolition

hand tools Demolition of walls
Hand tools Demolition of floors
Pneumatic tools Demolition of structural steelwork
Cartridge-operated tools Demolition of chimneys
Electric tools Use and removal of asbestos and
Woodworking machines materials and articles
Silos
Concrete work equipment 15. Electricity
Pressure plant Inspection and maintenance
Conveyors Testing
Crusher plants
Power generators

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16. Explosives
Transport, storage and handling
Disposal of explosives

17. Health hazards, first-aid and

occupational health services
Occupational health services
First-aid
Hazardous substances
Dangerous substances
Radiation hazards
Heat stress, cold and wet conditions
Noise and vibration
Biological agents

18. Personal protective equipment and

protective clothing
Types

19. Welfare
Drinking water
Sanitary facilities
Washing facilities
Cloakrooms
Facilities for food and drink
Shelters
Living accommodation
Information and training
Reporting of accidents and diseases

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1. General provisions
1.1. Objective
1.1.1. The objective of this code is to provide practical guidance on a legal, administrative, technical and
educational framework for safety and health in construction with a view to:
a) preventing accidents and diseases and harmful effects on the health of workers arising from
employment in construction;
b) ensuring appropriate design and implementation of construction projects;
c) providing means of analysing from the point of view of safety, health and working conditions,
construction processes, activities, technologies and operations, and of taking appropriate measures of
planning, control and enforcement.

1.1.2. This code also provides guidance in the implementation of the provisions of the Safety and Health in
Construction Convention, 1988 (No. 167), and the Safety and Health in Construction Recommendation,
1988 (No. 175).

1.2. Application
1.2.1. This code applies to:
a) construction activities which cover:
(i) building, including excavation and the construction, structural alteration, renovation, repair,
maintenance (including cleaning and painting) and demolition of all types of buildings or structures;
(ii) civil engineering, including excavation and the construction, structural alteration, repair,
maintenance and demolition of, for example, airports, docks, harbours, inland waterways, dams, river
and avalanche and sea defence works, roads and highways, railways, bridges, tunnels, viaducts and
works related to the provision of services such as communications, drainage, sewerage, water and
energy supplies;
(iii) the erection and dismantling of prefabricated buildings and structures, as well as the
manufacturing of prefabricated elements on the construction site;
b) the fabrication and erection of oil rigs and of offshore installations while under construction on shore.

1.2.2. The provisions of this code should be considered as the basic requirements for protecting workers'
safety and health.

1.2.3. The provisions of this code should be applied to self-employed persons as may be specified by
national laws or regulations.

1.3. Definitions
In this code, the following terms have the meanings hereby assigned to them:

Adequate, appropriate or suitable are used to describe qualitatively or quantitatively the means or method
used to protect the worker.

Bearer: see putlog.

Brace: A structural member that holds one point in a fixed position with respect to another point; bracing is
a system of structural members designed to prevent distortion of a structure.

By hand: The work is done without the help of a mechanised tool.

Cartridge-operated: A device in which an explosive drives a projectile such as a nail or a stud into
materials; they are of three types:
(i) "high-velocity type", in which the projectile is driven directly by the gases from the explosive
charge;
(ii) "low-velocity piston type", in which the gases from the explosive charge drive a piston which
propels the projectile;

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(iii) "hammer-operated low-velocity piston type", in which the piston is driven by a hammer blow in
addition to the gases from the explosive charge.

Client: Any natural or legal person for whom a project is carried out.

Code of practice: A document offering practical guidance on the policy and standard setting in
occupational safety and health for use by governments, employers, workers and any other persons involved
in the construction process in order to promote safety and health at the national level and at the level of the
enterprise.

Competent authority: A minister, government department, or other public authority having the power to
issue regulations, orders or other instructions having the force of law.

Competent person: A person possessing adequate qualifications, such as suitable training and sufficient
knowledge, experience and skill for the safe performance of the specific work. The competent authorities
may define appropriate criteria for the designation of such persons and may determine the duties to be
assigned to them.

Construction: Those activities as defined in paragraph 1.2.1.

Construction site: Any site at which any of the processes or operations described in paragraph 1.2.1. are
carried on.

Danger: Danger of accident or injury to health.

Employer:
(i) Any physical or legal person who employs one or more workers on a construction site; and
(ii) as the context requires, the principal contractor, the contractor or the subcontractor.

Guard-rail: An adequately secured rail erected along an exposed edge to prevent persons from falling.

Hazard: Danger or potential danger.

Hoist: A machine which lifts materials or persons by means of a platform which runs on guides.

Ledger: A scaffold member which extends longitudinally and horizontally parallel to the face of a
structure, at right angles to the putlogs and which supports the putlogs, forms a tie between the posts, and
becomes a part of the scaffold bracing; ledgers which do not support putlogs are also called stringers.

Lifting appliance: Any stationary or mobile appliance used for raising or lowering persons or loads.

Lifting gear: Any gear or tackle by means of which a load can be attached to a lifting appliance but which
does not form an integral part of the appliance or load.

Means of access or egress: Passageways, corridors, stairs, platforms, ladders and any other means to be
used by persons for normally entering or leaving the workplace or for escaping in case of danger.

Putlog or bearer: A scaffold member upon which the platform rests. In a single pole scaffold the outer end
of the putlog rests on a ledger and the inner end rests in the wall; in an independent pole scaffold each end
of the putlog rests on a ledger; in an independent pole scaffold a putlog is known as a bearer.

Raker: An inclined load-bearing tube or pole.

Safety extra-low voltage: A nominal voltage not exceeding 42 V between conductors, or, in the case of
phase circuits, not exceeding 24 V between conductors and neutral, the no-load voltage of the circuit not
exceeding 50 V and 29 V respectively.

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Scaffold: Any temporary structure, fixed, suspended or mobile, and its supporting components which is
used for supporting workers and materials or to gain access to any such structure, and which is not a
"lifting appliance" as defined above.

Sound or good construction: Construction conforming to any relevant standards issued by a national
standardising institution or other body recognised by the competent authority, or to generally accepted
international engineering practices or other technical standards.

Sound or good material: Material of a quality conforming to any relevant standards issued by a national
standardising institution or other body recognised by the competent authority or to generally accepted
international engineering practices or other technical standards.

Standard (upright or post): In relation to a scaffold, a vertical or near vertical tube which bears the weight
of a scaffold and its load and includes a through tie or a reveal tie or a bore tie; a through tie is a tie
assembly through a window or other opening in a wall; a reveal tie is an assembly of a reveal tube with
wedges or screwed fittings or pads fixed between the opposing faces of an opening in a wall together with
the tie tube.

Toe-board: A barrier placed along the edge of a scaffold platform, runway, etc., and secured there to guard
against the slipping of persons or the falling of material.

Transom: A tube spanning across ledger to form the support for boards forming the working platform or to
connect the outer standards to the inner standards.

Worker: Any person engaged in construction.

Workplace: All places where workers need to be or to go by reason of their work and which are under the
control of an employer as defined in "employer".

2. General duties
2.1. General duties of competent authorities
2.1.1. The competent authorities should, on the basis of an assessment of the safety and health hazards
involved and in consultation with the most representative organisation of employers and workers, adopt
and maintain in force national laws or regulations to ensure the safety and health of workers employed in
construction projects and to protect persons at, or in the vicinity of, a construction site from all risks which
may arise from such site.

2.1.2. The national laws and regulations adopted in pursuance of paragraph 2.1.1 above should provide for
their practical application through technical standards or codes of practice, or by other appropriate methods
consistent with national conditions and practices.

2.1.3. In giving effect to paragraphs 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 above, each competent authority should have due
regard to the relevant standards adopted by recognized international organisations in the field of
standardisation.

2.1.4. The competent authority should provide appropriate inspection services to enforce or administer the
application of the provisions of the national laws and regulations and provide these services with the
resources necessary for the accomplishment of their task, or satisfy itself that appropriate inspection is
carried out.

2.1.5. The measures to be taken to ensure that there is organised co-operation between employers and
workers to promote safety and health at construction sites should be prescribed by national laws or
regulations or by the competent authority. Such measures should include:
a) the establishment of safety and health committees representative of employers and workers with such
powers and duties as may be prescribed;

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b) the election or appointment of workers' safety delegates with such powers and duties as may be
prescribed;
c) the appointment by the employer of suitably qualified and experienced persons to promote safety and
health;
d) the training of safety delegates and safety and health committee members.

2.1.6. National laws or regulations should provide for the notification by the client to the competent
authority of construction sites of such size, duration or characteristics in accordance with such time
schedule as may be prescribed.

2.1.7. National laws or regulations should provide for general duties of clients, designers, engineers and
architects to take into consideration the safety and health aspects in the designing of buildings, structures or
construction projects.

2.2. General duties of employers

2.2.1. Employers should provide adequate means and organisation and should establish a suitable
programme on the safety and health of workers consistent with national laws and regulations and should
comply with the prescribed safety and health measures at the workplace.

2.2.2. Employers should so provide and maintain workplaces, plant, equipment, tools and machinery and
so organise construction work that as far as is reasonably practicable there is no risk of accident or injury to
health of workers. In particular, construction work should be so planned, prepared and undertaken that:
a) dangers liable to arise at the workplace are prevented as soon as possible;
b) excessively or unnecessarily strenuous work positions and movements are avoided;
c) organisation of work takes into account the safety and health of workers;
d) materials and products are used which are suitable from a safety and health point of view;
e) working methods are employed which protect workers against the harmful effects of chemical,
physical and biological agents.

2.2.3. Employers should establish committees with representatives of workers and management or make
other suitable arrangement consistent with national laws and regulations for the participation of workers in
ensuring safe working conditions.

2.2.4. Employers should take all appropriate precautions to protect persons present at, or in the vicinity of,
a construction site from all risks which may arise from such site.

2.2.5. Employers should arrange for regular safety inspections by competent persons at suitable intervals of
all buildings, plant, equipment, tools, machinery, workplaces and systems of work under the control of the
employer at construction sites in accordance with national laws, regulations, standards or codes of practice.
As appropriate, the competent person should examine and test by type or individually to ascertain the
safety of construction machinery and equipment.

2.2.6. When acquiring plant, equipment or machinery, employers should ensure that it takes account of
ergonomic principles in its design and conforms to relevant national laws, regulations, standards or codes
of practice and, if there are none, that it is so designed or protected that it can be operated safely and
without risk to health.

2.2.7. Employers should provide such supervision as will ensure that workers perform their work with due
regard to their safety and health.

2.2.8. Employers should assign workers only to employment for which they are suited by their age,
physique, state of health and skill.

2.2.9. Employers should satisfy themselves that all workers are suitably instructed in the hazards connected
with their work and environment and trained in the precautions necessary to avoid accidents and injury to
health.

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2.2.10. Employers should take all practicable steps to ensure that workers are made aware of the relevant
national or local laws, regulations, standards, codes of practice, instructions and advice relating to
prevention of accidents and injuries to health.

2.2.11. Buildings, plant, equipment, tools, machinery or workplaces in which a dangerous defect has been
found should not be used until the defect has been remedied.

2.2.12. Where there is an imminent danger to the safety of workers, the employer should take immediate
steps to stop the operation and evacuate workers as appropriate.

2.2.13. On dispersed sites and where small groups of workers operate in isolation, employers should
establish a checking system by which it can be ascertained that all the members of a shift, including
operators of mobile equipment, have returned to the camp or base at the close of work.

2.2.14. Employers should provide appropriate first aid, training and welfare facilities to workers and,
whenever collective measures are not feasible or are insufficient, provide and maintain personal protective
equipment and clothing. Employers should also ensure access for workers to occupational health services.

2.3. General duties of self-employed persons

2.3.1. Self-employed persons should comply with the prescribed safety and health measures at the
workplace according to national laws or regulations.

2.4. Co-operation and co-ordination

2.4.1. Whenever two or more employers undertake activities at one construction site, they should co-
operate with one another as well as with the client or client's representative and with other persons
participating in the construction work being undertaken in the application of the prescribed safety and
health measures.

2.4.2. Whenever two or more employers undertake activities simultaneously or successively at one
construction site, the principal contractor, or other person or body with actual control over or primary
responsibility for overall construction site activities, should be responsible for planning and co-ordinating
safety and health measures and, in so far as is compatible with national laws and regulations, for ensuring
compliance with such measures.

2.4.3. In so far as is compatible with national laws and regulations, where the principal contractor, or other
person or body with actual control over or primary responsibility for overall construction site activities, is
not present at the site, they should nominate a competent person or body at the site with the authority and
means necessary to ensure on their behalf co-ordination and compliance with safety and health measures.

2.4.4. Employers should remain responsible for the application of the safety and health measures in respect
of the workers placed under their authority.

2.4.5. Employers and self-employed persons undertaking activities simultaneously at a construction site
should co-operate fully in the application of safety and health measures.

2.4.6. Employers and designers should liaise effectively on factors affecting safety and health.

2.5. General rights and duties of workers

2.5.1. Workers should have the right and the duty at any workplace to participate in ensuring safe working
conditions to the extent of their control over the equipment and methods of work and to express views on
working procedures adopted as they may affect safety and health.

2.5.2. Workers should have the right to obtain proper information from the employer regarding safety and
health risks and safety and health measures related to the work processes. This information should be
presented in forms and languages which the workers easily understand.

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2.5.3. Workers should have the right to remove themselves from danger when they have good reason to
believe that there is an imminent and serious danger to their safety or health. They should have the duty so
to inform their supervisor immediately.

2.5.4. In accordance with national legislation, workers should:

a) co-operate as closely as possible with their employer in the application of the prescribed safety and
health measures;
b) take reasonable care for their own safety and health and that of other persons who may be affected by
their acts or omissions at work;
c) use and take care of personal protective equipment, protective clothing and facilities placed at their
disposal and not misuse anything provided for their own protection or the protection of others;
d) report forthwith to their immediate supervisor, and to the workers' safety representative where one
exists, any situation which they believe could present a risk and which they cannot properly deal with
themselves;
e) comply with the prescribed safety and health measures;
f) participate in regular safety and health meetings.

2.5.5. Except in an emergency, workers, unless duly authorised, should not interfere with, remove, alter or
displace any safety device or other appliance furnished for their protection or the protection of others, or
interfere with any method or process adopted with a view to avoiding accidents and injury to health.

2.5.6. Workers should not operate or interfere with plant and equipment that they have not been duly
authorised to operate, maintain or use.

2.5.7. Workers should not sleep or rest in dangerous places such as scaffolds, railway tracks, garages, or in
the vicinity of fires, dangerous or toxic substances, running machines or vehicles and heavy equipment.

2.6. General duties of designers, engineers, architects

2.6.1. Those concerned with the design and planning of a construction project should receive training in
safety and health and should integrate the safety and health of the construction workers into the design and
planning process in accordance with national laws, regulations and practice.

2.6.2. Care should be exercised by engineers, architects and other professional persons, not to include
anything in the design which would necessitate the use of dangerous structural or other procedures or
materials hazardous to health or safety which could be avoided by design modifications or by substitute
materials.

2.6.3. Those designing buildings, structures or other construction projects should take into account the
safety problems associated with subsequent maintenance and upkeep where maintenance and upkeep
would involve special hazards.

2.6.4. Facilities should be included in the design for such work to be performed with the minimum risk.

2.7. General duties of clients

2.7.1 Clients should:
a) co-ordinate or nominate a competent person to co-ordinate all activities relating to safety and health on
their construction projects;
b) inform all contractors on the project of special risks to health and safety of which the clients are or
should be aware;
c) require those submitting tenders to make provision for the cost of safety and health measures during
the construction process.

2.7.2. In estimating the periods for completion of work stages and overall completion of the project, clients
should take account of safety and health requirements during the construction process.

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3. Safety of workplaces
3.1. General provisions
3.1.1. All appropriate precautions should be taken:
a) to ensure that all workplaces are safe and without risk of injury to the safety and health of workers;
b) to protect persons present at or in the vicinity of a construction site from all risks which may arise
from such site.

3.1.2. All openings and other areas likely to pose danger to workers should be clearly indicated.

3.2. Means of access and egress

3.2.1. Adequate and safe means of access to and egress from all workplaces should be provided, indicated
where appropriate and maintained in a safe condition.

3.3. Housekeeping
3.3.1. A suitable housekeeping programme should be established and continuously implemented on each
construction site which should include provisions for:
a) the proper storage of materials and equipment;
b) the removal of scrap, waste and debris at appropriate intervals.

3.3.2. Loose materials which are not required for use should not be placed or allowed to accumulate on the
site so as to obstruct means of access to and egress from workplaces and passageways.

3.3.3. Workplaces and passageways that are slippery owing to ice, snow, oil or other causes should be
cleaned up or strewn with sand, sawdust, ash or the like.

3.4. Precautions against the fall of materials and persons, and collapse of structures
3.4.1. Adequate precautions should be taken such as the provision of fencing, look-out men or barriers to
protect any person who might be injured by the fall of materials, or tools or equipment being raised or
lowered.

3.4.2. Where necessary to prevent danger, guys, stays or supports should be used or other effective
precautions should be taken to prevent the collapse of structures or parts of structures that are being
erected, maintained, repaired, dismantled or demolished.

3.4.3. All openings through which workers are liable to fall should be kept effectively covered or fenced
and indicated in the most appropriate manner.

3.4.4. As far as practicable, guard-rails and toe-boards in accordance with national laws and regulations
should be provided to protect workers from falling from elevated work places. Wherever the guard-rails
and toe-boards cannot be provided:
a) adequate safety nets or safety sheets should be erected and maintained; or
b) adequate safety harnesses should be provided and used.

3.5. Prevention of unauthorised entry

3.5.1. Construction sites in built-up areas and alongside vehicular and pedestrian traffic routes should be
fenced to prevent the entry of unauthorised persons.

3.5.2. Visitors should not be allowed access to construction sites unless accompanied by or authorised by a
competent person and provided with the appropriate protective equipment.

3.6. Fire prevention and fire fighting

3.6.1. All appropriate measures should be taken by the employer to:
a) avoid the risk of fire;
b) control quickly and efficiently any outbreak of fire;
c) bring about a quick and safe evacuation of persons.

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3.6.2. Sufficient and suitable storage should be provided for flammable liquids, solids and gases.

3.6.3. Secure storage areas should be provided for flammable liquids, solids and gases such as liquefied
petroleum gas cylinders, paints and other such materials in order to deter trespassers.

3.6.4. Smoking should be prohibited and "No Smoking" notices be prominently displayed in all places
containing readily combustible or flammable materials.

3.6.5. In confined spaces and other places in which flammable gases, vapours or dusts can cause danger:
a) only suitably protected electrical installations and equipment, including portable lamps, should be
used;
b) there should be no naked flames or similar means of ignition;
c) there should be notices prohibiting smoking;
d) oily rags, waste and clothes or other substances liable to spontaneous ignition
e) should be removed without delay to a safe place;
f) adequate ventilation should be provided.

3.6.6. Combustible materials such as packing materials, sawdust, greasy/oily waste and scrap wood or
plastics should not be allowed to accumulate in workplaces but should be kept in closed metal containers in
a safe place.

3.6.7. Regular inspections should be made of places where there are fire risks. These include the vicinity of
heating appliances, electrical installations and conductors, stores of flammable and combustible materials,
hot welding and cutting operations.

3.6.8. Welding, flame cutting and other hot work should only be done on the orders of a competent
supervisor after appropriate precautions, as required, are taken to reduce the risk of fire.

3.6.9. Places where workers are employed should, if necessary to prevent the danger of fire, be provided as
far as practicable with:
a) suitable and sufficient fire-extinguishing equipment, which should be easily visible and accessible;
b) an adequate water supply at ample pressure.

3.6.10. Fire-extinguishing equipment should be properly maintained and inspected at suitable intervals by a
competent person. Access to fire-extinguishing equipment such as hydrants, portable extinguishers and
connections for hoses should be kept clear at all times.

3.6.11. All supervisors and a sufficient number of workers should be trained in the use of fire-
extinguishing equipment, so that adequate trained personnel are readily available during all working
periods.

3.6.12. Where necessary to guard against danger, workers should be suitably trained in the action to be
taken in the event of fire, including the use of means of escape.

3.6.13. Where appropriate, suitable visual signs should be provided to indicate clearly the direction of
escape in case of fire.

3.6.14. Means of escape should be kept clear at all times. Escape routes should be frequently inspected
particularly in high structures and where access is restricted, as in tunnel workings.

3.6.15. Sufficient and suitable means to give warning in case of fire should be provided where this is
necessary to prevent danger. Such warning should be clearly audible in all parts of the site where persons
are liable to work. There should be an effective evacuation plan so that all persons are evacuated speedily
without panic and accounted for and all plant and processes shut down.

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3.6.16. Notices should be posted at conspicuous places indicating:

a) the nearest fire alarm;
b) the telephone number and address of the nearest emergency services.

3.7. Lighting
3.7.1. Where natural lighting is not adequate to ensure safe working conditions, adequate and suitable
lighting, including portable lighting where appropriate, should be provided at every workplace and any
other place on the construction site where a worker may have to pass.

3.7.2. Artificial lighting should, as far as practicable, not produce glare or disturbing shadows.

3.7.3. Where necessary to prevent danger, lamps should be protected by suitable guards against accidental
breakage.

3.7.4. The cables of portable electrical lighting equipment should be of adequate size and characteristics
for the power requirements and of adequate mechanical strength to withstand severe conditions in
construction operations.

4. Scaffolds and ladders

4.1. General provisions
4.1.1. Where work cannot safely be done on or from the ground or from part of a building or other
permanent structure, a safe and suitable scaffold should be provided and maintained or other equally safe
and suitable provision should be made.

4.1.2. Scaffolds should be provided with safe means of access, such as stairs, ladders or ramps. Ladders
should be secured against inadvertent movement.

4.1.3. All scaffolds and ladders should be constructed, erected and used in accordance with national laws
and regulations.

4.1.4. Every scaffold should be properly designed, constructed, erected and maintained so as to prevent
collapse or accidental displacement when properly used.

4.1.5. Every scaffold and part thereof should be:

a) designed so as to prevent hazards for workers during erection and dismantling;
b) designed so that guard rails and other protective devices, platforms, putlogs, rakers, transoms, ladders,
stairs or ramps can be easily put together;
c) of suitable and sound material and of adequate size and strength for the purpose for which it is to be
used and maintained in a proper condition.

4.1.6. The competent authority should establish and enforce laws, regulations or standards covering
detailed technical provisions for the design, construction, erection, use, maintenance, dismantling and
inspection of the different kinds of scaffolds and ladders used in construction work.

4.2. Materials
4.2.1. Sufficient suitable and sound material should be provided and used in the construction of scaffolds.

4.2.2. Timber used in the construction of scaffolds should be straight-grained, sound, and free from large
knots, dry rot, worm holes and other defects likely to affect its strength.

4.2.3. No rope which is defective whether through contact with acids or other corrosive substances or
otherwise should be used on scaffolds.

4.2.4. Where necessary, boards and planks used for scaffolds should be protected against splitting.

4.2.5. Ladders, boards and planks used in scaffolds should not be painted so that any defects are visible.

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4.2.6. Materials used in the construction of scaffolds should be stored under good conditions and apart
from any material unsuitable for scaffolds.

4.2.7. Fastenings on wooden scaffolds should conform with the national laws and regulations or be
approved by the competent authority.

4.2.8. All tubes, couplers and fittings used in metal tubular scaffolding should be of a standard and type
approved by the competent authority. All couplers and fittings should be free from damage and distortion,
and should be maintained in an oiled condition.

4.2.9. Couplers should not cause deformation in tubes. Couplers should be made of drop forged steel or
equivalent material.

4.2.10. Tubes should be free from cracks, splits and excessive corrosion and be straight to the eye, and tube
ends cut cleanly square with the tube axis.

4.2.11. Alloy and steel tubing should not be intermixed on the same scaffold.

4.3. Design and construction

4.3.1. Scaffolds should be designed for their maximum load and with a safety factor of at least 4, or as
prescribed by the competent authority.

4.3.2. Scaffolds should be adequately braced.

4.3.3. Scaffolds which are not designed to be independent should be rigidly connected to the building at
suitable vertical and horizontal distances.

4.3.4. A scaffold should never extend above the highest anchorage to an extent which might endanger its
stability and strength.

4.3.5. Sufficient putlogs and transoms should remain in position and securely fastened to the ledgers,
uprights or standards, as the case may be, to ensure the stability of the scaffold until it is finally dismantled.

4.3.6. All scaffolds and appliances used as supports for working platforms should be of sound construction,
have a firm footing, and be adequately strutted and braced to maintain their stability.

4.3.7. Loose bricks, drainpipes, chimney-pots or other unsuitable material should not be used for the
construction or support of any part of a scaffold.

4.3.8. When necessary to prevent danger from falling objects, working platforms, gangways and stairways
of scaffolds should be provided with overhead screens of adequate strength and dimensions.

4.3.9. Nails should be driven full length, and not driven part way and then bent over, and should not be
subject to direct pull.

4.3.10. Scaffolding materials should not be thrown from scaffolds or from heights. Other materials should
only be thrown from scaffolds or heights where the landing area has been designated, protected,
appropriate notices displayed, and is under the supervision of a person on the landing level.

4.3.11. Metal scaffolds should not be erected in closer proximity than 5 m to overhead electricity
transmission lines equipment except in accordance with safety distances laid down by the competent
authority or after the electrical transmission line or equipment has been rendered electrically dead.

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4.3.12. As far as practicable, every part of a working platform, gangway or stairway of a scaffold from
which a person is liable to fall a distance of 2 m or as prescribed in the national laws or regulations, should
be provided with guard-rails and toe-boards complying with the relevant national standards.

4.3.13. Platforms on scaffolds should be of adequate dimension, especially in width, for the tasks
performed from the scaffold.

4.4. Inspection and maintenance

4.4.1. Scaffolds as prescribed by national laws or regulations should be inspected, and the results recorded
by a competent person:
a) before being taken into use;
b) at periodic intervals thereafter as prescribed for different types of scaffolds;
c) after any alteration, interruption in use, exposure to weather or seismic conditions or any other
occurrence likely to have affected their strength or stability.

4.4.2. Inspection by the competent person should more particularly ascertain that:
a) the scaffold is of suitable type and adequate for the job;
b) materials used in its construction are sound and of sufficient strength;
c) it is of sound construction and stable;
d) that the required safeguards are in position.

4.4.3. A scaffold should not be erected, substantially altered or dismantled except by or under the
supervision of a competent person.

4.4.4. Every scaffold should be maintained in good and proper condition, and every part should be kept
fixed or secured so that no part can be displaced in consequence of normal use.

4.4.5. No scaffold should be partly dismantled and left so that it is capable of being used, unless it
continues to be safe for use.

4.5. Lifting appliances on scaffolds

4.5.1. When a lifting appliance is to be used on a scaffold:
a) the parts of the scaffold should be carefully inspected by a competent person to determine the
additional strengthening and other safety measures required;
b) any movement of the putlogs should be prevented;
c) if practicable, the uprights should be rigidly connected to a solid part of the building at the place where
the lifting appliance is erected.

4.6. Prefabricated scaffolds

4.6.1. In the case of prefabricated scaffold systems the instructions provided by the manufacturers or
suppliers should be strictly adhered to. Prefabricated scaffolds should have adequate arrangements for
fixing bracing.

4.6.2. Frames of different types should not be intermingled in a single scaffold.

4.7. Use of scaffolds

4.7.1. The employer should provide competent supervision to ensure that all scaffolds are used
appropriately and only for the purpose for which they are designed or erected. In transferring heavy loads
on or to a scaffold a sudden shock should not be transmitted to the scaffold.

4.7.2. When necessary to prevent danger, loads being hoisted on or to scaffolds should be controlled, e.g.
by a hand rope (tag line), so that they cannot strike against the scaffold.

4.7.3. The load on the scaffold should be evenly distributed, as far as practicable, and in any case should be
so distributed as to avoid disturbance of the stability of the scaffold.

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4.7.4. During the use of a scaffold care should constantly be taken that it is not overloaded or otherwise
misused.

4.7.5. Scaffolds should not be used for the storage of material except that required for immediate use.

4.7.6. Workers should not be employed on external scaffolds in weather conditions that threaten their
safety.

4.8. Suspended scaffolds

4.8.1. In addition to the requirements for scaffolds in general as regards soundness, stability and protection
against the risk of falls, suspended scaffolds should meet the following specific requirements in so far as
such requirements are applicable:
a) platforms should be designed and built with dimensions that are compatible with the stability of the
structure as a whole, especially the length;
b) the number of anchorages should be compatible with the dimensions of the platform;
c) the safety of workers should be safeguarded by an extra rope having a point of attachment independent
of the anchorage arrangements of the scaffold;
d) the anchorages and other elements of support of the scaffold should be designed and built in such a
way as to ensure sufficient strength;
e) the ropes, winches, pulleys or pulley blocks should be designed, assembled, used and maintained
according to the requirements established for lifting gear adapted to the lifting of persons according to
national laws and regulations;
f) before use, the whole structure should be checked by a competent person.

5. Lifting appliances and gear

5.1. General provisions
5.1.1. Employers should have a well-planned safety programme to ensure that all the lifting appliances and
lifting gear are selected, installed, examined, tested, maintained, operated and dismantled:
a) with a view to preventing the occurrence of any accident;
b) in accordance with the requirements laid down in the national laws, regulations and standards.

5.1.2. Every lifting appliance including its constituent elements, attachments, anchorages and supports
should be of good design and construction, sound material and adequate strength for the purpose for which
it is used.

5.1.3. Every lifting appliance and every item of lifting gear should be accompanied at the time of purchase
with instructions for use and with a test certificate from a competent person or a guarantee of conformity
with national laws and regulations concerning:
a) the maximum safe working load;
b) safe working loads at different radii if the lifting appliance has a variable radius;
c) the conditions of use under which the maximum or variable safe working loads can be lifted or
lowered.

5.1.4. Every lifting appliance and every item of lifting gear having a single safe working load should be
clearly marked at a conspicuous place with the maximum safe working load in accordance with national
laws and regulations.

5.1.5. Every lifting appliance having a variable safe working load should be fitted with a load indicator or
other effective means to indicate clearly to the driver each maximum safe working load and the conditions
under which it is applicable.

5.1.6. All lifting appliances should be adequately and securely supported; the weight-bearing
characteristics of the ground on which the lifting appliance is to operate should be surveyed in advance of
use.

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Installation
5.1.7. Fixed lifting appliances should be installed:
a) by competent persons;
b) so that they cannot be displaced by the load, vibration or other influences;
c) so that the operator is not exposed to danger from loads, ropes or drums;
d) so that the operator can either see over the zone of operations or communicate with all loading and
unloading points by telephone, signals or other adequate means.

5.1.8. A clearance of at least 60 cm or more, as prescribed by national laws or regulations, should be

provided between moving parts or loads of lifting appliances and:
a) fixed objects in the surrounding environment such as walls and posts; or
b) electrical conductors.
The clearance from electrical conductors should be more for high voltages in accordance with the
requirements of national laws and regulations.

5.1.9. The strength and stability of lifting appliances should take into account the effect of any wind forces
to which they may be exposed.

5.1.10. No structural alterations or repairs should be made to any part of a lifting appliance which may
affect the safety of the appliance without the permission and supervision of the competent person.

Examinations and tests

5.1.11. Lifting appliances and items of lifting gear, as prescribed by national laws
or regulations, should be examined and tested by a competent person:
a) before being taken into use for the first time;
b) after erection on a site;
c) subsequently at intervals prescribed by national laws and regulations;
d) after any substantial alteration or repair.

5.1.12. The manner in which the examinations and tests are to be carried out by the competent person and
the test loads to be applied for different types of lifting appliances and lifting gear should be in accordance
with national laws and regulations.

5.1.13. The results of the examinations and tests on lifting appliances and lifting gear should be recorded in
prescribed forms and, in conformity with national laws and regulations, made available to the competent
authority and to employers and workers or their representatives.

Controls, control devices and cabins

5.1.14. Controls of lifting appliances should be:
a) designed and constructed as far as possible in accordance with ergonomic principles;
b) conveniently situated with ample room for operation and an unrestricted view for the operator;
c) provided, where necessary, with a suitable locking device to prevent accidental movement or
displacement;
d) in a position free from danger from the passage of the load;
e) clearly marked to show their purpose and method of operation.

5.1.15. Lifting appliances should be equipped with devices that would prevent the load from over-running
and prevent the load from moving if power fails.

5.1.16. The operator of every lifting appliance used outdoors except those used for short periods should be
provided with:
a) a safe cabin with full protection from weather and adverse climatic conditions, and designed and
constructed in accordance with ergonomic principles;
b) a clear and unrestricted view of the area of operation;
c) safe access to and egress from the cabin, including situations where the operator is taken ill.

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Operation
5.1.17. No lifting appliance should be operated by a worker who:
a) is below 18 years of age;
b) is not medically fit;
c) has not received appropriate training in accordance with national laws and regulations or is not
properly qualified.

5.1.18. A lifting appliance or item of lifting gear should not be loaded beyond its safe working load or
loads, except for testing purposes as specified by and under the direction of a competent person.

5.1.19. Where necessary to guard against danger, no lifting appliance should be used without the provision
of suitable signalling arrangements or devices.

5.1.20. No person should be raised, lowered or carried by a lifting appliance unless it is constructed,
installed and used for that purpose in accordance with national laws and regulations, except in an
emergency situation:
a) in which serious personal injury or fatality may occur;
b) for which the lifting appliance can safely be used.

5.1.21. Every part of a load in the course of being hoisted or lowered should be adequately suspended or
supported so as to prevent danger.

5.1.22. Every platform or receptacle used for hoisting bricks, tiles, slates or other loose material should be
so enclosed as to prevent the fall of any of the material.

5.1.23. Loaded wheelbarrows placed directly on a platform for raising or lowering should be taped or
secured so that they cannot move and the platform should be enclosed as necessary to prevent the fall of
the contents.

5.1.24. In hoisting a barrow, the wheel should not be used as a means of lifting unless efficient steps are
taken to prevent the axle from slipping out of the bearings.

5.1.25. To avoid danger, long objects such as girders should be guided with a tag line while being raised or
lowered.

5.1.26. Landings should be so designed and arranged that workers are not obliged to lean out into empty
space for loading and unloading.

5.1.27. The hoisting of loads at points where there is a regular flow of traffic should be carried out in an
enclosed space, or if this is impracticable (e.g. in the case of bulky objects), measures should be taken to
hold up or divert the traffic for the time necessary.

5.2. Hoists
5.2.1. Hoist towers should be designed according to national laws and regulations.

5.2.2. Hoist shafts should be enclosed with rigid panels or other adequate fencing:
a) at ground level on all sides;
b) at all other levels at all points at which access is provided;
c) at all points at which persons are liable to be struck by any moving part.

5.2.3. The enclosure of hoist shafts, except at approaches, should extend where practicable at least 2 m
above the floor, platform or other place to which access is provided except where a lesser height is
sufficient to prevent any person falling down the hoistway and there is no risk of any person coming into
contact with any moving part of the hoist, but in no case should the enclosure be less than 1 m in height.

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5.2.4. Approaches to hoists should be provided with substantial gates or the like which:
a) should be gridded for visibility;
b) should, where practicable, be at least 2 m high;
c) when closed prevent access to the hoist platform and any moving part of the hoist.

5.2.5. The guides of hoist platforms should offer sufficient resistance to bending and, in the case of
jamming by a safety catch, to buckling.

5.2.6. Where necessary to prevent danger, adequate covering should be provided above the top of hoist
shafts to prevent material falling down them.

5.2.7. Outdoor hoist towers should be erected on adequately firm foundations, and securely braced, guyed
and anchored.

5.2.8. A suitable ladderway should extend from the bottom to the top of outdoor hoist towers, if no other
ladderway exists within easy reach.

5.2.9. Hoisting engines should be of ample capacity to control the heaviest load that they will have to
move.

5.2.10. Hoists should be provided with devices that stop the hoisting engine as soon as the platform reaches
its highest stopping place.

5.2.11. Winches should be so constructed that the brake is applied when the control handle is not held in
the operating position.

5.2.12. It should not be possible to set in motion from the platform a hoist which is not designed for the
conveyance of persons.

5.2.13. Winches should not be fitted with pawl and ratchet gears on which the pawl must be disengaged
before the platform is lowered.

5.2.14. Hoist platforms should be capable of supporting the maximum load that they will have to carry
with a safety factor as laid down in national laws and regulations.

5.2.15. Hoist platforms should be equipped with safety gear that will hold the platform with the maximum
load if the hoisting rope breaks.

5.2.16. If workers have to enter the cage or go on the platform at landings there should be a locking
arrangement preventing the cage or platform from moving while any worker is in or on it.

5.2.17. On sides not used for loading and unloading, hoist platforms should be provided with toe-boards
and enclosures of wire mesh or other suitable material to prevent the fall of parts of loads.

5.2.18. Where necessary to prevent danger from falling objects, hoist platforms should be provided with
adequate covering.

5.2.19. Counterweights consisting of an assemblage of several parts should be made of specially

constructed parts rigidly connected together.

5.2.20. Counterweights should run in guides.

5.2.21. Suitable platforms should be provided at all landings used by workers.

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5.2.22. The following notices should be posted up conspicuously and in very legible characters:
a) on all hoists:
(i) on the platform: the carrying capacity in kilograms or other appropriate standard unit of weight;
(ii) on the hoisting engine: the lifting capacity in kilograms or other appropriate standard unit of
weight;
b) on hoists authorised or certified for the conveyance of persons:
(i) on the platform or cage: the maximum number of persons to be carried at one time;
c) on hoists for goods only:
(i) on every approach to the hoist and on the platform: prohibition of use by persons.

5.2.23. Hoists intended for the carriage of persons should be provided with a cage so constructed as to
prevent any person from falling out or being trapped between the cage and any fixed part of the structure
when the cage gate is shut, or from being struck by the counterbalance weight or by articles or materials
falling down the hoistway.

5.2.24. On each side in which access is provided the cage should be fitted with a gate fitted with devices
which ensure that the gate cannot be opened except when the cage is at a landing and that the gate must be
closed before the cage can move away from the landing.

5.2.25. Every gate in the enclosure of the hoist shaft which gives access from a landing place to the cage
should be fitted with devices to ensure that the gate cannot be opened except when the cage is at that
landing place, and that the cage cannot be moved away from that landing place until the gate is closed.

5.3. Derricks Stiff-leg derricks

5.3.1. Derricks should be erected on a firm base capable of taking the combined weight of the crane
structure and maximum rated load.

5.3.2. Suitable devices should be used to prevent masts from lifting out of their seatings.

5.3.3. Electrically operated derricks should be effectively earthed from the soleplate or framework.

5.3.4. Counterweights should be so arranged that they do not subject the backstays, sleepers or pivots to
excessive strain.

5.3.5. When derricks are mounted on wheels:

a) a rigid member should be used to maintain the correct distance between the wheels;
b) they should be equipped with struts to prevent them from dropping if a wheel breaks or the derrick is
derailed.

5.3.6. The length of a derrick jib should not be altered without consulting the manufacturer.

5.3.7. The jib of a scotch derrick crane should not be erected within the backstays of the crane.

Guy derricks
5.3.8. The restraint of the guy ropes should be ensured by fitting stirrups or anchor plates in concrete
foundations.

5.3.9. The mast of guy derricks should be supported by six top guys spaced approximately equally.

5.3.10. The spread of the guys of a guy derrick crane from the mast should be not more than 45 from the
horizontal.

5.3.11. Guy ropes of derricks should be equipped with a stretching screw or turnbuckle or other device to
regulate the tension.

5.3.12. Gudgeon pins, sheave pins and foot bearings should be lubricated frequently.

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5.3.13. When a derrick is not in use, the boom should be anchored to prevent it from swinging.

5.4. Gin poles

5.4.1. Gin poles should:
a) be straight;
b) consist of steel or other suitable metal or straight-grained timber free from knots;
c) be adequately guyed and anchored;
d) be vertical or raked slightly towards the load;
e) be of adequate strength for the loads that they will be required to move.

5.4.2. Gin poles should not be spliced and if a gin pole is composed of different elements, they should be
assembled in conformity with their intrinsic material strength.

5.4.3. Gin poles should be adequately fastened at their feet to prevent displacement in operation.

5.4.4. Gin poles that are moved from place to place and re-erected should not be taken into use again
before the pole, lifting ropes, guys, blocks and other parts have been inspected, and the whole appliance
has been tested under load.

5.4.5. When platforms or skips are hoisted by gin poles, adequate precautions should be taken to prevent
them from spinning and to provide for proper landing.

5.5. Tower cranes

5.5.1. Where tower cranes have cabs at high level, persons should only be employed as crane operators
who are capable and trained to work at heights.

5.5.2. The characteristics of the various machines available should be considered against the operating
requirements and the surroundings in which the crane will operate before a particular type of crane is
selected.

5.5.3. Care should be taken in the assessment of wind loads both during operations and out of service.
Account should also be taken of the effects of high structures on wind forces in the vicinity of the crane.

5.5.4. The ground on which the tower crane stands should have adequate bearing capacity. Account should
be taken of seasonal variations in ground conditions.

5.5.5. Bases for tower cranes and tracks for rail-mounted tower cranes should be firm and level. Tower
cranes should only operate on gradients within limits specified by the manufacturer. Tower cranes should
only be erected at a safe distance from excavations and ditches.

5.5.6. Tower cranes should be sited where there is clear space available for erection, operation and
dismantling. As far as possible, cranes should be sited so that loads do not have to be handled over
occupied premises, over public thoroughfares, other construction works and railways or near power cables.

5.5.7. Where two or more tower cranes are sited in positions where their jibs could touch any part of the
other crane, there should be direct means of communication between them and a distinct warning system
operated from the cab so that one driver may alert the other to impending danger.

5.5.8. The manufacturers' instructions on the methods and sequence of erection and dismantling should be
followed. The crane should be tested in accordance with national laws or regulations before being taken
into use.

5.5.9. The climbing operation of climbing tower cranes should be carried out in accordance with
manufacturers' instructions and national laws or regulations. The freestanding height of the tower crane
should not extend beyond what is safe and is permissible in the manufacturers' instructions.

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5.5.10. When the tower crane is left unattended, loads should be removed from the hook, the hook raised,
the power switched off and the boom brought to the horizontal. For longer periods or at times when
adverse weather conditions are expected, out of service procedures should be followed. The main jib
should be slewed to the side of the tower away from the wind, put into free slew and the crane
immobilised.

5.5.11. A windspeed measuring device should be provided at an elevated position on the tower crane with
the indicator fitted in the drivers' cab.

5.5.12. Devices should be provided to prevent loads being moved to a point where the corresponding safe
working load of the crane would be exceeded. Name boards or other items liable to catch the wind should
not be mounted on a tower crane other than in accordance with the manufacturers' instructions.

5.5.13. Tower cranes should not be used for magnet, or demolition ball service, piling operations or other
duties which could impose excessive loadings on the crane structure.

5.6. Lifting ropes

5.6.1. Only ropes with a known and adequate safe working capacity should be used as lifting ropes.

5.6.2. Lifting ropes should be installed, maintained and inspected in accordance with manufacturers'
instructions and national laws or regulations.

5.6.3. Repaired steel ropes should not be used on hoists.

5.6.4. Where multiple independent ropes are used, for the purpose of stability, to lift a work platform, each
rope should be capable of carrying the load independently.

6. Transport, earth-moving and materials-handling equipment

6.1. General provisions
6.1.1. All vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should:
a) be of good design and construction taking into account as far as possible ergonomic principles
particularly with reference to the seat;
b) be maintained in good working order;
c) be properly used with due regard to safety and health;
d) be operated by workers who have received appropriate training in accordance with national laws and
regulations.

6.1.2. The drivers and operators of vehicles and earthmoving or materials handling equipment should be
medically fit, trained and tested and of a prescribed minimum age as required by national laws and
regulations.

6.1.3. On all construction sites on which vehicles, earthmoving or materials handling equipment are used:
a) safe and suitable access ways should be provided for them;
b) traffic should be so organised and controlled as to secure their safe operation.

6.1.4. Adequate signalling or other control arrangements or devices should be provided to guard against
danger from the movement of vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment. Special safety
precautions should be taken for vehicles and equipment when manoeuvring backwards.

6.1.5. The assistance of a trained and authorised signaller should be available when the view of the driver
or operator is restricted. The signalling code should be understood by all involved.

6.1.6. When earth-moving or materials-handling equipment is required to operate in dangerous proximity

to live electrical conductors, adequate precautions should be taken, such as isolating the electrical supply or
erecting overhead barriers of a safe height.

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6.1.7. Preventive measures should be taken to avoid the fall of vehicles and earth-moving or materials-
handling equipment into excavations or into water.

6.1.8. Vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should not travel on bridges, viaducts,
embankments, etc., unless it has been established that it is safe to do so.

6.1.9. Where appropriate, earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should be fitted with structures
designed to protect the operator from being crushed, should the machine overturn, and from falling
material.

6.1.10. All vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should be provided with a plate or
the like indicating:
a) the gross laden weight;
b) the maximum axle weight or, in the case of caterpillar equipment, ground pressure;
c) the tare weight.

6.1.11. All vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should be equipped with:
a) an electrically operated acoustic signaling device;
b) searchlights for forward and backward movement;
c) power and hand brakes;
d) tail lights;
e) silencers;
f) a reversing alarm.

6.1.12. Operators of vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should be adequately

protected against the weather or accidents due to impact, crushing or contact with a moving load by a cab:
a) which is designed and constructed in accordance with ergonomic principles and provides full
protection from adverse weather conditions;
b) which is fully enclosed where dusty conditions are likely to be encountered;
c) which provides the driver with a clear and unrestricted view of the area of operation;
d) which is equipped with a direction indicator and a rear-view mirror on both sides.

6.1.13. The cab of vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should be kept at least 1 m
from a face being excavated.

6.1.14. When cranes and shovels are being moved, out of service, the boom should be in the direction of
travel and the scoop or bucket should be raised and without load, except when travelling downhill.

6.1.15. On earth-moving and materials-handling equipment, motors, brakes, steering gear, chassis, blades,
blade-holders, tracks, wire ropes, sheaves, hydraulic mechanisms, transmissions, bolts and other parts on
which safety depends should be inspected daily.

6.1.16. Vehicles and earth-moving or materials-handling equipment should not be left on a slope with the
engine running.

6.1.17. Deck plates and steps of vehicles and equipment should be kept free from oil, grease, mud or other
slippery substances.

6.1.18. Dredge-type excavators should not be used on earth walls more than 1 m higher than the reach of
the excavator if they are installed at the bottom of the wall.

6.1.19. Bucket excavators should not be used at the top or bottom of earth walls with a slope exceeding 60.

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6.2. Power shovels, excavators

6.2.1. If necessary to prevent danger during inspection or repair, the jib of power shovels should be
equipped with a ladder protected by a guard-rail and toe-board.

6.2.2. Brake pedals for all motions on power shovels should have two independent locking devices.

6.2.3. Power shovels should be equipped with an emergency quick-acting stop device independent of the
controls.

6.2.4. Excavators that are equipped with a unit for deep digging should either be so designed that the
bucket teeth cannot come nearer the boom than 40 cm or be provided with a reliable stop that prevents this
from happening.

6.2.5. Excavators that are designed to be used for lifting with lifting gear should be provided with a plate in
the cabin and on the boom bearing a clearly legible and durable text giving the maximum safe working
load of the lifting gear fitted.

6.2.6. Excavators that are equipped for use as mobile cranes should:
(a) be examined and tested in accordance with national laws and regulations for mobile cranes;
(b) be fitted with an automatic safe working load indicator, when practicable.

Steam shovels
6.2.7. National laws and regulations concerning the construction, installation, operation, testing and
examination of steam boilers should be followed for the boilers of steam shovels.

Internal combustion engine-operated shovels

6.2.8. Internal combustion engine-powered shovels should be:
a) earthed or otherwise protected against static electricity;
b) equipped with a fire extinguisher.

Electric shovels
6.2.9. The connection or disconnection of the electric cable supplying power from the transmission line to
or from the electric shovel should only be done by competent persons duly authorised.

6.2.10. Electrical connectors and relays on the shovel should be inspected daily if in operation.

Operation of power shovels

6.2.11. The boom should be prevented from accidentally swinging during operation or transport.

6.2.12. The bucket or grab of a power shovel should be prevented from accidentally dipping, tipping or
swinging in operation.

6.2.13. Before leaving the shovel the operator should:

a) disengage the master clutch;
b) lower the bucket or grab to the ground.

6.2.14. Buckets and grabs of power shovels should be propped to restrict movement while they are being
repaired or teeth are being changed.

6.2.15. When an excavator is at work near a wall or similar construction, persons should be prevented from
entering the danger zone in which they may be crushed when the machine turns.

6.2.16. Trucks should not be loaded in any place where there may be danger from materials such as rocks
falling from buckets passing overhead; where this cannot be avoided, no person should remain in the cab
during loading.

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6.2.17. Trucks should be stationed at such a distance from the excavator that there is a clearance of at least
60 cm between the truck and the superstructure of the excavator even when it turns.

6.2.18. While work is being done on hydraulically operated buckets the piston should be fully drawn back
in the hydraulic cylinder, and where necessary props provided.

6.3. Bulldozers
6.3.1. Before leaving a bulldozer the operator should:
a) apply the brakes;
b) lower the blade and ripper;
c) put the shift lever in neutral.

6.3.2. At the close of work bulldozers should be left on level ground.

6.3.3. When a bulldozer is moving uphill the blade should be kept low.

6.3.4. Bulldozer blades should not be used as brakes except in an emergency.

6.4. Scrapers
6.4.1. The tractor and scrapers should be joined by a safety line when in operation.

6.4.2. Scraper bowls should be propped while blades are being replaced.

6.4.3. Scrapers moving downhill should be left in gear.

6.5. Mobile asphalt layers and finishers

6.5.1. Wooden floors in front of the sprayers should be covered with corrugated sheet metal.

6.5.2. The mixer elevator should be within a wooden or sheet-metal enclosure which should have a
window for observation, lubrication and maintenance.

6.5.3. Bitumen scoops should have adequate covers.

6.5.4. The sprayer should be provided with a fire-resisting shield with an observation window.

6.5.5. To avoid fire risks due to foaming:

a) boilers should have a device that prevents foam from reaching the burners; or
b) only non-foaming products should be used.

6.5.6. When asphalt plants are working on public roads, an adequate traffic control system should be
established and reflective jackets provided for the workers.

6.5.7. A sufficient number of fire extinguishers should be kept in readiness on the worksite, including at
least two on the spreader.

6.5.8. Material should only be loaded on to the elevator after the drying drum has warmed up.

6.5.9. No naked flame should be used for ascertaining the level of asphalt in the tank.

6.5.10. Thinners (cut-backs) should not be heated over an open flame.

6.5.11. If a burner flame is extinguished:

a) the fuel supply should be cut off,
b) the heating tube should be thoroughly blown out by the fan so as to prevent a backfire.

6.5.12. Inspection openings should not be opened while there is any pressure in the boiler.

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6.6. Pavers
6.6.1. Pavers should be equipped with guards that prevent workers from walking under the skip.

6.7. Road rollers

6.7.1. Before a road roller is used the ground should be examined for bearing capacity and general safety,
especially at the edges of slopes such as embankments.

6.7.2. Rollers should not move downhill with the engine out of gear.

6.7.3. When a roller is not in use:

a) the brakes should be applied;
b) the engine should be put into bottom gear if the roller is facing uphill;
c) the engine should be put into reverse if the roller is facing downhill;
d) the contact should be switched off;
e) the wheels should be blocked.

7. Plant, machinery, equipment and hand tools

7.1. General provisions
7.1.1. Plant, machinery and equipment, including hand tools, both manual and power-driven, should:
a) be of good design and construction, taking into account, as far as possible, health and safety and
ergonomic principles;
b) be maintained in good working order;
c) be used only for work for which they have been designed unless a use outside the initial design
purpose has been assessed by a competent person who has concluded that such use is safe;
d) be operated only by workers who have been authorised and given appropriate training;
e) be provided with protective guards, shields, or other devices as required by national laws or
regulations.

7.1.2. Adequate instructions for safe use should be provided where appropriate by the manufacturer or the
employer, in a form understood by the user.

7.1.3. As far as practicable, safe operating procedures should be established and used for all plant,
machinery and equipment.

7.1.4. Operators of plant, machinery and equipment should not be distracted while work is in progress.

7.1.5. Plant, machinery and equipment should be switched off when not in use and isolated before any
major adjustment, cleaning or maintenance is done.

7.1.6. Where trailing cables or hose pipes are used they should be kept as short as practicable and not
allowed to create a safety hazard.

7.1.7. All dangerous moving parts of machinery and equipment should be enclosed or adequately guarded
in accordance with national laws and regulations.

7.1.8. Every power-driven machine and equipment should be provided with adequate means, immediately
accessible and readily identifiable to the operator, of stopping it quickly and preventing it from being
started again inadvertently.

7.1.9. The machines or equipment should be so designed or fitted with a device that the maximum safe
speed, which should be indicated on it, is not exceeded. If the speed of the machine is variable, it should
only be possible to start it at the lowest speed appropriate.

7.1.10. Operators of plant, machinery, equipment and tools should be provided with personal protective
equipment including, where necessary, suitable hearing protection.

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7.2. Hand tools

7.2.1. Hand tools and implements should be tempered, dressed and repaired by competent persons.

7.2.2. The cutting edges of cutting tools should be kept sharp.

7.2.3. Heads of hammers and other shock tools should be dressed or ground to a suitable radius on the edge
as soon as they begin to mushroom or crack.

7.2.4. When not in use and while being carried or transported sharp tools should be kept in sheaths, shields,
chests or other suitable containers.

7.2.5. Only insulated or non-conducting tools should be used on or near live electrical installations if there
is any risk of electrical shock.

7.2.6. Only non-sparking tools should be used near or in the presence of flammable or explosive dusts or
vapours.

7.3. Pneumatic tools

7.3.1. Operating triggers on portable pneumatic tools should be:
a) so placed as to minimise the risk of accidental starting of the machine;
b) so arranged as to close the air inlet valve automatically when the pressure of the operator's hand is
removed.

7.3.2. Hose and hose connections for compressed-air supply to portable pneumatic tools should be:
a) designed for the pressure and service for which they are intended;
b) fastened securely to the pipe outlet and equipped with a safety chain, as appropriate.

7.3.3. Pneumatic shock tools should be equipped with safety clips or retainers to prevent dies and tools
from being accidentally expelled from the barrel.

7.3.4. Pneumatic tools should be disconnected from power and the pressure in hose lines released before
any adjustments or repairs are made.

7.4. Cartridge-operated tools

7.4.1. Whenever practicable, a low-velocity tool should be used.

7.4.2. Cartridge-operated tools should have:

a) a guard or protective shield that cannot be removed without rendering the tool inoperative;
b) a device that prevents the tool from firing inadvertently, for example if it is dropped or while it is
being loaded;
c) a device that prevents the tool from firing if it is not approximately perpendicular to the working
surface;
d) a device that prevents the tool from firing if the muzzle is not pressed against the working surface.

7.4.3. The recoil of a cartridge-operated tool should not be capable of injuring the user.

7.4.4. The noise of the detonation should not be such as to damage hearing.

7.4.5. A cartridge-operated tool, before each occasion of use, should be inspected to ensure that it is safe to
use, and in particular:
a) that the safety devices are in proper working order;
b) that the tool is clean;
c) that all moving parts work easily;
d) that the barrel is unobstructed.

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7.4.6. At intervals recommended by the manufacturer the tool should be completely dismantled and
inspected for wear on the safety devices by a competent person.

7.4.7. Cartridge-operated tools should only be repaired by the manufacturer or by competent persons.

7.4.8. Cartridges should not be stored nor cartridge tools operated:

a) in a place or environment where these could explode accidentally;
b) in an explosive atmosphere.

7.4.9. When not required for use, inspection or other purpose, cartridge-operated tools should be kept in a
suitable container that:
a) is made of suitable material;
b) is clearly marked to indicate its contents;
c) is kept locked when not in use;
d) contains nothing except the tools and cartridges.

7.4.10. No cartridge-operated tool should be stored or transported loaded, or left loaded when not in use.

7.4.11. Cartridge-operated tools should be accompanied by instructions for their maintenance and use and
should only be operated by persons trained in their safe use.

7.5. Electrical tools

7.5.1. Portable electrical tools should generally be used on reduced voltage to avoid as far as possible the
risk of a lethal shock.

7.5.2. All electrical tools should be earthed, unless they are "all insulated" or "double insulated" tools
which do not require an earth. Earthing should be incorporated in metallic cases, and as a safeguard against
damaged cables where wires enter the tool.

7.5.3. All electrical tools should receive inspection and maintenance on a regular basis by a competent
electrician, and complete records kept.

7.6. Woodworking machines

7.6.1. Shavings, sawdust, etc, should not be removed by hand from woodworking machines or in their
vicinity while the machines are working.

7.6.2. Where provided, chip and sawdust extraction systems should be maintained in efficient working
order.

7.6.3. Mechanical feeding devices should be used whenever practicable.

7.6.4. All cutters and saw blades should be enclosed as far as practicable.

7.6.5. Circular saws should be provided with strong, rigid and easily adjustable hood guards for the saw
blades and with riving knives of suitable design matched to the saw blade in use. The width of the opening
in the table for the saw blade should be as small as practicable.

7.6.6. Portable circular saws should be so designed that when the blade is running idle it is automatically
covered.

7.6.7. On band saws all the blade, except the operating portion, should be enclosed. Band wheels should be
enclosed with stout guards.

7.6.8. Band saws should be provided with automatic tension regulators.

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7.6.9. Planing machines should be provided with bridge guards covering the full length and breadth of the
cutting block and easily adjustable in both horizontal and vertical directions.

7.6.10. Thicknessing machines should be provided with sectional feed rollers or a kick-back preventer
which should be kept as free as possible.

7.6.11. Woodworking machines should be properly spaced to avoid accidental injury when handling large
boards or long planks.

7.7. Engines
7.7.1. Engines should:
a) be constructed and installed so that they can be started safely and the maximum safe speed cannot be
exceeded;
b) have remote controls for limiting speed when necessary;
c) have devices to stop them from a safe place in an emergency.

7.7.2. Internal combustion engines should not run for long periods in confined spaces unless adequate
exhaust ventilation is provided.

7.7.3. When internal combustion engines are being fuelled:

a) the engine ignition should be shut off,
b) care should be taken to avoid spilling fuel;
c) no person should smoke or have an open light in the vicinity;
d) a fire extinguisher should be kept readily available.

7.7.4. Secondary fuel reservoirs should be placed outside the engine room.

7.8. Silos
7.8.1. Silos should:
a) be erected on adequate foundations;
b) withstand the stresses to which they are subjected without any deformation of walls, floors and other
load-bearing parts.

7.8.2. All places in silos to which workers have to go should be provided with safe means of access such as
stairs, fixed ladders or hoists.

7.8.3. Facilities should be provided to enable the quantity of material in the silo to be assessed without
entering the silo.

7.8.4. On silos, notices should be conspicuously displayed:

a) containing details of the requirements for entry;
b) calling attention to the danger of sinking in fine materials.

7.8.5. If the material in the silo is liable to cause a blockage, agitators, compressed air or other mechanical
devices should be preferably provided. To clear blockages, equipment such as poles, long-handled tools,
rammers or scraper chains should also be available for emergency use.

7.8.6. Silos for material liable to spontaneous combustion should be provided with fire-extinguishing
equipment.

7.8.7. In silos in which explosive mixtures of gases or dusts are liable to form:
a) all electrical equipment including hand lamps should be flameproof;
b) only non-sparking tools should be used;
c) explosion vents should be provided in the walls.

7.8.8. Entrances of silos should be kept closed and locked.

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7.8.9. Workers should not enter a silo unless:

a) the discharge opening is closed and secured against opening and filling is stopped;
b) they are duly authorised to do so;
c) they wear safety harnesses with lifelines securely attached to a fixed object;
d) another authorised person provides constant surveillance and is in attendance with suitable rescue
equipment.

7.9. Concrete work equipment

7.9.1. Concrete mixers should be protected by side railings to prevent workers from passing under the skip
while it is raised.

7.9.2. Hoppers into which a person could fall, and revolving blades of trough or batch-type mixers, should
be adequately guarded by grating.

7.9.3. In addition to the operating brake, skips of concrete mixers should be provided with a device or
devices by which they can be securely blocked when raised.

7.9.4. While the drum of a concrete mixer is being cleaned, adequate precautions should be taken to protect
the workers inside by locking switches open, removing fuses or otherwise cutting off the power.

7.9.5. Concrete buckets for use with cranes and aerial cableways should be free as far as practicable from
projections from which accumulations of concrete could fall.

7.9.6. Loaded concrete buckets should be guided into position by appropriate means.

7.9.7. Concrete buckets positioned by crane or aerial cableways should be suspended by safety hooks.

7.9.8. When concrete is being tipped from buckets, workers should keep out of range of any kick-back due
to concrete sticking to the bucket.

7.9.9. Concrete bucket towers and masts with pouring gutters or conveyor belts should:
a) be erected by competent persons;
b) be inspected daily.

7.9.10. The winch for hoisting the bucket should be so placed that the operator can see the filling, hoisting,
emptying and lowering of the bucket. Where this is not practicable, a banksman should direct the operator.

7.9.11. If the winch operator cannot see the bucket, he should, where practicable, be provided with an
adequate means indicating its position.

7.9.12. Guides for the bucket should be correctly aligned and so maintained as to prevent the bucket from
jamming in the tower.

7.9.13. Scaffolding carrying a pipe for pumped concrete should be strong enough to support the pipe when
filled and all the workers who may be on the scaffold at the same time, with a safety factor of at least 4.

7.9.14. Pipes for carrying pumped concrete should:

a) be securely anchored at the ends and at curves;
b) be provided near the top with air release valves;
c) be securely attached to the pump nozzle by a bolted collar or equivalent means.

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7.10. Pressure plant

7.10.1. Pressure plant and equipment should be examined, tested and issued with a certificate by a
competent person in cases and at times prescribed by national laws or regulations.

7.10.2. National laws or regulations should be laid down and enforced as regards the materials, design,
construction, installation, inspection, testing, maintenance and operation of steam boilers and other
pressure plant as necessary.

7.10.3. Only persons tested and certified by the competent authorities should operate steam boilers.

7.10.4. Compressors should be equipped with:

a) automatic devices that will prevent the maximum safe discharge pressure from being exceeded;
b) a quick-release valve;
c) suitable arrangements for preventing contamination where persons are working in confined spaces.

7.10.5. Compressors in which explosive mixtures of gas may form should be protected against sparking.

7.10.6. Where compressor cylinders are equipped with water-cooling jackets it should be possible to
observe the water flow.

7.10.7. Intercoolers and after coolers should be able to withstand safely the maximum pressure in the air-
discharge piping.

7.10.8. Where necessary to prevent danger, air-discharge piping of compressors should be provided with:
a) a fusible plug;
b) insulating covers to protect workers against burns, and to prevent fire risks.

7.10.9. Where necessary to prevent danger, an oil separator should be provided between the compressor
and the air receiver.

7.10.10. Where stop valves are installed in air-discharge piping:

a) they should be easily accessible for inspection and cleaning;
b) one or more safety valves should be installed between the compressor and the stop valve.

7.10.11. All working parts, including speed governors, safety valves and oil separators, should be inspected
and cleaned at suitable intervals.

7.10.12. Air receivers should be equipped with:

a) a safety valve;
b) a pressure gauge;
c) a drain cock.

7.10.13. Air receivers should be provided with suitable openings for inspection and cleaning.

7.10.14. Air receivers should be examined and tested at appropriate intervals by a competent person.

7.10.15. The safe working pressure should be marked in a distinctive colour on the pressure gauge.

7.10.16. Where necessary to prevent danger, a pressure-reducing valve or a stop valve, or both, should be
inserted in the piping between the air receiver and the compressor.

7.10.17. Between the receiver and each consuming appliance there should be a stop valve.

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7.10.18. Cylinders for compressed, dissolved or liquefied gases should be properly constructed with sound
material, fitted with appropriate safety devices in accordance with national laws or regulations, inspected
and tested by a competent person as prescribed and stored, transported, handled and used in conformity
with the prescribed safety measures.

7.11. Conveyors
7.11.1. Conveyors should be so constructed and installed as to avoid hazardous points between moving and
stationary parts or objects.

7.11.2. When conveyors that are not entirely enclosed cross over places where workers are employed or
pass beneath, sheet or screen guards should be provided to catch any falling material. Adequate fencing
should be provided at transfer points. Emergency stopping devices should be fitted at convenient locations
easily accessible for workers.

7.11.3. Power-driven conveyors should be provided at loading and unloading stations, at drive and take-up
ends, and at other convenient places, if necessary to prevent danger, with devices for stopping the conveyor
machinery in an emergency.

7.11.4. Where two or more conveyors are operated together, the controlling devices should be so arranged
that no conveyor can feed on to a stopped conveyor.

7.11.5. Screw conveyors should be enclosed at all times. The cover should not be removed until the
conveyor is stopped.

7.11.6. When a conveyor is discharging into a bunker or hopper, the feeding conveyor should be equipped
with an overload switch.

7.12. Crusher plants

7.12.1. Crusher plants should be located at a safe distance from the construction work area to avoid injury
to workers and damage to the workers resulting from dust, sand, gravel, noise and vibrations.

7.12.2. Crusher plants should be provided with an overriding power isolation switch next to the crusher
unit and visible from it, to prevent starting the plant inadvertently during repair or maintenance.

7.12.3. Electrical motors, switches, connections and all instrumentation should be dust and moisture proof.

7.12.4. Equipment, plant and machinery should be cleared daily of dust and sand.

7.12.5. Access roads to the crusher hopper and screens should be cleaned by water spraying or other
effective means.

7.12.6. Power cables should be laid out either underground or at safe elevation and marked with bright
colour indicators to avoid damage resulting from poor visibility.

7.12.7. Earth-moving equipment working at a crusher plant should be cleaned and maintained after each
work shift.

7.13. Power generators

7.13.1. Power generators should meet national laws and regulations for safe and reliable operation.

7.13.2. Power generators should be rated to meet the maximum anticipated load.

7.13.3. Power generators should be located in enclosed and properly ventilated areas.

7.13.4. Power generators should be provided with an overriding power switch to avoid accidental remote
starting during maintenance.

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7.13.5. Power generators should be provided with adequate silencers and exhaust piping.

7.13.6. When located near workers' accommodation, power generators should be housed in a concrete
room or properly insulated area in accordance with national laws and regulations to minimise noise
disturbance.

8. Work at heights including roof work

8.1. General provisions
8.1.1. Where necessary to guard against danger, or where the height of a structure or its slope exceeds that
prescribed by national laws or regulations, preventive measures should be taken against the fall of workers
and tools or other objects or materials.

8.1.2. Elevated workplaces, including roofs more than 2 m or as prescribed, above the floor or ground
should be protected on all open sides by guard-rails and toeboards complying with the relevant national
laws and regulations. Wherever guard-rails and toe-boards cannot be provided, adequate safety harnesses
should be provided and used.

8.1.3. Elevated workplaces including roofs should be provided with safe means of access and egress such
as stairs, ramps or ladders complying with the relevant national laws and regulations.

8.1.4. If guard-rails are not practicable, persons employed at elevated workplaces including roofs from
which they are liable to fall more than 2 m or as prescribed should be protected by means of adequate
safety nets or safety sheets or platforms, or be secured by safety harnesses with lifelines securely attached.

8.2. Roof work

8.2.1. All roof-work operations should be pre-planned and properly supervised.

8.2.2. Roof work should only be undertaken by workers who are physically and psychologically fit and
have the necessary knowledge and experience for such work.

8.2.3. Work on roofs should not be carried on in weather conditions that threaten the safety of workers.

8.2.4. Crawling boards, walkways and roof ladders should be securely fastened to a firm structure.

8.2.5. Roofing brackets should fit the slope of the roof and be securely supported.

8.2.6. Where it is necessary for a person to kneel or crouch near the edge of the roof an intermediate rail
should be provided unless other precautions, such as the use of a safety harness, are taken.

8.2.7. On a large roof where work does not have to be carried out at or near the edge, a simple barrier
consisting of crossed scaffold tubes supporting a tubing guardrail may be provided. Such barriers should be
positioned at least 2 m from the edge.

8.2.8. All covers for openings in roofs should be of substantial construction and be secured in position.

8.2.9. Roofs with a pitch of more than 10 should be treated as sloping.

8.2.10. When work is being carried out on sloping roofs, sufficient and suitable crawling boards or roof
ladders should be provided and firmly secured in position as soon as is practicable.

8.2.11. During extensive work on the roof, strong barriers or guard-rails and toeboards should be provided
to stop a person from falling off the roof.

8.2.12. Where workers are required to work on or near roofs or other places covered with fragile material,
through which they are liable to fall, they should be provided with sufficient suitable roof ladders or

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crawling boards strong enough, when spanning across the supports for the roof covering, to support those
workers.

8.2.13. A minimum of two boards should be provided so that it is not necessary for a person to stand on a
fragile roof to move a board or a ladder, or for any other reason.

8.2.14. To prevent danger, suitable material such as steel wire mesh should be placed in position before
any roof sheeting of asbestos cement or other fragile material is placed upon it.

8.2.15. Purlins or other intermediate supports for fragile roofing material should be sufficiently close
together to prevent danger.

8.2.16. Where a valley or parapet gutter of a fragile roof is used for access, protection against falling
through the fragile material should be provided by covering the adjacent fragile material to a minimum
distance of 1 m up the roof.

8.2.17. Buildings with fragile roofs should have a warning notice prominently displayed at the approaches
to the roof.

8.3. Work on tall chimneys

8.3.1. For the erection and repair of tall chimneys, appropriate scaffolding should be provided. An
adequate catch net should be maintained at a suitable distance below the scaffold.

8.3.2. The scaffold floor should always be at least 65 cm below the top of the chimney.

8.3.3. Under the working floor of the scaffolding the next lower floor should be left in position as a catch
platform.

8.3.4. The distance between the inside edge of the scaffold and the wall of the chimney should not exceed
20 cm at any point.

8.3.5. Catch platforms should be erected over:

a) the entrance to the chimney;
b) passageways and working places where workers could be endangered by falling objects.

8.3.6. For climbing tall chimneys, access should be provided by:

a) stairs or ladders;
b) a column of iron rungs securely embedded in the chimney wall;
c) other appropriate means.

8.3.7. When workers use the outside rungs to climb the chimney, a securely fastened steel core rope looped
at the free end and hanging down at least 3 m should be provided at the top to help the workers to climb on
to the chimney.

8.3.8. While work is being done on independent chimneys the area surrounding the chimney should be
enclosed by fencing at a safe distance.

8.3.9. Workers employed on the construction, alteration, maintenance or repair of tall chimneys should not:
a) work on the outside without a safety harness attached by a lifeline to a rung, ring or other secure
anchorage;
b) put tools between the safety harness and the body or in pockets not intended for the purpose;
c) haul heavy materials or equipment up and down by hand to or from the workplace on the chimney;
d) fasten pulleys or scaffolding to reinforcing rings without first verifying their stability;
e) work alone;
f) climb a chimney that is not provided with securely anchored ladders or rungs;

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g) work on chimneys in use unless the necessary precautions to avoid danger from smoke and gases have
been taken.

8.3.10. Work on independent chimneys should not be carried on in high winds, icy conditions, fog or
during electrical storms.

9. Excavations, shafts, earthworks, underground works and tunnels

9.1. General provisions
9.1.1. Adequate precautions should be taken in any excavation, shaft, earthworks, underground works or
tunnel:
a) by suitable shoring or otherwise, to guard against danger to workers from a fall or dislodgement of
earth, rock or other material;
b) to guard against dangers arising from the fall of persons, materials or objects or the in rush of water
into the excavation, shaft, earthworks, underground works or tunnel;
c) to secure adequate ventilation at every workplace so as to maintain an atmosphere fit for respiration
and to limit any fumes, gases, vapours, dust or other impurities to levels which are not dangerous or
injurious to health and are within limits laid down by national laws or regulations;
d) to enable the workers to reach safety in the event of fire, or an in rush of water or material;
e) to avoid risk to workers arising from possible underground dangers such as the circulation of fluids or
the presence of pockets of gas, by undertaking appropriate investigations to locate them.

9.1.2. Shoring or other support for any part of an excavation, shaft, earthworks, underground works or
tunnel should not be erected, altered or dismantled except under the supervision of a competent person.

9.1.3. Every part of an excavation, shaft, earthworks, underground works and tunnel where persons are
employed should be inspected by a competent person at times and in cases prescribed by national laws or
regulations, and the results recorded.

9.1.4. Work should not commence therein until the inspection by the competent person as prescribed by
national laws or regulations has been carried out and the part of the excavation, shaft, earthworks,
underground works or tunnel has been found safe for work.

9.2. Excavations
9.2.1. Before digging begins on site:
a) all excavation work should be planned and the method of excavation and the type of support work
required decided;
b) the stability of the ground should be verified by a competent person;
c) a competent person should check that the excavation will not affect adjoining buildings, structures or
roadways;
d) the employer should verify the position of all the public utilities such as underground sewers, gas
pipes, water pipes and electrical conductors that may cause danger during work;
e) if necessary to prevent danger, the gas, water, electrical and other public utilities should be shut off or
disconnected;
f) if underground pipes, cable conductors, etc., cannot be removed or disconnected, they should be
fenced, hung up and adequately marked or otherwise protected;
g) the position of bridges, temporary roads and spoil heaps should be determined;
h) if necessary to prevent danger, land should be cleared of trees, boulders and other obstructions;
i) the employer should see that the land to be excavated is not contaminated by harmful chemicals or
gases, or by any hazardous waste material such as asbestos.

9.2.2. All excavation work should be supervised by a competent person and operatives doing the work
should be given clear instructions.

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9.2.3. Sides of excavations should be thoroughly inspected:

a) daily, prior to each shift and after interruption in work of more than one day;
b) after every blasting operation;
c) after an unexpected fall of ground;
d) after substantial damage to supports;
e) after a heavy rain, frost or snow;
f) when boulder formations are encountered.

9.2.4. No load, plant or equipment should be placed or moved near the edge of any excavation where it is
likely to cause its collapse and thereby endanger any person unless precautions such as the provision of
shoring or piling are taken to prevent the sides from collapsing.

9.2.5. Adequately anchored stop blocks and barriers should be provided to prevent vehicles being driven
into the excavation. Heavy vehicles should not be allowed near the excavation unless the support work has
been specially designed to permit it.

9.2.6. If an excavation is likely to affect the security of a structure on which persons are working,
precautions should be taken to protect the structure from collapse.

9.2.7. Sides of excavations where workers are exposed to danger from moving ground should be made safe
by sloping, shoring, portable shields or other effective means.

9.2.8. All support work should be regularly checked to ensure that the props, wedges, etc., are tight and no
undue deflection or distortion is taking place.

9.2.9. All timber subject to the varying weather conditions should be regularly checked for dryness,
shrinkage and rot.

9.3. Underground construction

9.3.1. General provisions
[Link]. Underground construction work should be carried on in accordance with plans approved by the
competent authority when required by national laws and regulations. The plant should define excavation
methods, rescue and evacuation methods in case of fire, flood and fall or dislodgement of earth or rock.

[Link]. All underground construction work should be supervised by a competent person and operatives
doing the work should be given clear instructions.

[Link]. All occupied workplaces underground should be inspected at least once in every shift.

[Link]. Places occupied by solitary workers should be inspected at least twice in every shift.

[Link]. At least once in every week, thorough inspection should be made of all machinery, equipment,
structures, supports, roadways, means of egress, magazines, medical facilities, sanitation and working
places.

[Link]. All workers should be withdrawn from underground workings if:

a) the ventilation fails; or
b) other imminent danger threatens.

[Link]. A suitable communication system should be maintained from the vicinity of the face of
underground workings to the surface with stations at intermediate workplaces.

[Link]. In tunnels and other underground workings where an explosive mixture such as methane and air
may form, operations should be carried on in accordance with national laws and regulations applicable to
gassy mines or coal mines.

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[Link]. Air should be tested to ascertain if it is hazardous and no one allowed entry until it is fit for
breathing.

[Link]. Escape routes should be properly indicated with signs visible in dim light.

9.3.2. Shaft sinking

[Link]. Every shaft not sunk through solid rock should be cased, lined or otherwise made safe.

[Link]. Shuttering for masonry lining of shafts should only be removed gradually as the masonry
progresses.

[Link]. Workers employed on sinking shafts should be provided with staging, scaffolds or cradles from
which they can work safely.

[Link]. A thorough inspection of the shaft should be made:

a) before a shift descends;
b) after blasting.

[Link]. All shafts over 30 m in depth should have an adequate head frame strong enough to withstand
safely the maximum load that it will have to carry and preferably be of open steelwork construction.

[Link]. If head frames are of timber, they should be treated to make them fire-resistant.

[Link]. Head frames should be earthed or otherwise adequately protected against lightning.

[Link]. All landings in shafts should be provided with gates that effectively close the opening to a height
of at least 2 m.

[Link]. Shafts should be equipped with a signalling system that warns the hoisting engineer when a
conveyance passes beyond the safe limit of travel.

[Link]. Before tunnelling operations are begun from a shaft, two separate signalling or communications
systems of different types should be installed.

9.3.2. 11. The signal code should be posted in the hoisting machine room and at each landing.

[Link]. Hoisting machines should be equipped:

a) with an adequate brake that will automatically stop and hold the conveyance if the hoisting power
fails;
b) with a reliable depth indicator.

[Link]. All hoisting machines should be inspected at least once a day by the hoisting engineer.

[Link]. Shafts exceeding 30 m in depth should have an installation for conveying persons.

[Link]. Cages or cars for conveying persons should be equipped with safety gear that automatically holds
the cage or car when fully loaded if the suspension rope breaks or becomes slack.

[Link]. There should be adequate means of blocking the cage or car at every landing.

[Link]. Buckets used for conveying persons in shafts should:

a) have no projections on the outside that could catch in an obstruction;
b) be not less than 1 m deep;
c) be provided with adequate means to prevent them from inadvertently tipping and spinning;
d) not be self-opening.

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[Link]. Notices should be posted at conspicuous places at the hoisting installation stating:
a) the maximum speed for transporting persons in the shaft;
b) the maximum number of persons and the maximum weight of material that may be safely carried in
each conveyance.

[Link]. Hoisting operations in shafts should be governed by suitable signals.

9.3.3. Ventilation
[Link]. All underground workings should be traversed by a regular air current to keep them in a fit state
for working and, in particular:
a) to avoid excessive rises in temperature;
b) to dilute harmful dusts, gases, vapours and fumes to safe concentrations;
c) to prevent the oxygen content of the atmosphere from falling below 17 per cent or a level prescribed in
national laws and regulations.

[Link]. In all underground workings it should be possible to reverse the air flow.

[Link]. In tunnels where blasting is done:

a) an adequate supply of air should be taken to the face by mechanical ventilation;
b) after every blast the face should be cleared of harmful gases and dust as far as practicable by exhaust
ventilation; where necessary, the dust should be controlled with water sprays or fog guns;
c) if necessary to remove the fumes, auxiliary ventilation should be provided.

[Link]. Where adequate ventilation is not possible, workers should be provided with suitable breathing
apparatus. Only in very exceptional circumstances should people be allowed to work without adequate
ventilation.

9.3.4. Fire protection

[Link]. No combustible structure should be built or any flammable material stored within 30 m of a shaft,
tunnel mouth, hoisting-engine house or ventilation-fan house.

[Link]. As far as practicable, combustible materials and flammable liquids should not be stored
underground.

[Link]. Lubricating oils, grease and rope dressings underground should:

a) be kept in closed metal containers;
b) be stored in a safe place away from shafts, hoists, explosives and timber.

[Link]. Unless there is no risk of fire or explosion, naked lights and smoking should not be allowed
underground.

[Link]. Petrol engines should not be used underground except under conditions approved by the competent
authority.

[Link]. If welding or flame cutting is done underground:

a) timber supports and other combustible structures or materials should be protected by a fireproof
screen;
b) suitable fire extinguishers should be kept readily available;
c) a constant watch should be kept for outbreaks of fire;
d) welding fumes should be removed by exhaust ventilation.

9.3.5. Electricity
[Link]. Electrical installations in shafts and tunnels should comply with the
relevant national laws or regulations.

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[Link]. Main switchgear for cutting off the supply of electricity from all underground installations should:
a) be installed on the surface;
b) be accessible only to authorised persons;
c) be attended by a competent person authorised to operate it.

[Link]. Where necessary suitable lightning arresters should be installed on the surface to protect the
installation below ground from abnormal voltage due to atmospheric electricity.

[Link]. The main cables supplying current to electric motors installed in the vicinity of shafts (such as
those for underground fans or drainage pumps) should be duplicated if the stopping of these motors would
cause danger.

[Link]. All switches should be of the enclosed safety type.

[Link]. Fixed lamps underground should be provided with a strong protective cover of glass or other
transparent material or with a guard.

[Link]. Whenever required by local conditions, lamp fittings should be proof against dust, gases and water.

[Link]. The voltage of hand lamps (portable lamps) used underground should not exceed extra-low safety
voltage.

9.3.6. Underground lighting

[Link]. All places where workers have to work or pass should be adequately lit.

[Link]. In addition to the main lighting, there should be emergency lighting that functions long enough to
enable the workers to reach the surface safely.

9.4. Drilling
9.4.1. When drilling is done in rock, loose rock should be scaled down to protect drillers against falls of
ground; where this is not practicable, a protective canopy or overhead screen should be provided.

9.5. Transport, storage and handling of explosives

9.5.1. The transport, storage and handling of explosives should comply with the requirements of national
laws and regulations.

9.5.2. Explosives should not be conveyed in a shaft cage or bucket together with other materials.

9.5.3. Explosives and detonators should not be conveyed together in a shaft unless they are in a suitable
powder car.

9.6. Blasting
9.6.1. The modes of blasting should be in accordance with national laws or regulations.

9.6.2. No other electrical circuit should be installed on the same side of the tunnel as the blasting circuit.

9.6.3. Before any shot is fired, all electrical circuits other than the blasting circuit should be de-energised
within an adequate distance from the firing point.

9.6.4. Only suitable battery lamps should be used during loading shotholes.

9.6.5. After every blast, the sides, workface and roof should be inspected and cleared of loose rock.

9.7. Haulage

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9.7.1. The haulage system should comply with the national laws and regulations.

9.7.2. In tunnels where there are rail tracks, unless there is adequate clearance between the rolling stock
and the sides, recesses should be provided at suitable intervals which should be large enough to
accommodate two persons and should be at least 60 cm deep.

9.7.3. Mechanical haulage operations should be controlled by suitable signals.

9.7.4. Trains and single cars should have headlights and tail-lights.

9.7.5. Rerailing by hauling with a winch should only be done under the control and supervision of a
competent person.

9.7.6. Workers should not be transported on locomotives or in cars other than those specially provided for
that purpose.

9.8. Dust control

9.8.1. Adequate measures should be taken to prevent the formation of, or to suppress as close to the source
as practicable, all dust in tunnelling operations and in particular siliceous dusts consisting of particles less
than 5 microns in size.

9.8.2. If drilling in rock is done dry, the dust produced should be effectively exhausted and collected.

9.8.3. If drilling in rock is done wet, the drill should be so constructed that it cannot be operated unless the
water feed is operating.

9.8.4. During blasting, before any shots are fired the floor, roof and sides in the vicinity should be
thoroughly wetted, if practicable.

9.8.5. Loose rock should be adequately wetted during loading, transport and unloading underground.

9.8.6. Excavated material should not be exposed to high-velocity air currents during transport.

9.8.7. If any stone-crushing equipment is used underground, adequate measures should be taken to prevent
any dust from it penetrating to areas occupied by workers.

9.9. Underground pipelines

9.9.1. Adequate ventilation should be provided for workers in pipelines.

9.9.2. When laying pipes in water-bearing ground, a flood gate should be provided at the end section.

9.9.3. When bodies of water or explosive gases may be encountered, trial boreholes should be drilled ahead
of the workings.

9.9.4. Reliable means of communication between workers inside pipes and persons outside should be
provided.

9.9.5. It should be possible for workers employed in piping to reach a safe place quickly in an emergency.

9.9.6. Adequate arrangements should be made to rescue workers who are in danger and cannot reach a safe
place.

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10. Cofferdams and caissons and work in compressed air

10.1. General provisions
10.1.1. Every cofferdam and caisson should be:
a) of good construction and suitable and sound material and of adequate strength;
b) provided with adequate means for workers to reach safety in the event of an inrush of water or
material;
c) provided with safe means of access to every place where workers are employed.

10.1.2. The construction, positioning, modification or dismantling of a cofferdam or caisson should take
place only under the immediate supervision of a competent person.

10.1.3. Every cofferdam and caisson should be inspected by a competent person at intervals prescribed by
national laws or regulations.

10.1.4. A person should only be allowed to work in a cofferdam or caisson if it has been inspected and
found safe by a competent person within such preceding period as is prescribed by national laws or
regulations and the results thereof recorded in a prescribed form or register.

10.1.5. Work in compressed air should be carried out only in accordance with measures prescribed by
national laws or regulations.

10.1.6. Work in compressed air should be carried out only by workers who are 18 years old or more and
who have been medically examined and found fit for such employment.

10.1.7. Work in compressed air should be carried out only when a competent person is present to supervise
the conduct of operations.

10.1.8. National laws or regulations should lay down conditions in which the work is to be carried out and
the plant and equipment are to be used and provide for health surveillance of workers and the duration of
work in compressed air.

10.1.9. No person should be employed in compressed air unless he is under the constant supervision of an
experienced person and properly instructed and supplied with a leaflet containing advice as to the
precautions to be taken in connection with such work.

10.1.10. No person should be subjected to a pressure exceeding 2.5 bar except in emergencies.

10.1.11. For every shift a record should be kept showing the time every worker spends in the working
chamber and the time taken for decompression.

10.1.12. If the air pressure exceeds 1 bar, the medical examination of the worker should have been carried
out within the four weeks preceding his employment.

10.1.13. Workers who have been employed continuously in compressed air at a pressure less than 1 bar
should be medically re-examined every two months; if the pressure is higher, the period between re-
examinations should be shorter.

10.1.14. Workers who have been absent from work in compressed air for any period due to illness or for
ten days or more for reasons other than illness should be medically re-examined. Such workers should be
reintroduced into compressed-air work in a graduated manner.

10.1.15. For every project where workers are employed in compressed air, a physician or a nurse or a
trained first-aid attendant familiar with compressed-air work should be available at all times.

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10.1.16. When persons are employed in compressed air at a pressure exceeding 1 bar the employer should
inform a neighbouring hospital of the position of the worksite and of the name and address of the physician
exercising medical supervision.

10.1.17. Every person employed in compressed air at a pressure exceeding 1 bar should be provided with
an identification badge to be worn on the body indicating that he has been employed in compressed air and
giving the address of the medical lock at his place of employment.

10.1.18. The identification badge should state that the wearer should be taken to the medical lock and not
to a hospital if he is ill.

10.1.19. Adequate and suitable facilities for remaining on the site after decompression, including shelters
with seats should be provided for workers working in compressed air.

10.1.20. Any person not previously employed in compressed air should not be subject to compressed air
unless accompanied in the man lock by a person competent to advise him as to the appropriate conduct of
persons during compression.

10.1.21. During compression the pressure should not be raised to more than about 0.25 bar until the lock
attendant has ascertained that no person is complaining of discomfort, and thereafter it should be raised at a
rate not exceeding about 0.5 bar per minute.

10.1.22. If during compression any person is suffering from discomfort, compression should stop and the
pressure be gradually reduced.

10.2. Work in cofferdams and caissons

10.2.1. When necessary to prevent danger, caissons and shafts should:
a) be adequately braced;
b) be firmly secured in position.

10.2.2. Before being taken into use, shafts should undergo an appropriate hydrostatic test.

10.2.3. Every caisson and shaft containing flammable material should be provided with a water line,
sufficient hose connections and sufficient hose or appropriate extinguishers.

10.2.4. Every caisson, shaft, working chamber, medical lock and man lock should have a minimum internal
height of 1.8 m.

Working chambers
10.2.5. Every working chamber should be provided with a wet-bulb thermometer.

10.2.6. Work under pressure when the wet-bulb temperature exceeds 28° C should be restricted unless it is
absolutely necessary.

10.2.7. While any person is in a working chamber, the door between the chamber and a man lock leading
to a lower pressure should as far as practicable be kept open if the lock is not in use.

Medical locks
10.2.8. Where the pressure in a working chamber ordinarily exceeds 1 bar, a suitable medical lock
conveniently situated should be provided solely for the treatment of workers employed in compressed air.

10.2.9. The medical lock should have two compartments so that it can be entered under pressure.

10.2.10. While any person is employed in compressed air a medical lock should be in the charge of a
suitably qualified person.

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Man locks
10.2.11. Every man lock should be of adequate internal dimensions and equipped with:
a) pressure gauges that indicate to the man-lock attendant the pressure in the lock and in each working
chamber to which it affords direct or indirect access and indicate to the persons in the lock the pressure
in it;
b) a clock or clocks so placed that the lock attendant and the persons in the lock can readily ascertain the
time;
c) efficient means of verbal communication between the lock attendant, the lock and the working
chamber or chambers;
d) means of enabling the persons in the lock to convey visible or other non-verbal signals to the lock
attendant;
e) efficient means enabling the lock attendant, from outside the lock, to reduce or cut off the supply of
compressed air to the lock.

10.2.12. Persons in the lock should not be able to reduce the air pressure except:
a) under the control of the lock attendant;
b) in an emergency, by special means that should normally be kept sealed or locked.

10.2.13. In every man lock there should be a suitable notice indicating the precautions to be taken by
persons during compression and decompression, and after decompression.

10.2.14. Every man lock should, while any person is in it or in any working chamber to which it affords
direct or indirect access, be in the charge of an attendant who should:
a) control compression and decompression in the lock;
b) if the pressure exceeds 1 bar, keep a register showing:
(i) the times at which each person enters and leaves the lock;
(ii) the pressures at the times of entering and leaving;
(iii) the times taken to decompress each person.

Air supply
10.2.15. Compressed-air installations should be provided with air-supply plant capable of supplying any
working chamber with sufficient fresh air at the pressure in the chamber, and not less than 1.0 m3 per
minute per person in the chamber.

10.2.16. Pollution of the air supplied to the caisson from a compressor or any other source should be
prevented.

10.2.17. All air lines should be in duplicate and be equipped with non-return valves.

10.2.18. There should be a sufficient reserve of air in compressor installations to allow a safe margin for
breakdowns or repairs.

10.2.19. There should be a stand-by or reserve compressor for emergencies.

10.2.20. Two power units supplied from independent sources should be provided for each compressor.

Signalling
10.2.21. Reliable means of communication such as bells, whistles or telephones should be maintained at all
times between the working chamber and surface installations.

10.2.22. The code of signals should be conspicuously displayed in convenient positions at workplaces.

Lighting
10.2.23. All locks and working chambers should be provided with adequate electric lighting.

10.2.24. There should be two separate lighting installations supplied from independent sources of current.

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10.3. Work in tunnels in compressed air

10.3.1. The bulkhead separating the working chamber from areas of lower pressure should be of sufficient
strength to withstand safely the maximum pressure to which it will be subjected.

10.3.2. When necessary to prevent danger in the event of rapid flooding, the bulkhead should be
sufficiently close to the face or shield to allow the workers to escape in an emergency.

10.3.3. Safety bulkheads should be provided within 60 m of the working face in all tunnels having a danger
of inrush of water or material.

10.3.4. If the compressor is driven by electricity, stand-by compressor plant should be provided capable of
maintaining at least 50 per cent of the air supply if the electrical power fails.

10.3.5. If the compressors are not driven by electricity, not more than half of them should be driven from
the same source.

10.3.6. Each air line should be equipped with an adequate air receiver, a stop valve, a pressure-reducing
valve, and a non-return valve close to the man locks.

10.3.7. The air supply should be provided by duplicate air lines between the air receiver and the working
chamber.

10.3.8. An adjustable safety valve should be fitted on the outside of the bulkhead to a separate pipe leading
from the working chamber through the bulkhead to the outside air.

10.3.9. Where practicable, in addition to a suitable man lock and a material lock, tunnels should have an
emergency lock capable of holding an entire heading shift.

10.3.10. A suitable medical lock should be provided when work in compressed air is carried on in tunnels
at pressures exceeding 1 bar.

10.3.11. In all tunnels 5 m or over in diameter or height a well-guarded overhead gangway should be
provided from the working surface to the nearest airlock with an overhead clearance of at least 1.80 m.

10.3.12. Every tunnel should be provided with a water line extending into the working chamber to within
30 m of the working face, sufficient hose connections at suitable places, and sufficient hose.

10.3.13. When blasting work is being done in compressed air in tunnels:

a) no worker other than the blaster and his assistants should be in a working chamber while boreholes are
being loaded;
b) no worker should re-enter a working chamber after a blast until the fumes have cleared.

11. Structural frames, formwork and concrete work

11.1. General provisions
11.1.1. The erection or dismantling of buildings, structures, civil engineering works, formwork, falsework
and shoring should be carried out by trained workers only under the supervision of a competent person.

11.1.2. Adequate precautions should be taken to guard against danger to workers arising from any
temporary state of weakness or instability of a structure.

11.1.3. Formwork, falsework and shoring should be so designed, constructed and maintained that it will
safely support all loads that may be imposed on it.

11.1.4. Formwork should be so designed and erected that working platforms, means of access, bracing and
means of handling and stabilising are easily fixed to the formwork structure.

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11.2. Erection and dismantling of steel and prefabricated structures

11.2.1. As far as practicable the safety of workers employed on the erection and dismantling of steel and
prefabricated structures should be ensured by appropriate means, such as provision and use of:
a) ladders, gangways or fixed platforms;
b) platforms, buckets, boatswain's chairs or other appropriate means suspended from lifting appliances;
c) safety harnesses and lifelines, catch nets or catch platforms;
d) power-operated mobile working platforms.

11.2.2. Steel and prefabricated structures should be so designed and made that they can be safely
transported and erected, and if required by national laws and regulations each unit should be clearly
marked with its own weight.

11.2.3. In addition to the need for the stability of the part when erected, when necessary to prevent danger
the design should explicitly take into account:
a) the conditions and methods of attachment in the operations of transport, storing and temporary support
during erection or dismantling as applicable;
b) methods for the provision of safeguards such as railings and working platforms, and, when necessary,
for mounting them easily on the structural steel or prefabricated parts.

11.2.4. The hooks and other devices built in or provided on the structural steel or prefabricated parts that
are required for lifting and transporting them should be so shaped, dimensioned and positioned as:
a) to withstand with a sufficient margin the stresses to which they are subjected;
b) not to set up stresses in the part that could cause failures, or stresses in the structure itself not provided
for in the plans, and be designed to permit easy release from the lifting appliance. Lifting points for
floor and staircase units should be located (recessed if necessary) so that they do not protrude above
the surface;
c) to avoid imbalance or distortion of the lifted load.

11.2.5. Prefabricated parts made of concrete should not be stripped or erected before the concrete has set
and hardened sufficiently to the extent provided for in the plans, and before use should be examined for
any sign of damage which may indicate weakness.

11.2.6. Store places should be so constructed that:

a) there is no risk of structural steel or prefabricated parts falling or overturning;
b) storage conditions generally ensure stability and avoid damage having regard to the method of storage
and atmospheric conditions;
c) racks are set on firm ground and designed so that units cannot move accidentally.

11.2.7. While they are being stored, transported, raised or set down, structural steel or prefabricated parts
should not be subjected to stresses prejudicial to their stability.

11.2.8. Every lifting appliance should:

a) be suitable for the operations and not be capable of accidental disconnection;
b) be approved by a competent person, or tested under a proof load 20 per cent heavier than the heaviest
prefabricated part.

11.2.9. Lifting hooks should be of the self-closing type or of a safety type and should have the maximum
permissible load marked on them.

11.2.10. Tongs, clamps and other appliances for lifting structural steel and prefabricated parts should:
a) be of such shape and dimensions as to ensure a secure grip without damaging the part;
b) be marked with the maximum permissible load in the most unfavourable lifting conditions.

11.2.11. Structural steel or prefabricated parts should be lifted by methods or appliances that prevent them
from spinning accidentally.

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11.2.12. When necessary to prevent danger, before they are raised from the ground, structural steel or
prefabricated parts should be provided with safety devices such as railings and working platforms to
prevent falls of persons.

11.2.13. While structural steel or prefabricated parts are being erected the workers should be provided with
and use appliances for guiding them as they are being lifted and set down, so as to avoid crushing of hands
and to facilitate the operations.

11.2.14. Before it is released from the lifting appliance a raised structural steel or prefabricated part should
be so secured and wall units so propped that their stability cannot be imperilled, even by external agencies
such as wind and passing loads, in accordance with national laws and regulations.

11.2.15. At workplaces adequate instruction should be given to the workers on the methods, arrangements
and means required for the storage, transport, lifting and erection of structural steel or prefabricated parts,
and before erection starts a meeting of all those responsible should be held to discuss and confirm the
requirements for safe erection.

11.2.16. During transport, attachments such as slings and stirrups mounted on structural steel or
prefabricated parts should be securely fastened to the parts.

11.2.17. Structural steel or prefabricated parts should be so transported that the conditions do not affect the
stability of the parts or the means of transport result in jolting, vibration or stresses due to blows, or loads
of material or persons.

11.2.18. When the method of erection does not permit the provision of other means of protection against
falls of persons, the workplaces should be protected by guard-rails, and if appropriate by toe-boards.

11.2.19. When adverse weather conditions such as snow, ice and wind or reduced visibility entail risks of
accidents the work should be carried on with particular care, or, if necessary, interrupted.

11.2.20. Structures should not be worked on during violent storms or high winds, or when they are covered
with ice or snow, or are slippery from other causes.

11.2.21. If necessary to prevent danger, structural steel parts should be equipped with attachments for
suspended scaffolds, lifelines or safety harnesses and other means of protection.

11.2.22. The risks of falling, to which workers moving on high or sloping girders are exposed, should be
limited by all means of adequate collective protection or, where this is impossible, by the use of a safety
harness that is well secured to a sufficiently strong support.

11.2.23. Structural steel parts that are to be erected at a great height should as far as practicable be
assembled on the ground.

11.2.24. When structural steel or prefabricated parts are being erected, a sufficiently extended area
underneath the workplace should be barricaded or guarded.

11.2.25. Steel trusses that are being erected should be adequately shored, braced or guyed until they are
permanently secured in position.

11.2.26. No load-bearing structural member should be dangerously weakened by cutting, holing or other
means.

11.2.27. Structural members should not be forced into place by the hoisting machine while any worker is in
such a position that he could be injured by the operation.

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11.2.28. Open-web steel joists that are hoisted singly should be directly placed in position and secured
against dislodgement.

11.3. Cast-in-situ concrete structures

11.3.1. The construction of cast-in-situ, large span and multi-storey concrete structures should be based on
plans that:
a) include specifications of the steel, concrete and other material to be used, including technical methods
for safe placing and handling;
b) indicate clearly the position and arrangement of reinforcements in structural elements;
c) provide, if appropriate, calculations of the load-bearing capacity of the structure.

11.3.2. During the construction of cast-in-situ, large span and multi-storey concrete structures, a daily
record should be kept of the progress of the work, including indications of all data which could affect the
curing of the concrete.

11.3.3. Precise procedures for all stages of erection should be prepared and a competent person appointed
to co-ordinate the work and check procedures.

11.3.4. During pouring, shuttering and its supports should be continuously watched for defects.

11.3.5. Loads should not be dumped or placed on setting concrete.

11.4. Provision of temporary floors

11.4.1. All tiers of open joists and girders on which workers are employed should be securely covered with
close planking or any other effective covering until the permanent floor is installed,

11.4.2. Parts of the protection should only be removed to the extent required for the continuation of the
work.

11.4.3. In halls and similar buildings without intermediate walls, columns or chimneys, close planking may
be replaced by working platforms with adequate safeguards.

11.4.4. In buildings or structures of skeleton steel construction, permanent floor filling should as far as
practicable be installed as the erection progresses.

11.5. Formwork
11.5.1. All formwork should be properly designed.

11.5.2. Clear and concise procedures to cover all stages of work should be prepared.

11.5.3. A competent person should be appointed to coordinate the work and check that the procedures are
being followed.

11.5.4. No changes should be made without consulting the co-coordinator.

11.5.5. All materials and scaffolding should be carefully examined and checked with the drawings before
being taken into use.

11.5.6. The foundations should be checked to see that the excavated ground conditions are as the original
soil report suggested.

11.5.7. Shuttering should be examined, erected and dismantled under the supervision of qualified and
experienced persons and, as far as practicable, by workers familiar with the work.

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11.5.8. The necessary information for the erection of shuttering, including particulars of the spacing of
stringers and props to stringers, should be provided for the workers in the form of sketches or scale
drawings.

11.5.9. Lumber and supports for shuttering (forms) should be adequate, having regard to the loads to be
borne, spans, setting temperature and rate of pour. Where necessary to prevent danger, adequate shoring
should be provided to support slabs and beams as a protection against superimposed loads.

11.5.10. All adjustable shoring should be locked in position when adjusted.

11.5.11. Shoring should be so arranged that when it is being removed sufficient props can be left in place
to afford the support necessary to prevent danger.

11.5.12. Shoring should be adequately protected from damage from moving vehicles, swinging loads, etc.

11.5.13. Shoring should be left in place until the concrete has acquired sufficient strength to support safely
not only its own weight but also any imposed loads. It should not be removed until authorisation has been
given by a competent person.

11.5.14. Shoring should be adequately braced or tied together to prevent deformation or displacement.

11.5.15. To prevent danger from falling parts when shuttering is being taken down, the shuttering should as
far as practicable be taken down whole, or else remaining parts should be supported.

11.5.16. Mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic lifting appliances for handling forms should be provided with
automatic holding devices to prevent danger if the power of the lifting mechanism fails.

11.5.17. Vacuum-lifting appliances should only be applied to smooth, clean surfaces.

11.5.18. Vacuum-lifting devices should be provided with an automatic cut-off to prevent loss of suction in
the event of a power or equipment failure.

12. Pile-driving
12.1. General provisions
12.1.1. All pile-driving equipment should be of good design and construction taking into account as far as
possible ergonomic principles, and be properly maintained.

12.1.2. Pile-driving should be carried out only under the supervision of a competent person.

12.1.3. Prior to piling, all underground services in the area should be located and rendered safe.

12.1.4. Pile-drivers should be firmly supported on heavy timber sills, concrete beds or other secure
foundation.

12.1.5. If necessary to prevent danger, pile-drivers should be adequately guyed.

12.1.6. Precautions should be taken if it is necessary to erect pile-drivers in dangerous proximity to

electrical conductors to ensure they are first made dead.

12.1.7. If two pile-drivers are erected at one place they should be separated by a distance at least equal to
the longest leg.

12.1.8. When leads have to be inclined:

a) they should be adequately counterbalanced;
b) the tilting device should be secured against slipping.

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12.1.9. The hoses of steam and air hammers should be securely lashed to the hammer so as to prevent them
from whipping if a connection breaks.

12.1.10. Adequate precautions should be taken to prevent a pile-driver from overturning.

12.1.11. Adequate precautions should be taken, by providing stirrups or by other effective means, to
prevent the rope from coming out of the top pulley or wheel.

12.1.12. Adequate precautions should be taken to prevent the hammer from missing the pile.

12.1.13. If necessary to prevent danger, long piles and heavy sheet piling should be secured against falling.

12.2. Inspection and maintenance of pile-driving equipment

12.2.1. Pile-driving equipment should not be taken into use until it has been inspected and found to be safe.

12.2.2. Pile-driving equipment in use should be inspected at suitable intervals.

12.2.3. Pile lines and pulley blocks should be inspected before the beginning of each shift.

12.3. Operation of pile-driving equipment

12.3.1. Only competent persons should operate pile-drivers.

12.3.2. Pile-driving operations should be governed by suitable signals.

12.3.3. Workers employed in the vicinity of pile-drivers should wear ear protection and safety helmets or
hard hats.

12.3.4. As far as practicable, piles should be prepared at a distance at least equal to twice the length of the
longest pile from the pile-driver.

12.3.5. When piles are driven at an inclination to the vertical, if necessary to prevent danger, they should
rest in a guide.

12.3.6. When a pile-driver is not in use, the hammer should be blocked at the bottom of the leads.

12.4. Floating pile-drivers

12.4.1. When pile-drivers are working over water, all relevant precautions for work over water should be
taken in accordance with this code and in particular a suitable boat should be kept readily available at all
times.

12.4.2. All members of floating pile-driver crews should be trained to handle boats.

12.4.3. Floating pile-drivers should be provided with a whistle, siren, horn or other effective signalling
equipment.

12.4.4. Floating pile-drivers should be provided with adequate fire-fighting equipment.

12.4.5. The weight of machinery on a floating pile-driver should be evenly distributed so that the deck of
the installation is horizontal.

12.4.6. Steel pile-driver hulls should be divided into watertight compartments.

12.4.7. Watertight compartments should be provided with siphons for the removal of water seepage.

12.4.8. Deck hatches should have firmly fastened covers that fit flush with the deck.

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12.4.9. Sufficient sheaves should be provided on deck to enable the pile-driver to be safely manoeuvred in
any direction and safely secured in position.

12.4.10. Regular head counts should be taken of the pile-driving crew members.

12.5. Sheet piling

12.5.1. If necessary to prevent danger from wind or other sources, handlines should be used to control the
load.

12.5.2. Where practicable, a "gate support system" made up from timber "H" frames should be considered.
If the gates are over 2 m high they should not be used as a working platform unless fitted with guard-rails,
toe-boards and ladder access.

12.5.3. Remote release shackles should be used where possible. The length of the operating rope should be
less than the length of the pile and the rope should be secured around the pile to prevent snagging, or being
caught in the wind and becoming inaccessible.

12.5.4. If piles are too heavy for a remote release shackle and work cannot be carried out safely from a
ladder, a lifting cage should be provided to gain access for unscrewing the shackle.

12.5.5. Long sheet piles should be pitched with a pile spreader. When this is not possible, a pile-pitching
cage should be used which should hang from the adjacent pile. The operatives should be provided with a
safety harness to be attached to the adjacent pile.

12.5.6. Workers handling sheets should wear gloves.

12.5.7. While it is being weighted with stones, etc., sheet piling should be securely moored.

12.5.8. Adequate pumping facilities should be available at cofferdams to keep them clear of water.

13. Work over water

13.1. General provisions
13.1.1. Where work is done over or in close proximity to water provision should be made for:
a) preventing workers from falling into water;
b) the rescue of workers in danger of drowning;
c) safe and sufficient transport.

13.1.2. National laws or regulations should lay down provisions for the safe performance of work over or
in close proximity to water which should include, where appropriate, the provision and use of suitable and
adequate:
a) fencing, safety nets and safety harnesses;
b) lifebuoys, life jackets and manned boats (motor-driven if necessary);
c) protection against such hazards as reptiles and other animals.

13.1.3. Gangways, pontoons, bridges, footbridges and other walkways or workplaces over water should:
a) possess adequate strength and stability;
b) be sufficiently wide to allow safe movement of workers;
c) have level surfaces free from protruding knots, bark, nails, bolts and other tripping hazards;
d) if necessary to prevent danger, be boarded over;
e) if necessary to prevent danger, be adequately lit when natural lighting is insufficient;
f) be provided at appropriate points with sufficient lifebuoys, lifelines and other lifesaving equipment;
g) where practicable and necessary to prevent danger, be provided with toe-boards, guard-rails, hand
ropes or the like;
h) be kept clear of tackle, tools and other obstructions;
i) be strewn with sand, ashes or the like when made slippery by oil or snow;

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j) be secured to prevent dislodgement by rising water or high winds, especially in the case of decking
boards on gangways and platforms erected above tidal waters;
k) if necessary, be equipped with ladders which should be sound, of sufficient strength and length and be
securely lashed to prevent slipping. Where vertical permanent ladders are provided in plant over water
they should be fitted with safety hoops;
l) where appropriate, possess adequate buoyancy.

13.1.4. Floating structures should, if necessary to ensure protection, be provided with shelters.

13.1.5. Floating operational equipment should be provided with sufficient and suitable rescue equipment
such as lifelines, gaffs and ring buoys.

13.1.6. Where used, rafts should:

a) be strong enough to support safely the maximum loads that they will have to carry;
b) be securely moored;
c) have safe means of access.

13.1.7. Iron decks should be studded or have some other type of non-slip surface.

13.1.8. As far as practicable, all deck openings including those for buckets should be fenced.

13.1.9. A safe walkway should be provided on all floating pipelines.

13.1.10. No person should enter a hydraulic dredge gear room without first informing the leverman and
without being accompanied by a second person.

13.1.11. Hoist lines, drag lines, buckets, cutter heads and bridles should be inspected daily.

13.1.12. Workers should be embarked and disembarked only at suitable and safe landing places.

13.1.13. Regular head counts should be taken of workers involved in such operations.

13.2. Boats
13.2.1. Boats used to transport workers by water should comply with requirements which should be laid
down by the competent authority.

13.2.2. Boats used to transport workers should be manned by an adequate and experienced crew.

13.2.3. The maximum number of persons transported in a boat should not be greater than safety allows and
this number should be displayed in a conspicuous place.

13.2.4. Suitable and adequate life-saving appliances should be provided on boats and be properly placed
and maintained.

13.2.5. Tow-boats should have a device by which the tow-rope can be quickly released.

13.2.6. Power-driven boats should carry suitable fire extinguishers.

13.2.7. Row-boats should carry a spare set of oars.

13.2.8. Rescue boats should be properly constructed and of sufficient length and beam to afford reasonable
stability. For work in tidal waters or fast flowing rivers a power-driven craft should be provided, with a
fixed self-starting device on the motor. Engines on powered craft when not patrolling should be run several
times a day to ensure full efficiency.

13.3. Rescue and emergency procedures

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13.3.1. Persons who work over water should be provided with some form of buoyancy aid. Life-jackets
should provide sufficient freedom of movement, have sufficient buoyancy to bring persons to the surface
and keep them afloat face upwards, be easily secured to the body, be readily visible, not be prone to
snagging under water and have, when necessary, clip-on self-igniting lights.

13.3.2. Operatives should not work alone on or above water.

13.3.3. Each worker should be trained in the procedure to be followed in the event of an emergency.

14. Demolition
14.1. General provisions
14.1.1. When the demolition of any building or structure might present danger to workers or to the public:
a) appropriate precautions, methods and procedures should be adopted, including those for the disposal
of waste or residues, in accordance with national laws or regulations;
b) the work should be planned and undertaken only under the supervision of a competent person.

14.1.2. Before demolition operations begin:

a) structural details and builders' drawings should be obtained wherever possible;
b) wherever possible, details of the previous use should be obtained to identify any possible
contamination and hazards from chemicals, flammables, etc.;
c) an initial survey should be carried out to identify any structural problems and risks associated with
flammable substances and substances hazardous to health. The survey should note the type of ground
on which the structure is erected, the condition of the roof trusses, the type of framing used in framed
structures and the load-bearing walls;
d) premises such as hospitals, telephone exchanges and industrial premises containing equipment
sensitive to vibration and dust and all premises sensitive to noise should be located;
e) a method of demolition should be formulated after the survey and recorded in a method statement
having taken all the various considerations into account and identifying the problems and their
solutions;
f) a building should be checked and it should be verified that it is vacant.

14.1.3. All electric, gas, water and steam service lines should be shut off and, as necessary, capped or
otherwise controlled at or outside the construction site before work commences.

14.1.4. If it is necessary to maintain any electric power, water or other services during demolition
operations, they should be adequately protected against damage.

14.1.5. As far as practicable, the danger zone round the building should be adequately fenced off and
signposted. To protect the public a fence 2 m high should be erected enclosing the demolition operations
and the access gates should be secured outside working hours.

14.1.6. Demolition operations should only be carried out by competent workers.

14.1.7. The fabric of buildings contaminated with substances hazardous to health should be
decontaminated and where necessary appropriate protective clothing and suitable respiratory protective
equipment should be provided and worn.

14.1.8. Where plant has contained flammable materials, special precautions should be taken to avoid fire
and explosion.

14.1.9. The plant to be demolished should be isolated from all other plant that may contain flammable
materials. Any residual flammable material in the plant should be rendered safe by, for example, cleaning,
purging or the application of an inert atmosphere as appropriate.

14.1.10. Care should be taken not to demolish any parts which would destroy the stability of other parts.

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14.1.11. Demolition activities should not be continued under climatic conditions such as high winds, which
could cause the collapse of already weakened structures.

14.1.12. When necessary to prevent danger, parts of structures should be adequately shored, braced or
otherwise supported.

14.1.13. Structures should not be left in a condition in which they could be brought down by wind pressure
or vibration.

14.1.14. Where necessary to keep down dust, buildings being demolished should be sprayed with water at
suitable intervals.

14.1.15. Foundation walls serving as retaining walls to support earth or adjoining structures should not be
demolished until the adjoining structure has been underpinned or braced, and the earth removed or
supported by sheet piling or sheathing.

14.1.16. Where a deliberate controlled collapse technique is to be used, expert engineering advice should
be obtained, and:
a) it should only be used where the whole structure is to come down because it relies on the removal of
key structural members to effect a total collapse;
b) it should only be used on sites that are fairly level and where there is enough surrounding space for all
operatives and equipment to be withdrawn to a safe distance.

14.1.17. Buildings and structures which are not carrying their design loads may be pre-weakened prior to a
deliberate collapse, but in such cases:
a) the pre-weakening should be carefully planned so that, despite the removal of redundant members and
the partial cutting of load-bearing members, the structure should have sufficient strength to resist wind
loads or impact loads until such time as a deliberate collapse is achieved;
b) the dead load should be reduced systematically by the removal of surplus material, machinery,
cladding, walls and parts of floors before work begins on the structural frame.

14.1.18. Where explosives are used to demolish key members, the blast protection and safe distances
should be agreed in advance. The work should only be undertaken by personnel experienced in the
controlled application of explosives in accordance with national laws and regulations.

14.1.19. The shot-firers should establish the area at risk to enable the area to be appropriately cleared or
evacuated, if necessary. Blast protection should be of a high standard but should not be considered as an
alternative to defining the area likely to be affected.

14.1.20. When equipment such as power shovels and bulldozers are used for demolition, due consideration
should be given to the nature of the building or structure, its dimensions, as well as to the power of the
equipment being used.

14.1.21. If a swinging weight is used for demolition, a safety zone having a width of at least one-and-a-half
times the height of the building or structure should be maintained around the points of impact.

14.1.22. Swinging weights should be so controlled that they cannot swing against any structure other than
the one being demolished.

14.1.23. If a clamshell bucket is used for demolition, a safety zone extending 8 m from the line of travel of
the bucket should be maintained.

14.1.24. Where necessary during the demolition of buildings or other structures, appropriate catch
platforms capable of withstanding safely a live load of 6.0 kN/m2 and at least 1.5 m wide should be
provided along the outside of exterior walls so as to prevent danger from falling objects.

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14.2. Demolition of walls

14.2.1. Walls should be demolished storey by storey beginning at the roof and working downwards.

14.2.2. Where necessary, unsupported walls should be prevented from falling by means such as shoring
and ties.

14.3. Demolition of floors

14.3.1. When necessary to prevent danger, workers demolishing floors should be provided with planking
or walkways on which to stand or move.

14.3.2. Openings through which material is dropped should be adequately fenced or barricaded to prevent
danger.

14.3.3. All work above each tier of floor beams should be completed before the safety of the tier supports
is impaired.

14.4. Demolition of structural steelwork

14.4.1. All practicable precautions should be taken to prevent danger from any sudden twist, spring or
collapse of steelwork, ironwork or reinforced concrete when it is cut or released.

14.4.2. Steel construction should be demolished tier by tier.

14.4.3. Structural steel parts should be lowered and not dropped from a height.

14.5. Demolition of tall chimneys

14.5.1. Tall chimneys should not be demolished by blasting or overturning unless a protected area of
adequate dimensions can be established in which the chimney can fall safely.

14.5.2. Tall chimneys should only be demolished by competent persons under constant competent
supervision.

14.5.3. Workers should not stand on top of the chimney wall.

14.5.4. Material thrown down should only be removed during breaks in the work or under controlled
conditions.

14.6. Use and removal of asbestos and materials and articles containing asbestos
14.6.1. Use and removal of asbestos-containing materials and articles such as asbestos cement sheets or
asbestos insulation present particular health problems as they often involve dismantling or breaking large
quantities of friable materials. The work should be performed in accordance with the relevant provisions of
the ILO code of practice on Safety in the use of asbestos, in particular the provisions of Chapter 18 on
construction, demolition and alteration work.

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15. Electricity
15.1. General provisions
15.1.1. All electrical equipment and installations should be constructed, installed and maintained by a
competent person, and so used as to guard against danger.

15.1.2. Before construction is commenced and during the progress thereof, adequate steps should be taken
to ascertain the presence of and to guard against danger to workers from any live electrical cable or
apparatus which is under, over or on the site.

15.1.3. The laying and maintenance of electrical cables and apparatus on construction sites should be
governed by national laws and regulations.

15.1.4. All parts of electrical installations should be of adequate size and characteristics for the power
requirements and work they may be called upon to do and in particular they should:
a) be of adequate mechanical strength to withstand working conditions in construction operations;
b) not be liable to damage by water, dust or electrical, thermal or chemical action to which they may be
subjected in construction operations.

15.1.5. All parts of electrical installations should be so constructed, installed and maintained as to prevent
danger of electric shock, fire and external explosion.

15.1.6. The electrical distribution at each site should be via an isolator which cuts off current from all
conductors, is readily accessible and can be locked in the "off" position but not locked in the "on" position.

15.1.7. The power supply to all electrical equipment should be provided with means of cutting off current
from all conductors in an emergency.

15.1.8. All electrical appliances and outlets should be clearly marked to indicate their purpose and voltage.

15.1.9. When the layout of an installation cannot be clearly recognised, the circuits and appliances should
be identified by labels or other effective means.

15.1.10. Circuits and appliances carrying different voltages in the same installation should be clearly
distinguished by conspicuous means such as coloured markings.

15.1.11. Adequate precautions should be taken to prevent installations from receiving current at a higher
voltage from other installations.

15.1.12. Where necessary to prevent danger, installations should be protected against lightning.

15.1.13. Lines for signalling and telecommunication systems should not be laid on the same supports as
medium- and high-voltage lines.

15.1.14. Only flameproof equipment and conductors should be installed in explosive atmospheres or in
store places for explosives or flammable liquids.

15.1.15. A notice or notices should be kept exhibited at suitable places:

a) prohibiting unauthorised persons from entering electrical equipment rooms or from handling or
interfering with electrical apparatus;
b) containing directions as to procedures in case of fire, rescue of persons in contact with live conductors
and the restoration of persons suffering from electric shock;
c) specifying the person to be notified in case of electrical accident or dangerous occurrence, and
indicating how to communicate with him.

15.1.16. Suitable warnings should be displayed at all places where contact with or proximity to electrical
equipment can cause danger.

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15.1.17. Persons having to operate electrical equipment should be fully instructed as to any possible
dangers of the equipment concerned.

15.2. Inspection and maintenance

15.2.1. All electrical equipment should be inspected before it is taken into use to ensure that it is suitable
for its proposed use.

15.2.2. At the beginning of every shift, the person using the electrical equipment should make a careful
external examination of the equipment and conductors, especially the flexible cables.

15.2.3. Apart from some exceptional cases, work on or near live parts of electrical equipment should be
forbidden.

15.2.4. Before any work is begun on conductors or equipment that do not have to remain live:
a) the current should be switched off by a responsible person;
b) adequate precautions should be taken to prevent the current from being switched on again;
c) the conductors or the equipment should be tested to ascertain that they are dead;
d) the conductors and equipment should be earthed and short-circuited;
e) neighbouring live parts should be adequately protected against accidental contact.

15.2.5. After work has been done on conductors and equipment, the current should only be switched on
again on the orders of a competent person after the earthing and short-circuiting have been removed and
the workplace reported safe.

15.2.6. Electricians should be supplied with sufficient adequate tools, and personal protective equipment
such as rubber gloves, mats and blankets.

15.2.7. All conductors and equipment should be considered to be live unless there is certain proof of the
contrary.

15.2.8. When work has to be done in dangerous proximity to live parts the current should be cut off. If for
operational reasons this is not possible, the live parts should be fenced off or enclosed by qualified staff
from the power station concerned.

15.3. Testing
15.3.1. Electrical installations should be inspected and tested and the results recorded in accordance with
national laws or regulations.

15.3.2. Periodic testing of the efficiency of the earth leakage protective devices should be carried out.

15.3.3. Particular attention should be paid to the earthing of apparatus, the continuity of protective
conductors, polarity and insulation resistance, protection against mechanical damage and condition of
connections at points of entry.

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16. Explosives
16.1. General provisions
16.1.1. Explosives should not be stored, transported, handled or used except:
a) under conditions prescribed by national laws or regulations;
b) by a competent person, who should take all necessary steps to ensure that workers and other persons
are not exposed to risk of injury.

16.1.2. Before explosives are used for blasting on a site, an agreed system of work should be prepared and
the responsibilities of persons involved detailed in writing.

16.1.3. Blasting caps, safety fuses, wiring and other blasting equipment should conform to specifications
laid down in national laws or regulations.

16.1.4. Dynamite should not be removed from its original wrapper until it is being loaded into boreholes.

16.1.5. As far as practicable, blasting should be done off shift or during breaks in the work.

16.1.6. As far as practicable, blasting above ground should be done in daylight.

16.1.7. If blasting above ground has to be done during darkness, roadways and pathways should be
adequately lit.

16.1.8. If blasting can endanger workers in another enterprise:

a) blasting times should be agreed between the two enterprises;
b) shots should not be fired until a warning has been given to the other enterprise and acknowledged by
it.

16.1.9. Loaded boreholes should not be left unattended after the end of the shift.

16.1.10. At an appropriate time before the final blasting warning, workers in the area should be removed to
a designated safe place.

16.1.11. An unmistakable, audible, final warning should be sounded one minute prior to the detonation of
explosives; after completion, when the person in charge has established that safe conditions prevail, an "all
clear" should be sounded.

16.1.12. To prevent persons entering any danger zone during blasting operations:
a) look-outs should be posted around the area of operations;
b) warning flags should be flown;
c) conspicuous notices should be posted at points around the area of operations.

16.1.13. Before a borehole is loaded all workers not employed in the blasting operation should withdraw to
a safe place.

16.1.14. Smoking and open flames should not be allowed in the loading area.

16.2. Transport, storage and handling

16.2.1. All explosives supplied to and issued from a magazine should be accounted for and recorded, and
unused explosives should be returned to the same magazine on the completion of the operation for which
they were drawn.

16.2.2. Detonators should be stored or transported separately from the explosives.

16.2.3. Workers storing, transporting or handling explosives or travelling on vehicles carrying explosives
should not smoke or carry open lights.

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16.2.4. Road and rail vehicles used to transport explosives should:

a) be in good condition and running order;
b) have a tight wooden or non-sparking metal floor;
c) have sides and ends high enough to prevent the explosives from falling out;
d) in the case of road vehicles, carry at least two suitable fire extinguishers;
e) be plainly marked by a red flag, lettering or otherwise to indicate that they are carrying explosives.

16.2.5. Explosives and detonators should be transported separately from the magazine to the workplace in
their original containers or in special closed containers of non-sparking metal.

16.2.6. Different types of explosives should not be transported in the same container.

16.2.7. Containers should be marked to show the type of explosive kept in them.

16.2.8. Explosives should be permanently stored only in magazines which should:

a) be at a safe distance from occupied buildings or areas;
b) be substantially constructed, bulletproof and fire-resistant;
c) be clean, dry, well-ventilated, cool, and protected against frost;
d) be kept securely locked.

16.2.9. Only flameproof electric lighting equipment should be allowed in explosives magazines.

16.2.10. Flammable substances or sparking metal objects should not be stored or used in explosives
magazines.

16.2.11. In explosives magazines or in a restricted and clearly marked zone around them:
a) smoking, matches, open lights or open flames should not be permitted;
b) firearms should not be discharged;
c) combustible debris such as grass, leaves or brushwood should not be allowed to accumulate.

16.2.12. Explosives magazines should not be opened during or on the approach of an electrical storm.

16.2.13. If quantities of explosives and detonators have to be provisionally stored outside the main
magazine, special accommodation should be provided, such as a special room, a portable magazine or a
suitable container.

16.2.14. Overshoes should be kept at each store and worn by people who have to enter them.

16.2.15. Only persons authorised to handle explosives should have the keys of magazines, storerooms or
cases for explosives.

16.2.16. Containers of explosives should not be opened with sparking tools, provided that metal slitters
may be used to open cartons or similar containers.

16.2.17. Explosives should be protected from impact.

16.2.18. Explosives should not be carried in pockets or elsewhere on the person.

16.2.19. As soon as the approach of an electrical storm is detected, all workers should be removed from the
area where explosives are stored or are in use.

16.2.20. No explosives should be left lying about without supervision.

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16.3. Disposal of explosives

16.3.1. Explosives should not be destroyed except in conformity with the manufacturers' instructions.

16.3.2. No material used in the wrapping or packing of explosives should be burned in a stove, fireplace or
other confined space.

16.3.3. No person should remain within 30 m of a fire in which wrapping or packing material is burned.

17. Health hazards, first aid and occupational health services

17.1. General requirements
17.1.1. For works which by their very nature expose workers to hazards arising from the use or presence of
chemical, physical or biological agents and climatic conditions, appropriate preventive measures should be
taken to avoid any danger to the safety and health of workers.

17.1.2. The preventive measures referred to in paragraph 17.1.1 should place emphasis on the need to
eliminate or reduce the hazard at the source and in particular should require:
a) the replacement of hazardous substances, equipment or processes with substances, equipment or
processes less harmful or hazardous to workers' safety and health;
b) the reduction of noise and vibration caused by equipment, machinery, installations and tools;
c) control of the release of harmful agents or chemicals into the working environment;
d) training in manual lifting;
e) proper working postures when workers are required to work in fixed working positions or when they
are carrying out repetitive work;
f) appropriate protection against climatic conditions likely to jeopardise health;
g) where the foregoing measures are inappropriate:
i) instituting work practices which will eliminate or minimise danger to safety and health;
ii) supplying and requiring the use of personal protective equipment and clothing.

17.1.3. The employer should make arrangements for the identification and assessment by competent
persons of health hazards presented by the use of different operations, plant, machinery, equipment,
substances and radiations at the construction site and take appropriate preventive or control measures
against the identified health risks in conformity with the national laws and regulations.

17.2. Occupational health services

17.2.1. The employer should provide for the setting up of or access to an occupational health service
consistent with the objectives and principles of the Occupational Health Services Convention, 1985 (No.
161) and Recommendation (No. 171).

17.2.2. All workers should be subject to health surveillance.

17.2.3. Monitoring and control of the working environment and planning of safety and health precautions
should be performed as prescribed by national laws and regulations.

17.2.4. A multiplicity of health hazards are present in construction work and every effort should be made
to promote awareness of this fact and of the need to safeguard health.

17.2.5. Whenever new products, equipment and working methods are introduced, special attention should
be paid to informing and training workers with respect to the implications for safety and health.

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17.3. First aid

17.3.1. The employer should be responsible for ensuring that first aid, including the provision of trained
personnel, is available. Arrangements should be made for ensuring the removal for medical attention of
workers who have suffered an accident or sudden illness.

17.3.2. The manner in which first-aid facilities and personnel are to be provided should be prescribed by
national laws or regulations, and drawn up after consulting the competent health authority and the most
representative organisations of employers and workers concerned.

17.3.3. Where the work involves risk of drowning, asphyxiation or electric shock, first-aid personnel
should be proficient in the use of resuscitation and other life-saving techniques and in rescue procedures.

17.3.4. Suitable rescue and resuscitation equipment, as required, including stretchers should be kept readily
available at the construction site.

17.3.5. First-aid kits or boxes, as appropriate, should be provided at the workplaces, including isolated
locations such as maintenance gangs, and on motor vehicles, locomotives, boats and floating equipment,
and be protected against contamination by dust, moisture, etc.

17.3.6. First-aid kits and boxes should not contain anything besides material for first aid in emergencies.

17.3.7. First-aid kits and boxes should contain simple and clear instructions to be followed, be kept under
the charge of a responsible person qualified to render first aid and be regularly inspected and kept properly
stocked.

17.3.8. If a minimum number of workers as prescribed is employed in any shift, at least one suitably
equipped first-aid room or station under the charge of qualified first-aid personnel or a nurse should be
provided at a readily accessible place for treatment of minor injuries and as a rest place for seriously sick
or injured workers.

17.4. Hazardous substances

17.4.1. An information system should be set up by the competent authority, using the results of
international scientific research, to provide information for clients, architects, contractors, employers' and
workers' representatives on the health risks associated with the hazardous substances used in the
construction industry.

17.4.2. National laws and regulations should require that the manufacturers, importers and suppliers of
hazardous products used in the construction industry should provide information with the products, in the
appropriate language, on associated health risks and on the precautions to be taken.

17.4.3. In the use of materials that contain hazardous substances and in the removal and disposal of waste,
the health of workers and of the public and the preservation of the environment should be safeguarded as
prescribed by national laws and regulations.

17.4.4. Hazardous substances should be clearly labelled giving their relevant characteristics and
instructions on their use. They should be handled under conditions prescribed by national laws and
regulations or by the competent authority.

17.4.5. Containers of hazardous substances should carry or be accompanied by instructions for the safe
handling of the contents and procedures to be followed in case of a spillage.

17.4.6. The competent authority, in consultation with the most representative organisations of employers
and workers, should determine which hazardous substances should be prohibited from use in the
construction industry.

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17.4.7. Preference should be given to the application of hazardous substances by means other than
spraying, such as by brush or roller, when feasible.

17.4.8. Where the use of toxic solvents, certain thinners, certain paints or volatile chemical substances
cannot be avoided, special precautions should be taken such as providing general and local exhaust
ventilation, and, if this is not practicable or is inadequate, respiratory protective equipment should be used.
Such measures should be applied more rigorously in situations when such chemicals are heated or used in
confined spaces. Paints and adhesives which present health hazards should be replaced with water-
dispersed products.

17.4.9. Skin contact with hazardous chemicals should be avoided, particularly when dealing with
chemicals which can penetrate through intact skin (e.g. certain wood preservatives) or can cause dermatitis
(e.g. wet cement). Personal hygiene and the type of clothing worn should be such as to enable the rapid
removal of any chemical from skin contact. Where allergic effects caused by certain materials could be
reduced by introducing other additives, necessary steps should be taken to make use of these additives
preferably at the manufacturing stage (e.g. adding iron sulphate to cement and cement products containing
hexavalent chromium).

17.4.10. When it is necessary to deal with proven carcinogenic substances, particularly in work involving
bituminous or tar asphalt, asbestos fibres, pitch, some heavy oils, and some aromatic solvents, strict
measures should be taken to avoid inhalation and skin contact. Particular care should be taken with
substances where there is reliable evidence of suspected carcinogenic effects.

17.5. Dangerous atmospheres

17.5.1. Where workers are required to enter any area in which a toxic or harmful substance may be present,
or in which there may be an oxygen deficiency or a flammable atmosphere, adequate measures should be
taken to guard against danger.

17.5.2. The measures regarding dangerous atmospheres to be taken pursuant to paragraph 17.4.1 above
should be prescribed by the competent authority and should include prior written authority or permission
from a competent person, or any other system by which entry into any area in which a dangerous
atmosphere may be present can be effected only after completing specified procedures.

17.5.3. No naked light or flame or hot work such as welding, cutting and soldering should be permitted
inside a confined space or area unless it has been made completely free of the flammable atmosphere,
tested and found safe by a competent person. Only non-sparking tools and flameproof hand lamps
protected with guard and safety torches should be used inside such confined space or area for initial
inspection, cleaning or other work required to be done for making the area safe.

17.5.4. No person should enter a confined space or area with a dangerous atmosphere or deficiency of
oxygen unless:
(a) the atmosphere has been found to be safe after suitable testing by a competent person (which should be
repeated at suitable intervals);
(b) adequate ventilation is provided.

17.5.5. If the conditions in the preceding paragraph cannot conveniently be fulfilled, persons may enter
such spaces for prescribed periods using air lines or self-contained breathing apparatus and safety
harnesses with lifelines.

17.5.6. While a worker is in a confined space:

a) adequate facilities and equipment including breathing apparatus, resuscitation apparatus and oxygen
should be readily available for rescue purposes;
b) a fully trained attendant or attendants should be stationed at or near the opening;
c) suitable means of communication should be maintained between the worker and the attendant or
attendants.

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17.6. Radiation hazards

Ionising radiations
17.6.1. Stringent safety regulations should be drawn up and enforced by the competent authority with
respect to construction workers engaged in the construction, maintenance, renovation, demolition or
dismantling of any buildings in which there is a risk of exposure to ionising radiations, in particular in the
nuclear power industry, and in work using radioactive sources or inside structures containing natural
radioactive materials.

17.6.2. Relevant provisions of the ILO code of practice on Radiation protection of workers (Ionising
radiations) should be followed.

Non-ionising radiations
17.6.3. Workers performing operations where they are exposed to non-ionising radiations should be
provided with adequate protection, and particularly in welding, torch cutting and soldering operations, with
eye and face protection.

17.6.4. For the purpose of detecting pre-cancerous lesions of the skin, workers continually working under
non-ionising radiation exposure, including exposure to the sun, should be under medical surveillance,
where appropriate.

17.7. Heat stress, cold and wet conditions

17.7.1. Whenever heat stress, cold or wet conditions are such that they can lead to impairment of health or
extreme discomfort, preventive measures should be taken, such as:
a) proper design of the workload and workstation, with special regard to workers in cabins, and
command or driving operations;
b) training, to enable detection of early signs of disorders;
c) supply of protective equipment;
d) routine medical surveillance.

17.7.2. When working in hot conditions, preventive measures to avoid heat stress should include rest in
cool areas and an adequate supply of drinking water.

17.8. Noise and vibration

17.8.1. Employers should provide protection for workers from the harmful effects of noise and vibration
from machines and work processes, by measures including:
a) replacing hazardous machines and processes by less hazardous ones;
b) reducing the exposure of workers;
c) providing personal hearing protection.

17.8.2. Employers should consider the following developments and improvements in machines and
processes:
a) pneumatic drills and jackhammers to be replaced by hydraulic and electropneumatic hammers;
b) remote operation for vibrators, jackhammers and drills;
c) acoustic enclosure and improved design for compressed air discharges, and the cutters, blades and
exhausts of internal combustion engines as well as the engines themselves;
d) better means of supporting or holding manually operated tools in order to reduce the effects of
vibration or better vibration damping on vehicle controls and seats.

17.8.3. Employers should give priority to the reduction of the duration of workers' exposure to noise and
vibration when operating:
a) jackhammers, drills and compressors;
b) high impact noise tools such as cartridge-operated guns;
c) manually operated vibratory tools, especially those operated upwards or in a cold environment.

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17.8.4. Employers should provide personal protective equipment where the harmful effects of noise and
vibration will be experienced by workers; this should include:
a) hearing protection in accordance with national laws and regulations, which can be worn with a safety
helmet;
b) in the case of vibration, suitable protective gloves.

17.9. Biological agents

17.9.1. In areas where biological agents pose a hazard, preventive measures should be taken which take
account of the mode of transmission; in particular:
– the provision of sanitation and information for workers;
– action against vectors, such as rats and insects;
– chemical prophylaxis and immunisation;
– the availability of antidotes and suitable preventive and curative medicine, mainly in rural areas;
– the supply of protective clothing and other appropriate precautions.

17.10. Additional provisions

17.10.1. The manual lifting of weights which presents a safety and health risk to workers should be
avoided by reducing the weight, by the use of mechanical devices or by other means.

17.10.2. Waste should not be destroyed or otherwise disposed of on a construction site in a manner which
is liable to be injurious to health.

18. Personal protective equipment and protective clothing

18.1. General provisions
18.1.1. Where adequate protection against the risk of accident or injury to health, including exposure to
adverse conditions, cannot be ensured by other means, suitable personal protective equipment and
protective clothing, having regard to the type of work and risks, should be provided and maintained by the
employer, without cost to the workers, as may be prescribed by national laws or regulations.

18.1.2. Personal protective equipment and protective clothing should comply with standards set by the
competent authority, taking into account as far as possible ergonomic principles.

18.1.3. Employers should provide the workers with the appropriate means to enable them to use the
individual protective equipment and should require and ensure its proper use.

18.1.4. A competent person having a full understanding of the nature of the hazard and the type, range and
performance of the protection required should:
a) select suitable items of personal protective equipment and protective clothing;
b) arrange that they are properly stored, maintained, cleaned and, if necessary for health reasons,
disinfected or sterilised at suitable intervals.

18.1.5. Workers should be required to make proper use of and to take good care of the personal protective
equipment and protective clothing provided for their use.

18.1.6. Workers should be instructed in the use of personal protective equipment and protective clothing.

18.1.7. Workers working alone on construction sites in confined spaces, enclosed premises or in remote or
inaccessible places should be provided with an appropriate alarm and the means of rapidly summoning
assistance in an emergency.

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18.2. Types
18.2.1. Where necessary, workers should be provided with and wear the following personal protective
equipment and protective clothing:
a) safety helmets or hard hats to protect the head from injury due to falling or flying objects, or due to
striking against objects or structures;
b) clear or coloured goggles, a screen, a face shield or other suitable device when likely to be exposed to
eye or face injury from airborne dust or flying particles, dangerous substances, harmful heat, light or
other radiation, and in particular during welding, flame cutting, rock drilling, concrete mixing or other
hazardous work;
c) protective gloves or gauntlets, appropriate barrier creams and suitable protective clothing to protect
hands or the whole body as required when exposed to heat radiation or while handling hot, hazardous
or other substances which might cause injury to the skin;
d) footwear of an appropriate type when employed at places where there is the likelihood of exposure to
adverse conditions or of injury from falling or crushing objects, hot or hazardous substances, sharp-
edged tools or nails and slippery or ice covered surfaces;
e) respiratory protective equipment, suitable for the particular environment, when workers cannot be
protected against airborne dust, fumes, vapours or gases by ventilation or other means;
f) a suitable air line or self-contained breathing apparatus when employed in places likely to have an
oxygen deficiency;
g) respirators, overalls, head coverings, gloves, tight-fitting boiler suits, impermeable footwear and
aprons appropriate to the risks of radioactive contamination in areas where unsealed radioactive
sources are prepared or used;
h) waterproof clothing and head coverings when working in adverse weather conditions;
i) safety harnesses with independently secured lifelines where protection against falls cannot be provided
by other appropriate means;
j) life vests and life preservers where there is a danger of falling into water;
k) distinguishing clothing or reflective devices or otherwise conspicuously visible material when there is
regular exposure to danger from moving vehicles.

19. Welfare
19.1. General provisions
19.1.1. At or within reasonable access of every construction site an adequate supply of wholesome
drinking water should be provided.

19.1.2. At or within reasonable access of every construction site, the following facilities should, depending
on the number of workers and the duration of the work, be provided, kept clean and maintained:
a) sanitary and washing facilities or showers;
b) facilities for changing and for the storage and drying of clothing;
c) accommodation for taking meals and for taking shelter during interruption of work due to adverse
weather conditions.

19.1.3. Men and women workers should be provided with separate sanitary and washing facilities.

19.2. Drinking water

19.2.1. All drinking water should be from a source approved by the competent authority.

19.2.2. Where such water is not available, the competent authority should ensure that the necessary steps
are taken to make any water to be used for drinking fit for human consumption.

19.2.3. Drinking water for common use should only be stored in closed containers from which the water
should be dispensed through taps or cocks.

19.2.4. If drinking water has to be transported to the worksite, the transport arrangements should be
approved by the competent authority.

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19.2.5. The transport tanks, storage tanks and dispensing container should be designed, used, cleaned and
disinfected at suitable intervals in a manner approved by the competent authority.

19.2.6. Water that is unfit to drink should be conspicuously indicated by notices prohibiting workers from
drinking it.

19.2.7. A supply of drinking water should never be connected to a supply of water that is unfit to drink.

19.3. Sanitary facilities

19.3.1. The scale of provision of toilet or sanitary facilities, and the construction and installation of water
flush toilets, privies, chemical closets, plumbing or other toilet fixtures should comply with the
requirements of the competent authority.

19.3.2. No toilet other than a water flush toilet should be installed in any building containing sleeping,
eating or other living accommodation and should be adequately ventilated and not open directly into
occupied rooms.

19.3.3. Adequate washing facilities should be provided as near as practicable to toilet facilities.

19.4. Washing facilities

19.4.1. The number and standard of construction and maintenance of washing facilities should comply with
the requirements of the competent authority.

19.4.2. Washing facilities should not be used for any other purpose.

19.4.3. Where workers are exposed to skin contamination by poisonous, infectious or irritating substances,
or oil, grease or dust, there should be a sufficient number of appropriate washing facilities or shower-baths
supplied with hot and cold water.

19.5. Cloakrooms
19.5.1. Cloakrooms should be provided for workers at easily accessible places and not be used for any
other purpose.

19.5.2. Cloakrooms should be provided with suitable facilities for drying wet clothes and for hanging
clothing including, where necessary to avoid contamination, suitable lockers separating working from
street clothes.

19.5.3. Suitable arrangements should be made for disinfecting cloakrooms and lockers in conformity with
the requirements of the competent authority.

19.6. Facilities for food and drink

19.6.1. In appropriate cases, depending on the number of workers, the duration of the work and its location,
adequate facilities for obtaining or preparing food and drink at or near a construction site should be
provided, if not otherwise available.

19.7. Shelters
19.7.1. Shelters should, as far as practicable, provide facilities for washing, taking meals and for drying
and storing clothing, unless such facilities are available in the vicinity.

19.8. Living accommodation

19.8.1. Suitable living accommodation should be made available for the workers at construction sites
which are remote from their homes, where adequate transportation between the site and their homes or
other suitable living accommodation is not available. Men and women workers should be provided with
separate sanitary, washing and sleeping facilities.

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20. Information and training

20.1. Workers should be adequately and suitably:
a) informed of potential safety and health hazards to which they may be exposed at their workplace;
b) instructed and trained in the measures available for the prevention and control, and protection against,
those hazards.

20.2. No person should be employed in any work at a construction site unless that person has received the
necessary information, instruction and training so as to be able to do the work competently and safely. The
competent authority should, in collaboration with employers, promote training programmes to enable all
the workers to read and understand the information and instructions related to safety and health matters.

20.3. The information, instruction and training should be given in a language understood by the worker and
written, oral, visual and participative approaches should be used to ensure that the worker has assimilated
the material.

20.4. National laws or regulations should prescribe:

a) the nature and length of training or retraining required for various categories of workers employed in
construction projects;
b) that the employer has the duty to set up appropriate training schemes or arrange to train or retrain
various categories of workers.

20.5. Every worker should receive instruction and training regarding the general safety and health
measures common to the construction site, which should include:
a) general rights and duties of workers at the construction site;
b) means of access and egress both during normal working and in an emergency;
c) measures for good housekeeping;
d) location and proper use of welfare amenities and first-aid facilities provided in pursuance of the
relevant provisions of this code;
e) proper use and care of the items of personal protective equipment and protective clothing provided to
the worker;
f) general measures for personal hygiene and health protection;
g) fire precautions to be taken;
h) action to be taken in case of an emergency;
i) requirements of relevant safety and health rules and regulations.

20.6. Copies of the relevant safety and health rules, regulations and procedures should be available to
workers upon the commencement of and upon any change of employment.

20.7. Specialised instruction and training should be given to:

a) drivers and operators of lifting appliances, transport vehicles, earth-moving and materials-handling
equipment and plant, and machinery or equipment of a specialised or dangerous nature;
b) workers engaged in the erection or dismantling of scaffolds;
c) workers engaged in excavations deep enough to cause danger, or shafts, earthworks, underground
works or tunnels;
d) workers handling explosives or engaged in blasting operations;
e) workers engaged in pile-driving;
f) workers working in compressed air, cofferdams and caissons;
g) workers engaged in the erection of prefabricated parts or steel structural frames and tall chimneys, and
in concrete work, formwork and such other work;
h) workers handling hazardous substances;
i) workers working as signallers;
j) other specialised categories of workers.

20.8. Wherever required by national laws and regulations, only drivers, operators or attendants holding a
certificate of proficiency or license should be employed to operate particular vehicles, lifting appliances,
boilers or other equipment.

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21. Reporting of accidents and diseases

21.1. National laws or regulations should provide for the reporting of occupational accidents and diseases
to the competent authority.

21.2. All accidents to workers causing loss of life or serious injury should be reported forthwith to the
competent authority and an investigation of these accidents should be made.

21.3. Other injuries causing incapacity for work for periods of time as may be specified in national laws or
regulations, and prescribed occupational diseases should be reported to the competent authority within
such time and in such form as may be specified.

21.4. Dangerous occurrences such as:

a) explosions and serious fires;
b) the collapse of cranes, derricks or other lifting appliances;
c) the collapse of buildings, structures or scaffolds, or parts thereof, should be reported forthwith to the
competent authority in such form and manner as may be prescribed, whether any personal injury has
been caused or not.

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International Standards Organization (ISO)

ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is an independent, non-governmental membership

organization and the world’s largest developer of voluntary international standards.

ISO is made up of 163 member countries who are the national standards bodies around the world, with a
Central Secretariat that is based in Geneva, Switzerland.

What are standards?

International Standards make things work. They give world-class specifications for products, services and
systems, to ensure quality, safety and efficiency. They are instrumental in facilitating international trade.

ISO has published more than 19,500 International Standards covering almost every industry, from
technology, to food safety, to agriculture and healthcare. ISO International Standards impact everyone,
everywhere.

International Standards bring technological, economic and societal benefits. They help to harmonize
technical specifications of products and services making industry more efficient and breaking down
barriers to international trade. Conformity to International Standards helps reassure consumers that
products are safe, efficient and good for the environment.

For Businesses the benefits include:

International Standards are strategic tools and guidelines to help companies tackle some of the most
demanding challenges of modern business. They ensure that business operations are as efficient as
possible, increase productivity and help companies access new markets.
• Cost savings - International Standards help optimize operations and therefore improve the bottom
line
• Enhanced customer satisfaction - International Standards help improve quality, enhance customer
satisfaction and increase sales
• Access to new markets - International Standards help prevent trade barriers and open up global
markets
• Increased market share - International Standards help increase productivity and competitive
advantage
• Environmental benefits - International Standards help reduce negative impacts on the environment

For Society the benefits include:

ISO has over 19,500 standards touching almost all aspects of daily life.

When products and services conform to International Standards consumers can have confidence that they
are safe, reliable and of good quality. For example, ISO's standards on road safety, toy safety and secure
medical packaging are just a selection of those that help make the world a safer place.

To make sure that the benefits of ISO International Standards are as broad as possible, ISO supports the
involvement of consumers in standard development work with its Committee on consumer policy
(COPOLCO).

International Standards on air, water and soil quality, on emissions of gases and radiation and
environmental aspects of products contribute to efforts to preserve the environment and the health of
citizens.

How does ISO develop standards?

An ISO standard is developed by a panel of experts, within a technical committee. Once the need for a
standard has been established, these experts meet to discuss and negotiate a draft standard. As soon as a
draft has been developed it is shared with ISO’s members who are asked to comment and vote on it. If a
consensus is reached the draft becomes an ISO standard, if not it goes back to the technical committee for
further edits.

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Key principles in standard development

1. ISO standards respond to a need in the market

ISO does not decide when to develop a new standard. Instead, ISO responds to a request from
industry or other stakeholders such as consumer groups. Typically, an industry sector or group
communicates the need for a standard to its national member who then contacts ISO. Contact details
for national members can be found in the list of members.

2. ISO standards are based on global expert opinion

ISO standards are developed by groups of experts from all over the world, that are part of larger
groups called technical committees. These experts negotiate all aspects of the standard, including its
scope, key definitions and content. Details can be found in the list of technical committees.

3. ISO standards are developed through a multi-stakeholder process

The technical committees are made up of experts from the relevant industry, but also from consumer
associations, academia, NGOs and government. Read more about who develops ISO standards.

4. ISO standards are based on a consensus

Developing ISO standards is a consensus-based approach and comments from stakeholders are
taken into account.

Most Common ISO Standards:

ISO 9000 Quality Management

ISO 9001:2008 sets out the criteria for a quality management system and is the only standard in the family
that can be certified (although this is not a requirement). It can be used by any organization, large or small,
regardless of its field of activity. In fact ISO 9001:2008 is implemented by over one million companies and
organizations in over 170 countries.

This standard is based on a number of quality management principles including a strong customer focus,
the motivation and implication of top management, the process approach and continual improvement.
Using ISO 9001:2008 helps ensure that customers get consistent, good quality products and services,
which in turn brings many business benefits.

ISO 14000 Environmental Management

The ISO 14000 family addresses various aspects of environmental management. It provides practical tools
for companies and organizations looking to identify and control their environmental impact and constantly
improve their environmental performance. ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 14004:2004 focus on environmental
management systems. The other standards in the family focus on specific environmental aspects such as
life cycle analysis, communication and auditing.

ISO 14001:2004 sets out the criteria for an environmental management system and can be certified to. It
does not state requirements for environmental performance, but maps out a framework that a company or
organization can follow to set up an effective environmental management system. It can be used by any
organization regardless of its activity or sector. Using ISO 14001:2004 can provide assurance to company
management and employees as well as external stakeholders that environmental impact is being measured
and improved.

The benefits of using ISO 14001:2004 can include:

• Reduced cost of waste management
• Savings in consumption of energy and materials
• Lower distribution costs
• Improved corporate image among regulators, customers and the public

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ISO 31000 Risk Management

Risks affecting organizations can have consequences in terms of economic performance and professional
reputation, as well as environmental, safety and societal outcomes. Therefore, managing risk effectively
helps organizations to perform well in an environment full of uncertainty.

ISO 31000:2009, Risk management – Principles and guidelines, provides principles, framework and a
process for managing risk. It can be used by any organization regardless of its size, activity or sector.
Using ISO 31000 can help organizations increase the likelihood of achieving objectives, improve the
identification of opportunities and threats and effectively allocate and use resources for risk treatment.

However, ISO 31000 cannot be used for certification purposes, but does provide guidance for internal or
external audit programs. Organizations using it can compare their risk management practices with an
internationally recognized benchmark, providing sound principles for effective management and corporate
governance.

OHSAS 18001(Occupational Health and Safety Management System) to become ISO 45001

The ISO 45001 standard will utilize the same common structure, definitions and core text being used for
the present revisions of ISO 14001 and ISO 9001, the environmental and quality management system
standards. Which is in line with what is called "Annex SL" the rules governing the development of all ISO
management standards. This will mean the structure of the standard will be:
1. Scope
2. Normative references
3. Terms and definitions
4. Context of the organisation
5. Leadership
6. Planning
7. Support
8. Operation
9. Performance evaluation
10. Improvement

OHSAS 18001 (current until replaced)

18001 identifies the hazards associated with the workplace and workplace activities and then determines
the risks that these hazards represent as part of the planning phase. This is accomplished through the
systematic application of JHA methodology. Once these hazards and their associated risks are identified,
the organization then implements appropriate controls to minimize the risks associated with these
activities. It should be noted that a full JHA of all of an organization’s hazards may take from several
months to a year or more. Indeed, it is considered that the JHA process is a continual process owing to the
constantly changing nature of workplace activities and processes.

The OHSAS 18001 HSMS specification provides a model for a comprehensive HSMS. The OHSAS
18001 specification, like ISO 14001, is developed around Dr. W. Edwards Deming’s famous Plan-Do-
Check-Act (PDCA) model of improvement. Its planning elements consist of the development of a health
and safety policy that must include the organization’s commitments to the health and safety of its
employees.

The “doing” component is titled implementation and operation, and in this phase the organization
implements the controls and safeguards identified in the planning phase. In addition, the specification
requires that operators be trained in the safe and proper performance of their duties and be made aware of
their roles.

The checking and corrective action elements represent the check component of the PDCA cycle. Here the
organization monitors how well its health and safety controls are working and how its management system
is performing. Records of actions and performance must be maintained and controlled. Compliance to

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regulatory and other requirements must also be reviewed. If deficiencies are noted, then corrective action is
initiated to restore the performance of the system.

The act component of the PDCA cycle is represented by the management review requirements, which
require senior level review of the overall performance of the HSMS and its related components. The output
of this review should lead to actions and decisions to correct or improve performance.

Main Clause 4.1 General Requirements

This clause basically says that the organization must develop a systematic HSMS that meets the
requirements of the OHSAS 18001 specifications.

Main Clause 4.2 Occupational Health and Safety Policy

This clause requires that the organization develop a health and safety policy. The policy statement is
important. Everything that is done within the HSMS should be consistent and aligned with the policy
statement. The specification requires that the policy statement:
• be defined by top management;
• be consistent with the organization’s scale and nature of operations;
• be documented, implemented and maintained;
• be communicated throughout the organization; and
• be made available to the public.

In addition there must be a policy statement:

• include commitments to at least comply with current legal and other requirements applicable to the
organization, and
• include a commitment to continually improve its OH&S performance.

Main Clause 4.3 Planning

Clause 4.3.1 Planning for Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, and Risk Control
The focus in this specification is on the identification of what hazards need to be controlled and on the
determination of the methods to be used to eliminate significant hazards where possible or on lowering
their risk to tolerable levels. The specification requires that the organization maintain a process to:
• identify workplace hazards and their corresponding risk on an ongoing basis, and
• determine the methods that will be sued to control these hazards and their associated risk –
control should be through of as eliminating the hazard or minimizing the risk associated with it
if it cannot be eliminated.

A job hazard analysis is simply a systematic review of a task to see what types of hazards exist. As an
example, think about a worker who is setting up a machine to run a part. As part of the task he or she
must lift a twenty (20) pound cutting tool, place it properly on the machine bed, and securely fasten it in
place. What types of hazards might be present? A few are listed here:
• the worker could receive a cut from the sharp metal surfaces of the tool;
• the worker could drop the cutting tools on his or her foot;
• the worker could strain or pull a muscle while lifting the twenty (20) pound tool;
• the worker could strike his or her hand or fingers while placing the tool on the machine or while
fastening it in place; or
• the worker could be severely injured by operation of the machine if it is not properly secured before
beginning the tool change out.

Clause 4.3.2 Legal and Other Requirements

OHSAS 18001 requires that the organization maintain a process to:
• identify the legal and other requirements that apply to the organization, and
• to provide access to these requirements.

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Clause 4.3.3 Objectives

The organization must set documented health and safety objectives at relevant levels and functions of the
organization. Objectives are major improvement initiatives. The specification states that these objectives
must be consistent with its OH&S policy and notes that they should be measurable wherever practicable.

When setting these objectives, the specification also requires the organization to consider:
• legal and other requirements,
• financial, business, and operational requirements, and
• the views of interested parties.

Clause 4.3.4 Occupational Health and Safety Management Programs

Once the organization has decided on its objectives, it must develop management programs to ensure
their achievement. Management programs are nothing more than action plans. The specification says
that the programs must define who is responsible for achieving the objectives and targets, the means
needed, and the time frame by which they will be achieved, in essences, an action plan.

It also states that these management programs must be reviewed at planned and regular intervals and
amended where needed to account for changes to the organization’s activities, products, services, or
operating conditions.

Main Clause 4.4 Implementation and Operation

Clause 4.4.1 Resources, Roles, Responsibility, and Authority
Everyone must understand his or her roles and responsibilities for operation of the HSMS. The
specification requires that roles, responsibilities, and authorities be:
• defined
• documented, and
• communicated.

In addition, it requires that a management appointee be designated by top management. Roughly

equivalent to ISO 14001’s management representative, the management appointee’s responsibilities
include ensuring that the HSMS is:
• established,
• implemented, and
• maintained.

In addition, the management representative must also report to top management with recommendations
for improvement.

Finally, the clause also address resources.

• resources needed to implement and maintain an organization’s HSMS must be identified and
provided.

Clause 4.4.2 Training, Competence, and Awareness

OHSAS 18001 requires that all employees who could significantly impact health and safety be
competent. Competency can be based on appropriate education, experience, or training.

The specification also requires that health and safety awareness training be provided to all employees,
and must include:
• importance of complying with policies, procedures, and the requirements of the HSMS;
• the significant health and safety benefits of improved personal performance;
• the OH&S risks associated with their work activities;
• their individual roles and responsibilities, including those associated with emergency
preparedness and response; and
• the potential consequences of failing to follow specified operating procedures.

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Clause 4.4.3 Consultation and Communication

An organization must develop procedures to communicate information relating to its HSMS. This
system must include both internal communication and external communications with interested parties.

In addition, employees must be:

• involved in the development and review of policies and procedures used to manage risks;
• consulted when there are changes that affect workplace health and safety;
• knowledgeable of who their OH&S representatives and who the management appointee is; and
• must be represented on health and safety matters.

Clause 4.4.4 Documentation

This clause basically lays out the requirements for an OH&S policy manual.
Clause 4.4.5 Controls of Documents
The organization must control those documents that it determined it needed. Document control as
required includes:
• review and approval of documents by authorized personnel,
• revising documents when needed,
• locating and making documents available where they are needed by users, and
• removing or otherwise ensuring that obsolete documents, including those kept for historical
value, are identified as obsolete and otherwise safeguarded to prevent their unintentional use.

Clause 4.4.6 Operational Control

Operational control consists of all those methods that will be used to control an organization’s health and
safety hazards and risk identified during the planning phase.

Control means carrying out these activities under specified conditions, which include:
• establishing and maintaining documented procedures in which their absence could lead to
deviations from an organization’s health and safety policy commitments or its ability to achieve
its objectives;
• establishing and maintaining procedures for the design of facilities, equipment, processes,
installations, and work organization to eliminate or reduce health and safety risks at their
source;
• stipulating operating criteria in these procedures, where needed; and
• establishing, maintaining, and communicating relevant procedures and requirements to an
organization’s suppliers and contractors, where needed, to control the identified risks associated
with procured products, services, and equipment.

Clause 4.4.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response

An organization must identify potential accident and emergency situations and develop appropriate
procedures to prevent or mitigate any injuries or illnesses that may result. Most companies already have
plans and procedures to address emergency situations they may face as a result of the regulatory
structure in the United States.

An organization should review these to ensure they include responses to any new potential situation that
may have been identified as part of its initial JHA>

An organization’s emergency preparedness and response procedures must be periodically reviewed and
revised where necessary, including after incidents or emergencies. They must also be periodically tested
where practicable. This is where most companies have weaknesses.

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Main Clause 4.5 Checking and Corrective Action

Clause 4.5.1 Monitoring and Measurement
On a regular basis, an organization must monitor and measure key characteristics of its operations that
could significantly impact health and safety.

Procedures for this monitoring must include:

• both qualitative and quantitative measures,
• methods to ensure monitoring of performance in achieving health and safety objectives,
• proactive measures of performance for conformance to the occupational HSMS, operational
criteria, and legal requirements, and
• reactive measure of performance to monitor accident, ill health, incidents, and other indicators
of weakness in the health and safety management system performance.

Monitoring and measurement must include data recording and analysis so as to be able to determine the
need for corrective and preventive actions. The organization’s monitoring and measurement equipment
must be calibrated or verified and maintained. Monitoring equipment may include atmospheric sampling
equipment, decibel meters, or other test equipment. Calibration and maintenance records must be
retained.

Clause 4.5.2 Accidents, Incidents, Nonconformance, and Corrective and Preventative Action
A HSMS system does not guarantee an organization will not have problems, but it must be able to react
appropriately when these problems occur. OHSAS 18001 requires that the organization establish and
maintain a process for dealing with actual and potential nonconformities and for taking corrective or
preventive action.

This process must provide for:

• investigation and handling of accidents, incidents, and nonconformance to requirements,
• appropriate action to mitigate the consequences that result from these incidents,
• the initiation and completion of corrective and preventative action to eliminate the cause, and
• verification of the effectiveness of these actions.

Clause 4.5.3 Records and Records Management

The organization is required to develop processes to maintain records demonstrating that is complying
with OHSAS 18001 specification, its local procedures and policies, and that it is achieving results. The
specification makes it clear that audit results and reviews are included in these requirements. This
process must address:
• the identification and traceability of records,
• records maintenance and storage,
• protection of records against damage, deterioration, and loss,
• record retrieval, and
• record retention and disposal.

Clause 4.5.4 Audit

An internal audit program must be established. Audits must be conducted at planned intervals to
determine whether the HSMS conforms to the OHSAS 18001 specification, has been properly
implement, is effective, and is being maintained.

The health and safety audit program must be based on the results of the organization’s risk assessments
and past audit results. The process must also ensure that auditors and audits are objective and impartial.
The audit process must also address:
• auditor competencies,
• responsibilities and requirements for planning and conducting audits and reporting results, and
• the determination of audit criteria, scope, frequency, and methods.

Finally, the results of audits must be reported to management.

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4.6 Management Review

Top management must perform periodic management reviews of the HSMS to ensure its continuing:
• suitability;
• adequacy; and
• effectiveness.

The focus of management review is on monitoring and action. If an organization’s management reviews
never result in actions, then they are not effective. Note that the review must be documented and records
retained.

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-1

COMMUNICATING SAFETY EFFECTIVELY

One’s ability to communicate will determine the success of the company’s safety effectiveness. There is so
much more to communication then merely speaking or writing a memo – the person wishing to communicate
with another person must understand the Principles of Communication. Plus we shall review three extremely
important areas when it comes to communication: Communicating Your Policy and Program, Safety
Training and Data Presentation

Principles of Communication

The principles of communication are: Elements of Methods of Communication

Communication, Methods of Communication, The way we communicate can be divided into
and Effectively Listening. three categories: Verbal, Non-Verbal and Written.
 Verbal – message given orally.
Elements of Communication  Non-Verbal – message given through a
There are four basic elements of communication person’s actions; such as hand gestures, etc.
we need to understand in order to communicate  Written – message presented in the form of a
safety effectively: the sender – the message – the policy, program, procedure, plan, or rule.
receiver – feedback.
 Sender – person wishing to communicate Effectively Listening
with another. It is estimated by the University of Minnesota,
 Message – content of information the sender that the average person only retains 50% of what
wishes to get across to the receiver. they hear. And it would difficult at best to
 Receiver – person receiving the message. estimate the number of accidents caused due to
 Feedback – the sender receiving input from ineffective listening. Therefore it is essential that
the receiver that the message was understood. we communicate clearly and get feedback to
ensure the message sent was received as intended.
The receiver of a message may not always
understand the message as intended, because of Furthermore, we can also reduce the risk of
various filters. Some common filters that interfere accidents associated with ineffective listening by
with the sender’s messages are: knowledge, bias, improving our listening ability. The National
and mood. Safety Council, identifies 5 keys to improving
 Knowledge – understanding the receiver’s listening:
level of knowledge and understanding of the  Stop talking – you can’t hear when your
language the message is being sent in; will talking.
assist the sender in developing a message that  Empathize – put yourself in the other
will be understood. person’s place, gives one a better
 Bias – a person’s past experience will understanding as to how they feel.
determine how receptive they are to a  Maintain eye contact – serves dual purpose
message. If their association with a message (1) helps the sender stay concentrated on the
or even a sender has resulted in a bad message being sent; and (2) let’s the person
experience, then they are going to “tune out” know your listening.
and only hear part of the message, if any at  Share responsibility for communication –
all. both the sender and receiver have to want to
 Mood – when a receiver of a message has communicate.
other things on their mind, they may not  Clarify – ask questions until your sure of the
understand the intent of the message. In cases message’s meaning.
like this it is best to have the receiver repeat
the message. The importance of communicating effectively
begins with ensuring your workers understand the
Company’s Policy and Program. Secondly, is
ensuring your workers understand Safety
Training, and thirdly is one’s ability to
communicate with management – generally in the
form of numbers: Data Presentation.

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Communicating Your Policy and Program

Reprint from Worksafe – Canada Occupational Health and Safety

It is important that you clearly communicate your policy and program to everyone in your company. You are
required by law to post a copy of your policy in a location where it will be easily seen by all employees
(Canadian Law). In order to demonstrate the relationship between your policy statement and your various
program activities, also include your policy statement in the same booklet or manual which outlines your
program arrangements.

You can communicate your policy and program through:

• Induction (new employee orientation) and other training programs;

• Company policy and procedure manuals;

• Employee rule books;

• Employee handouts / paycheck enclosures;

• Health and safety policy and procedures manual;

• Standard job procedures manual;

• Your health and safety committee or representative;

• Reference in job descriptions;

• Notice board announcements and reminders;

• Health and safety talks and meetings;

• Health and safety meetings at which managers stress commitment to the policy;

• Regular discussion of health and safety at production, quality, planning and other meetings;

• Effective review of and response to your health and safety committee or representative’s
recommendations;

• Effective review of and response to inspection reports, accident investigations, and health and safety
program evaluations.

These continued reminders will help you ensure that your policy objectives and program activities are
understood; they will also demonstrate the commitment of your managers to the policy and program.

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Safety Training

Policies, plans, procedures and rules are Furthermore, safety training does more than
instrumental in the development and maintenance identify hazards, but demonstrates how the job
of an effective safety program, only when can be performed safely. This increases
managers and employees understand and abide by productivity as well as reduces the likelihood of
them. This understanding can best be served property damage and employee injury.
through education and training sessions.
Education and training serves as the process of The importance of training in the work place
providing information, with coordinated training continues to grow, as the work force becomes
sessions we can provide the maximum potential more educated and the processes of work become
of ensuring that each individual understands the more technical. However, training not only
policies, plans, procedures and rules as intended. serves to pass on information, but is instrumental
in the development and re-shaping of attitudes, as
Regulatory agencies also understand the well. So with an understanding of the approaches
significance of training to ensure the work place to training, utilization of lesson plans and
hazards regarding safety and health related achieving successful training, you will not only
information is conveyed to the workers and have a workforce knowledgeable of safety, but
therefore mandate training in numerous areas. motivated for safety as well.

Approaches to Training
Even though there is no guaranteed approach to safety, we can increase the likelihood of successful education
and training by being consistent in the development and presentation process of our approach toward safety
education and training. There are numerous methods to training identified by various authors, however, they
all cover basically the same things, so we will review one – ReVelle’s.

ReVelle identifies five steps to successful safety training as: selection, preparing, conducting, documenting
and evaluating.

• Selection. The selection of training is needed for training and the location. If
actually directed by a multiple of factors. the training is for management then they
First and foremost is the need to be in may only need a quick review in a
compliance with regulatory agencies. classroom type setting. Whereas, if its
Secondly, we can look into the past to for employees, the information may be
determine our needs for today and hopefully new to them, thus requiring more time
tomorrow, by examining accident reports, and they may need the training at their
inspection reports, work orders and employee work station, so that they can apply the
suggestions. Other factors that indicate the material to their job.
need for training include: new employee
orientation, change of employee How many need the training? Knowing
responsibility or position and introduction of how many people need this training will
a new product or procedure. have an influence on whether the
training can be conducted one time or
• Preparing. It is not enough to just know what will it require several training sessions.
topic is to be presented in training, in order to However, also keep in mind that the
have an effective training session. Preparing more detailed the instructions the fewer
for training can best be approached by participants should be trained per
answering questions about the training. session. For example, if the training is
Questions such as: on the use of a piece of safety equipment
which requires a hands-on application
Who needs this training? Is the group to (such as respirators) you can only
be trained members of management, observe a few participants at a time.
supervisors, employees or a Whereas, if you are demonstrating the
combination? Knowing who is to be audio signal for fire evacuation, this can
trained will influence the length of time be presented to a large group.

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-4

When will this training take place? encourages participation from the group.
Knowing the date that the training will Demonstrations allow the participants to
take place determines how much time see how the equipment or information
you have to prepare the material, make being presented applies in a practical
arrangements for a training location and situation. Hands-on involves the
collect any equipment necessary for the employee, by having them go through
training. The scheduling of training the actual (or simulated) procedure, such
needs to be a coordinated effort between as respirator fit testing. Programmed
management and the instructor. instruction consist of professionally
Management can be very helpful in prepared material which permits the
selecting an appropriate time for their participant to learn at their own pace.
people, a time where the maximum
number of employees can attend. • Conducting. The training material should be
presented so that its organization and the
How much time is needed for this meaning is clear to the participants
training? The amount of time needed for
training is controlled by the subject So when planning the training the following
matter and what previous knowledge the questions should also be considered:
participants may already have. The o Does the room for training have
more in-depth the subject the more time adequate space for the number of
will be needed to present the material. participants plus ten percent?
Whereas, if the subject has been
presented before then a review session o Can room temperature be controlled?
may be called for versus an in-depth
session. o Is room free from outside distractions?

Where will this training take place? The o Can the lighting be adjusted to support
place of training needs to contribute to visual aid material (e.g. slides, films,
the training. Rooms which allow for etc.)
distractions will only increase the
difficulty of holding the participant’s o Are restrooms and designated smoking
attention. Factors in a room which areas within easy access of the training
contribute to training are temperature site? Restrooms and designated
control, illumination, sufficient space smoking areas located farther away will
and cleanliness. require longer break periods.

What equipment will be needed for this • Documenting. Training is an investment in

training? Effective training is reinforced safety and needs to be documented.
through visual applications and this is Documentation can also demonstrate to a
accomplished through the use of regulatory compliance Manager that training
equipment such as white boards, video was indeed conducted. Information that
films, slides, overhead transparencies should be on a document of training includes:
and training aids. To provide for date, location, subject, objectives, instructor
uninterrupted training, all the equipment (and qualifications), participant names (and
should be operational and on hand at the department) and a summary of the evaluation
beginning of the training session. of training. See sample page 3-7.

Which presentation method will be best • Evaluating. In order to evaluate the

for this training? There are five methods effectiveness of safety training we need to
generally used in safety training: lecture, measure safety. Various methods can be
discussion, demonstration, hands-on and used to determine the effectiveness of safety
programmed instruction. Lectures serve training: ask the employee, ask the
to present material and are structured to supervisor, and monitor accident and
allow minimal or no participation from inspection reports.
the group. Discussion is used when
solutions are being sought and

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-5

Lesson Plans
Training sessions may be formal or informal, in the form of documentation. A well constructed
and range from one-on-one to group lesson plan will be able to demonstrate to a
presentations. The safety manager generally compliance manager the content of the material
experiences training sessions in the form of small that was presented.
group presentations, (members of a committee or
new employee orientation) and large group A lesson plan is composed of four parts:
presentations (annual training). Regardless which 1. Task – identifies the subject matter.
form of training is to be conducted there needs to 2. Condition – identifies the situation in which
be a lesson plan. the trainee will be required to perform the
task of the training.
Lesson plans serve as a guide for the trainer. 3. Standard – identifies the objectives of the
They help the trainer stay with the subject matter training.
and ensure no art of the information being 4. Outline – provides a systematic approach for
presented is omitted. Lesson plans are also vital the presentation of the subject matter.

Lesson Plan – Fire 1

Portable Fire Extinguisher Usage
Task: Extinguish small fire using the correct portable fire extinguisher.

Condition: Day or night, inside or outside.

Standard: Upon completion of this training session you shall be able to within
three minutes: identify the class of fire, select the correct fire
extinguisher, and extinguish a small fire.
Outline:
Introduction – tobacco smoking is the primary cause of fire in a fixed facility.
As a result of carelessness a lit cigarette butt may be disposed of in a waste
receptacle filled with paper, a pile of dried brush and debris, or even oily rags.
Fires of this nature start small and can be quickly extinguished if the correct
portable fire extinguisher is utilized in the correct manner.

Classification of Fires –
Class A, ordinary combustibles (paper, wood, etc)
Class B, flammable liquids (gasoline, oil, etc.)
Class C, electrical
Class D, metals (magnesium, titanium, etc.)
Fire Extinguisher Types –
Class A, ordinary combustibles (water or dry chemical)
Class B, flammable liquids (foam, carbon dioxide or dry chemical)
Class C, electrical (carbon dioxide or dry chemical)
Class ABC, multipurpose.
Fire Extinguisher Location
Provide locations for the facility.
Fire Extinguisher Usage
Activate fire extinguisher.
Aiming fire extinguisher.
Demonstration
Hands On Exercise
Conclusion

A well constructed lesson plan only contributes to a successful training session. The training environment
also plays a critical role in the success of any training session. If the training is conducted in a noisy, hot,
crowded lunch room, the trainer will experience a great deal of difficulty in keeping the attention of the
participants. However, if there are no distractions, a comfortable temperature, and sufficient seating, then the
participants will concentrate more on the subject matter being presented.

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-6

Training Success
Ensuring that training is a success for all With the Adult learner (our workers) true
workers is not the responsibility of one person. success in safety training will result when we:
Just like motivation requires a team effort, so - explain the purpose of training,
does training. Training is a continuous process - acknowledge their experience,
that extends beyond the classroom (or training - don’t talk down to them, and
site) into the work place. It is at the work place - don’t hold training during downsizing or
that the safety training material is put into practice just prior to a process change that will
and it is up to the supervisors (foremen) and co- change the way they do their job.
workers to ensure the safety measures are
employed as intended. Furthermore, training serves as a means of
awareness and there are several concepts we must
Training is a measure we use to assist the keep in mind:
employee in fulfilling their need for security, as • safety tool box meetings shall be held
identified by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. weekly,
Through training the employee (and supervisor) • conference type training requires a
gain the knowledge and develop the skills facilitator,
necessary to perform their job safely. Training • group training serves as a means to share
should be used to assist in the re-shaping of ideas,
attitude, in the ever quest of achieving absolute • lectures provide maximum audience
safety on the jobsite and in the workplace. attendance,
Training needs to include education as our • programmed training excellent for short
workers of today are more educated we need to study
provide explanations as to why hazards exist and • period,
then apply training on how safety measures
• posters can raise awareness of a specific
protect them from the hazards. This is
hazard
accomplished through the approach to safety
• or piece of equipment, and
training development and presentation. But, it is
not enough to merely present the information, it is • billboards are big posters, but need to be
of the utmost importance that the safety on path
information is understood by the worker and used of employee travel.
in the work place.
Regardless what type of training method is use,
One way to accomplish this is by: training needs to be evaluated. Some ways to
 Providing an overview of the material and accomplish this are:
what is to be learned; • employee participation in the training
 Relate the material to the participants; and session,
 Reinforce what the participants learned by • quizzes and tests,
summarizing the programs objectives and the • employee demonstration on equipment in
key points of the material presented. their job area,
• talking with supervisors of employee.

Documenting Training

Training is an investment in safety, and needs to Although there is no mandatory form to

be documented. Just as a well-constructed lesson document training, the following information
plan can demonstrate to a compliance Manager should be recorded:
the content of the material presented, a well • Date and location of training,
constructed document of training can also • Training subject and objectives, (Objectives
demonstrate that training was indeed conducted. provide a summary of training)
• Instructor and qualifications (title),
• Summary of program evaluation, and
• Employees name and department.

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-7

Document of Training

Topic Fire Protection______________________ Date Today’s Date_____

Location Gizmo’s Elevator Company - North Parking Lot_____________

Subject Usage of Portable Fire Extinguishers_________________________

Objectives Classification of Fires________________________________

Classification of Fire Extinguishers_____________________
Arming a Portable Fire Extinguisher____________________
Aiming a Portable Fire Extinguisher____________________

Instructor Adrian Estes___________________ Title Safety Manager___

Attendees Department
Mark Maintenance
Jim Construction
Greg Repair
Joshua Modernization
Andrew Administration

________________________
Instructor’s Signature

Summary of Program Evaluation:

Class Consensus: Good Program

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-8

Data Presentation

Data is collected through the monitoring of various aspects of safety. Monitoring therefore provides data,
which in turn can be used to determine the effectiveness of a safety program or the areas in need of
improvement. However, before we can examine data for trends, we first need to collect usable data.

Data Collection
In the field of safety we have several options for
the collection of data:

• Accident Reports and Investigations –

provide detailed information regarding how
and why an accident took place.

• Work Orders – demonstrate the frequency for

the need of repair for a particular piece of
equipment or part of the building structure.

• Work-Related Injury and Illness Log –

identifies the number of lost days resulting
from an accident or exposure.

• Routine and Formal Inspections – provide

data regarding the safety measures in place at
the time of the inspection.

• Employee Suggestions – may provide data

regarding a potential hazard or the need for a
protective piece of equipment.

Each of these vital sources for data can only be

effective in themselves, if the data is collected,
analyzed and most importantly acted upon.
Monitoring for Safety Effectiveness involves
looking for Trends (which can lead to an
accident) and Data Presentation (displaying
information in the form of numbers).

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-9

• Accident Reports – Each time an unplanned event occurs, resulting in an injury, illness or property
damage an accident report should be completed. An Accident Report identifies the facts that took place
regarding an accident. Accident Reports are therefore instrumental in identifying the causes of
accidents. By reviewing the caused of accidents, it can be determined if there is an accident trend due to
a physical problem or human problem. It is also imperative that all near misses, incidents, and accidents
be reported – because an unreported near miss will eventually result in an accident.

Construction Oil & Gas

A concrete laborer injured his back while At Gizmo’s off-shore rig a worker
placing concrete blocks along the scaffolding experienced a chemical burn to his mouth. It
for the mason. The investigation revealed that was a hot day and he was coming off shift, he
even though the laborer was using proper got a fountain drink in a Styrofoam cup with
lifting techniques he did not have a clear path a lid and straw. He went into the locker room
of travel. As he carried the blocks he would and set his drink on the microwave before
step on tools and miscellaneous items laying using the toilet. When he came out, he
on the scaffolding planks. And, each time he grabbed his cup and took a big drink –
would lose his balance just a bit and have to however, it wasn’t soda it was a concentrated
jerk his body back into position so he chemical disinfected. Some one else had set a
wouldn’t fall. cup identical to his on the microwave while
he was using the toilet. Investigation into this
matter revealed that another worker wanted
to use some of the chemical disinfected in the
tool room, so he was taking some in a
Styrofoam cup so nobody would know.

• Work Orders – Each time a piece of equipment or machine needs to be repaired or serviced, a work
order should be generated. Work Orders identify items or conditions that no longer are functional as
intended. The shop should review this work orders periodically to determine if there are any trends
which may led to an accident or equipment damage.

Construction Oil & Gas

The shop at Gizmo’s Construction receives The tool room at Gizmo’s off-shore rig,
all the work orders involving repair of all noticed that they tools used by team 3 were
equipment from all the jobsites. Upon always returned with minor abrasions. Upon
examining the work orders for the past 90 investigation into this matter, it was
days, it was revealed that there was a discovered that team 3 would throw the tools
tremendous increase in the number of work about and let them lie about in the work area,
orders submitted by Jobsite Number 2. which allow other tools and equipment to be
Further examination revealed that most of placed on the tools. Further investigation
these work orders only called for minor revealed that team 3 never received the
adjustment, but they were for the same segments of safety training: Housekeeping
equipment, chop saw number 5. By and Hand and Portable Power Tools.
identifying the trend of chop saw number 5’s
constant need for adjustment, it was
determined through investigation that the
workers were failing to place the tile saw on
a level surface prior to use.

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-10

• Work-Related Injury and Illness Log – even if not mandated by a regulatory agency to keep a record of
injuries and illnesses for the company, a company needs to record these to help identify problem areas
and possible trends.

Construction Oil & Gas

Gizmo’s Construction experienced a Gizmo’s off-shore oil rig experience a high
high rate of twisted ankles among their rate of lower back sprains. Initial evaluation
laborers at all their jobsites. Initial revealed that the workers were manually
evaluation revealed that the jobsites had handling everything from the insertion pipes
uneven terrain, but nothing more so to pipe couplers. Further investigation
than any previous jobsites. revealed that the mechanical lifting devices
Examination of the accident reports were broken and awaiting parts, before the
showed that the injuries occurred on mechanic could fix them. And, knowing that
different days of the week and at the workers would be doing the lifting
different times throughout the day. manually for a short time – management
Further investigation revealed that the neglected to provide a safe lifting technique
laborers had all been given new safety class to the workers and stretching before the
shoes three weeks previously and after workers started their work shift.
examining the safety shoes it was noted
they were not the type with a high top to
support the ankle as the laborers were
previously accustom to.

• Inspections – Informal and Formal inspections serve the purpose of identifying unsafe conditions, unsafe
acts and safety measures that work. Informal inspections occur each time there is a member of
management or an employee present at the workplace. And, whenever an unsafe condition or unsafe act
is observed it’s reported.

Formal inspections are usually conducted by the safety Manager with a member of management (team
leader or supervisor-foreman) present. The findings from formal inspections are usually recorded and by
reviewing these recorded inspections, trends that may cause accidents or further add to the injury of an
accident can be identified.
Oil & Gas
Construction Gizmo’s off-shore oil rig receives a formal
Gizmo’s Construction receives a formal inspection each day. And, it is noted that
inspection each week on all construction about every third day team one, has to be
jobsites. And, each week it is noted that the reminded to clean the grease off their work-
employees are pinning the guard up on their boots. Further investigation revealed that the
circular saw on jobsite #3. When instructed team leader position was rotated daily, and
to unpin the guard, the employees did so about every third day the individual in that
without complaint. However, after the third position, felt it was not necessary to take the
week of the same problem it was call for time for the crew to clean their work-boots
further investigation. The investigation because they would just get dirty the next
revealed that the project manager and day.
carpenter foreman spent most of their time in
the job shack and when they did come out Note: slipping on ladders is a high-hazard on
they didn’t enforce any of the safety policies an oil rig and having grease on one’s work-
or procedures for the carpenter workers. boots increases the risk factor.
Because the carpenter foreman had
convinced the project manager that his
people knew how to work safely.

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-11

• Employee Suggestions – The employees are faced each day with the hazards of the workplace. And, it is
the employees who can most often recommend measures which will protect them from these hazards.
By examining the employee suggestions (safety related) trends can be identified.

The employees of Gizmo’s are permitted

to submit safety suggestions directly to
the safety office. Upon reviewing the
employee suggestions it was identified
that there was insufficient designated
smoking areas, which encouraged the
employees to sneak smokes in areas that
contained combustible material.

Establishing trends is a significant measure in identifying areas that need improvement. However, keep in
mind that these same measuring devices can also be instrumental in identifying effective safety measures.

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-12

Methods for Data Presentation

Percentages (a given part of the whole expressed as a decimal).

Dividing the number of cases of interest by the
total number of cases derives percentages.
Percentages are used as a means for comparison
or to demonstrate changes over a particular
period of time.

For example, the lost-time injury rate for

maintenance workers was 34% in 2000 and 32%
in 2001. This shows a 2% decrease in the
number of maintenance workers being injured
and sustaining lost-time when compared to the
preceding year.

Frequency Distribution (distribution refers to any set of values or measurements).

Frequency distribution permits these values
to be grouped into categories or classes.

For example: 150 injuries were experienced

during a six month period at one workplace.
These injuries can be further categorized by
which part of the body was affected:

Body Part # Injuries Percentage

Head 12 8%
Upper
Extremities 24 16 %
Back 105 70 %
Lower
Extremities 9 6%

By reviewing the percentages for the areas of

the body involved in injuries we can quickly
determine the frequency distribution of
injuries per body part.

Statistics
Statistics encompasses everything associated This allows us to compare one company with
with the gathering, analysis and interpretation 30 employees to another company with 500
of numerical information. Statistics is employees, thereby making the size of the
therefore the extraction of information from company irrelevant.
numerical data.
Although 100 workers account for only a
Because it is otherwise difficult to compare small fraction of the workforce of some large
the injury and illness rates of large employers employers, this standardization does provide
with that of small employers, the Standard a means for comparison. The lost-time injury
Worker Hours formula was established. and illness rate is instrumental in providing a
comparison between a particular facility with
Standard Worker-Hours: another facility or the national average.
100 workers X 40 hours per week X 50
weeks = 200,000 worker-hours

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-13

Three of the most common formulas used for presenting safety data are:
a) Accident Frequency Rate (AFR)
b) Accident Severity Rate (ASR)
c) Total Incident Rate

Accident Frequency Rate (AFR);

The AFR is the number of accidents per a specific number of annual worker-hours. Please keep in mind
that an accident is an unplanned disruption to the normal process or operation; therefore the number of
accidents would include those that produce injuries (serious & minor), illnesses, fatalities, and property
damage.

To determine the AFR, multiply the number accidents for a given one-year period (or whatever time
period you selected) by 200,000; then divide by the actual number of worker-hours for that period.

Example:
Gizmo’s has 30 employees at their Tucson facility and 500 employees at their Corporate facility:
Tucson facility recorded 5 accidents Corporate recorded 60 accidents

AFR (Tucson)
5 X 200,000 ÷ 60,000 = 16.67 injuries
[30 workers X 40 hour-week X 50 weeks per year = 60,000 worker-hours]

AFR (Corporation)
60 X 200,000 ÷ 1,000,000 = 12.00 injuries
[500 workers X 40 hour-week X 50 weeks per year = 1,000,000 worker-hours]

For comparison purposes we can convert these findings into a percentage:

16.67 (Tucson) – 12.00 (Corporate) ÷ 12 X 100 = 38.9% (Tucson worse off than Corporate)

Accident Severity Rate (ASR);

ASR is the number of lost-days per a specific number of annual worker-hours.

Example:
Gizmo’s Tucson facility (Tucson 30 employees) recorded 125 lost workdays.
Gizmo’s Corporate facility (Corporation 500 employees) recorded 1200 lost workdays.

ASR (Tucson) 125 X 200,000 ÷ 60,000 = 416.67 lost days

ASR (Corporation) 1200 X 200,000 ÷ 1,000,000 = 240.00 lost days

For comparison purposes we can convert these findings into a percentage:

416.67 (Tucson) – 240.00 (Corporate) ÷ 240.00 X 100 = 73.6% (Tucson Worse off than Corporate)

Total Incidence Rate

This rate incorporates all the injuries, illnesses and first aid regardless of whether they resulted in lost-
time, restricted work or transfer to another job, and so does not factor in any measure of severity.
[total # of entries X 200,000] ÷ actual # of hours worked = Total Incidence Rate

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 Communicating Safety Effectively 3-14

References:
Ferry, Ted (1990) Modern Accident Investigation and Analysis
Hammer, Willie (1986) Occupational Safety Management and Engineering
Lundber and Tylczak (1997) Slash Your Workers’ Comp Cost
National Safety Council (1997) Accident Prevention Manual
Wikipodia (2005) The Free Encyclopedia – Internet

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-1

HAZARD RECOGNITION AND CONTROL MEASURES

There are numerous hazards associated with any industry. And, in order to accomplish a workplace/jobsite
hazard assessment, it is necessary to have an understanding of the following: Sources of Hazards, Control
Measures, and Conducting a Workplace/Jobsite Hazard Assessment.

Sources of Hazards

Before a hazard can be eliminated or mitigated it must first be identified. And as you recall, a hazard
consist of any condition(s) or situation, which have the potential to produce injury, illness, or property
damage; generally as a result of an accident. Hazards can be categorized in a variety of ways, however, for
our purposes we will separate hazards into two categories: Physical and Health.

Physical Hazards (generally produce injury)

Caught Between – can the worker be caught Rolling or Pinching – can the worker expose any
between two or more objects, such as movable part of their body to equipment or machinery
carts? where they may be pinched or caught in a roller?

Caught By – can the worker be caught by an Sharps – is the worker exposed to sharp objects
object, such as protruding sharp objects on that may result in puncture wounds or
equipment that may snag onto clothing or skin? lacerations?

Caught In – can the worker be caught in an Slips and Trips – is the working, walking surface
object, such as the gears of machinery? free from slips and trips hazards?

Co-Worker – can the co-worker interfere with the Struck by – can the worker be struck by an
normal operations of the worker? (co-worker object?
intoxicated, lack the skills to work with a
particular piece of equipment, or lack the Temperatures – can the worker be exposed to
knowledge of how to work safely). surfaces of equipment or structures which become
hot or cold?
Dusts – is the worker exposed to harmful dusts?

Electrical – can the worker receive an electrical

shock or burn? (all aspects of electricity from the
transfer station down to electrical appliances,
should be considered a potential hazard).

Exposure – can the worker be exposed to harmful

substances, such as chemicals?

Falling – can the worker fall from an elevation,

such as a ladder or a change in elevation of the
working, walking surface?

Flying Objects – is the worker exposed to flying

objects, from such operations as grinding,
chipping, or hammering?

Motions – is the worker exposed to anything that

has motion?

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-2

Health Hazards (generally produce illness)

Carcinogens – any agent that can produce or Vibration – two primary types of vibration are:
accelerate the development of malignant or • Hand-arm vibration; generally associated
potentially malignant tumors. with the use of pneumatic chipping and
grinding tools, chain saws, and abrasive
Heat – exposures to high temperatures could blasting equipment.
produce heatstroke, heat cramps, or heat
exhaustion. • Whole body vibration; usually experienced
by drivers and passengers of industrial
Cold – exposures to low temperatures could equipment, such as cranes and forklifts.
produce hypothermia or frostbite.

Illumination – inadequate lighting may produce

poor visibility or lighting may cause indirect
effects such as glare or shadows; all contributing
factors of visual fatigue.

Ergonomic – generally results from workers

assuming an awkward position over an extended
period of time or from performing a repetitive
motion over an extended period of time.

Noise – is “unwanted sound”; which can be a

hazard in itself if a worker is exposed to high
decibels over an extended period of time or noise
can be a contributing factor to hazards by
producing a startling effect, annoyance, disruption
to concentration, or interference with
communication.

Ionizing Radiation – radioactive materials emit

energy that may damage living tissues and organs
of the human body. There are five types of
radioactivity of concern alpha particles, beta
particles, X rays, gamma rays, and neutrons.

Non-ionizing Radiation – is generally found in

the form of electromagnetic radiation. Low
frequency such as microwaves tend to have a
heating effect on tissues. Medium frequency such
as germicidal lamps and electric welding arcs are
the most common producers of ultraviolet.
Ultraviolet radiation is also an effect of direct
sunlight, which if over exposed will produced a
sunburn.

Sanitation – items to be considered regarding

workplace sanitation include: potable water,
toilets, washrooms, change rooms, waste disposal.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-3

Typical Hazardous Incidents

This list represents a sample of work practices that, if not corrected, can result in an accident. This list was
complied by Mutual Insurance Company.

• Adjusting and gauging (callipering) work • Wearing gloves, ties, rings. Long sleeves, or
while the machine is in operation. loose clothing around machine tools.

• Cleaning a machine or removing a part while • Wearing gloves while grinding, polishing, or
the machine is in motion. buffing.

• Using an air hose to remove metal chips from • Handling hot objects with unprotected hands.
table or work (a brush or other tools should
be used for this purpose, except on recessed • No work rest or poorly adjusted work rest on
jigs). grinder (1/8 in maximum clearance)

• Using compressed air to blow dust or dirt off • Grinding without the glass eye shield in
clothing or out of hair. place.

• Using excessive pressure on air hose. • Making safety devices inoperative (removing
guards, tampering with adjustment of guard,
• Operating machine tools (turning machines, beating or cheating the guard, failing to
knurling and grinding machines, drill presses, report defects).
milling machines, boring machines) without
proper eye protection (including side • Using an ungrounded or uninsulated portable
shields). electric hand tool.

• Not wearing safety glasses in a designated • Improperly designed safety guard, for
eye-hazard area. example, a wide opening on a barrier guard
which will allow the fingers to reach the
• Failing to use protective clothing or cutting edge.
equipment (face shield, face mask, ear plugs,
safety hat, etc.) • Using the top step of a step-ladder.

• Failing to wear proper gloves or other hand • Carrying tools or equipment while ascending
protection when handling rough or sharp- or descending a ladder.
edged material.
• Raising and lower tools by their cord or hose.

Hazards are Typically Identified One of Two Ways:

1. Job Hazard Analysis – generally conducted prior to a project starting; used to help identify the types
of hazards that will be associated with the project, so that the workers can be trained to protect
themselves from these hazards.

2. Job Safety Analysis – generally conducted to identify hazards the may have arisen after the project
has begun.

Hazard Color Coding:

Red – danger
Yellow – caution
Green – informational
Blue – directional

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-4

Hazard Control Measures

Engineering
Engineering control for a hazard focuses on
removal of the hazard through an engineering
process. This may include design change,
substitution, isolation and ventilation. By
eliminating the hazard through an engineering
control, this removes the necessity to have to rely
on a human to protect workers from a hazard.

For example: putting a safety rail up along the edge

where there is a significant change in elevation.

Administrative
Administrative control provides measures that
govern the activities of the workers. This type of
control may include worker scheduling (to reduce
exposure time) and establishing work practices
rules (such as safe lifting techniques). Although
this method of hazard control relies on human
intervention, the workers themselves are not
completely responsible for protection from a
hazard.

For example: establishing a control access zone.

Work Practice
How to perform a task safely – such as lifting.
1. know your lifting capabilities;
2. get a grip before you lift;
3. look up before you stand up;
4. keep it close;
5. keep your nose between your toes; and
6. watch for fingers and toes when you lower.

Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment is not a substitute
for engineering, administrative controls, and/or
work practices. Personal protective equipment
should be used in conjunction with these controls
to provide for employee safety and health in the
workplace.

And, because PPE plays such a vital role in

protecting our workers, we need to review the
different basic types of PPE.

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Housekeeping – Special Note

Housekeeping is everyone’s responsibility and shall be practiced at all times. Besides ensuring that all work
areas, access ways and walkways are kept clear and free of loose material and debris at all times. Some areas
of special interest are:
o Spills, such as grease, water, or oil shall be cleaned up at once.
o Tools and equipment shall be kept in its place, when not in use.
o Fire fighting equipment shall never be blocked.

Types of Personal Protective Equipment

Not all hazards found in the workplace can be engineered or administratively controlled. Therefore, it
becomes necessary for employees to protect themselves through the use of personal protective equipment.
Each employee is responsible for learning the means for selecting personal protective equipment, its
limitations and most importantly how to use it and care for it.

In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets forth requirements as
to when personal protective equipment shall be used and at what level of protection it must provide. The
following pages regarding ppe, will refer to the OSHA requirements.

Furthermore, all personal protective equipment (PPE) clothing and equipment should be of safe design and
construction, and should be maintained in a clean and reliable fashion. Employers should take the fit and
comfort of PPE into consideration when selecting appropriate items for their workplace. PPE that fits well
and is comfortable to wear will encourage employee use of PPE. Most protective devices are available in
multiple sizes and care should be taken to select the proper size for each employee. If several different types
of PPE are worn together, make sure they are compatible. If PPE does not fit properly, it can make the
difference between being safely covered or dangerously exposed. It may not provide the level of protection
desired and may discourage employee use.

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 Head Protection
Head protection will be furnished to, and used by, all workers
engaged in work areas where there is a potential for head injuries
caused by falling or flying objects, or by bumping the head
against a fixed object.

Hardhats have been designed and manufactured to provide

workers protection from impact, heat, electrical and fire hazards.
These protective devices for the head consist of the shell and the
suspension, which are combined as a single protective system.

Hardhats and bump caps will be of non-conductive, fire and

water-resistant materials. Bump caps or skull guards are
constructed of lightweight materials and are designed to provide
minimal protection against hazards when working in congested
areas.

- Class A helmets – in addition to impact and HARD HAT

penetration resistance, provide electrical protection from low-voltage conductors (they
are proof tested to 2,200 volts).

- Class B helmets – in addition to impact and penetration resistance, provide electrical

protection from high-voltage conductors (they are proof tested to 20,000 volts)

- Class C helmets – provide impact and penetration resistance (they are usually made of
aluminum, which conducts electricity), and should not be used around electrical hazards.

- Bump caps will be used to protect the head from scalp lacerations; they are not a
substitution for a hardhat – because they do not afford protection from high impact
forces or penetration by falling objects.

Inspecting a Hardhat
The hard hat consists of two components: the shell and the suspension. Both require
inspection during assembly and before each use.
 During shell inspection, you should look for cracks, nicks, dents, gouges, and any
damage caused by impact, penetration, abrasions, or rough treatment. Additionally, if
your hard hat is made of thermoplastic (polyethylene, polycarbonate) materials,
inspect the shell for the following: stiffness, brittleness, fading, dullness of color, or a
chalky appearance. If the shell exhibits any of these conditions or if it is obviously
otherwise damaged, it should be removed from service and replaced immediately.

 Ultraviolet light is the hard hat’s worst enemy. Although ultraviolet inhibitors are
added to some manufacturers’ hardhat shells, all hard hats are susceptible to
deterioration from UV exposure over time. This is why it is so important that you
never store your hardhat in the rear window of a vehicle, or anywhere that it is exposed
to sunlight when not in use. If the work environment exposes the worker and hardhat
to high levels of sunlight, the hat should be replaced more frequently.

 A simple field test can be performed to determine possible degradation of polyethylene

shells: Compress the shell inward from the sides about 1 inch with both hands, then
release the pressure without dropping the shell. The shell should quickly return to its
original shape, exhibiting elasticity. There should be no residual deformation.
Compare the elasticity of the sample with that of a new shell. If the sample does not
exhibit elasticity similar to that of a new shell, or if it cracks because of brittleness, it
should be replaced immediately.

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 The main purpose of a hardhat’s suspension is to absorb the shock of a blow to the top
of the hard hat. Considering this, inspection of the hardhat suspension system is
equally as important as inspecting the shell, but it is all too often overlooked. The
suspension should be inspected closely for cracks or tears, frayed or cut straps, loss of
pliability, or other signs of wear. Whether your hard hat has a 4-point or 6-point
suspension (the number of keys that are engaged in the hard hat’s shell), all keys
should fit tightly and securely into their respective key slots. Refer to the
manufacturer’s instructions on assembling. Any suspension that shows signs of
damage should be removed from service and replaced immediately to ensure ongoing
protection of the wearer.

Hardhat Replacement Recommendation

Hardhats have a reasonable service life when used in normal work environments and
properly maintained. However, useful life is not indefinite, and there are some
recommended guidelines for hardhat replacement.
 Many employers replace all employees’ caps every five years, regardless of outward
appearance. If the user environment is known to include higher exposure to
temperature extremes, sunlight, or chemicals, hard hats should be replaced routinely
after two years of use. Most hard hats have manufacture date codes molded on the
underside brim of the cap so you can easily determine the age of the cap.

 Regardless of length of use, if a hardhat has been struck by a forcible blow of any
magnitude, the shell and suspension should be replaced immediately, even if no
damage is visible. Dropping a hard hat more than eight to ten feet warrants a
replacement. Don’t take a chance that it “might” be OK, because it’s not worth the
risk. Hard hats are designed to provide optimal protection under normal conditions.
Any impact can substantially reduce the protection offered.

Warnings and Precautions

 Stickers will not harm the hardhat’s performance under normal conditions, but restrict
the user’s ability to inspect for signs of damage.

 Never alter or modify the hard hat shell or suspension. This can drastically reduce the
amount of protection provided.

 Drilling holes in the hard hat shell for ventilation purposes must be prohibited at all
times.

 Always avoid contact of the hard hat with electrical wires.

 Never use a suspension that is not intended for use with a particular shell or one that is
made by a different manufacturer.

 Never carry or wear anything inside of your hard hat between the suspension and the
shell. A clearance must be maintained between the hard hat shell and the wearer’s head
for the protection system to work properly. A ball cap or other object may limit this
clearance. An object placed under the cap may also contain metal parts that may
diminish the dielectric protection provided by the hat. There are some products, such
as winterliners and sunshades, that are designed specifically to work in conjunction
with hard hats. Be sure to follow manufacturer’s recommendations for the use of these
products.

 Wearing a Hardhat Backwards:

There is considerable confusion and misinterpretation about whether OSHA allows
hardhats to be worn backward. An OSHA Standard Interpretation and Compliance

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Letter dated July 22, 1992, states, “Because ANSI only tests and certifies hard hats to
be worn with the bill foreword (sic), hardhats worn with the bill to the rear would not
be considered reliable protection and would not meet the requirements of 29 CFR
1926.100 (a) and (b) unless the hard hat manufacturer certifies that this practice meets
the ANSI requirements.”

Prior to allowing employees to wear their hats backward, always get written
verification from the hard hat manufacturer on whether your hard hat model has been
tested and found to be compliant to the requirements of the American National
Standards Institute standard when worn with the bill turned to the rear. The
manufacturer may specify that proper performance requires the suspension to be
reversed in the helmet, so that the headband is oriented normally to the wearer’s head
(i.e., with the brow pad against the forehead and the extended nape strap at the base of
the skull). In this manner, only the shell of the helmet is positioned backward on the
head.

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 Eye and Face Protection

A study by Bureau of Labor and Statistics found that approximately 60% of the eye injuries that
occurred because workers were not wearing ppe. When asked why they did not use ppe, they
responded with face protection was not normally used or practiced in their type of work, or it
was not required for the type of work performed at the time of the accident. OSHA requires
“Each affected employee shall use appropriate eye or face protection when exposed to eye or
face hazards from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids,
chemical gases or vapors, or potentially injurious light radiation”.

When is Face and Eye Protection Needed?

 Each worker shall use appropriate eye or face protection when
exposed to eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten
metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases
or vapors, or potentially injurious light radiation.

 Each worker shall use eye protection that provides side

protection when there is a hazard from flying objects.
Detachable side protectors are acceptable.

 Each worker who wears prescription lenses while engaged in

operations that involve eye hazards shall wear eye protection
that incorporates the prescription in its design, or shall wear eye
protection that can be worn over the prescription lenses without
disturbing the proper position of the prescription lenses or the
protective lenses.

 Eye and face Personal Protective Equipment shall be distinctly

marked to facilitate identification of the manufacturer.

 Each worker shall use equipment with filter lenses that have a
shade number appropriate for the work being performed for
protection from injurious light radiation.

Common Hazards Associated with Face and Eye Injury

 Splashes of toxic or corrosives chemicals, hot liquids, and molten metals.
 Flying objects, such as chips of metal, wood, and other materials that can produce
dangerous flying objects when cut, drilled, hammered, or worked with in another similar
manner.
 Fumes, gases, and mists of toxic or corrosive chemicals.
 Aerosols and biological substances.

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Criteria for Eye and Face Protection

 Eye and face protectors used by workers, contractors and visitors must conform to the
following design and performance criteria:
 Provide adequate protection against the particular hazards for which they are designed.
 Fit properly and offer the least possible resistance to movement causing minimal
discomfort while in use.
 Be durable.
 Be easily cleaned and/or disinfected by the wearer.
 Be clearly marked to identify the manufacturer.
 Persons who require corrective lenses for normal vision, and who are required to wear
eye protection, must wear goggles or spectacles of one of the following types:
 Spectacles with protective lenses, which provide optical correction.
 Goggles that can be worn over spectacles without disturbing the adjustment of the
spectacles.
 Goggles that incorporate corrective lenses mounted behind the protective lenses.

Types of Eye and Face Protection

 Safety Glasses – are made with safety frames, tempered glass or plastic lenses,
temples and side shields which provide eye protection from moderate impact and
particles encountered in job tasks such as carpentry, woodworking, grinding, chipping,
etc.

 Safety Goggles – generally consist of vinyl framed goggles of soft pliable body design
provide adequate eye protection from many hazards. These goggles are available with
clear or tinted lenses, perforated, port vented, or non-vented frames. Single lens
goggles provide similar protection to spectacles and may be worn in combination with
spectacles or corrective lenses to insure protection along with proper vision.

 Welder’s Goggles – available in rigid and soft frames to accommodate single or two
eyepiece lenses; provide protection from sparking, scaling or splashing metals and
harmful light rays. Lenses are impact resistant and are available in graduated shades
of filtration.

 Chippers / Grinders Goggles – have dual protective eyecups house impact resistant
clear lenses with individual cover plates.

 Face Shield – these normally consist of an adjustable headgear and face shield of
tinted/transparent acetate or polycarbonate materials, or wire screen. Face shields are
available in various sizes, tensile strength, impact/heat resistance and light ray filtering
capacity. Face shields will be used in operations when the entire face needs protection
and should be worn to protect eyes and face against flying particles, metal sparks, and
chemical/ biological splash. Face shields must be worn in addition to safety glasses.

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Eye Injuries in Construction – Hazard Alert – Construction Safety Council

In construction, more than 10,600 eye injuries each year force workers to miss work. Construction has a
much higher rate of eye injuries than any other industry.

The Hazard
Nails, tiny pieces of metal, splinters, and cut wire ends fly in the air. Mixing of cement, sawing,
grinding, and chipping produce dusts and grit. So does heavy machinery moving across a site. Chemicals and
welding arc can burn your eyes. If you are not careful, you can hurt your eyes or go blind.

Protecting Yourself
1- Wear appropriate eye protection (goggles or safety glasses with side shields)
2- Wear goggles:
- if you wear contact lenses, wear un-vented goggles.
- where there is a lot of dust, liquids, or gases.
- overhead work.

3- Wear clear, face shield for:

- work with corrosive chemicals or metals that can splash,
- grinding, chipping, or using a wire brush on welds.
- flying particles
- sandblasting

4- Welding:
- flameproof screen to shield against UV rays around a welder to protect other people
- do not look at the welding arc (or the reflection of the welding arc) unless shielded lenses
- three welding lens numbers you need:
a. intensity of radiant energy produced by the work;
b. background lighting (indoor or outdoor work); and
c. type of filter lens (standard or reflective).

Minimum standard lens shade number needed:

torch soldering 2 2 gas tungsten arc welding 11 10
torch brazing 3 2 plasma arc welding 11 10
flame cutting 4 3 plasma arc cutting 11 10
gas welding 5 4 air/carbon arc cutting 12 11
gas metal arc welding 11 10 flux core welding 12 11
shield metal arc welding 11 10

5- Use local exhaust ventilation or fans to blow away fumes or dusts.

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Hearing Protectors
Protection against the effects of noise exposure shall be provided when the sound
levels exceed those shown in the Table”.

Permissible Noise Exposures

(A scale of a standard sound level meter at slow response)
Duration per day, hours Sound level dba slow response

8 ........................................................ 90
.
6 ........................................................ 92

4 ........................................................ 95

3 ....................................................... 97

2 ........................................................ 100

1 ½ .................................................. 102

1 ........................................................ 105

½ ..................................................... 110

¼ or less .......................................... 115

Some examples of noise levels in the workplace:

30 dba – whisper, quiet library
60 dba – normal conversation, sewing machine, typewriter
90 dba – lawnmower, shop tools, truck traffic.
115 dba – sandblasting, loud rock concert, automobile horn.
140 dba – gun muzzle blast, jet engine

Measuring Sound
The measurement of sound includes its Intensity and Loudness. Sound is measured in
decibels using the A scale; this scale runs from the faintest sound the human ear can detect,
which is labeled 0 dba, to over 180 dba, the noise at a rocket pad during launch.

 Pitch is measured in frequency of sound vibrations per second. A low pitch, such as a
deep voice or a tuba, makes fewer vibrations per second than a high voice or violin.

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Hearing Protection Devices

Hearing protection devices decrease the intensity of sound that reaches the eardrum.
 Ear-plugs
Ear-plugs are inserted into the ear canals and vary considerably in design and material.
They must be snugly sealed so the entire circumference of the ear canal is blocked. An
improperly fitted, dirty or worn-out plug may not seal and can
irritate the ear canal.
Materials used are pliable rubber, soft or medium plastic, wax
and cotton. Rubber and plastic are popular because they are
inexpensive, easy to keep clean and give good performance.
Wax tends to lose its effectiveness during the workday
because jaw movement changes the shape of the ear canal and
this breaks the acoustical seal between ear and insert.

Expandable foam plugs. These plugs are made of a formable

material designed to expand and conform to the shape of each
person’s ear canal.

Pre-molded plugs are made from silicone, plastic or rubber and

are manufactured as either “one-size-fits-most” or are available
in several sizes. Many pre-molded plugs are available in sizes
for small, medium or large ear canals.

Canal caps often resemble earplugs on a flexible plastic or

metal band. The earplug tips of a canal cap may be a formable
or pre-molded material. The main advantage canal caps offer
is convenience. When it’s quiet, employees can leave the band
hanging around their necks. They can quickly insert the plug
tips when hazardous noise starts again

 Ear-muffs
Fit over the entire outer ear to form an air seal so the entire
circumference of the ear canal is blocked, and they are held in
place by an adjustable band. Earmuffs will not seal around
eyeglasses or long hair, and the adjustable headband tension
must be sufficient to hold earmuffs firmly around the ear.

The effectiveness of these devices varies with the size, seal

materials, shell mass and suspension of the muff as well as
with the size and shape of workers heads. Muff is made in a
universal type or in specific head, neck or chin sizes. Hearing
protection kits that can be used with hard helmets are also
available.

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 Hand Protection
Hand protection is required when workers’ hands are exposed to hazards such as skin
absorption of harmful substances; cuts or lacerations; abrasions; punctures; chemical burns;
thermal burns; and harmful temperature extremes. Although fingers are hard to protect because
they are needed for practically all kinds of work, they can be shielded from common injuries
with the use of proper protective equipment.

 Most accidents involving hands and arms can be classified under four main hazard
categories: hazardous chemical contact, abrasions, cuts, and burns.

 There are gloves available that can protect workers from any of these individual hazards or
combination of hazards.

Selection Criteria for Hand Protection

 Selection of PPE for the hands shall be based on
an evaluation of the performance characteristics of
the hand protection relative to the tasks being
performed, conditions present, duration of use, and
the hazards and potential hazards identified.

 Gloves are often relied upon to prevent cuts,

abrasions, burns, and skin contact with chemicals
that are capable of causing local or systemic
effects following dermal exposure. There is no
glove that provides protection against all potential STAINLESS STEEL GLOVE
hand hazards, and commonly available glove
materials provide only limited protection against
many chemicals.

 Therefore, it is important to select the most

appropriate glove for a particular application and
to determine how long it can be worn, and
whether it can be reused. It is also important to
know the performance characteristics of gloves
relative to the specific hazard anticipated; i.e.,
chemical hazards, cut hazards, flame hazards, LEATHER RIGGER’S
etc.

WELDER’S GAUNTLET

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Common Types of Gloves

 Heat-resistant gloves are used to protect against burns and discomfort when the hands
are exposed to sustained conductive heat.

 Metal mesh gloves are used by those who work constantly with knives to protect
against cuts and blows from sharp or rough objects.

 Electricians wear rubber gloves. They must be tested regularly for dielectric strength.

 Rubber, neoprene and vinyl gloves are used when handling chemicals and corrosive.
Neoprene and vinyl are particularly useful when petroleum products are handled.

 Leather gloves are able to resist sparks, moderate heat, chips and rough objects. They
provide some cushioning against blows. They are generally used for heavy-duty work.
Welders use chrome-tanned leather or horsehide gloves.

 Chrome-tanned cowhide leather gloves with steel-stapled leather patches or steel

staples on palms and fingers are often used in foundries and steel mills.

 Cotton fabric gloves are suitable for protection against dirt, slivers, chafing or
abrasion. They are not heavy enough to use in handling rough, sharp or heavy
materials.

 Heated gloves are designed for use in cold environment.

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 Safety Shoes
Typical foot injury is caused by objects falling less than 4 feet and the median weight was about
65 pounds. OSHA requires “Each affected employee shall wear protective footwear when
working in areas where there is a danger of foot injuries due to falling or rolling objects, or
objects piercing the sole, and where such employee’s feet are exposed to electrical hazards.”

Your ability to use your feet safely, with ease and comfort, is vital if you are to remain a
valuable and productive worker. When your job requires you to stand on your feet for long
periods, work in potentially hazardous areas or with potentially hazardous materials, you have
some risk of foot injury. However, you can do a lot to prevent injuries by keeping your feet
healthy and following safe work practices.

Safety shoes are a vital piece of PPE, offering the last line of defense against the crushing
weight of heavy objects or the hazards of dangerous chemicals. Only one out of four victims of
job-related foot injury wears any type of safety shoe or boot, according to the National Safety
Council. The remaining three either are unaware of the benefits of protective footwear or
complain about it.

Types of Protective Footwear

• Safety Toe Shoes (steel-toed) – protect against crushing injuries caused by impact from any
object during work activities (e.g., lifting heavy objects, using power tools, etc.)

• Treated Shoes, Rubber Boots or Plastic Shoe Covers – protect against corrosive chemicals.

• Insulated Shoes – protect against electric shock.

• Rubber Shoes – provide traction in wet conditions where the possibility of slipping exists.

FOUNDRY SHOES
SAFETY SHOES

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Inspecting Foot Protection

• There is no one-size-fits-all formula for knowing exactly when it is time to replace safety
shoes, as there are many variables to consider such as the job hazards, how often the boot is
worn and the size and weight of the worker. Even within the same industry, the length of a
safety shoe’s service depends on the job task.

• When inspecting safety footwear to see if it needs to be replaced, shoes with steel toecaps
will offer more tactile clues than shoes with composite material toecaps. For example, if a
heavy object falls on a steel toe shoes, the steel cap will be dented and will not “spring
back,” indicating that the shoe must be replaced. Composite material shoes, on the other
hand, could be “irrevocably damaged” in the same incident and still maintain their form.

• When a shoe’s steel toe or other protective components such as the steel midsole, the steel
shank or the metatarsal guard is showing, the shoe needs to be replaced.

• Immediately replace impact- and compression-resistant shoes if there is “evidence of

physical damage” to the toe area or the shoe. For shoes with metatarsal guards, shoes
should be replaced after an impact has occurred or when the metatarsal guard is exposed
from wear and tear.

• For waterproof or chemical-resistant footwear made with rubber or PVC materials, boots
must be replaced immediately if there is any separation of the rubber or PVC parts,
including the outsole, foxing (the piece of material that protects the joint between the
outsole and the upper) or toe cover. The same could be said for evaluating the tread on a
slip-resistant safety shoe. Once tread, or outsole, shows signs of damage or wear, the shoe
likely is reaching retirement age.

• Something important to look for when evaluating the fitness of a rubber safety shoe or boot
is the presence of cuts, cracks or punctures on the footwear, which could cause leaking.

 Reflective Vest
High visibility vests are available for workers involved in
traffic control. These vests may also be required in operations
where key personnel location is crucial. These vests are
generally a high visibility orange. Vests can be procured with
reflective trim, which offers greater day and night visibility.
The vests may be made of solid vinyl, PVC coated polyester
or nylon. The garment may be knit or flat mesh, solid or
perforated, or nylon mesh. Other features can include hook
and loop or snap front closure, webbing or elastic side
closures, and reflective and/or luminescent vertical or
horizontal stripes.

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 Respiratory Protection
Engineering controls are the primary measures used to control employee exposure to harmful
dusts, fogs, fumes, mists, gasses, smokes, sprays, or vapors. Such engineering controls include,
but are not limited to enclosures and confinement, general and local ventilation, and substitution
of less toxic materials. However, when engineering controls are infeasible, respirators shall be
used. Respirators are used to control occupational diseased caused by breathing contaminated
air.

Selection of Respiratory Protection

 The first step in selecting a respirator is to determine what kinds of hazards are
present in the work site. Three primary categories for atmospheric hazards:
- PARTICULATES are airborne particles of sizes that can be measured. Dusts,
mists, and fumes are the types of these various-sized particles. Dusts are the
largest-size particles. Dust may be dirt, but also can be spores from moldy hay,
silage, or grain. Mists are suspended liquid droplets held in the air from
mixing, cleaning, and spraying operations. Fumes are particles of airborne
solid evaporated metals such as from welding tasks.
- GASES and VAPORS due to chemical reactions. GASES are released from
chemical reactions, such as manure decomposition, silage fermentation, and
the exhausts of internal combustion engines. The gaseous products of these
reactions exist during normal temperatures of the reaction. VAPORS are gases
from substances that are normally solid or liquid. Evaporation from liquids,
such as pesticides, paints, adhesives, and solvents become vapors. These
become airborne breathing hazards.
- OXYGEN-DEFICIENT ATMOSPHERES. Breathing environments with less
than 19.5% oxygen. Examples of these kinds of atmosphere are sealed silos are
kept free of oxygen to keep certain bacteria from spoiling the silage; controlled
atmosphere (CA) storages of fruit and vegetables lower the oxygen levels to
maintain food quality and storage times; manure storage, especially covered
pits, becomes oxygen deficient due to manure decomposition depleting the
oxygen supply; walk-in refrigerators; Tanks; Vats; Boilers; Bins; Hoppers;
Process Vessels; Sewers; Pits; Deep Trenches; Vaults; etc.

Types of Respirators
 Air-purifying respirators – mechanical filter respirators, chemical cartridge
respirators, combination mechanical filter and chemical cartridge respirators and
masks with canisters
- Air purifying devices remove contaminants from air as it is being breathed. They
can be used only in environment containing sufficient oxygen to sustain life.
- Air purifying devices are only effective in the limited concentration ranges for
which they are designed and must never be used where contaminant level
exceed the respirators accepted protection factor.
- Mechanical filter respirator must protect the workers against exposure to
nuisance dusts and pneumoconiosis producing dusts, mists and fumes.
Examples of nuisance dusts are aluminum, cellulose, cement, flour, gypsum
and limestone. Pneumoconiosis comes from three Greek words that mean lung,
dust and abnormal condition. The generally accepted meaning of the words is
merely “dusty lung”.
- A mechanical filter respirator is of no value if use as protection against chemical
vapors, injurious gases or oxygen deficiency. To use it under these conditions
is a serious mistake.

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- Chemical cartridge respirator can be a half-mask face piece or a full-mask piece

face connected to one or more small containers (cartridge) or solvent, typically
activated charcoal or soda lime (a mixture of calcium hydroxide with sodium
or potassium hydroxide) for absorption of low concentration of certain vapors
and gases. The life of the cartridge can be relatively short, for protection
against mercury vapor, the nominal container, life is 8 hours. After use, the
cartridge must be discarded.
- Chemical cartridge respirator must not be used in atmosphere immediately
dangerous to life or health, such as those deficient in oxygen.

 Supplied-air respirators – airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus

or SCBA
Air Supplied Respirators deliver breathing air through a hose connected to a
wearer’s face piece. The air source used is monitored frequently to make sure it
does not become contaminated, say carbon monoxide. The airline respirator can
be used in atmosphere not immediately dangerous to life or death, especially where
working conditions demand continuous use of a respirator. Each person should be
assigned his or her own respirator.

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus – is independent of the surrounding

atmosphere; therefore this kind of respiratory protective equipment must be used in
environments where contaminants are immediately harmful to life. This equipment
is frequently used in mine rescue work and firefighting.

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Care and Maintenance for Respirators

 Cleaning and Disinfecting
- as often as necessary when issued for the exclusive use of one worker.
- before being worn by different individuals.
- after each use for emergency use respirators.
- after each use for respirators used for fit testing and training.

 Storage
- respirators are stored to protect them from damage from the elements, and from
becoming deformed.
- emergency respirators are stored to be accessible to the work area in
compartments marked as such and in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations.

Inspecting Respirators
 Routine-use respirators are inspected before each use and during cleaning.
 SCBAs and emergency respirators are inspected monthly and checked for proper
function before and after each use.
 Emergency escape-only respirators are inspected before being carried into the
workplace for use.
 Inspections shall include:
- Check of respirator function.
- Tightness of connections.
- Condition of the face piece, head straps, valves, and cartridges.
- Condition of elastomeric parts.
 For SCBAs, inspection includes checking that cylinders are fully charged, and
that regulators and warning devices function properly.
 Emergency use respirators are certified by documenting the inspection, and by
tagging the information either to the respirator or its compartment, or storing it
with inspection reports.

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-21

 Fall Protection
A fall arrest system is required if any risk exists that a
worker may fall from an elevated position, as a
general rule, the fall arrest system should be used
anytime a working height of six feet or more is
reached. Working height is the distance from the
walking/working surface to a grade or lower level. A
fall arrest system will only come into service should a
fall occur.

 A full-body harness with a shock-absorbing

lanyard or a retractable lifeline is the only product
recommended.

 A full-body harness distributes the forces

throughout the body, and the shock-absorbing
lanyard decreases the total fall arresting forces.

Components of a Fall-Arrest System

 Personal fall-arrest systems consist of anchorage, connectors and a body harness or
body belt. A lanyard, deceleration device, lifeline or combinations of these may be
included. Body belts are prohibited as primary fall-arrest equipment, though the
belts can still be used in conjunction with other equipment.

 Connectors, devices used to link parts of the personal fall-arrest system and
positioning device system, should be drop-forged, pressed or formed steel,
corrosion-resistant and smooth-surfaced to prevent damage to interfacing parts.
Dee-rings and snaphooks should have a minimum tensile strength of 5,000 pounds.
When proof-tested to 3,600 pounds, they should not crack, break or take
permanent deformation. Snaphook size should be compatible with other members
to prevent unintentional disengagement. Use only locking-type snaphooks.

 Suspended scaffolds or similar platforms with horizontal lifelines that may become
vertical lifelines need a device capable of locking in both directions. Design,
install and use horizontal lifelines under the supervision of a qualified person, as
part of a complete personal fall-arrest system that maintains a safety factor of two.

 Employees should have their own vertical lifelines with a breaking strength of at
least 5,000 pounds. Two employees may be attached to the same lifeline during
elevator construction if they are working atop a false car equipped with guardrails
and the lifeline breaking strength is 10,000 pounds. Lifelines must be protected
from being cut or abraded.

 Self-retracting lifelines that do not limit the free-fall distance to 2 feet, and
ripstitch, tearing and deforming lanyards, should have a minimum tensile load of
5,000 pounds when the device is fully extended. Self-retracting lifelines and
lanyards that automatically limit the free-fall distance to 2 feet or less must have a
minimum tensile load of 3,000 pounds.

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-22

Fall Protection Systems

Listed below are different types of fall safety equipment and their recommended usage.

Class 1 Body belts (single or double D-ring) are designed to restrain a person in a hazardous
work position and to reduce the possibility of falls. They should not be used when
fall potential exists; positioning only.

Class 2 Chest harnesses are used when there are only limited fall hazards (no vertical free
fall hazard), or for retrieving persons such as removal of persons from a tank or a
bin.

Class 3 Full body harnesses are designed to arrest the most severe free falls.

Class 4 Suspension belts are independent work supports used to suspend a worker, such
as boatswain’s chairs or raising or lowering harnesses.

Rope Lanyard Offers some elastic properties for all arrest; used for restraint purpose.

Web Lanyard Ideal for restraint purposes where fall hazards are less than 2 feet.

Cable Positioning Designed for corrosive or excess heat environments and must be used in conjunction
Lanyards with shock absorbing devices.

Shock Absorbers When used, the fall arresting force will be greatly reduced if a fall occurs.

Rope Grabs A deceleration device which travels on a lifeline, used to safely ascend or descend
ladders or sloped surfaces and automatically, by friction, engages the lifeline and
locks so as to arrest the fall of an employee.

Retractable Lifeline Gives fall protection and mobility to the user when working at height or in areas
Systems where there is a danger of falling.

Safety Nets Can be used to lesson the fall exposure when working where temporary floors
and scaffolds are not used and the fall distance exceeds 25 feet.

Rail Systems When climbing a ladder, rail systems can be used on any fixed ladder as well as
curved surfaces as a reliable method of fall prevention.

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-23

Inspection and Maintenance

 To maintain their service life and high performance, all belts and harnesses should be
inspected frequently.

 Visual inspection before each use should become routine, and also a routine inspection by a
competent person.

 Harness
Belts and Rings – hold the body side of the belt toward you, grasping the belt with your
hands six to eight inches apart. Bend the belt in an inverted “U.” Watch for frayed edges,
broken fibers, pulled stitches, cuts or chemical damage. Check D-rings and D-ring metal
wear pads for distortion, cracks, breaks, and rough or sharp edges. The D-ring bar should
be at a 90 degree angle with the long axis of the belt and should pivot freely.
o attachments of buckles and D-rings should be given special attention. Note any
unusual wear, frayed or cut fibers, or distortion of the buckles.
o rivets should be tight and unremovable with fingers; body side rivet base and
outside rivets should be flat against the material; bent rivets will fail under stress.
o inspect frayed or broken strands; broken webbing strands generally appear as tufts
on the webbing surface – any broken, cut or burnt stitches will be readily seen.

Tongue Buckle – shall be free of distortion in shape and motion; they should overlap the
buckle frame and move freely back and forth in their socket. Rollers should turn freely on
the frame – check for distortion or sharp edges.

Friction Buckle – inspect the buckle for distortion. The outer bar or center bars must be
straight. Pay special attention to corners and attachment points of the center bar.

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-24

 Lanyard
When inspecting lanyards, begin at one end and work to the opposite end.
Slowly rotate the lanyard so that the entire circumference is checked.
Spliced ends require particular attention.
Hardware shall be examined under procedures detailed below:
o Snaps: Inspect closely for hook and eye distortion, cracks, corrosion, or pitted
surfaces. The keeper or latch should seat into the nose without binding and should
not be distorted or obstructed. The keeper spring should exert sufficient force to
firmly close the keeper. Keeper rocks must provide the keeper from opening when
the keeper closes.

o Thimbles: The thimble (protective plastic sleeve) must be firmly seated in the eye
of the splice, and the splice should have no loose or cut strands. The edges of the
thimble should be free of sharp edges, distortion, or cracks.

o Steel Lanyard – while rotating a steel lanyard, watch for cuts, frayed areas, or
unusual wear patterns on the wire. The use of steel lanyards for fall protection
without a shock-absorbing device is not recommended.

o Web Lanyard – while bending webbing over a piece of pipe, observe each side of
the webbed lanyard. This will reveal any cuts or breaks. Due to the limited
elasticity of the web lanyard, fall protection without the use of a shock absorber is
not recommended.

o Rope Lanyard – rotation of the rope lanyard while inspecting from end to end will
bring to light any fuzzy, worn, broken or cut fibers. Weakened areas from extreme
loads will appear as a noticeable change in original diameter. The rope diameter
should be uniform throughout, following a short break-in period. When a rope
lanyard is used for fall protection, a shock-absorbing system should be included.

Shock Absorbing Pads

o The outer portion of the shock-absorbing pack should be examined for burn holes
and tears. Stitching on areas where the pack is sewn to the D-ring, belt or lanyard
should be examined for loose strands, rips and deterioration.

Visual Indicators of Damage

o Heat – In excessive heat, nylon becomes brittle and has a shriveled brownish
appearance. Fibers will break when flexed and should not be used above 180 degrees
Fahrenheit.

o Chemical – Change in color usually appears as a brownish smear or smudge.

Transverse cracks appear when belt is bent over tight. This causes a loss of elasticity in
the belt.

o Ultraviolet Rays – Do not store webbing and rope lanyards in direct sunlight, because
ultraviolet rays can reduce the strength of some material.

o Molten Metal or Flame – Webbing and rope strands may be fused together by molten
metal or flame. Watch for hard, shiny spots or a hard and brittle feel. Webbing will not
support combustion, nylon will.

o Paint and Solvents – Paint will penetrate and dry, restricting movements of
fibers. Drying agents and solvents in some paints will appear as chemical
damage.

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-25

Cleaning of Equipment
Basic care for fall protection safety equipment will prolong and endure the life of the equipment
and contribute toward the performance of its vital safety function. Proper storage and
maintenance after equipment use is just as important as cleaning the equipment of dirt,
corrosives or contaminants. The storage area should be clean, dry and free of exposure to
fumes or corrosive elements.
 Nylon and Polyester – wipe off all surface dirt with a sponge dampened in plain water.
Squeeze the sponge dry. Dip the sponge in a mild solution of water and commercial soap or
detergent. Work up a thick lather with a vigorous back and forth motion. Then wipe the
belt dry with a clean cloth. Hang freely to dry but away from excessive heat.
 Drying – harness, and other equipment should be dried thoroughly without exposure to
heat, steam or long periods of sunlight.

Safety Nets
Safety nets are often times used in conjunction with a fall arrest system. Safety nets actually not
only provide additional protection in the event of a worker falling, but also serve to prevent
items from falling on workers down below the work activity.
 Safety nets need sufficient clearance to prevent contact with objects below.
 Install nets capable of absorbing the impact force of a drop test, which should be performed
and documented at the job site. The drop test consists of a 400-pound bag of sand, 30
inches, plus or minus 2 inches, in diameter, dropped from the highest walking/working
surface where employees are exposed to fall hazards, but not from less than 42 inches
above that level. If the employer can demonstrate that a drop test is unreasonable, a
competent person can prepare a certification record stating the net can withstand the impact
force equal to the drop test
 The maximum opening of the safety net should not exceed 36 square inches and be no
longer than 6 inches on any side. When measuring center to center, the rope or webbing
should not exceed 6 inches. The breaking strength of border rope should be 5,000 pounds
minimum.
 Connectors need to be as strong as the integral net and spaced not more than 6 inches apart.
 When safety nets are inspected once a week, look for wear, damage and other deterioration.
 Remove defective nets from service.
 Clear material, scrap and equipment caught in the safety net as soon as possible and at least
before the next work shift

References:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-26

Training Requirement for Personal Protective Equipment

Employees must be trained regarding personal protective equipment and this training shall include:

1. When personal protective equipment is necessary;

2. What personal protective equipment is necessary;
3. How to properly don, doff, adjust, and wear personal protective equipment;
4. The limitations of the personal protective equipment; and
5. The proper care, maintenance, useful life and disposal of the personal protective
equipment.

Furthermore, each employee required to utilize personal protective equipment, must demonstrate an
understanding of the training and their ability to use personal protective equipment. This
understanding of personal protective equipment usage shall be documented.

Re-training of employee’s understanding and usage of personal protective equipment shall be

conducted and documented when:
1. An employer has reason to believe that an employee does not have the understanding and
skill required to use personal protective equipment.
2. Changes in the workplace render previous training obsolete.
3. Changes in the types of personal protective equipment to be used render previous training
obsolete.
4. Inadequacies in an employee’s knowledge or use of assigned personal protective
equipment, indicate that the employee has not retained the requisite understanding or skill.

Documentation of personal protective equipment training shall include (as a minimum):

1. Name(s) of employee(s) trained;
2. Date(s) of training; and
3. Equipment trained on.

Page 3-27 provides a sample form to document employee issue and training of personal protective
equipment.

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-27

Employee Personal Protection Equipment Checklist

Employee Name: ___________________________________________________

Department: _______________________________________________________

Job Classification: ___________________________________________________

Type of Equipment Issued Date Training Trainer Employee

Provided Initial Initial

_______________________________ ___________ __________ __________

_______________________________ ___________ __________ __________

_______________________________ ___________ __________ __________

_______________________________ ___________ __________ __________

_______________________________ ___________ __________ __________

_______________________________ ___________ __________ __________

______________________________ : This certifies that __________________________

(Supervisor – print) (Employee – print)
has been provided with the above noted equipment and has completed training in the care,
use, maintenance, and storage of the equipment.

___________________________________
Supervisor Signature

Employee: I have been given above noted equipment and have been trained in the care,
use, maintenance, and storage of said equipment. Furthermore, I understand why it is
necessary to use such equipment. I agree to use it.

__________________________________
Employee Signature

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-28

Conducting Workplace/Jobsite Hazard Assessment

Job Hazard Analysis OSHA Form 3071

Introduction should be given priority. Analyses of new jobs

Job-related injuries and fatalities occur every and jobs where changes have been made in
day in the workplace. These injuries often occur processes and procedures should follow.
because employees are not trained in the proper Eventually, a job hazard analysis should be
job procedure. conducted and made available to employees for
all jobs in the workplace.
One way to prevent workplace injuries is to
establish proper job procedures and train all
employees in safer and more efficient work
methods. Establishing proper job procedures is
one of the benefits of conducting a job hazard
analysis— carefully studying and recording each
step of a job, identifying existing or potential job
hazards (both safety and health), and determining
the best way to perform the job or to reduce or
eliminate these hazards. Improved job methods
can reduce costs resulting from employee
absenteeism and workers’ compensation, and can
often lead to increased productivity.

This booklet explains what a job hazard analysis

is and contains guidelines for conducting your
own step-by-step analysis. A sample of a
completed job hazard analysis and a blank job
hazard analysis form are included at the back of
this booklet. It is important to note that the job
procedures in this booklet are for illustration only
and do not necessarily include all steps, hazards, Involving the Employee
or protections for similar jobs in industry. Once you have selected a job for analysis, discuss
the procedure with the employee performing the
Although this booklet is designed for use by job and explain its purpose. Point out that you are
foremen and supervisors, employees also are studying the job itself, not checking on the
encouraged to use the information contained in employee’s job performance. Involve the
this booklet to analyze their own jobs, be employee in all phases of the analysis—from
aware of workplace hazards, and report any reviewing the job steps and procedures to
hazardous conditions to their supervisors. For discussing potential hazards and recommended
additional information on job hazard analysis and solutions. You also should talk to other workers
job safety and health programs, see the list of who have performed the same job.
publications at the end of this booklet.

Selecting Jobs for Analysis

A job hazard analysis can be performed for all
jobs in the workplace, whether the job task is
“special” (non-routine) or routine. Even one-step
jobs—such as those in which only a button is
pressed—can and perhaps should be analyzed by
evaluating surrounding work conditions.
To determine which jobs should be analyzed first,
review your job injury and illness reports.
Obviously, a job hazard analysis should be
conducted first for jobs with the highest rates of
disabling injuries and illnesses. Also, jobs where
“close calls” or “near misses” have occurred

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-29

Conducting the Job Hazard Analysis Breaking the Job Down

Before actually beginning the job hazard analysis, Nearly every job can be broken down into job
take a look at the general conditions under which tasks or steps. In the first part of the job hazard
the job is performed and develop a checklist. analysis, list each step of the job in order of
Below are some sample questions you might ask. occurrence as you watch the employee
• Are there materials on the floor that could performing the job. Be sure to record enough
trip a worker? information to describe each job action, but do
• Is lighting adequate? not make the breakdown too detailed. Later, go
• Are there any live electrical hazards at the over the job steps with the employee.
jobsite?
• Are there any chemical, physical, The Figure shows a worker performing the basic
biological, or radiation hazards associated job for grinding iron castings.
with the job or likely to develop?
• Are tools—including hand tools, Grinding Castings: Job Steps
machines, and equipment—in need of
repair? Reach into metal box to right of
• Is there excessive noise in the work area, machine, grasp casting, and carry to wheel.
hindering worker communication or
causing hearing loss? Push casting against wheel to grind off burr.
• Are job procedures known and are they
followed or modified? Place finished casting in box to left of
• Are emergency exits clearly marked? machine.
• Are trucks or motorized vehicles properly
equipped with brakes, overhead guards, backup
signals, horns, steering gear, and identification,
as necessary?
• Are all employees operating vehicles and
equipment properly trained and
authorized?
• Are employees wearing proper personal
protective equipment for the jobs they are
performing? Hazards identified per step:
• Have any employees complained of Strike hand on edge of metal box or casting;
headaches, breathing problems, dizziness, or cut hand on burr. Drop casting on toes.
strong odors? Strike hand against wheel.
• Is ventilation adequate, especially in Flying sparks, dust, or chips.
confined or enclosed spaces? Wheel breakage.
• Have tests been made for oxygen Not enough of wheel guarded.
deficiency and toxic fumes in confined No dust removal system. Sleeves
spaces before entry? could get caught in machinery.
• Are work stations and tools designed to Strike hand against metal box
prevent back and wrist injuries? or castings.
• Are employees trained in the event of a
fire, explosion, or toxic gas release? Identifying the Hazards
After you have recorded the job steps, next
Naturally this list is by no means complete examine each step to determine the hazards that
because each worksite has its own requirements exist or that might occur. Ask yourself these
and environmental conditions. You should add kinds of questions.
your own questions to the list. You also might • Is the worker wearing personal protective
take photographs of the workplace, if appropriate, clothing and equipment, including safety
for use in making a more detailed analysis of the harnesses that are appropriate for the job?
work environment. • Are work positions, machinery, pits or
holes, and hazardous operations
adequately guarded?

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-30

• Are lockout procedures used for new method. Do not make general statements
machinery deactivation during about the procedure, such as “Be Careful.” Be as
maintenance procedures? specific as you can in your recommendations.
• Is the worker wearing clothing or jewelry
that could get caught in the machinery or You may wish to set up a training program using
otherwise cause a hazard? the job hazard analysis to retrain your employees
• Are there fixed objects that may cause in the new procedures, especially if they are
injury, such as sharp machine edges? working with highly toxic substances or in
• Is the flow of work improperly organized hazardous situations. (Some OSHA standards
(e.g., Is the worker required to make require that formal training programs be
movements that are too rapid)? established for employees.) If no new procedure
• Can the worker get caught in or between can be developed, determine whether any
machine parts? physical changes—such as redesigning
• Can the worker be injured by reaching equipment, changing tools, adding machine
over moving machinery parts or guards, personal protective equipment, or
materials? ventilation—will eliminate or reduce the danger.
• Is the worker at any time in an off-balance
position? If hazards are still present, try to reduce the
• Is the worker positioned to the machine in necessity for performing the job or the frequency
a way that is potentially dangerous? of performing it. Go over the recommendations
• Is the worker required to make with all employees performing the job. Their
movements that could lead to or cause ideas about the hazards and proposed
hand or foot injuries, or strain from recommendations may be valuable. Be sure that
lifting—the hazards of repetitive motions? they understand what they are required to do and
• Can the worker be struck by an object or the reasons for the changes in the job procedures.
lean against or strike a machine part or
object? Basic job steps for grinding iron castings and
• Can the worker fall from one level to recommendations for new steps and protective
another? measures.
• Can the worker be injured from lifting or
pulling objects, or from carrying heavy
objects?
• Do environmental hazards—dust,
chemicals, radiation, welding rays, heat,
or excessive noise—result from the
performance of the job?

Repeat the job observation as often as necessary

until all hazards have been identified.

Recommending Safe Procedures and Protection Grinding Castings: New Procedure or Protection
After you have listed each hazard or potential Provide gloves and safety shoes.
hazard and have reviewed them with the Provide larger guard over wheel.
employee performing the job, determine whether Install local exhaust system.
the job could be performed in another way to Provide safety goggles.
eliminate the hazards, such as combining steps or Instruct worker to wear short or
changing the sequence, or whether safety tight-fitting sleeves.
equipment and precautions are needed to control Provide for removal of completed stock.
the hazards. An alternative or additional
procedure is to videotape the worker performing
his or her job and analyze the job procedures.

If safer and better job steps can be used, list each

new step, such as describing a new method for
disposing of material. List exactly what the
worker needs to know to perform the job using a

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-31

Revising the Job Hazard Analysis

A job hazard analysis can do much toward Any time a job hazard analysis is revised, training
reducing accidents and injuries in the workplace, in the new job methods, procedures, or protective
but it is only effective if it is reviewed and measures should be provided to all employees
updated periodically. Even if no changes have affected by the changes. A job hazard analysis
been made in a job, hazards that were missed in also can be used to train effectively new
an earlier analysis could be detected. If an illness employees on the steps and job hazards.
or injury occurs on a specific job, the job hazard To show how a job hazard analysis form is
analysis should be reviewed immediately to prepared, a sample worksheet for cleaning the
determine whether changes are needed in the job inside of a chemical mix tank is given below.
procedure. In addition, if a “close call” or “near Both safety and health hazards are noted, as well
miss” has resulted from an employee’s failure to as recommendations for safer methods and
follow job procedures, this should be discussed protection.
with all employees performing the job.

References
OSHA (1992) “Job Hazard Analysis” pamphlet 3071
OSHA (1993) “Personal Protective Equipment” pamphlet 3077
OSHA (1993) “Respiratory Protection” pamphlet 3079

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-32

Sample JHA – Cleaning Inside Surface of Chemical Tank—Top Manhole Entry

Step Action Hazard Procedure/Safety Measure
1. Determine what Explosive gas. Establish confined space entry procedure.
is in the tank, Improper oxygen levels
what process is Chemical exposure – Obtain work permit signed by safety, maintenance, and
going on in the Gas, dust, vapor: supervisors.
tank, and what - irritant
hazards this can - toxic Test air by qualified person.
pose. Liquid
- irritant Ventilate to 19.5% -23.5% oxygen and less than 10%
- toxic LEL of any flammable gas. Steaming inside of tank,
- corrosive flushing and draining, then ventilating, as previously
- heated described, may be required.
Solid
- irritant
- corrosive
Moving Blades/equipment
2. Select and train Operator with respiratory or Examination by industrial physician for suitability to
operators. heart problem; or other work.
physical limitation.
Provide respiratory equipment/PPE.
Untrained operator –
Failure to perform task Train operators.

Clean tank from outside, if possible.

3. Set up Hoses, cord, equipment – Arrange hoses, cords, lines, and equipment in orderly
equipment tripping hazard fashion, with room to maneuver safely.
Electrical – voltage too high,
exposed conductors. Use ground-fault circuit interrupter.
Motors not locked out and
tagged Lockout and tag mixing motor, if present.
4. Install ladder Ladder slipping. Secure to manhole top or rigid structure.
into tank
5. Prepare to enter Gas or liquid in tank. Empty tank through existing piping Review emergency
tank. Trip or fall. procedures
Open tank
Check of jobsite by industrial hygienist or safety
professional.
Install blanks in flanges in piping to tank (isolate tank).
Test atmosphere in tank by qualified person (long
probe).
6. Place equipment Ladder—tripping hazard. Use mechanical-handling equipment.
at tank-entry Provide guardrails around work positions at tank top.
position.
7. Enter tank. Exposure to hazardous Provide personal protective equipment for conditions
atmosphere. found.
Provide outside helper to watch, instruct, and guide
operator entering tank, with capability to lift operator
from tank in emergency.
Provide protective clothing and equipment for all
operators and helpers.
Provide lighting for tank (Class I, Div. 1).
8. Cleaning tank. Reaction to chemicals, causing Provide exhaust ventilation.
mist or explosion of air Provide air supply to interior of tank.
contaminant. Frequent monitoring of air in tank.
Replace operator or provide rest periods.
Provide means of communication to get help, if needed.
Provide two-man standby for any emergency.
9. Cleaning up Handling of equipment, Use material-handling equipment.
causing injury.

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 Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-33

Job Hazard Analysis

Step Action Hazard Procedure/Safety Measure

Although not indicated on OSHA’s sample Job Hazard Analysis form, it is highly recommended that you include the
following information on all job hazard analysis conducted.

JHA Conducted by: _____________________________________ Date Conducted: ________________________

Approved by __________________________________________ Date Accepted: _________________________

Note: From the Job Hazard Analysis it can be determined what (if any) personal protective equipment may be deemed
necessary to protect the workers from an identified hazard. By annotating the type of personal protective equipment to be
utilized to protect the employees the Job Hazard Analysis can be used as a Workplace Hazard Assessment.

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Hazard Recognition and Control Measures 4-34

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-1

FIRE SAFETY – LIFE SAFETY

FIRE SAFETY

Fire is the greatest disaster that can occur in both general industry and construction. Large or even small
fires at a facility or project can severely interrupt production, disrupt the lives of those who depend upon the
facility or project for a livelihood, and weaken the economy of the community. Therefore it is imperative
that a fire protection program be establish and maintained for all businesses, industries, and projects.

The primary goal of a fire protection program is to reduce or eliminate fire in the workplace by heightening
the fire-safety awareness of all employees and management. In order to achieve this goal one must have a
clear understanding of: Fire Chemistry, Causes of Fire, Contributors of Fire, Role of the Portable Fire
Extinguisher, Fire Prevention Practice, Fire Alarms, and Fire Terminology.

Fire Chemistry
According to the National Fire Protection Agency – fire is a process that requires four essential elements:

 Fuel – combustible material

 Heat – brings combustible material up to combustion stage
 Oxygen – atmosphere contains 20.9%
 Exothermic Reaction – continuous combustion

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-2

Combustion can produce four separate elements, that must not only be taken into consideration for
extinguishment, but for life safety as well: heat, smoke, light, and fire gases.

• Heat. As you know the heat from a fire plays an instrumental role in raising the temperature of
surrounding material – thereby bringing this material up to combustible stage. Heat also has a
dramatic impact on the human body, by causing dehydration, burns and blockage of the respiratory
tract. It is suggested by the NFPA, that no one should enter an area that exceeds 120° F without the
appropriate personal protective equipment.

• Smoke. Incomplete combustion of a material will produce airborne solids, liquid particles and fire
gases. It has been determined by the NFPA, that smoke inhalation causes more deaths then the
actual exposure to the heat of a fire. Smoke impairs one’s vision by irritating the eyes, reduces
visibility and is an irritate to the lungs. Also smoke can contain fire gases which can be lethal, such
as carbon monoxide, which a person will start feeling the effects of in concentrations as low as
1,000 ppm.

• Light. There is a low intensity of light given off by a fire.

• Fire Gases. The most common fire gases associated with a fire are carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide. Carbon dioxide in itself is not generally considered life threatening, however, the
presents of carbon dioxide in our breathing atmosphere does cause an increase in breathing. This
increased breathing with deeper breaths, thereby brings in more carbon monoxide, which is quickly
picked up by the blood – this condition is called carboxyhemoglobin. Another fire gas of
considerable importance is hydrogencyanide (HCN). HCN is released anytime there is combustible
material containing nitrogen bonds, such as wool and silk.

Combustion also has five phenomena associated with it: explosions, deflagration, detonation, flashovers, and
back-drafts.

• Explosions according to the NFPA, occurs when there is rapid release of high pressure gas into the
environment. The primary difference between a fire and an explosion is the rate at which the energy
is released. In a fire, the energy is released slowly, whereas with an explosion the energy is released
all at once. The NFPA also states that most explosions occurring in the industrial setting ware due
to improper lighting procedure of a fuel feed apparatus.

• Deflagration is a combustion wave which generally results for the burning of a gas or aerosol.
There is no shock wave associated with deflagration, because the combustion wave moves slower
then the speed of sound.

• Detonation is the combustion of a gas or aerosol at a rate faster than the speed of sound, thereby
creating a shock wave. The high pressure associated with a shock wave is also instrumental in
igniting other combustible material, because it is a source of tremendous heat.

• Flashovers are fires that occur in an enclosed area due to heat buildup. When the majority of the
combustible material in an enclosure reached ignition temperature – then spontaneous combustion
occurs.

• Back-Drafts occur when a fire in an enclosed area uses up most of the oxygen (thus producing a
considerable amount of smoke and heat). Then when outside air is introduced to the fire, the carbon
monoxide burns so quickly it’s like an explosive force.

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-3

Combustion is also influenced by the building construction material. Fire resistance material generally are
non-combustible and assigned a fire resistance rating. This rating value is generally assigned to the
components of a building, such as: columns, floors, walls, doors, windows, and ceilings. Among the material
with the highest fire resistance rating are masonry load-bearing walls, reinforced concrete and protected
columns and precast concrete floors and ceilings.

The NFPA identifies 3 classifications for fire-resistance construction: Heavy, Ordinary, and Wood Frame.

• Heavy – masonry walls, heavy timer columns and beams and heavy plank floors (note: the char on
the exterior of a heavy beam or timber that occurs during a fire actually serves to protect the inner
wood by creating an insulation).

• Ordinary – masonry exterior walls. When all materials and doors provided in ordinary construction
have a fire-resistance rating of one hour or more, then it is termed “protected ordinary construction”.

• Wood Frame – used for light hazard buildings with low-density occupancies, such as residential.

Although a considerable amount of fire resistant material can be used in the construction of a building – the
true danger from a building fire is due to the interior finishes and furnishings. The type of interior finishes
and furnishings will determine how a fire will develop and spread throughout a building. Some of the more
common interior finishes are:

• Wood – the structural integrity of wood during a fire will be determined by its size and moisture
content. Wood is the most common material used in construction, however, it will not withstand
much heat.

• Plastics – all plastics are combustible. Although due to its low cost, plastic is used a lot for interior
finish and furnishings. As you may recall there are 3 significant problems with plastic when it burns:
1- it produces a hotter temperature than ordinary combustibles (paper or wood); 2- it puts off a toxic
smoke; and 3- it has a drip factor (meaning the plastic melts just before ignition, thus burning plastic
will drop melting burning plastic to areas below it).

• Glass – when used for windows and doors has little resistance to fire.

• Concrete – when heated form a fire can cause spalling (chipping and peeling). Prestressed concrete
provides a better fire-resistance rating than reinforced concrete.

• Steel – is generally sued in large buildings. Although steel is non-combustible, it does lose strength
when subjected to the heat of a fire. When the steel is heated it expands, this creates movement and
can cause walls to collapse.

• Gypsum – has an excellent fire resistance rating, and is commonly found in plaster and
plasterboards.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-4

Causes of Fire Contributors for Fire

Sources of ignition: Fuel sources:
• Electrical Equipment o Flammable Liquids
 Electrical motors, switches, lights,  Easily ignitable.
and other electrical equipment
exposed to flammable vapors, dusts, o Flammable Gases
gases, or fibers present special fire  Generally stored under pressure and
hazards. piped to the user location.
 Haphazard wiring, poor connects,
and temporary repairs. o Explosive Dusts
 Improper fuse size and type.  Finely divided materials not only
tend to burn more readily than do
• Friction bulk materials, but also can create
 Friction is generated from moving explosive atmospheres.
parts, primarily bearings and shafts.
o Plastics
• Welding and Cutting  Burn much hotter and faster, and
 Presents open flames and sparks of create more smoke, than wood or
molten metal. paper.

• Portable Heaters o Ordinary Combustibles

 Gasoline furnaces, portable heaters,  Paper and wood; when stacked
and salamanders always present a above one another provide good flue
serious fire hazard – all portable spaces and block sprinklers.
heating devices should be shut down  Wood pallets pose rapid fire-growth,
and allowed to cool before refueling. sprinkler system ineffective for
 Improvised heaters from steel drums pallets stacked over 6 feet.
and paint cans with fuel being scrape
materials – pose the greatest fire
threat.

• Hot Surfaces
 Soldering irons pose significant fire
threat.

• Smoking and Matches

 Smoking and no-smoking areas must
be clearly marked.

• Spontaneous Combustion
 Spontaneous heating is a chemical
action in which the oxidation
(burning) of a fuel produces a slow
generation of heat – unslaked lime
and sodium chlorate are among the
greatest threat when wet.

• Static Electricity
 Static electricity may be hazard
whenever flammable vapors, gases,
or combustible dusts exists.

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-5

Classification of Fires
In the United States the following classification for fire are:

Class A – occurs in materials such as wood,

paper, excelsior, rags and rubbish.

Class B – occurs in vapor-air mixture over

the surfaces of flammable liquids such as:
gasoline, oil, grease, paint thinner and
solvents.

Class C – occurs in or near electrical

equipment.

Class D – is one of combustible metals such

as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, lithium
and sodium.

Class K – combustible cooking media

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-6

Theory of Extinguishment
According to the National Fire Protection Agency there are basically four ways a fire can be extinguished:

• physically separating the combustible substance from the flame.

• removing or diluting the oxygen supply.

• reducing the temperature of the combustible or of the flame.

• introducing chemicals that modify the combustion chemistry.

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-7

Extinguishing Agents:

• Water
Water is the most common; and still considered the most
effective for putting out fires, especially Class A. Water
literally sucks the heat out of a fire – it takes 16,000
BTUs to convert water from a liquid state to a gaseous
state.

• Dry Chemicals
This is the most suitable in dealing with small fires in flammable
liquids. It acts more quickly than foam, which takes time before a
smothering blanket can be formed over the flames. It is also a non-
conductor of electricity and can be used safely on fires where there
is a risk of electric shock. Its cooling properties are however
limited and it gives no protection against re-ignition after
application ceases. Seven types of dry chemical:
 Sodium bicarbonate – Baking Soda
 Sodium chloride – Common Salt
 Potassium bicarbonate – “Purple K”
 Potassium chloride – “Super K”
 Potassium sulfide – “Karate Massiv”
 Monoammonium phosphate – “ABC\Multi”
 Urea + potassium bicarbonate – “Monnex”

• Aqueous Foam
Foam is next in effectiveness to dry powders on
flammable liquid fires. It works by forming a blanket on
the burning surface preventing re-ignition and bringing
about cooling. But it cannot cope with a free flowing
liquid which is alight. It is best used when the burning
liquid is contained or in a container.

• Wet Chemicals
The most suitable for dealing with kitchen cooking media
(oils, grease, etc.) fires.
Class K portable fire extinguisher contains a special potassium
acetate base

• Inert Gases
Inert gases act to extinguish a flame by dilution.
Carbon Dioxide most commonly used (although nitrogen
or steam could be used). The advantages of Carbon
Dioxide are: it is noncombustible and does not react with
most substances, produces its own pressure for discharge
from its storage container, can penetrate and spread to all
parts of a fire area, does not conduct electricity and leaves
no residue.

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-8

Role of the Portable Fire Extinguisher

Virtually all fires start small of which a portable fire extinguisher if used correctly will extinguish.

Successful use of a portable fire extinguisher depends on:

 the extinguisher being located properly and in good working
order.
 the extinguisher being of the proper type for the fire its being
 employed against.
 the fire must be discovered while still small enough to be
handled
 by the portable fire extinguisher.
 the fire must be discovered by a person ready, willing and able
to use a portable fire extinguisher.
• fire department shall be called even when small fires are
extinguished using a portable fire extinguisher.
• notification of the fire department should never be delayed in
the attempt of trying to extinguish a fire with a portable fire
extinguisher.

Portable Fire Extinguisher Usage: Most everyone uses the acronym PASS

Aim

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-9

Fire Prevention Practice

Fire prevention has the primary goal of reducing or eliminating fire in the workplace by heightening the fire
safety awareness of all employees and management.

Fire prevention inspections have four goals:

1. Minimize the size of fires by ensuring that combustible and flammable material storage is
controlled;
2. Control ignition sources to reduce the possibility of fire;
3. Make sure that fire protection equipment is operational; and
4. Make sure that personnel exit facilities are maintained.

Fire Alarms

The purpose of a fire alarm system is to:

• Identify abnormal conditions associated with the presence of a fire,
• Alert occupants of a building or jobsite and summon help, and
• Control fire safety functions.

The selection of an alarm system is most often determined by two factors: 1- the speed of detection,
and 2- rate of false alarms. Generally speaking there are three types of detectors: smoke, heat and
flame.
• Heat detectors have the slowest response time, but the lowest false alarms.
• Flame detectors have the fastest response time, but the highest rate of false alarms.

Responding to a Fire Alarm

 Treat all fire alarms as the real thing. Many times they will hold fire drills on a construction
site or oil rig, just so that you stay familiar with the sound and what to do when you hear it.
 Remain calm and proceed to evacuate the area in an orderly manner – running, rushing,
pushing only causes panic.
 Assist others to the designated evacuation area.
 Never go back into a room that is on fire to retrieve anything.
 If there is smoke, stay low, it will be easier to breathe.
 Use the stairs not the elevators; an elevator may open on the floor that has the fire and could
draw the fire into the elevator and the elevator shaft.
 Before opening a door, feel for heat – using the back of your hand feel next to the door, if it
feels hot – leave it shut.
 If you are trapped in a room with a fire, open the windows to let the heat and smoke out.

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-10

Fire Terminology
Auto-Ignition Temperature – the lowest Flammable Liquid – a liquid having a flash point
temperature a flammable gas or vapor-air mixture below 100° F (37.8° C) and having a vapor
will ignite from its own heat. pressure not exceeding 40 pounds per square inch
(absolute) at 100° F (37.8° C) shall be known as
Boiling Point – the temperature of the liquid at Class I Liquids. Subdivided as follows:
which its vapor pressure equals the atmospheric
pressure. Class IA – flash points below 73° F and boiling
point at or below 100° F
Bonding – process of connecting two or more Class IB – flash points below 73° F and boiling
conductive objects together by conductor. point at or above 100° F
Class IC – flash points at or above 73° F and
Combustible Liquid – a liquid having a flash point
below 100° F
at or above 100° F (37.8° C)
Flammable (explosive) Range – the difference
Combustion – a reaction that is a continuous
between the lower and upper flammable limits
combination of a fuel with certain elements
expressed in terms of percent of vapor or gas in
prominent among which is oxygen either in a free
air by volume.
or combined form (oxidizing agent).
Flash Point – the lowest temperature of a liquid at
Extrothermic Reactions – those reactions which
which it evolves vapor in sufficient concentration
produce products with less total heat energy than
to form an ignitable mixture in the air near the
the reacting substance.
surface of the liquid or in the vessel used.
Feedback – the use of some of the generated heat
Grounding – the process of connecting one or
to prepare adjacent portions of the burnable
more metallic objects to the ground.
material for burning by raising them to their
ignitable temperatures.
Hazardous (classified) Locations –
Class I, Division 1: ignitable concentrations of
Fire – rapid oxidation with evolution of heat and
flammable gases or vapors can exist under normal
light.
operating conditions.
Fire Load – the expected maximum amount of
Class I, Division 2: volatile flammable liquids or
combustible material in a single fire area.
flammable gases are handled, processed, or used,
but in which the liquids, vapors, or gases will
Fire Point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in
normally be confined within closed containers or
an open container at which vapors are evolved
closed systems.
fast enough to support continuous combustion
(fire point is usually a few degrees above the flash
Class II, Division1: combustible dust is in the air
point).
under normal operating conditions in sufficient
quantities to produce explosive or ignitable
Flammable (explosive) limits – flammable limits
mixtures.
have a minimum of vapor in the air below which
propagation of flame does not occur on contact
Class II, Division 2: combustible dust is not
with a source of ignition. This is known as a
normally in the air in quantities sufficient to
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL). The maximum
produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
proportion of vapor or gas in air above which
propagation of flames does not occur is known as
Class III, Division 1: easily ignitable fibers or
the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL).
materials producing combustible flying are
handled, manufacturered, or used.

Class III, Division 2: easily ignitable fibers are

stored or handled (except manufacture).

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-11

Heat – a quantity measurement usually in British Oxidation – the process of combining substances
Thermal Units (BTUs) or calories. with oxygen either in a free or combined form
(oxidizing agent).
Heat Balance – process by which heat is either
concentrated or dissipated and is either sufficient Propagation of Flame – the spread of flame from
or insufficient to keep the oxidization reaction the source of ignition through a flammable
going. With positive heat balance more heat is mixture.
being generated than is being lost due to heat
transfer. When heat is transferred away faster Pyrolysis – the chemical decomposition of matter
than it is produced a negative balance is created. through the action of heating.

Heat of Combustion – amount of heat released Spontaneous Heating – the process of increasing
during complete oxidation (combustion). the temperature of a material without drawing
heat from its surroundings.
Ignitable Mixture – a mixture within the
explosive range that is capable of propagation of Static Electricity – an impulsive discharge of
flame away from the source of ignition. electricity across a gap between two points not in
contact.
Ignition Temperature – the minimum temperature
to which the substance (solid, liquid, or gaseous) Temperature – a measure of heat intensity.
must be heated in order to initiate or cause self-
sustained combustion independent of the heating Vapor Density – the weight of a volume of dry air
or heat element. at the same temperature and pressure. A figure
less than one (1) indicates that a gas is lighter
Melting Point – the temperature at which the solid than air and a figure greater than one (1) is
and liquid forms of a substance exist in heavier than air.
equilibrium. This value indicates at what
temperature flammable materials that are solid at
room temperatures may become liquids.

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-12

Sample Fire Prevention Inspection Checklist

This form is a tool to determine if your work area is fire safe. As with any tool, it is only as effective as the
user wants it to be. If the condition is considered to be satisfactory, check the “S”; if it is not applicable,
check the “NA”; if it is unsatisfactory, check the “U”. Unsatisfactory conditions should be corrected as soon
as possible in order to maintain the highest degree of safety.
Building/Area: Inspected by: Date:

Areas to be inspected S U NA
HOUSEKEEPING
1. Combustibles kept to a minimum? ___ ___ ___
2. Combustible trash removed on regular schedule? ___ ___ ___
3. Oily rags kept in metal containers with lids? ___ ___ ___
SMOKING
1. Smoking areas are free of combustibles? ___ ___ ___
2. Adequate cigarette disposal provided in smoking areas? ___ ___ ___
ELECTRICAL
1. Extension cords are not used in place of permanent wiring? ___ ___ ___
2. Surge suppressor used for computer circuits? ___ ___ ___
3. Electrical lights clear of combustible materials? ___ ___ ___
4. Circuits are not being overloaded with multiple appliances? ___ ___ ___
5. Combustibles are not stored in front of electrical panels? ___ ___ ___
6. Emergency lights operate and are positioned correctly? ___ ___ ___
HEATING
1. Heating units have ample clearance for combustibles? ___ ___ ___
2. Heating units have been services? ___ ___ ___
3. Portable heaters are UL listed? ___ ___ ___
FIRE PROTECTION
1. Sprinkler system control valve(s) are in the open position? ___ ___ ___
2. Fire hydrant access is clear and unobstructed? ___ ___ ___
3. Sprinkler heads have a min. 18” clearance to storage? ___ ___ ___
4. Fire extinguishers accessible and visible, access not blocked and location marked? ___ ___ ___
5. Fire extinguishers are checked monthly? ___ ___ ___
6. Fire doors are free of obstructions and close and latch? ___ ___ ___
7. Fire alarm pull stations visible? ___ ___ ___
EXITS
1. All emergency exits clear? ___ ___ ___
2. Fire exits adequately marked? ___ ___ ___
3. Fire drills are performed? ___ ___ ___
4. Evacuation plan and staging area posted? ___ ___ ___

COMMENTS:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-13

LIFE SAFETY

In the United States the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has also established criteria regarding
buildings to ensure the safety of the occupants. This criteria was complied to form the Life Safety Code,
NFPA 101; which addresses the issued of ensuring people can get out of a building safely.

The NFPA bases their criteria on that each When considering exit routes and ensuring exits
building designed for human occupancy has the are clear one must keep in mind that a Route of
potential of fire and other emergencies. With Exit means a continuous and unobstructed way of
these potential hazards in mind the Life Safety exit travel from any point in a building or
Code identifies fundamental requirements structure to a public way and consist of three
applicable for any building design for human separate and distinct parts:
occupancy. Among the many requirements 1. Exit Access – portion which leads to the
imposed by the Life Safety Code: entrance of an exit.
• Occupied buildings will have exits. 2. Exit – portion which provides the way
• Buildings will protect the occupants out of a structure.
from fire, smoke, fumes, or panic. 3. Exit Discharge – portion form
• Exits from buildings will be usable. termination of exit to public way.
• Exits will be marked and visible.
• Fire alarms shall be utilized. Additional, the NFPA uses Hazard Content
• Two means of egress in every building. evaluations to help establish what the appropriate
fire suppression system needs to be in place:
To fulfill this requirement an Employee
Emergency Action Plan should be developed. • Low Hazard – contents shall be
Furthermore, this written plan must be kept in the classified as those of such low
workplace, and available to employees for review combustibility that no self-propagating
and include the following: fire there in can occur.
- procedures for reporting a fire or other
emergency; • Ordinary Hazard – contents shall be
- procedures for emergency evacuation, classified as those that are likely to burn
including type of evacuation and exit route with moderate rapidity or to give off a
assignments; considerable volume of smoke.
- procedures to be followed by employees
who remain to operate critical plant
operations before they evacuate; • High Hazard – contents shall be
- procedures to account for all employees classified as those that are likely to burn
after evacuation; with extreme rapidity or from which
- procedures to be followed by employees explosions are likely.
performing rescue or medical duties; and
- the name or job title of every employee
who may be contacted by employees who
need more information about the plan or an
explanation of their duties under the plan.

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 Fire Safety and Life Safety 5-14

Human Behavior When Reacting to a Fire or Other Emergency

People are unpredictable, however, according
to the National Fire Protection Agency there • Re-entry – occurs when a person who
are 3 types of human behavior displayed has already achieved a safe exit from the
when confronted with a fire: burning building and re-enters the
building for whatever reason. Among the
• Convergence Clusters – occurs when more noted reasons for re-entry as
people gather in specific rooms within identified by NFPA are: to search for a
the burning building, because they loved one, assist others in evacuating the
perceive them as areas of refuge. building, or to assist fire fighters.
Furthermore, the NFPA states that males
• Panic – occurs when a person doesn’t are more likely to display re-entry
use their means of rational thinking. A behavior.
panicked person will make extravagant
efforts to secure their safety.

References:
Fundamentals of Fire Protection for the Safety Professional 2005, Ferguson & Janicak.
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code 2001

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Electrical Safety 6-1

ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Over 4,000 American workers are killed injured or maimed each year, as a result of an electrical accident.
Accidents as minor as being shocked from a faulty appliance electrical cord to the severity of an explosion of
high voltage transformer. With electricity becoming an ever increasing part of our daily lives, we can expect
an increase in electrical usage. This means an increase in the probability of producing more fatalities and
injuries due to electrical accidents, unless we take the steps now to prevent them. This section will discuss
the Principles of Electricity, Hazards of Electricity, Electrical Accident Prevention and Electrical Injuries.

Principles of Electricity Electricity can be produced by magnetism (most

Electricity is a form of energy. When properly inexpensive means). This is accomplished by
controlled, it can do much of the work required to either moving a magnet past a piece of wire or
keep our society going. Electricity has become so passing a wire through a magnetic field. The wire
must a part of our daily living that we tend to take serves as a conductor and thus we have a
it for granted, as well as the hazards associated movement of free electrons.
with electricity.
The force of movement of free electrons in the
There are two types of electricity: Static conductor (wire) is called the electromotive force
(stationary) and Dynamic (moving). Our primary (EMF), more commonly referred to as Voltage,
concern when working with electricity is the which is measured in Volts (V). Voltage provides
Dynamic type; therefore we will focus on the the force for movement of the free electrons and
flow of electrons through a conductor. However, when given a potential difference in the
first we will need to review some basic chemistry conductor, we acquire a continuous movement of
regarding electricity. Chemistry has taught us electrons past a given point, resulting in a
that all matter (solid, liquid, or gas) is composed Current, which is measured in amperes (A). As
of elements. Each of these elements is unique to electrons flow through a conductor they meet
itself because of the basic assembly of their opposition, this opposition is called Resistance,
atoms. Atoms that go into the building of matter, which is measured in Ohm’s (Ω). It is through
also contain structures which make them unique resistance that we can control the current flow and
to themselves. Atoms are composed of a nucleus voltage. However, this same resistance also
(protons and neutrons) the inner core, and are generates heat. This control of electricity by
orbited by negative charged electrons. resistance can be achieved through:
Material of the Conductor,
These electrons that orbit the nucleus of an atom Length of the Conductor,
can be removed from the atom, some more easily Cross Sectional Area, or
then others. When an electron has been removed Temperature of the Conductor.
from its orbit they are called free electrons. Thus
by directing the movement of these free electrons, Circuits serve as the pathway for electricity to
we therefore, have a flow of electrons. Thus by travel and through the usage of Ohm’s Law, we
removing electrons from the orbit of an atom and can calculate electrical quantities. Electrical
controlling the direction of its flow (through a quantities play a significant role in the operation
conductor) we have established electricity. of electrical products. Ohm’s Law states “The
current is directly proportional to the voltage and
A conductor is used to control the direction of inversely proportional to the resistance.” George
free electrons, therefore a conductor is any Ohm, a German scientist, developed this into a
material that contains many free electrons and is mathematical expression.
capable of carrying an electric current. This
generally means metals and water can be Direct Current (dc) flows continuously in one
conductors of electricity. Examples of conductors direction through a circuit because the polarity of
are: the voltage source never changes. Alternating
Good – Gold, Silver, Aluminum and Copper. Current (ac) changes rapidly in both directions
Fair – Human body, Earth and Concrete. and value. Current flows from the positive
Poor – Wood, Rubber, Glass, and Mica terminal to the negative terminal, but the polarity
of the ac terminals reverses at regular intervals
causing the direction of current flow to also
reverse.

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 Electrical Safety 6-2

Using alternating current generators, the power 1. Shock

companies are able to transform the produced A shock results when an electric current
electrical energy into a high-voltage, but low produces a sudden and accidental stimulation
current, equivalent power. Transformers are used of the human body’s nervous system. Shock
to raise or lower the voltage (force). can occur when:
Transformers perform two functions in the - contact is made with a normally bare
transmission of alternating current. They step up energized conductor
or step down the voltage, and they isolate the - contact is made with an energized
generating station from the load. conductor on which the insulation has
deteriorated or has been damaged.
- equipment failure which causes an open
or short-circuit
- static electricity discharge
- lightening strike

The human body has a certain amount of

protective resistance against electricity
(generally 500 ohms), however, this is
insufficient as the amount of current
increases. Charles F. Dalziel of the
University of California, Berkeley, studied
the effects of electricity on the human body
using 60 Hz alternating current, and
Working with electricity can be dangerous. published the following:
Electrical current exposes workers to a serious, Current Effect on Human
widespread occupational hazard; practically all 1mA or less no sensation, not felt
members of the workforce are exposed to
electrical energy during the performance of their 3 to 10 mA painful shock, jerk away
daily duties, and electrocutions occur to workers
in various job categories. Many workers are 10 to 15 mA local muscle contractions
unaware of the potential electrical hazards present “freezing in 50% of
in their work environment, which makes them population”
more vulnerable to the danger of electrocution.
50 to 100 mA breathing difficulties
Hazards of Electricity
Eight of the most common hazards associated 100 to 200 mA possible Ventricular
with electricity are: Fibrillation
1. Shock
200+ mA severe burns and
2. Ignition of combustible or explosive contractions
material
Side Note: Most injuries that occur
3. Overheating and damage to equipment associated with electricity result from a fall.
or burns A person’s automatic defense when they get
shocked is to jerk away and this generally
4. Arc Blast causes the person to lose their balance and
fall.
5. Inadvertent activation of equipment

6. Inductance

7. Capacitance

8. Transformers

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 Electrical Safety 6-3

2. Ignition of combustible or explosive material 5. Inadvertent activation of equipment

Electricity provides a source of ignition. The unexpected start up of equipment and
Ignition can be due to overheated conductors machinery places workers and the equipment
or equipment, normal arching (sparking) at at risk of injury or damage. The controlling
switch contacts, or direct contact with an of all stored energy is essential and the safe
electrical circuit. Familiarize yourself with release of stored energy to assure that a zero
the surrounding environment to establish the energy state exist is of the highest priority.
types of combustible or explosive material Some hidden energy sources include:
that might be present in the work area. This - electrical (all ranges of voltage)
includes: - mechanical
- trash and debris - pneumatic
- chemicals - fluid and gases
- clothing - hydraulic
- metals - thermal
- cleaning solvents - water under pressure
- human flesh - gravity

3. Overheating and damage to equipment or 6. Inductance

burns Inductance is the electrical property which
Heat is developed in an electrical conductor opposes any changes in the magnitude of
or equipment by the flow of current and current in a circuit. Physical devices which
resistance. This heat is conductive, therefore are used to provide inductance in a circuit are
will transfer to other parts of the equipment, called inductors (chokes, coils, and reactors).
which is also sufficient enough to cause Inductance is the result of a voltage being
damage to equipment or burns. For example, induced in a conductor. The magnetic filed
an energized 200 watt light bulb, if you have that induces the voltage in the conductor is
ever touched one then you know that a lot of produced by the conductor itself. The safety
heat can build up in an enclosed space. hazard that can occur is surrounding
equipment or circuits can become self-
4. Arc B last induced with voltage and not even have
An Arc Blast occurs from high-amperage direct contact with the conductive materials.
currents arcing through the air. This
abnormal current flow is initiated by contact 7. Capacitance
between two energized points. This contact The ability to store an electrical charge is
can be caused by persons who have an called capacitance. A physical device
accident while working on energized designed to posses capacitance is called a
components, or by equipment failure. Arc capacitor. In a capacitor the conductors are
Blasts have three primary hazards: called plates, and the insulator is called
- thermal radiation dielectric. The safety hazard that can occur is
- pressure wave electrical charges can exist on capacitors
- projectiles even after the circuits have been opened.

8. Transformers
These electrical hazards have the Transformers are multiple-wiring inductors.
potential of producing the three They operate on the principle of mutual
most common electrical injuries: inductance. For a relatively simple device,
1- electrocution they are extremely versatile. Without
2- burns transformers, our present power distribution
system could not exist. The safety hazards
3- falls that may occur are inductance, step-down
voltage, step-up voltage, heat loss and
impedance.

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 Electrical Safety 6-4

Electrical Injuries
Three main types: electrocution (fatal), burns, and The most common contacts were with metal
falls caused as a result of contact with electrical ladders, metal pipes, metal wires that were
energy. deliberately cut or stripped or were accidentally
cut by electric drills or other tools, wires that
The danger of injury through contact with were energized by contact with live wires, and
electricity is possible whenever electrical power is energized trucks and other vehicles.
present. When a person's body completes a
circuit and thus connects a power source with the Working in cramped areas was a
ground, an electrical burn or injury is imminent. contributing factor in 97 electrocutions (6%),
about 8 deaths per year. For electricians,
1. Electrocution working in attics or above drop ceilings was
a risk and for other construction workers,
working under houses, in basement
crawlspaces, or in attics.

Standing in water or having equipment such

as trouble lights and extension cords touching
water was a contributing factor in at least 51
electrocutions.
Electrocutions are the fourth leading cause of
death among construction workers in the
United States. An average of 143 construction 2. Burns
workers are killed each year by contact with
electricity.

Electrical workers had the most electrocutions

per year, followed by construction laborers,
carpenters, supervisors of non-electrical
workers, and roofers.

More than half the electrocutions of electrical

workers were caused by direct or indirect
contact with live electrical equipment and
The term electrical burn is used widely to
wiring (including light fixtures, circuit
describe the variety of injuries created by
breakers, control panels, junction boxes, and
supraphysiologic electrical energy interacting
transformers.
with living tissue. Although thermal burns remain
some of the most common results of such an
For non-electrical workers, the main cause of
interaction, this term does not adequately describe
electrocution was contact with overhead power
the range of effects that they have in the human
lines. These deaths were the result of failure to
body.
de-energize or protect the power lines and
failure to maintain minimum clearance
The term burn also does not encompass the
distances from power lines.
special considerations required in the diagnosis
and treatment in patients with these injuries.
Another cause of electrocutions, especially
among non-electrical workers, was contact with
Usually, electrical injuries are arbitrarily
machinery, appliances, power tools, portable
categorized into 1 of 3 groups: low-voltage
lights, and defective power/extension cords.
injuries, high-voltage injuries, and lightning
injuries
In many of the electrocutions, electrical
workers and other construction workers
touched metal objects that had become
energized through contact with live electrical
equipment and wiring or with overhead power
lines.

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 Electrical Safety 6-5

Specific causes of electrical injuries are:

• Low-Voltage Injuries The extend of an electrical injury is depended on
also called low-tension injuries; these are four factors: Current and Voltage, Resistance,
caused by voltages less than 1000 V. Pathway Traveled, and Duration of the Shock.
- includes most injuries caused by
household current and small power • Current and Voltage
tools. Although high voltage often produces
massive destruction of tissue at contact
 High-Voltage Injuries locations, it is generally believed that the
also known as high-tension injuries; detrimental effects of electric shock are due
these are caused by voltages of 1000 V to the current actually flowing through the
or more. body.
- usually due to contact with outside
power lines • Resistance
Studies have shown that the electrical
 Lightening Injuries resistance of the human body varies with the
typical lightening injury involves energy amount of moisture on the skin, the pressure
with high voltage and high amperage but applied to the contact point, and the contact
extremely short duration. area.
- usually unidirectional massive
current impulse and is best • Pathway Traveled
understood as a current rather than a The pathway electricity travels through the
voltage phenomenon. body will affect the degree of injury. A small
- largest flow of current tends to jump current that passes from one extremity
to the ground before much of it through the heart to the other extremity is
passes through the body capable of causing severe injury or
- lightening injuries tend to be electrocution.
seasonal
• Duration of the Shock
3. Falls Duration of shock has a great bearing on the
final outcome. If the shock is of short
duration, it may only be a painful experience
for the person. If the level of current flow
reaches the approximate ventricular
fibrillation threshold of 100 mA, a shock
duration of a few seconds could be fatal.
This is not much current when you consider
that a small light duty portable drill draws
about 30 times this amount.
Each of us posses a self-preservation, natural
defense of quickly moving away from elements
that can cause us harm; such as accidentally
making contact with electricity. When we
unexpectedly touch an energized part, our
body’s natural defense will be to pull away
from it quickly. Unfortunately, this natural
defense does not take into consideration where
the rest of our body is – and if we happen to be
standing on a ladder and we quickly jerk back,
we lose our center of gravity and fall.

We do not normally, get an injury from an

electrical shock – however, many times that
electrical shock is the initiator of a fall, which
in turn does produce an injury.

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 Electrical Safety 6-6

Common Problem Areas for Electricity are: platform or elevated if at least 8 feet above
• Circuit Breaker Loads – most office type the work area;
environments have 20 amp circuit breakers
that provide for two or more outlets; these  Grounding is a low-resistance path directly
circuit breakers can handle most office to the earth. This pathway has the
equipment, however, the widespread use of capability of carrying enough current to
personal computers and associated prevent the buildup of voltage in
hardware can create an electrical overhead. equipment;

• Electrical Grounding – most electrical  Personal Protective Equipment must be

equipment is grounded with either a three- appropriate to protect from electrical
prong plug or if a two-prong plug has hazards; and
insulation. GFCIs serve as an added
measure to protect us whenever the ground  Fire Resistant Clothing is designed not to
system becomes defective. burn and melt.

• Electrical Panels (breaker boxes) – circuit  Controlling hazardous energy through

breakers are designed to be a weak link in lockout / tagout procedure – see page 5-10
the system, so when a circuit breaker trips for sample.
there is a reason for this and this reason
needs to be investigated and fixed. A Additional Safety Measures for Working with
failed circuit breaker can cause a flash- Electricity:
over, therefore the door should always be • Keep your work area clean and orderly.
shut on electrical panels. And, these same
circuit breakers can serve as a means for • Never work around a source of electricity
quick disconnect of electrical power to a when you, your surrounding, your clothing
unit, so the door of an electrical panel or your tools are wet.
should never be blocked
• Remove all metal jewelry, rings and
Electrical Accident Prevention watches before working on electrical
Various methods to prevent electrical accidents equipment.
may be employed and often times we will find
a multiple of these preventative measures in • Inspect all tools before use for damaged
place. housing and frayed or damaged power
cords.
 Insulation provides a non-conductive
barrier. Some common electrical • Use insulated power tools and double
insulators include glass, mica, rubber and insulated power tools.
plastic. However, if an electrical circuit is
overloaded, insulation can breakdown; • Never remove the ground prong from an
electrical cord.
 Protective Devices serve to interrupt
current flow should it exceed the • Permanently removed frayed or defective
conductors capacity, these include fuses extension cords from the workplace.
and circuit breakers;
• Use GFCIs when working in outside
 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter monitors locations.
electrical flow and detects any difference
from the electricity going and that • Maintain at least 10 feet clearance while
returning; working near overhead power lines.

 Guarding is required for all energized • Obey lockout / tagout procedures.

electrical equipment over 50 volts.
Guarding can be accomplished by room • Be familiar with the electrical hazards
enclosure, screens or partitions, balcony or associated with your work environment.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Electrical Safety 6-7

• Unplug electrical equipment before • Portable electrical heaters must be placed

performing any repairs or servicing. to avoid causing a trip hazard and must be
kept away form combustible material – a
• If a prong breaks off inside an outlet, do portable electric heater should never be left
not attempt to remove it your self. unattended.

• Ensure that outlets are firmly mounted and • Keep electrical equipment away from
have a cover plate. water, unless it is designed for that
purpose, such as a wet-vacuum.
• Report all electrical problems, especially
tripped breakers, broken switches, and • Be aware of overhead power lines when
flickering lights. working with tall equipment.

• Do not use an appliance that sparks,

smokes, or becomes excessively hot,
unless the appliance is specifically
designed to exhibit one of these
characteristics.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS CHECKLIST

1. Are construction switchboards properly constructed and set up?

 an extension lead tie-bar to prevent strain on the plug top and socket outlet connection
• insulated cable stands for the support of cables and extension leads off the ground
• a lockable door that cannot damage power leads when closed
• a way of keeping the door open for electrical installation work
• weatherproofing if located outdoors or anywhere subject to water exposure
• a clear area of 1 m at the front of the board
• a lockable cover over circuit breakers and RCDs (safety switches)
• clear access to main switch/isolating switch at all times when in use

2. Are there enough switchboards for the job?

Switchboards should be spaced according to the maximum allowable lengths of the extension leads being
used. The maximum lengths of the most common types of flexible leads are listed below (generally the
shortest length of lead should be used when setting up switchboards):
• 25 metres for 10 Amp extension lead with 1.0 mm² flexible cables cores
• 35 metres for 10 Amp extension lead with 1.5 mm² flexible cables cores
• 5 metres for 15 Amp extension lead with 1.5 mm² flexible cables cores
• 40 metres for 15 Amp extension lead with 2.5 mm² flexible cables cores

3. Are RCDs (safety Switches) fitted?

All final sub-circuits of construction wiring, including the associated socket outlets and light fittings, need to
be protected by 30 mA RCDs. Where work is occurring using the existing premises power all extension
leads, power tools, electrical plant and equipment must not be used unless protected by 30 mA RCDs. All
RCDs should be time/current tested monthly.

4. Are the correct type socket outlets being used?

Check that only 240 volt socket outlets with double pole switches are used on relocatable structures and
portable equipment.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Electrical Safety 6-8

5. Are portable outlet devices suitable?

Double adapters and other types of domestic multi-plug power boards are not suitable for use on construction
sites. Only use multi-plug portable devices that comply with AS 3105 and are the industrial type fitted with
over current and RCD protection.

6. Is construction cabling identified and protected from mechanical damage?

Make sure construction cabling is clearly identified and has protection where there is a risk of mechanical
damage. If a change onsite occurs that introduces or increases the risk of damage, provide additional
protection.

7. Are electric tools and flexible leads in a safe condition?

Ensure that electric power leads and tools brought onsite are suitable and in good condition:
• use only heavy duty type extension leads and Australian approved power tools
• always visually inspect leads and tools for signs of damage before use
• make sure unserviceable tools or leads are immediately withdrawn from service

8. Have Certificates of Electrical Safety been issued?

Ensure the electrical contractor provides you with Certificates of Electrical Safety for all construction wiring
including switchboards, each certificate should detail what work the certificate covers.

9. Has the electrical installation been tested?

The electrical installation on all construction wiring and switchboards needs to be inspected and tested by a
licensed electrician before use and re-rested every 6 months for the duration of the project.

10. Have RCDs been tested?

Ensure that all fixed and portable RCDs are tested for tripping current and time by a licensed electrician
every calendar month while used on site. The tripping function of portable RCDs should be checked before
use by operating the RCD's test button.

11. Are portable generators suitable?

If portable generators are used on site, ensure the generator:
• is fully serviceable and has been properly maintained where supplying a fixed installation,
• is installed by a licensed electrician, and
• inspected by a licensed electrical inspector before use, and
• a Certificate of Electrical Safety is provided

Where supplying portable tools and equipment,

• is fitted with a 30 mA RCD, and
• provided, if necessary, with earth electrode and bonding connections according to the
manufacturer/supplier information displayed on the generator.

12. Are extension leads being used safely?

Check that leads are not lying in mud or water or in areas where they can be damaged or become tripping
hazards. Use stable, insulated lead stands to keep them above head-height. Do not allow leads to be wrapped
around scaffolds or falsework - use S-shaped off-cuts of steel reinforcing bar sheathed in cut-off lengths of
garden hose instead.

13. Are plant and temporary structures a safe distance from powerlines?
Make sure there is always a safe distance between live powerlines and cranes, concrete booms, earth moving
equipment, elevating work platforms, hoists, scaffolds, false-work and portable ladders by strictly observing
"no go zone" safe clearances.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Electrical Safety 6-9

Responding to Electrical Emergencies

The following instructions provide guidelines for handling three types of electrical emergencies:

1. Electric Shock
When someone suffers serious electrical shock, he or she may be knocked unconscious. If the victim is still
in contact with the electrical current, immediately turn off the electrical power source. If you cannot
disconnect the power source, try to separate the victim from the power source with a nonconductive object,
such as a wood-handled broom.

Note: Do not touch a victim that is still in contact with a power source; you could electrocute
yourself. Have someone call for emergency medical assistance immediately. Administer first-aid,
as appropriate.

2. Electrical Fire
If an electrical fire occurs, try to disconnect the electrical power source, if possible. If the fire is small, you
are not in immediate danger, and you have been trained in fighting fires, use any type of fire extinguisher
except water to extinguish the fire.

Note: Do not use water on an electrical fire.

3. Power Lines
Stay away from live power lines and downed power lines. Be particularly careful if a live power line is
touching a body of water. The water could conduct electricity.
If a power line falls on your car while you are inside, remain in the vehicle until help arrives.

References:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Hammer Occupational Safety Management
Workplace Safety Canada

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Electrical Safety 6-10

Control of Hazardous Energy

(Lockout/Tagout) Program

Purpose
This procedure provides a means for employee protection while working on hazardous energy
and/or potentially hazardous energy, release of stored energy which could cause injury to employees
and/or property.

Responsibility
This procedure requires employees to affix appropriate lockout devices or tagout devices to energy
isolating devices pertaining to all energy sources including but not limited to any source of
electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal or other energy and to otherwise
disassemble machines or equipment to prevent unexpected energization start-up or release of stored
energy in order to prevent employee injury.

Definitions
Authorized Person One familiar with and trained on the construction and operation
of the equipment and the hazards involved.

Authorized Employee A person who locks out or tags out machines or equipment in
order to perform servicing, maintenance and/or construction tasks on that
machine, equipment and/or facilities.

Energy Source Any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,

chemical, thermal or other energy.

Energy Isolating Device A mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission
or release of energy, including but not limited to the following: a
manually operated electrical circuit breaker and disconnect switch; a
manually operated switch by which the conductors of a circuit can be
disconnected from all ungrounded supply conductors and in addition, no
pole can be operated independently; a line valve; a block and any similar
device used to block or isolate energy. (Note: push-button; selector
switches and other control circuit-type devices are not energy isolating
devices).

Lockout The placement of a lockout device on an energy isolating device

In accordance with an established procedure ensuring that the
energy isolating device and equipment being controlled cannot
be operated until the lockout device is removed.

Lockout Device A device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key
Or combination type, to hold an energy isolating device in a safe
position and prevent the energizing of a machine or equipment.

Tagout The placement of a tagout device on an energy isolating device

In accordance with an established procedure ensuring that the
energy isolating device and the equipment being controlled may
not be operated until the tagout device is removed.

Tagout Device A prominent warning device such as a tag and means of

attachment which can be securely fastened to an energy isolating device
in accordance with an established procedure ensuring that the energy
isolating device and equipment being controlled may not be operated
until the tagout device is removed.

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 Electrical Safety 6-11

Guidelines

General

Before an authorized employee performs any servicing, maintenance and/or construction task on a
machine, equipment, apparatus or facilities infrastructure where the unexpected energizing, start-up
or release of stored energy could occur and cause injury, the machine or equipment shall be isolated
from the energy source and rendered inoperative by means of lockout and tagout.

In the event an energy storing device is not capable of being locked out, an authorized person shall
demonstrate through documentation and investigation that the tagout system will provide all
employees with the potential of hazard exposure to the energy, a means of safe and healthful
working conditions in the likelihood of inadvertent energization.

Full Employee Protection

When a tagout device is used on an energy isolating device which is incapable of being locked out,
the tagout device shall be attached at the same location that the lockout device would have been
attached, and the authorized person shall demonstrate that the tagout procedure will provide a level
of safety equivalent to that obtained by using a lockout device.

In addition to the tagout device, the full employee protection shall include, but not be limited to the
removal of an isolated circuit element, blocking of a controlling switch, opening and isolating of
extra disconnecting devices or the removal of a valve handle to reduce the likelihood of inadvertent
energization.

Energy Control Procedure

This procedure encompasses the scope, purpose, authorization, rule and technique to be utilized for
the control of hazardous energy and the means to enforce compliance on (Company Name)’s
premises.

 Prior to the commencing of work on job site, an authorized person shall identify
all hazardous energy isolating devices and/or potentially hazardous energy
isolating devices that require lockout/tagout devices.

 All identified hazardous energy isolating devices and potentially hazardous

energy isolating devices shall be clearly marked on the drawings and all
employees shall be informed and notified of the potential energy isolating hazard.

 Prior to the start of each shift, all employees shall review the existing drawings
and/or be informed or notified by the authorized person of any changes that will and/or might
occur within their area pertaining to the release of a hazardous energy.

 Prior to a new employee working and/or servicing a hazardous energy isolating

device, the employee shall be informed and trained on the lockout/tagout procedure.
Certification of this training shall contain employee’s name and dates of training.

 All employees shall review lockout/tagout procedures prior to the start of any
new project or continuation of existing project that identifies and/or necessitates the
requirement of lockout/tagout procedures.

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 Electrical Safety 6-12

Periodic Inspections and Reviews

 (Company Name) at a minimum of once a year, shall conduct a periodic

inspection of the energy control procedures to ensure that the procedures and the requirements are in
compliance.

 The periodic inspection shall be performed by an authorized employee other

than the ones utilizing the energy control procedure.

 (The periodic inspection shall be conducted to identify any deviations or

non-compliance of the procedure.

 Where lockout is used for energy control, the periodic inspection shall
include a review between the inspector and each authorized employee of that employee’s
responsibility under the energy control procedure.

 Where tagout is used for energy control, the periodic inspection shall
include a review between the inspector and each authorized and affected employee of that
employee’s responsibility under the energy control procedure.

 (Company Name) shall certify and verify that the periodic inspections
have been performed, the date of the inspection, the employees included in the inspection and the
person performing the inspection.

 The Administrator shall periodically review and document (on a memo for
record) the project lockout/tagout protocol to ensure that all policies, procedures, work safe
practices and OSHA regulations are being followed and are in compliance.

Electrical

 The safety procedures for de-energizing of circuits and equipment shall be

determined before circuits or equipment are de-energized.

 The circuits and equipment to be worked on shall be disconnected from all

electric energy sources.

 Control circuit devices such as push-buttons, selector switches and interlocks

may not be used as a sole means for de-energizing circuits or equipment. Interlocks for electric
equipment may not be used as a substitute for lockout/tagout procedures.

 Stored energy which might endanger personnel shall be released. Example:

Capacitors shall be discharged and high capacitive elements shall be short circuited and grounded in
the event that stored electrical energy might be present.

 Stored non-electrical energy in a device that could re-energize electric parts shall
be blocked or relieved to the extent that the circuit parts could not be accidentally energized by the
device.

 A lock and tag shall be placed on each disconnecting means used to de-energize
circuits and equipment on which work is being performed.

 A lock shall be attached so as to prevent persons from operating the

disconnecting means unless they resort to undo force or the use of tools.

 Each tag shall contain a statement prohibiting unauthorized operation of the disconnecting means
and removal of the tag.

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 Electrical Safety 6-13

 The placing of locks and tags shall be done in such a manner as to follow the
logical de-energizing sequence of the hazardous energy isolating device and/or the potentially
hazardous isolating energy. Start at the energy isolating device and work outward.

 Upon the placing of locks and tags and the isolating of hazardous energy source,
and prior to the commencement of work, all hazardous energy sources shall be tested to ensure
proper de-energization.

 Lockout and tagout devices shall be supplied by (Company Name) and shall meet
OSHA regulations (homemade/handwritten tags will not be permissible).

 In the event an energy storing device is not capable of being locked out, an
authorized person shall demonstrate through documentation and investigation that the tagout system
will provide all employees with the potential of hazard exposure to the energy, a means of safe and
healthful working conditions in the likelihood of inadvertent energization.

 When a tagout device is used on an energy isolating device which is incapable of

being locked out, the tagout device shall be attached at the same location that the lockout device
would have been attached, and the authorized person shall demonstrate that the tagout procedure
will provide a level of safety equivalent to that obtained by using a lockout device.

 In addition to the tagout device, the full employee protection shall include, but
not be limited to the removal of an isolated circuit element, blocking of a controlling switch,
opening and isolating of extra disconnecting devices or the removal of a valve handle to reduce the
likelihood of inadvertent energization.

 The removal of lockout devices and tagout devices shall be done in such a
manner that it reverses the logical de-energizing sequence.

 The lockout and tagout devices shall only be removed by the authorized
employee who installed the lockout/tagout device.

 Prior to the lockout and tagout devices being removed, the authorized
employee who installed the lockout/tagout devices shall confirm that the work is complete and all
said employees and/or subcontractors involved are clear and free from hazards.

 In the event that the authorized employee who installed the lockout/tagout
devices is not available for removal of said devices, only the authorized person designated by
(Company Name) shall have authorization to remove said devices.

Training

(Company Name) shall provide training to the employees to ensure that the purpose and function of
the energy control procedures are understood by the employees and that the knowledge and skills
required for the safe application, usage, and removal of the energy controls are acquired by the
employees.

 Prior to commencement of work in an energy isolating device area, each

authorized employee shall receive training in the recognition of applicable hazardous energy
sources, the types and magnitude of the energy and the methods and means for energy isolation
control.

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 Electrical Safety 6-14

 Each employee shall be instructed in the purpose and procedure of energy

control.

 All employees, whose work operations are or may be in the area where energy
control procedures may be utilized shall be instructed about the procedure and about the
prohibition relating to attempts to re-start or re-energize machines or equipment which are
locked out or tagged out.

 Employees shall be trained that tagging devices are essentially warning devices
affixed to energy isolating devices and do not provide the physical restraint on those devices
that is provided by a lock.

 Employees shall be trained that when a tag is attached to an energy isolating

device it is not to be removed without authorization of the authorized person responsible for it
and is never to be bypassed, ignored or defeated.

 Employees shall be trained that all tagout devices must be legible and
understandable by all authorized employees, affected employees and all other employees whose
work operations are or may be in the area.

 Employees shall be trained that tagout devices and their means of attachment
must be made of material which will withstand environmental conditions encountered.

 Re-training shall be provided for all authorized and affected employees whenever
there is a change in their job assignments, a change in machines, equipment or processes that
present a new hazard or when there is a change in the energy control procedure.

 (Company Name) shall comply with all training requirements mandated by

applicable regulations.

Authorized Employees Guidelines

Below are guidelines for lockout/tagout by authorized employees. These are the basic step-by-step rules
that should be followed to prevent the unexpected energization, start-up or release of stored energy that
could cause injury to anyone working on equipment.

Step 1: Turn Off the Equipment and Disconnect the Energy Source

 Locate and identify all switches, valves, and other devices that will have to be
locked and/or tagged. More than one energy source may be involved.

Notice: Notify all affected employees that a lockout procedure is beginning and
why.

Step 2: Lock Out Energy Sources

 Use a lock to prevent the flow of energy from being restored. Snap your lock on
the control lever or on the multiple-lock adapter. Test the disconnect to be sure it can’t be
moved to the “on” position. In other words, make it impossible for the flow of energy to be
re-established without your knowledge. PULLING A FUSE OR FLIPPING A CIRCUIT
BREAKER IS NO SUBSTITUTE FOR LOCKING OUT. If more than one
person is going to be working on the equipment, use a multiple lockout device.

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 Electrical Safety 6-15

Step 3: Tag Out at the Disconnect Point

 Even though you’re using a lock, it is also a good idea to place a tag at the
disconnect point A tag provides vital information and extra protection. It tells everyone
who you are and what you are doing, as well as instructing them not to restore energy.
When it is physically impossible to use a lock, a tag is absolutely essential.

 Information required on the tag is as follows:

 Your Name, Time, and Date work began, and type of work being done.

Other items that should be on the tag that act as a warning to others are:

DO NOT START / DO NOT OPEN / DO NOT ENERGIZE

Step 4: Release Residual Energy

 Zero mechanical state means the machine has been put in a state in which the
possibility of an unexpected mechanical movement has been reduced to a minimum.

Note: Some equipment does not run by electricity alone. Hydraulic and pneumatic devices
may also be involved. Air under pressure in a hose, and unsecured machine parts are also
examples of potentially dangerous energy that is often stored in a shutdown machine. That
is why releasing residual energy by discharging capacitors, grounding circuits, or releasing
built-up pressure is a step that cannot be overlooked.

Step 5: Test Equipment

 It is necessary to test equipment to make sure it will not run before working on it.
A disconnect switch could be defective, or the wrong switch thrown, leaving the circuit
energized. After you have completed the first four steps, turn on the switch or push the
start button to make sure you have successfully blocked out all energy sources. Then
return it to the “off” position.

Note: Be aware of hidden energy sources. For example, if there is more than one
energy source, make sure you lock out and tag the other sources following the steps above.

Step 6: Restore Energy Safely

 When you have finished working, check to make sure all tools have been
removed, all lines have been reconnected or unlocked, all guards have been replaced, and
other workers are safely out of the way before removing your lock and tag and turning the
machine on. Be sure you are not exposing another person to danger by removing your
lock. Make sure all co-workers have been notified.

Note: Beware of multiple-lockout situations. If your lock is the last one remaining on the
lockout device, it is a good idea to check the machine and to notify your supervisor before
restoring energy. Just to be safe!

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-1

HAND and PROTABLE POWER TOOLS

Hand and portable power tools are essential in maintaining a building, keeping equipment and machinery
running, and especially in construction. However, these same tools of necessity are also notorious for
producing non-fatal injuries. It is estimated by the Bureau of Labor and Statistics that most hand tool
injuries occur in industrial settings, whereas portable power tool injuries generally occur on a construction
site.

Frequent and severe injuries caused by the abuse and neglect of hand and powered tools dictate that control
and maintenance of tools be made a part of a company’s safety program. The correct tool must be selected
for each job. Examples of unsafe practices include striking together hardened faces of hand tools; using a
file or a screwdriver for a pry; using a wrench for a hammer; and using pliers instead of the proper wrench.

Tools should be kept in good condition. Examples of unsafe tools include wrenches with cracked or worn
jaws, screwdrivers with broken points or split or broken handles, hammers with loose heads, broken or split
handles, mushroomed heads on chisels, and dull saws.

General Requirements for Hand and Portable Power Tools

o Supervisors are required to ensure that all tools used by the workers, including tools and
equipment furnished by the workers, are in a safe condition.
o Safety rules for hand and portable power tools must be followed.
o Appropriate eye protection must be worn by all workers using hand tools, whenever there is a
possibility of creating a spark and/or airborne particle.
o In environments that contain high levels of explosive substances, hand tools made of non-
ferrous material shall be used.
o Good housekeeping for tools will be followed at all times – this means tools shall be cleaned
before storing them and that they are stored in a toolbox or a tool rack.

Selecting the Right Tool

o Using the wrong tool for the job increases the risk factor for an accident.

Use Tools Properly and Safely

o Train the worker how to use tools correctly and safely.
o Be sure the worker reads (and understands) the tool’s manual before using the tool.

Keep Tools in Good Condition

o Check tools before use – look for cracks, chips and other damage.
o Remove damage tools from service.

Store Tools in a Safe Place

o Properly stored tools will not get damaged and be available when needed.

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-2

Hand Tools
Hand tools are non-powered. They include anything from axes to wrenches. The greatest hazards
posed by hand tools result from misuse and improper maintenance.
Some examples include the following:
• Using a screwdriver as a chisel may cause the tip of the screwdriver to break and fly,
hitting the user or other employees;
• If a wooden handle on a tool such as a hammer or an axe is loose, splintered, or cracked,
the head of the tool may fly off and strike the user or another worker;
• A wrench shall not be used if its jaws are sprung, because it might slip;
• Impact tools such as chisels and wedges are unsafe if they have mushroomed heads. The
heads might shatter on impact, sending sharp fragments flying;
• Employers shall caution employees that saw blades, knives or other tools be directed
away from aisle areas and other employees working in close proximity. Knives and
scissors shall be sharp. Dull tools can be more hazardous than sharp ones;
• Appropriate personal protective equipment (e.g., safety goggles, gloves) shall be worn
due to hazards that may be encountered while using portable power tools and hand tools;
• Safety requires that floors be kept as clean and dry as possible to prevent accidental slips
when using hand tools; and
• Around flammable substances, sparks produced by iron and steel hand tools can be a
dangerous ignition source. Where this hazard exists, spark-resistant tools made from
brass, plastic, aluminum or wood shall be used.

Inspecting Hand Tools

Screwdriver Tip – cracked or chipped Hammer – handle cracked, claw broken

Chisel – cracked or chipped Hand Saw – teeth dull, handle cracked

Pliers – teeth worn, handle bent Wrenches – jaw sprung, grip rounded

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-3

Power Tools
Power tools can be hazardous when improperly used. There are several types of power tools,
based on the power source they use: electric, pneumatic, liquid fuel, hydraulic and powder-
actuated.

The following general precautions shall be observed by power tool users:

• Never carry a tool by the cord or hose;
• Never remove prongs from electrical extension cords;
• Never stand in or near water when using tools;
• Never “yank” the cord or the hose to disconnect it from the receptacle;
• Keep cords and hoses away from heat, oil and sharp edges;
• Replace all frayed and/or damaged electrical extension cords. Do not tape cords;
• Disconnect tools when not in use, before servicing and when changing accessories such
as blades, bits and cutters;
• All observers shall be kept at a safe distance away from the work area;
• Secure work with clamps or a vise, freeing both hands to operate the tool;
• Avoid accidental starting. The worker shall not hold a finger on the switch button while
carrying a plugged-in tool;
• Tools shall be maintained with care. They shall be kept sharp and clean for the best
performance. Follow instructions in the user’s manual for maintenance, lubricating and
changing accessories;
• Maintain good footing and balance;
• The proper apparel shall be worn. Loose fitting clothes, ties or jewelry such as bracelets,
watches or rings, which can become caught in moving parts – should be removed; and

All portable electric tools that are damaged shall be removed from use and tagged “Do Not Use”.
This shall be done by supervisors (foreman) and/or employees.

Inspecting Portable Power Tools

Circular Saw- power cord, blade, teeth Reciprocating Saw- blade, cord

Drill- power cord, trigger, locking chuck Drill Bits- sharpness, chipped

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-4

Jack Hammer- bit, cord Portable Power Station- cord, outlets

Grinder- disc, cord Sander- belt, cord

Guards
Hazardous moving parts of a power tool need to be safeguarded. For example, belts, gears, shafts,
pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, fly wheels, chains, or other reciprocating, rotating, or moving
parts of equipment shall be guarded if such parts are exposed to contact by employees.

Guards, as necessary, shall be provided to protect the operator and others from the following:
• Point of operation;
• Nip points;
• Rotating parts;
• Flying chips; and
• Sparks.

Safety guards shall never be removed when a tool is being used. For example, portable circular
saws shall be equipped with guards. An upper guard shall cover the entire blade of the saw. A
retractable lower guard shall cover the teeth of the saw, except when it makes contact with the
work material. The lower guard shall automatically return to the covering position when the tool
is withdrawn from the work.

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-5

Safety Switches
The following hand-held power tools shall be equipped with a momentary contact “on-off” control
switch: drills, tappers, fastener drivers, horizontal, vertical and angle grinders with wheels larger
than two (2)inches in diameter, disc and belt sanders, reciprocating saws, saber saws and other
similar tools. These tools also may be equipped with a lock-on control provided that turnoff can
be accomplished by a single motion of the same finger or fingers that turn it on.

The following hand-held powered tools may be equipped with only a positive “on-off” control
switch: platen sanders, disc sanders with discs two (2) inches or less in diameter; grinders with
wheels two (s) inches or less in diameter; routers, planers, laminate trimmers, nibblers, shears,
scroll saws and jigsaws with blade shanks quarter inch wide or less.

Other hand-held powered tools such as circular saws having a blade diameter greater than two (2)
inches, chain saws and percussion tools without positive accessory holding means shall be
equipped with a constant pressure switch that will shut off the power when the pressure is
released.

Electric Tools
Employees using electric tools shall be aware of several dangers with the most serious being the
possibility of electrocution.

Among the chief hazards of electric-powered tools are burns and slight shocks which can lead to
injuries or even heart failure.

To protect the user from shock, tools shall either have a three-wire cord with ground and be
grounded, be double insulated or be powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer. Anytime an
adapter is used to accommodate a two-hole receptacle, the adapter wire shall be attached to a
known ground. The third prong shall never be removed from the plug.

Tools shall be shut down before cleaning, repairing or oiling. Disconnect or use Lockout/Tagout
Procedures. Refer to Lockout/Tagout Program,
These general practices shall be followed when using electric tools:
• Electric tools shall be operated within their design limitations;
• Gloves and safety footwear are recommended during use of electric tools;
• When not in use, tools shall be stored in a dry place;
• Electric tools shall not be used in damp or wet locations; and
• Work areas shall be well lit, even if this means the operators has to augment the work
surface illumination by other appropriate means.

Pneumatic Tools
Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air and include chippers, drills, hammers, and
sanders. There are several dangers encountered in the use of pneumatic tools. The main one is the
danger of getting hit by one of the tool’s attachments or by some kind of fastener the worker is
using with the tool.

Eye protection is required and face protection is recommended for employees working with
pneumatic tools.

Noise is another hazard. Working with noisy tools (e.g. jackhammers) requires proper, effective
use of hearing protection.

When using pneumatic tools, employees shall ensure they are fastened securely to the hose to
prevent them from becoming disconnected. A short wire or positive locking device attaching the
air hose to the tool will serve as an added safeguard.

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-6

A safety clip or retainer shall be installed to prevent attachments, such as chisels on a chipping
hammer, from being unintentionally shot from the barrel.

Screens shall be set up to protect nearby workers from being struck by flying fragments around
chippers, riveting guns, staplers or air drills.

Compressed air guns shall never be pointed toward anyone. Users shall never “dead-end” it
against themselves or anyone else.

Hydraulic Power Tools

The fluid used in hydraulic power tools shall be an approved fire-resistant fluid and shall retain its
operating characteristics at the most extreme temperatures to which it will be exposed.

The manufacturer’s recommended safe operating pressure for hoses, valves, pipes, filters and
other fittings shall not be exceeded.

Powered Abrasive Wheel Tools

Powered abrasive grinding, cutting, polishing and wire buffing wheels create special safety
problems because they may throw off flying fragments.

Before an abrasive wheel is mounted, it shall be inspected closely and sound- or ring-tested to
ensure that it is free from cracks or defects. To test, wheels shall be tapped gently with a light
non-metallic instrument. If the wheel sounds cracked or dead, they could fly apart in operation
and shall not be used. A sound and undamaged wheel will give a clear metallic tone or “ring.” To
prevent the wheel from cracking, the user shall be sure it fits freely on the spindle. The spindle
nut shall be tightened enough to hold the wheel in place, without distorting the flange. Follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations. Care shall be taken to ensure that the spindle wheel does not
exceed the abrasive wheel specifications.

Due to the possibility of a wheel disintegrating (exploding) during start-up, the employee shall
never stand directly in front of the wheel as it accelerates to full operating speed.

Portable grinding tools need to be equipped with safety guards to protect workers not only from
the moving wheel surface, but also from flying fragments in case of breakage.

In addition, when using a power grinder:

• Always use eye protection;
• Turn off the power when not in use; and
• Never clamp a hand-held grinder in a vise.

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-7

Ring test: The wheels should be tapped gently with a light nonmetallic implement, such as the
handle of a screwdriver for light wheels, or a wooden mallet for heavier wheels. Tap wheels about
45º each side of the vertical centerline and about 1 or 2 inches from the periphery as indicated by
the spots in the figures below. Then rotate the wheel 45º and repeat the test. A sound and
undamaged wheel will give a clear metallic tone. If cracked, there will be a dead sound and not a
clear “ring.”

Powder-Actuated Tools
Powder-actuated tools are like a loaded gun and shall be treated with the same respect and
precautions. The use of powder-actuated tools is prohibited until approved by the Company
Safety Manager.

Safety precautions to remember include the following:

• These tools shall not be used in an explosive or flammable atmosphere;
• Before using the tool, the worker shall inspect it to determine that it is clean, all moving parts
operate freely, and the barrel is free from obstructions;
• Employees shall not modify tools;
• The tool shall never be pointed at anybody;
• The tool shall not be loaded unless it is to be used immediately. A loaded tool shall not be left
unattended, especially where it could be available to unauthorized persons;
• Hands shall be kept clear of the barrel end;
• To prevent the tool from firing accidentally, two separate motions are required for firing: one
to bring the tool into position and another to pull the trigger;
• The tools shall not be able to operate until they are pressed against the work surface with a
force of at least five pounds greater than the total weight of the tool;
• If a powder-actuated tool misfires, the employee shall wait at least 30 seconds, then try firing
it again;
• If it still will not fire, the user shall wait another 30 seconds so that the faulty cartridge is less
likely to explode then carefully remove the load. The bad cartridge shall be put in water;
• Suitable eye and face protection are essential when using a powder-actuated tool;
• The muzzle end of the tool shall have a protective shield or guard centered perpendicularly on
the barrel to confine any flying fragments or particles that might otherwise create a hazard
when the tool is fired. The tool shall be designed so that it will not fire unless it has this kind
of safety device;
• All powder-actuated tools shall be designed for varying powder charges so that the user can
select a powder level necessary to do the work without excessive force; and
• If the tool develops a defect during use, it shall be tagged and taken out of service
immediately until it is properly repaired.

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-8

Power Tool Inspection Checklist – also identifies the OSHA standard governing the tool.

General Requirements
1. Are all portable hand or power-tools maintained in a safe condition?
29 CFR 1926.300a

2. If compressed air is used for cleaning purposes, is it used at pressures less than 30 psi and
only with effective chip guarding and personal protective equipment?
29 CFR 1910.242b / 1926.302b4

3. Are power tools equipped and used with guards whenever possible?
29 CFR 1926.300b1

4. Are all belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, flywheels, chains, or other
reciprocating, rotating or moving parts of equipment guarded if operator is exposed to contact
or it they otherwise create a hazard?
29 CFR 19126.300b2

5. Is all necessary personal protective equipment provided whenever the use of hand and power
tools could create falling, flying or splashing debris, or harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or
gases.
29 CFR 1926.300c

6. If tools and equipment are brought from home, are they subject to the same safety
requirements as supplied tools and equipment?
29 CFR 1910.242a

7. Are all chain saws, percussion tools, and hand-held powered circular saws (with blades
greater than 2 inches in diameter) equipped with a constant pressure switch that shuts off
power when released?
29 CFR 1910.243a2i / 1926.300d3

8. Are all hand-held powered drills, tappers, fastener drivers; horizontal, vertical and angle
grinders (with wheels greater than 2 inches in diameters); disc sanders (with disc greater than
2 inches in diameter); disc sanders (with disc greater than 2 inches in diameter); belt sanders;
reciprocating saws; saber scroll, jig saws (with blade shanks greater than a nominalone –
fourth (1/4) inch; and other similarly power-tools equipped with a constant pressure switch or
control?
29 CFR 1910.243a2ii / 1926.300d1-3

9. Are all-hand held powered platen sanders, grinders (with wheels two-inch diameter or less),
routers, planers, laminate trimmers, nibblers, shears, scroll saws, and jig saws (with blade
shanks one-fourth (1/4) of an inch wide or less), equipped with a positive “on-off” control?
29 CFR 1910.243a2iii / 1926.300d1

10. On hand-held power tools, is the operating control located so as to minimize the possibility of
accidental operation?
29 CFR 1910.243a2iv

11. Are all portable power driven circular saws (with blade diameter greater than 2 inches)
equipped with guards above and below the base plate or shoe?
29 CFR 1910.243a1i / 1926.304d

12. Does the upper guard on a circular saw cover the saw to the depth of the teeth, except for the
minimum arc required to permit the base to be tilted for bevel cuts?
29 CFR 1926.304d

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-9

13. Does the lower guard on a circular saw cover the saw to the depth of the teeth, except for the
minimum arc required to allow proper retraction and contact with the work?
29 CFR 1926.304d

14. When a circular saw is removed from the material being sawed, does the lower guard
automatically and instantly return to the covering position?
29 CFR 1926.304d

15. Are belt sanding machines provided with guards at each nip point, where the sanding belt runs
onto a pulley?
29 CFR 1910.243a3

16. If a saw cracks, is it immediately removed form service?

29 CFR 1910.243a4

17. Are all portable electrically powered tools properly grounded or double insulated?
29 CFR 1910.243a5 / 1926.302a1

18. Are impact tools, such as drift pins, wedges, and chisels, kept free of mushroomed heads?
29 CFR 1926.301c

19. Are the wooden handles of tools kept free of splinters or cracks and are they fixed tightly in
the tool?
29 CFR 1926.301d

20. Is it prohibited to lower or hoist a tool by the cord?

29 CFR 1926.302a2

21. Do woodworking tools meet the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) safety codes?
29 CFR 1926.304f

Pneumatic Power Tools and Hose

22. Are pneumatic power tools secured to the hose or whip by some positive means, so as to
prevent the tool from being accidentally disconnected?
29 CFR 1926.302b1

23. Are safety clips or retainers used on pneumatic impact (percussion) tools to prevent
attachments from being accidentally expelled?
29 CFR 1910.243b1

24. Are all pneumatically driven nailers, staplers, and other similar equipment which have
automatic fastener feeds and which operate at more than 100 psi pressure at the tool equipped
with a safety device on the nozzle to prevent the tool form ejecting fasteners, unless the
muzzle is in contact with the work surface?
29 CFR 1926.302b3

25. Are all compressed air hoses and hose connections designed for the pressure and service to
which they are subjected?
29 CFR 1910.243b2 / 1926.302b5

26. Is it prohibited to lower or hoist tools by the hose?

29 CFR 1926.302b6

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-10

27. Do all hoses (exceeding one-half inch inside diameter) have safety devices at the source of the
supply or branch line, to reduce pressure in case of hose failure?
29 CFR 1926.302b7

28. Are airless spray guns (of the type which atomize paints and fluids at high pressure (1,000 or
more psi) equipped with automatic or visible manual safety devices which prevent accidental
release of paint or fluid?
29 CFR 1926.302b8

29. Are all fuel powered tools stopped while being refueled, serviced, or maintained?
29 CFR 1926.302c1

30. Is all fuel transported, handled, and stored in accordance with applicable regulations?
29 CFR 302c1

31. When fuel powered tools are used in enclosed spaces, are measures taken to prevent the build-
up of toxic gases?
29 CFR 1926.302c2

Hand and Portable Power Tools Policy

Purpose

To ensure that all hand tools and portable power tools are used properly, safely and in accordance with
all manufacturer’s guidelines.

Responsibility

It is everyone’s responsibility to use hand tools and portable power tools in the manner in which they
are indented. Employee owned tools shall be inspected by the Company Safety Manager or Supervisor
(Foreman) prior to being used on the Company’s premises.

Guidelines

Employees who use hand and portable power tools, who are exposed to the hazards of falling, flying,
abrasive and splashing objects, or exposed to harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases must be
provided with the appropriate equipment needed, including Personal Protective Equipment, to protect
them from the hazard. All hazards involved in the use of power tools can be prevented by following
some basic safety rules:

• Keep all tools in good condition with regular maintenance;

• Use the right tool for the job;
• Examine each tool for damage before use;
• Operate according to the manufacturer’s instructions;
• Utilize the proper protective equipment; and
• Participating in safety training.

Employees and employers have a responsibility to work together to establish safe working procedures. If a
hazardous situation is encountered, it shall be brought to the attention of the Department Supervisor
(Foreman) and/or Safety Manager for evaluation and corrective action. Additionally, only company
employees shall use company hand/portable power tools.

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 Hand and Portable Power Tools 7-11

Safe Work with Power Saws – Hazard Alert – Construction Safety Council

Thousands of workers are seriously injured each year by gas or electric power saws. Some are killed —
most by electric shock.

The Hazard
You can be badly cut or burned, using a power saw, if you are not careful. You can get sprains and
strains and lose your hearing. Grit and dust from using the saws can hurt your eyes. Dust can hurt your
lungs. If you dry-cut masonry or stone that has silica in it, you can get silicosis and it can kill you. An
electric saw can electrocute you. A gas-powered saw can cause carbon monoxide poisoning and kill you.

Protecting Yourself
 Read the owner’s manual before you first use a saw
 Keep blades sharp, clean and oiled.
 Inspected prior to each use – especially blade for cracks.
 Wear goggles or safety glasses with side shields, and full face shield.
 Do not wear jewelry (such as chains) or loose clothing
 Wear hearing protection
 To start a saw with starter cord, put one foot one the back handle, put one hand on the top handle to
keep the blade off the surface, and use the other hand to pull the cord.
 Hold the saw with both hands when in use.
 Prevent kick-back by holding your forward arm straight and do not cut above chest height.
 Shut off the power saw when re-fueling.

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 Machine Safeguarding 8-1

MACHINE SAFEGUARDING

Crushed hands and arms, severed fingers, blindness - - the list of possible machinery-related injuries is as
long as it is horrifying. There seem to be as many hazards created by moving machine parts as there are
types of machines. Safeguards are essential for protecting workers from needless and preventable injuries.

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 Machine Safeguarding 8-2

Machine Safeguarding

Purpose

No employee shall operate and/or cause to be operated any machinery without proper protective
guards in place or modify/disable any protective guards on machinery without contacting Safety
Manager for such approval or implementing the Company’s Lockout/Tagout Program. Such
guards shall be provided to protect the operator and other employees from hazards such as
exposed belts, pulleys, sheaves, drive shafts, drive couplings, chains, rotating parts, flying chips
and sparks.

Responsibility

The Company Safety Manager and all Departmental Managers shall be responsible for ensuring
all safeguards on machinery and equipment are in place prior to any employee(s) working with
them.

Maintenance personnel shall ensure all safeguards are replaced and in operational order after
servicing any piece of machinery or equipment.

Each employee shall be responsible to bring to the attention of the Safety Manager or their
immediate supervisor, any machinery or equipment, in which the safeguard is missing or non-
operational.

Guidelines

Guards shall be affixed to the machine so to prevent access to the hazard from all accessible
directions including front, top, bottom and back side. Examples of guarding methods include
barrier guards, two-hand tripping devices or electronic safety devices.

Special hand feeding tools for placing and removing material shall be such as to permit easy
handling of material without the operator placing a hand in the danger zone. Such tools shall not
be in lieu of other guarding required by this policy, but shall only be used to supplement
protection provided.

Basic Areas Requiring Safeguarding

Dangerous moving parts in three basic areas require safeguarding:

• Point of operation: The area on a machine where work is actually performed on the
material being processed (e.g., cutting, shaping, boring, forming of stock);
• Power transmission apparatus: All components of the mechanical system which
transmit energy to the part of the machine performing the work. These components
include flywheels, pulleys, belts, connecting rods, couplings, cams, spindles, chains,
cranks, and gears; and
• Other moving parts: All parts of the machine which move while the machine is
working including, but not limited to, reciprocating, rotating, and transverse moving
parts, as well as feed mechanisms and auxiliary parts of the machine.

Exposure of Blades
When the periphery of the blades of a fan is less than seven (7) feet above the floor or
working level, the blades shall be guarded. The guard shall have openings no larger than
one-half inch.

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 Machine Safeguarding 8-3

Anchoring Fixed Machinery

All machines designed for a fixed location shall be securely anchored to prevent walking
or moving of the machine.

Hazardous Mechanical Motions and Actions

Rotating motion can be dangerous because it can grip clothing, and through mere skin
contact force an arm or hand into a dangerous position. Collars, couplings, cams,
clutches, flywheels, shaft ends, spindles, meshing gears, and horizontal or vertical
shafting are some examples of common rotating mechanisms which may be hazardous.
The danger increases when projections such as set screws, bolts, nicks, abrasions, and
projecting keys or set screws are exposed on rotating parts.

Nip point hazards are caused by the rotating parts on machinery. There are three main
causes of nip points:

• Parts can rotate in opposite directions while their axes are parallel to each other.
These parts may be in contact (producing a nip point) or in close proximity to
each other. In the latter cases, the stock fed between the rolls produces the nip
points. Machines with intermeshing gears that pose this hazard are rolling mills,
and calenders.
• Parts can rotate in the same direction with each other. Some examples would be
the point of contact between a power transmission belt and its pulley, a chain
and a sprocket, or a rack and pinion; and
• A part can rotate among a fixed part creating a shearing or crushing action.
Examples are spoked handwheels or flywheels, screw conveyors, or the
periphery of an abrasive wheel and an incorrectly adjusted work rest.

Reciprocating motions may be hazardous because, during the back-and-forth or up-and-

down motion, a worker may be struck by or caught between a moving and a stationary
part.

Transverse motion (movement in a straight, continuous line) creates a hazard because a

worker may be struck or caught in a pinch point or shear point by the moving part.

Cutting action may involve rotating, reciprocating, or transverse motion. The danger of
cutting action exists at the point of operation where finger, arm and body injuries can
occur and where flying chips or scrap material can strike the head, particularly in the area
of the eyes or face. Such hazards are present at the point of operation in cutting wood,
metal, or other materials. Examples of mechanisms involving cutting hazards include
bandsaws, circular saws, boring or drilling machines, turning machines (lathes), or
milling machines.

Punching action results when power is applied to a slide (ram) for the purpose of
blanking, drawing, or stamping metal or other materials. The danger of this type of
action occurs at the point of operation where stock is inserted, held, and withdrawn by the
hand. Typical machines used for punching operations are power presses and iron
workers.

Shearing action involves applying power to a slide or knife in order to trim or shear metal
or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of operation where stock is actually
inserted, held, and withdrawn. Examples of machines used for shearing operations are
mechanically, hydraulically, or pneumatically powered shears.

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 Machine Safeguarding 8-4

Bending action results when power is applied to a slide in order to draw or stamp metal
or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of operation where stock is inserted,
held, and withdrawn. Equipment that uses bending action includes power presses, press
brakes, and tubing benders.

Requirements for Safeguards

Safeguards shall meet these minimum general requirements:

• Prevent contact: The safeguard shall prevent hands, arms, and any other part of a
worker’s body from making contact with dangerous moving parts. A good
safeguarding system eliminates the possibility of the operator or another worker
placing parts of their bodies near hazardous moving parts.
• Secure: Workers should not be able to easily remove or tamper with the safeguard.
Guards and safety devices shall be made of durable material that will withstand the
conditions of normal use. They shall be firmly secured to the machine.
• Protect from falling objects: The safeguard shall ensure that no objects can fall into
moving parts. A small tool which is dropped into a cycling machine could easily
become a projectile that could strike and injure someone.
• Create no new hazards: A safeguard defeats its own purpose if it creates a hazard of
its own such as a shear point, a jagged edge, or an unfinished surface which can
cause a laceration. The edges of guards, for instance, should be rolled or bolted in
such a way that they eliminate sharp edges.
• Create no interference: Any safeguard which impedes a worker from performing
the job quickly and comfortably might soon be overridden or disregarded. Proper
safeguarding can actually enhance efficiency since it can relieve the worker’s
apprehensions about injury.
• Allow safe lubrication: If possible, one should be able to lubricate the machine
without removing the safeguards. Locating oil reservoirs outside the guard, with a
line leading to the lubrication point, will reduce the need for the operator or
maintenance worker to enter the hazardous area.

Employee Training for Machine Safeguarding

Supervisors shall facilitate operator training involving instruction or hands-on training in the
following:

• Description and identification of the hazards associated with particular machines;

• The safeguards on the particular machines including, but not limited to: how they
provide protection; the hazards for which they are intended; and how to use them;
and
• What to do (e.g., contact the supervisor) if a safeguard is damaged, missing, or
unable to provide adequate protection.

This training shall be provided to all new operators and maintenance or setup personnel, when any
new or altered safeguards are put in service, or when workers are assigned to a new machine or
operation.

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 Material Handling 9-1

MATERIAL HANDLING

Each year, tens of thousands of injuries related to material handling occur in the workplace here in the United
States. Injuries that occur due to improper lifting, improper material storage, using defective slings and chains,
and most commonly usage of a powered industrial truck – forklift.

Manual Material Handling

Handling material is a daily function in the workplace. All too often it is a task taken for granted, with
little knowledge of or attention to the consequences if done incorrectly. Management and employees need
to look at and evaluate how material goods are handled inside and outside their facilities. Whether the
operation involves delivering or receiving material, an area should be designated for that purpose.

How the material or goods are unloaded or loaded is a key factor in reducing employee injuries. Persons
involved in material handling should be able to lift and hold the weight of the material or goods used in
their operations. They also must be properly trained in the correct way to lift and carry the items.

Safe Lifting Technique

Know Your Lifting Know What Your Lifting Get a In Close

Abilities & Zone

Get a Grip Look Up When Keep It Close

You Stand Up

Have A Clear Path Keep Your Nose Watch for Fingers &
Of Travel Between Your Toes Toes – Lowering

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 Material Handling 9-2

Considerations for Manual Material Handling

• Can the job be engineered to eliminate or reduce manual handling?
• Can the material be conveyed or moved mechanically?
• In what ways do the materials being handled (such as chemicals, dusts, rough and sharp objects) cause
injury?
• Can employees be given handling aids, such as properly sized boxes, adequate trucks, or hooks that
will make their job safer?
• Would protective clothing, or other personal equipment, help prevent injuries?
• Would training and more effective management help reduce injuries?

Common Manual Material Handling Problems

• Common injuries involved in material handling are strains, sprains, fractures and bruises. These are
primarily caused by unsafe practices – improper lifting, carrying too heavy load, incorrect gripping,
failing to observe proper foot or hand clearance, and failing to use or wear proper equipment and/or
personal protective equipment and clothing.

• Oversized Loads
o Don’t try to carry a big load alone. Ask for help.
o Work as a team. Lift, walk, and lower the load together.
o Let one person give the directions and direct the lift.

• High Loads
o Use a step stool or a sturdy ladder to reach loads that are above your shoulders.
o Get as close as you can to the load.
o Slide the load toward you.
o Do all the work with your arms and legs, not your back.

• Low Loads
o Loads that are under racks and cabinets need extra care.
o Pull the load toward you, and then try to support it on your knee before you lift.
o Use your legs to power the lift.

1. Know what your limits. 6. Lift with your legs.

2. Know what your lifting. 7. Hold it close
3. Back straight, secure. 8. Keep it close
4. Secure grip. 9. Have a clear path of travel
5. Look up before you stand up.

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 Material Handling 9-3

Mechanical Material Handling

Many times it is not necessary for an individual to lift and carry material manually. Various types of
equipment – dolly, cart, lift truck, hoist, and crane – are available to move material safely. Depending on the
type of operation, using a dolly and cart to move material can result in minimal disruption of work flow.

Lift trucks can be used to carry heavier loads from one area to another. It is imperative that materials are
placed on the lift truck in a safe and secure manner to avoid having the load shift, fall off, roll over, or impair
the driver’s vision.

Hoists and cranes should be used to lift extremely heavy loads. When using this type of equipment,
personnel must enforce proper safety measures to prevent serious injuries. Only experienced persons should
operate hoists and cranes. The machinery must be kept in good working condition, properly maintained, and
tested on a regular basis. Loads should not exceed the machine’s load limit.

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 Material Handling 9-4

Powered Industrial Trucks

Many employees are injured when lift trucks are inadvertently driven off loading docks, lifts fall between docks
and an unsecured trailer, they are struck by a lift truck, or when they fall while on elevated pallets and tines.
Most incidents also involve property damage, including damage to overhead sprinklers, racking, pipes, walls,
and machinery. Unfortunately, most employee injuries and property damage can be attributed to lack of safe
operating procedures, lack of safety-rule enforcement, and insufficient or inadequate training.

Designation – there are various means to power an industrial truck (electric, gasoline, diesel, propane) the
Company Safety Manager shall determine if the unit’s (forklift’s) mechanical characteristics, electrical
systems and fuel source is designated and rated for the specific environment.

Safe Guards – the powered industrial truck shall be equipped with safe guards when high lift work is in
process.

Fuel Storage and Handling – the operator and authorized mechanic shall be trained on and familiar with
the specific types of hazards and procedures related to the fueling or battery charging of the specific unit
being maintained.

Inspections – powered industrial trucks shall be inspected by the operator prior to use on each shift. The
inspection shall be conducted in accordance with the manufactures’ requirements. A sample daily checklist
for fuel forklifts is provided on page 8-5 and for electric forklifts on page 8-6

Safe Operation – only competent operators shall operate powered industrial trucks. Prior to an operator
operating a powered industrial truck, the operator shall successfully complete a designated training
program. This training shall be a combination of formal instruction and practical application. The formal
instructions shall cover:

Forklift-Related Topics Workplace-Related Topics

 Operating instructions, warnings, and  Surface conditions where the truck will
precautions for the type of truck the be operating;
operator will be authorized to operate;  Composition of loads to be carried and
 Differences between the truck and an load stability;
automobile;  Load manipulation, stacking and un-
 Forklift controls and instrumentation; stacking;
 Engine or motor operation;  Pedestrian traffic;
 Steering and maneuvering;  Narrow aisles and other restricted
 Forks and attachments; places;
 Forklift visibility, capacity and stability;  Hazardous locations;
 Forklift inspection and limitations; and  Ramps and other sloped surfaces; and
 Refueling/recharging method.  Closed environments and other areas
with insufficient ventilation.

When traveling without a load, the forks/prongs of a forklift shall be 4-6 inches from the floor.

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 Material Handling 9-5

Daily checklists for each type of industrial truck are available from the truck manufacturer. You may choose to use a
checklist for each type of industrial truck in your workplace or compile one that can be used for any type of truck.

Operator’s Daily Checklist – Fuel Industrial Truck

Record of Fuel Added

Date Operator Fuel
Truck# Model# Engine Oil
Department Serial# Radiator Coolant
Shift Hour Meter Hydraulic Oil

SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL CHECKS (PRIOR TO EACH SHIFT)

Engine – unusual noise or sound

Leaks – Fuel, Hydraulic Oil, Engine Oil or Radiator Coolant
Tires – Condition and Pressure
Forks, Top Clip Retaining Pin and Heel – Check Condition
Load Backrest – Securely Attached
Hydraulic Hoses, Mast Chains, Cables and Stops – Check Visually
Overhead Guard – Attached
Finger Guards – Attached
Propane Tank (LP Gas Truck) – Rust Corrosion, Damage
Safety Warnings – Attached (Refer to Parts Manual for Location)
Battery – Check Water/Electrolyte Level and Charge
All Engine Belts – Check Visually
Hydraulic Fluid Level – Check Level
Engine Oil Level – Dipstick
Transmission Fluid Level – Dipstick
Engine Air Cleaner – Squeeze Rubber Dirt Trap or Check the
Restriction Alarm (if equipped)
Fuel Sedimentor (Diesel)
Radiator Coolant – Check Level
Operator’s Manual – In Container
Nameplate – Attached and Information Matches Model, Serial
Number and Attachments
Seat Belt – Functioning Smoothly
Hood Latch – Adjusted and Securely Fastened
Brake Fluid – Check Level
Accelerator or Direction Control Pedal – Functioning Smoothly
Service Brake – Functioning Smoothly
Parking Brake – Functioning Smoothly
Steering Operation – Functioning Smoothly
Drive Control – Forward/Reverse – Functioning Smoothly
Tilt Control – Forward and Back – Functioning Smoothly
Hoist and Lowering Control – Functioning Smoothly
Attachment Control – Operation
Horn and Lights – Functioning
Cab (if equipped) – Heater, Defroster, Wipers – Functioning
Gauges: Ammeter, Engine Oil Pressure, Hour Meter, Fuel Level,
Temperature, Instrument Monitors – Functioning

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 Material Handling 9-6

Operator’s Daily Checklist – Electric Industrial Truck Smoothly

Service Brake – Functioning
Record of Fluid Added
Smoothly
Battery
Date Operator Steering Operation –
Water
Hydraulic Functioning Smoothly
Truck# Model# Drive Control –
Oil
Department Serial# Forward/Reverse – Functioning
Shift Drive Hoist Smoothly
Hour Hour Tilt Control – Forward and
Meter Meter Back – Functioning Smoothly
Reading Reading
Hoist and Lowering Control –
Functioning Smoothly
SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL CHECKS (PRIOR Attachment Control –
TO EACH SHIFT) Operation
Horn – Functioning
Motor – unusual noise or sound Lights & Alarms (where
Leaks – Hydraulic Oil, Battery present) – Functioning
Tires – Condition and Pressure Hour Meter – Functioning
Forks, Top Clip Retaining Pin Battery Discharge Indicator –
and Heel – Condition Functioning
Load Backrest Extension – Instrument Monitors –
Attached Functioning
Hydraulic Hoses, Mast Chains,
Cables & Stops – Check
Visually
Finger Guards – Attached Rules to Follow When Working Around Mechanical
Overhead Guard – Attached Lifting Devices
 Do not stand/walk under a suspended load
Safety Warnings – Attached
(Refer to Parts Manual for
 Do not position yourself between a suspended
Location)
load and an immovable object
Battery – Water/Electrolyte
Level and Charge  Always maintain communication with the
Hydraulic Fluid Level – operator
Dipstick
Transmission Fluid Level –  Always stand clear of lines and rigging
Dipstick
Operator’s Manual in Container  Never ride on a load
Capacity Plate Attached –
Information Matches Model,  Be aware of your surroundings and always
Serial Number and Attachments have a way out
Battery Restraint System –
Adjust and Fasten  Pay attention to backup/movement alarms
Operator Protection
 Understand dangers associated with electrical
Sitdown Truck – Seat Belt –
Functioning Smoothly lines in close proximity
Man-up Truck – Fall
protection/Restraining means –  Never operate a crane or forklift unless you are
Functioning certified and authorized to do so
Brake Fluid – Check level
 Always use tag lines
Accelerator Linkage –
Functioning Smoothly  Inspect slings and rigging before each use
Parking Brake – Functioning

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 Material Handling 9-7

Cranes
Mobile cranes are used to hoist loads to meet various construction and industrial needs. All cranes use cables
and pulleys or hydraulics to raise and lower the desired load. The Construction Safety Association of Ontario’s
Mobile Crane Manual lists the basic operational characteristics of all mobile cranes as follows:
• Ability to lift and lower loads
• Ability to swing loads around an axis of rotation
• Adjustable boom lengths
• Adjustable boom angles
• Ability to travel about the job site under their own power

Mobile cranes come in a variety of types and Boom trucks are versatile machines, which can
configurations such as the following: be used for many job applications from loading
• Boom trucks and unloading materials to lacing those materials
• Industrial cranes or personnel up to heights of 170 feet. Mounted
• Carrier-mounted lattice boom cranes on a truck bed these cranes can move between
• Crawler-mounted lattice boom cranes job sites at highway speeds carrying payloads in
• Carrier-mounted telescopic boom cranes excess of 15,000 pounds. As with all cranes,
• Crawler-mounted telescopic boom cranes significant training is needed to ensure safe
• Rough terrain cranes operation and productivity.
• Mobile tower cranes
• Heavy-lift mobile cranes

Cranes are able to lift heavy loads by applying

the principle of leverage. The crane’s own
weight is balanced against the object or load
being hoisted at the tipping point (or tipping
axis). The crane remains stable and can safely lift
and move the load so long as the crane’s
leverage on the load is greater than the load’s
leverage on the crane.

The crane’s ability to lift a heavy load, swing it

in any direction, and raise it high overhead also
contributes to the many reported incidents of Whether it is a forklift, crane or boom truck the
crane tip-over when the cranes are not set up operator must be qualified. And, loads to be
correctly or proper procedures are not followed. lifted by mechanical lifting devices need to be
During a lift, the distance from the load’s center rigged by a competent person.
of gravity to the crane’s tipping axis changes as
the boom angle changes, the boom is extended, All rigging hardware shall be inspected prior to
and as the crane’s upper deck rotates to swing lifting any load. Rigging hardware includes:
the load. These changes can lead to instability if Hooks Turnbuckles
the crane’s lift capacity is exceeded. Proper Shackles Eyebolts
inspection, set-up, and operation by the crane Swivels Slings
operator, along with proper maintenance, are
necessary to ensure safe crane operation. Below the Hook Lifting Devices
 Spreader Beams
A crane’s lifting capacity is reduced as the boom  Clamps
is lowered because the distance from the load’s
center of gravity to the tipping axis is increased.
Increasing the load’s distance to the tipping axis
reduces the ability of the crane’s weight to
counteract or “leverage” the load’s weight.
Extending the boom at any given angle has the
same effect.

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 Material Handling 9-8

Storage of Materials

Open Yard Storage

Storing materials in an open yard requires attention to combustible materials, access, power lines, and fire
protection.

• Combustible Materials – stacked securely; stacks or piles must be no more than 16 feet high; and
stored at least 10 feet away from a building or structure.

• Access - driveways between and around combustible storage piles must be at least 15 feet wide; kept
free from accumulations of material or rubbish.

• Power Lines – do not store materials under power lines or where materials may block egress or
emergency equipment.

• Fire Protection – provide portable fire extinguishing equipment rated 2A; 40BC at accessible marked
locations in the yard so that the nearest portable fire extinguisher is no more than 50 feet away for a
Class B hazard or 75 feet away for a Class A hazard.

Indoor Storage of Materials

Storing materials indoors requires attention to access, fire prevention and protection, floor loading, and
overhead hazards; particular attention must be made when storing material in a building under construction.

• Access – place or store materials so they do not interfere with access ways, doorways, electrical
panels, fire extinguishers, or hoist-ways; do not obstruct access ways or exits with accumulations of
scrap or materials – aisles must be wide enough to accommodate forklifts or firefighting equipment.

• Fire Prevention – when storing, handling, or piling materials, consider the fire characteristics; store
non-compatible materials that may create a fire hazard at least 25 feet apart or separate them with a
barrier having at least a 1-hour fire rating; stack material to minimize internal fire spread and to
provide convenient access for firefighting.

• Fire Doors – maintain a 24 inch clearance around the travel path of fire doors.

• Sprinklers – maintain at least 18-inch clearance between the stored materials and the sprinkler heads.

• Heating Appliances – maintain at least a 3-foot clearance between stored materials and unit heaters,
radiant space heaters, duct furnaces, and flues or maintain the clearance shown on the approval
agency label of the heating unit.

• Fire Protection – emergency fire equipment must be readily accessible and in proper working order.

• Floor Loading – conspicuously post load limits in all storage areas, except for floors or slabs on
grade.

• Buildings Under Construction – store materials at least 6 feet away from any hoist-way or inside
floor openings, and 10 feet away from an exterior wall that does not extend above the top of the
material being stored.

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 Material Handling 9-9

Storage of General Materials

• All materials shall be stacked, racked, blocked, interlocked, or otherwise secured to prevent
sliding, falling, or collapse during storage or transit.

• Structural steel, poles, pipe, bar stock, and other cylindrical materials, unless racked, shall be
stacked and blocked so as to prevent spreading or tilting.

• Before material is unloaded from a railcar or vehicle or removed from storage, the load or pile
shall be examined to ascertain if the material has shifted, binders or takes have broken, or the load
or pile is otherwise hazardous to an employee. If a hazardous condition is found, an attempt shall
not be made to remove the load until corrective measures are taken that will ensure the safety of
the employee who is exposed to the hazardous condition.

• The maximum safe load limit in pounds per square foot of a floor or roof of a building shall be
conspicuously posted in all storage areas, except a slab on grade. The maximum safe load limit
shall not be exceeded.

• Except for masonry and mortar, material shall not be stored within 4 feet (1.2m) of a working edge
during overhand bricklaying or related work.

• Gravel, sand, and crushed stone shall be withdrawn from a pile or barrow area in a manner that
prevents overhangs and vertical faces.

• Storage areas, aisles, and passageways shall be kept free of the accumulation of materials that
constitutes a hazard to the movement of material-handling equipment and employees. Such areas
shall be kept in good repair.

• If a difference in road or work levels exists, ramps, grading, or blocking shall be provided to
ensure the safe movement of material-handling equipment.

• A railcar, truck, or semi-trailer shall be chocked or otherwise secured during loading and
unloading if the movement of a railcar, truck, or trailer could create a hazard for the employee.

• A load line shall not be wrapped around the material being lifted.

• A material shall not be stored with any other material with which it could react and cause a
hazardous condition.

• While roofing work is being performed, materials and equipment shall not be stored within 6 feet
(1.8m) of a roof edge, unless guardrails are erected at the roof edge.

• Materials that are piled, grouped, or stacked near a roof edge shall be stable and self-supporting.

• Materials stored inside buildings under construction shall not be placed

within 6 feet of any hoist-way or inside floor openings, nor within 10 feet of an exterior wall that
does not extend above the top of the material stored.

• Non-compatible materials shall be segregated in storage.

• Storage areas shall be kept free from accumulation of materials that constitute hazards from
tripping, fire, explosion, or pest harborage. Vegetation control shall be exercised when necessary.

• Materials shall not be stored on scaffolds or runways in excess of supplies needed for immediate
operations.

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 Material Handling 9-10

• Portable and powered dock-boards shall be strong enough to carry the load imposed on them.

• Portable dock-boards shall be secured in position by being anchored and equipped with devices
that will prevent slipping.

• Handholds or other effective means, shall be provided on portable dock-boards to permit safe
handling.

• Positive protection shall be provided to prevent railroad cars from being moved while dock-boards
or bridge plates are in position.

Storage of Bagged Material, Brick and Block

• The height of a manually stacked pile of bagged material, weighing more than 30 pounds per bag,
shall not exceed 5 feet.

• Bagged material on a pallet shall be all of the following:

- not more than 36 inches in height.
- secured to prevent displacement from the pallet before moving.
- stacked not more than 2 pallets high.
- stacked by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least every 10 bags high.

• A loose brick or tile stack shall be all of the following:

- tapered back 2 inches in every foot of height above 4 feet
- not exceed 6 feet in height
- cross-keyed at each 2-foot level

• A loose block stack shall be all of the following:

- not exceed 6 feet in height
- cross-keyed at each 3-foot level

• Bricks on a pallet shall be all of the following:

- not more than 30-inches in height
- secured to prevent displacement from the pallet before moving
- stacked not more than 2 pallets high

• Block on a pallet shall be all of the following:

- not more than 46 inches in height
- cross-keyed every course or secured to pallet
- stacked not more than 2 pallets high

Lumber Storage
• Lumber shall be stacked on level and solidly supported sills so as to be self-supporting and stable.

• The width of a pile of lumber shall be no less than 1/2 the height.

• A pile of lumber manually stacked, and a pile of lumber to be manually un-stacked shall not
exceed 6 feet in height.

• Lumber which is mechanically stacked shall not exceed 10 feet in height. This lumber shall not be
re-handled manually.

• Used lumber shall have all protruding nails removed prior to stacking.

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 Material Handling 9-11

Storage of Material in Bins and Hoppers

• A bin or hopper that has a bottom discharge shall have sloped sides to allow material to flow
freely.

• A hopper shall have a top opening that is 42 inches or less above the ground or working surface
and shall be equipped with grillwork over the opening which is capable of supporting any
intended load and which has a mesh that is not more than 6 by 6 inches to prevent employee
entry.

• A worker required to enter or work on stored material in a silo, hopper, bin, tank, or similar
storage area shall be provided with a personal fall arrest system

Handling and Storing Reinforcing, Sheet and Structural Steel

• Stack steel to prevent sliding, rolling, spreading, or falling.

• Use lagging (sleeve) when steel is handled by a crane or forklift to aid safe rigging.

Handling and Storing Pipe, Conduit, and Cylindrical Material

Stacking – place pipe, conduit bar stock, and other cylindrical materials in racks or stack and block
them on a firm, level surface to prevent spreading, rolling, or falling. Use either a pyramided or
battened stack. Step back battened stacks at least one unit per tier and securely chock them on both
sides of the stack.

Removal – remove round stock (e.g., wood poles, pipe, and conduit) from a stack from the ends of the
stock.

Unloading – unload carriers so that employees are not exposed to the unsecured load.

Taglines – use taglines when working with round stock.

Storing Sand, Gravel and Crushed Stone

• Locate stockpiles to provide safe access for withdrawing material. Material or vertical faces must not
overhang. Store material against walls or partitions only in an amount that will not endanger the
stability of the wall or partition.

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 Material Handling 9-12

Handling Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Unless defined otherwise, terms used in this subsection are the same as those in the flammable and
combustible liquids code:

Flammable Liquids (Class I):

Class I - flashpoint below 100°F (38°C)
Class IA – flashpoint below 73°F (23°C) / boiling point below 100°F (38°C)
Class IB – flashpoint below 73°F (23°C) / boiling point at or above 100°F (38°C)
Class IC – flashpoint at or above 73°F (23°C) but below 100°F (38°C)

Combustible Liquids (Class II and III):

Class II – flashpoint at or above 100°F (38°C) and below 140°F (60°C)
Class III – flashpoint at or above 140°F (60°C)

Containers for Flammable and Combustible Liquids

• Original Container – store and use flammable and combustible liquids in the original
Department of Transportation (DOT) shipping containers, as shown in table 11-1. However,
store only up to 1-day’s use in the work area, up to a maximum of 25 gallons of a Class 1A
liquid or a maximum of 120 gallons of any other class of liquid. When dispensing and using
smaller quantities of flammable and combustible liquids, dispense them into properly labeled,
approved safety containers. Exception: You may store and handle highly viscous (extremely
hard to pour) liquids in any size original container. Liquids that are transferred from labeled
containers to portable containers for immediate use are exempt from labeling.

• Safety Can - an approved container holding no more than 5 gallons with a spring-closing lid,
spout cover, and designed to safely relieve internal pressure when subjected to fire or heat
exposure.

• Drum / Barrel – an approved container holding more than 5 gallons but no more than 60 gallons.

• Portable Tanks – an approved, closed storage vessel holding more than 60 but no more than 660
gallons and not intended to be a fixed installation.

• Tanks – any vessel holding more than 60 gallons, intended for fixed installation, is not used for
processing.

• Storage Cabinets – shall comply with NFPA 30

Requirements for Storing Flammable and Combustible Liquids

• Indoor Storage
o store no more than 25 gallons in a room or single fire area.
o store no more than 60 gallons of Class I or II liquids, or more than 120 gallons
of Class III liquids, in an approved cabinet. Locate no more than three such
cabinets in a single fire area.
o you may store larger quantities in separated indoor storage areas when such
storage meets the requirements of NFPA 30
o place at least one 2-A:40-B:C fire extinguisher 10 feet to 30 feet away from the
stored material or cabinet.
o place at least one 2-A:40-B:C fire extinguisher outside of, but not more than10
feet from, the door opening into an inside liquid storage area

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 Material Handling 9-13

• Outdoor Storage
o Above ground in approved containers with no more than 60-gallon capacity, subject to
the following restrictions:
- total capacity of any one group of containers stored together must not exceed
1,100 gallons
- each group must be at least 5 feet apart
- each group must be at least 20 feet away from any building or other
combustibles.
- each group of containers must be adjacent to an access way at least 12 feet wide
to facilitate the use of firefighting equipment.
o Dike storage
- areas at least 12 inches high or grade and slope them, and seal them with a 50-
mil plastic compatible sheeting or equivalent liner to contain leaks and spills
equal to the capacity of all tanks or containers in each area – keep the area free
from vegetation or combustible material within 10 feet of the storage area
perimeter.
- at least one portable fire extinguisher unit rated not less than 2-A:40-B:C 25 feet
to 75 feet away from each portable tank or group of tanks or containers.

Handling and Dispensing Flammable or Combustible Liquids

• Dispensing Area – separate areas where you transfer more than 5 gallons of flammable or
combustible liquids at a time from other operations by at least 25 feet or by a partition
with a minimum 1-hour fire rating. Use drainage or an equally effective method to
contain spills.

• Ventilation – provide adequate natural or mechanical ventilation to maintain the

concentrations of flammable vapor below 10 percent of the lower explosive limit (LEL).

• Grounding – transferring Class I flammable liquids from one container to another

requires bonding of the containers and the transfer system. Electrically ground and bond
all dispensing systems.

• Dispensing – withdraw or transfer flammable and combustible liquids into vessels,

containers, or tanks only (1) through a closed piping system, (2) from safety cans, (3) by
means of a device drawing through the top, or (4) from containers or tanks by gravity or
pump through a listed self-closing valve. Do not transfer by injecting pressurized air into
a tank or container. Use approved dispensing devises and nozzles. The dispensing units
must be protected against collision damage.

• Lighting and Electrical Equipment – use only electrical lighting to illuminate areas where
Class I flammable liquids are handled or dispensed or where flammable vapor may be
present.

• Covered Container – keep Class I and II liquids in covered containers when not in use.

• Flame and Ignition – do not permit open flame, smoking or other sources of ignition
within 50 feet of areas where Class I flammable liquids are dispensed or used – post “No
Smoking” signs.

• Leakage or Spillage – must be cleaned up immediately and disposed of in self-closing

metal refuse containers.

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 Material Handling 9-14

Requirements for Re-Fueling

• Equipment – ensure that the design and installation of tanks and equipment used to refuel
vehicles or equipment (fueled with flammable or combustible liquids) comply with the
applicable provisions of the NFPA standards or nationally recognized testing laboratories or
have the approval of the Government agency having jurisdiction.

• Tank Truck – ensure that tank trucks comply with the requirements published in NFPA 385,
“Standard for Flammable and Combustible Liquid Tank Vehicles.”

• Dispensing Stations – mount dispensing devices, except those attached to containers, on a

concrete platform elevated at least 5 inches above grade. Use guardrails or posts to protect them
from collision with a motor vehicle.

• Dispensing Hose – to dispense flammable and combustible liquids, use an approved-type hose
with an automatic self-closing valve or nozzle without a latch-pen device. Ensure that a hanger
or hose retracting system is in place to protect the hose from traffic abuse.

• Electrical Equipment – ensure that electrical wiring, pumps, and equipment meet the appropriate
requirements of NFPA designation, Class I of the National Electrical Code. Provide clearly
marked and accessible switches at a location remote from dispensing devices to shut off all
power to devices in an emergency.

• Re-Fueling Equipment – during refueling, shut down vehicles or equipment that use gasoline,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or other flammable or combustible liquid fuels. An exception is
diesel equipment when fueled in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Use
guardrails or posts to protect refueling tanks or dispensing islands from vehicular damage.

• Smoking – post a “No Smoking Within 50 Feet” sign on all mobile refueling equipment and in
established refueling areas.

• Emergency Shut-Off Switch – ensure that an emergency shut-off switch is within 50 feet of the
dispensing equipment and post a conspicuous sign identifying the switch’s location.

• Fire Protection – provide each refueling area with one or more listed fire extinguishers with a
minimum classification of 40B:C. Locate a fire extinguisher within 100 feet of each pump,
dispenser, underground fill pipe opening, and lubrication or service room.

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 Material Handling 9-15

Requirements for Handling Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

• Hazardous Locations – do not use LPG containers and equipment in unventilated spaces, below
grade in pits or trenches, below deck, or in confined areas.

• Tubing – use only tubing or piping approved for use in LPG systems. Do not use aluminum or
polyvinyl piping or tubing.

• Hose – use only hoses labeled “LP-gas or LPG.” Hose must have a minimum working pressure
of 250 pounds per square inch.

• Valves and Accessories – valves, , fittings, and accessories connected directly to the container,
including primary shutoff valves, must have a minimum working gauge pressure of 250 pounds
per square inch and be designed for LPG service.

• Shutoff Valves – connections to containers, except safety relief connections, liquid level
gauging devices, and plugged openings, must have a shutoff valve located as close to the
container as possible. Shutoff valves must not be located between the safety relief device and
the container, except when the location of the shutoff valve allows the fully required capacity
flow through the safety relief device.

• Safety Relief Valves – equip each container with one or more approved safety relief valves.
These valves must allow free venting to the outer air. The discharge must be 5 feet away from
any building opening. Place container safety relief devices and regulator relief vents at least 5
feet from air openings into sealed combustion system appliances or mechanical ventilation air
intakes.

• Dispensing into Portable Containers – fill portable containers from storage containers outside
and at least 50 feet away from the nearest building.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Material Handling 9-16

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IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Compressed Gas Cylinders 10- 1

COMPRESSED GAS CYLINDERS

Compressed or liquefied gas cylinders are often used to store chemicals for industrial purposes. The compression
of the chemicals allows for a large quantity of material to be stored in a relatively small space. Because cylinder
contents are under high pressure (up to 2,500 pounds per square inch, or psi), there can be physical and chemical
hazards involved with the use of compressed gas cylinders.

Compressed gases can be toxic, flammable, oxidizing, corrosive, inert, or some combination of these hazards. In
addition to the chemical hazards, the amount of energy resulting from compression of the gas makes a compressed
gas cylinder a potential rocket. Appropriate care in the handling and storage of compressed gas cylinders is essential
as identified by the Compressed Gas Association.

Types of Compressed Gases

Non-Liquefied Gases – also known as compressed, pressurized or permanent gases. They do not become
liquid when they are compressed at normal temperatures, even at very high pressures. These include:
oxygen, nitrogen, helium and argon.

Liquefied Gases – these become liquid at normal temperatures when they are pressurized inside a gas
cylinder. They exist inside the cylinder in a liquid-vapor balance. Initially the cylinder is almost full of
liquid. As gas is removed from the cylinder, enough liquid evaporates to replace it, keeping the pressure in
the cylinder constant. These include: carbon dioxide, propane, chlorine and ammonia.

Dissolved Gases – acetylene is the only commonly used dissolved gas. It is chemically very unstable; even
at atmospheric pressure, acetylene can explode. However, acetylene is routinely stored and used safely in
cylinders at pressures as high as 250 PSIG at 21° C. If an acetylene cylinder has been accidentally left on
its side, set it upright for at least an hour before use. Otherwise, it will emit a burst of solvent instead of gas
when the valve is opened.

Hazards Associated with Compressed Gases

Fire and Explosion:
Dangerously Reactive Gases – some pure compressed gases are chemically unstable. If exposed to
slight temperature or pressure increases, or mechanical shock, they can undergo polymerization or
decomposition. These reactions may become violent, resulting in fire or explosion. Some dangerously
reactive gases have other chemicals, called inhibitors, added to prevent these hazardous reactions.
Some commonly used dangerously reactive gases include acetylene, 1,3 butadiene, vinyl chloride, and
vinyl methyl ether.

Flammable Gases – include acetylene, butane, ethylene, hydrogen, methylamine, and vinyl chloride.
Some cryogenic liquids produce a gas that can burn in air. The most common examples are hydrogen,
methane and liquefied natural gas.

Oxidizing Gases – include any gases containing oxygen at higher than atmospheric concentrations (23-
25%, nitrogen oxides, and halogen gases such as chlorine and fluorine. These gases can react rapidly
and violently with combustible materials resulting in fire or explosion. Such materials include organic
and violently with combustible materials resulting in fire or explosion. Such materials include organic
substances such as most flammable gases, flammable and combustible liquids, oils, greases, and many
plastics and fabrics; finely divided metals; and substances such as hydrazine, hydrogen, hydrides,
sulfur compounds, silicon, and ammonia or ammonia compounds. Fires in atmospheres enriched with
oxidizing gases are very hard to extinguish and can spread rapidly.

Special cleaning procedures are required for all equipment used with oxidizing gases. Equipment used
for oxygen service shall not be used with any other gases.

Never use oxygen in place of compressed air or to purge lines, operate pneumatic tools, or to dust
clothing.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Compressed Gas Cylinders 10- 2

Health Hazards
Corrosive Gases – can burn and destroy body tissue on contact. Corrosive gases can also attack and
erode metals. Gases in this group include ammonia, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, and methylamine.

Inert Gases – such as argon, helium, neon and nitrogen are non-toxic and do not burn or explode.
However, they can cause injury or death at high concentrations by displacing oxygen in the air.

Toxic Gases – many compressed gases may have a toxic effect on the human body. The National Fire
Protection Agency (NFPA) rates acutely toxic gases as a health 4. The degree of illness an individual
will develop due to exposure to a toxic gas depends on several factors: type of gas, its concentration,
length of exposure, and route of entry.

Pressure Hazards
All compressed gases are hazardous because of the high pressures inside the cylinders. Even at a
relatively low pressure, gas can flow rapidly from an open or leaking cylinder. Damaged cylinders can
become rockets or pinwheels that can cause severe injury and damage. An unsecured, uncapped
cylinder is a major accident waiting to happen – if such a cylinder is accidentally knocked over causing
the cylinder bale to break, the compress gas will escape at rocket velocity. A poorly controlled release
of a compressed gas in chemical reaction systems can also cause vessels to burst, create leaks in
equipment or hoses, or produce run-away reactions.

Cylinder Identification
 Contents of the cylinder clearly marked, by either stencil or stamp – can not rely on the color
of the cylinder.

 If cylinder is empty must be tagged to indicate this.

 All gas lines leading from the cylinder shall be clearly labeled to identify the gas.

 Signs shall be conspicuously posted in areas where flammable compressed gases are stored,
identifying the substances and appropriate precautions (e.g., Hydrogen – Flammable Gas – No
Smoking – No Open Flames)

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Compressed Gas Cylinders 10- 3

Compressed Gas Cylinders Program

Purpose:

Compressed gas cylinders are commonly used through this facility and all employees should be
aware of the hazards associated with them. There are two types of hazards associated with the use,
storage and handling of compressed gas cylinders: the chemical hazard associated with the cylinder
contents (corrosive, toxic, flammable, etc.) and the physical hazard represented by the presence of a
high-pressure vessel in the facility. This safety program is being implemented throughout the
facility in order to protect all employees and meet regulatory compliance.

Responsibility:

(Company Name) personnel shall comply with the guidelines set forth by the Compressed Gas
Association, whenever they are charged with the handling, use, or storage of compressed gas
cylinders.

Guidelines:

General Handling of Cylinders

• Compressed gas cylinders should not be subjected to temperatures of 125° F
or above.

• No open flame should be permitted to come in contact with any part of a

compressed gas cylinder.

• No compressed gas cylinder should be subjected to artificially created low

temperatures without the approval of the supplier.

• Empty compressed gas cylinders should be tagged.

• Safety relief devices in the valves or compressed gas cylinders should never
be tampered with.

• Before returning empty compressed gas cylinders, close the valve and see
that cylinder valve protective caps and outlet caps or plugs, if used, are
replaced.

• Never attempt to repair or to alter cylinders, valves; or the safety relief.

• Never use cylinders as rollers, supports, or for any purpose other than to
contain the content as received.

• Do not place cylinders where they might become part of an electric circuit.

Moving Cylinders
• When removable caps are provided for valve protection, such caps should be kept on
cylinders at all times except when cylinders are in use.

• Do not lift cylinders by the cap.

• Never drop cylinders nor permit them to strike against each other or against other
surfaces violently.

• Avoid dragging or sliding cylinders. It is safer to move cylinders even short distances
by using a suitable hand truck.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Compressed Gas Cylinders 10- 4

Storing Cylinders
• Cylinder storage areas should be prominently posted with the names of the gases to be
stored.

• Where gases of different types are stored at the same location, cylinders should be
grouped by types of gas, and the groups arranged to take into account the gases
contained (i.e. flammable gases should not be stored near oxidizing gases – oxygen).

• Charged and empty cylinders should be stored separately with the storage layout so
planned that cylinders comprising old stock can be removed first with a minimum
handling of other cylinders.

• Storage rooms should be dry, cool and well vented.

Where practical, storage rooms should be fire-resistant.
Storage in sub-surface locations should be avoided.
Cylinders should not be stored at temperatures above
125° F, nor near radiators or other heat sources.

• Do not store cylinders near highly flammable

substances such as oil, gasoline, or waste.

• Cylinders should not be exposed to continuous

dampness and should not be stored near salt or other
corrosive chemicals or fumes. Rusting will damage the
cylinders and may cause the valve protective caps to
stick.

• Protect cylinders from any object that will produce a

cut or other abrasion in the surface of the metal. Do not
store cylinders near elevators or gangways, or in
locations where heavy moving objects may strike or fall
on them.

• Cylinders may be stored in the open but should be

protected from ground beneath to prevent rusting. If ice
or snow accumulate on a cylinder, thaw at room
temperature, or with water at a temperature not
exceeding 125° F.

Cylinder Usage
• Compressed gases should be handled only by an experienced and properly instructed
person.

• The user responsible for the handling of the cylinder and connecting it for use should
check the identity of the gas by reading the label or other markings on the cylinder
before using. If cylinder content is not identified by marking, return cylinder to
supplier without using.

• Removable type valve protective caps should remain in place until

ready to withdraw content, or to connect to a manifold.

• Before using cylinder, be sure it is properly supported to prevent it from being knocked
over.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Compressed Gas Cylinders 10- 5

Cylinder Usage- Continued

• Suitable pressure regulating devices must be used in all cases where
gas is admitted to systems having pressure rating limitations lower than
the cylinder pressure.

• Never force connections that do not fit. Threads on regulator

connections or other auxiliary equipment must be the same as those
on cylinder valve outlet.

• Open cylinder valve slowly. Point the valve opening away from yourself and other
persons. Never use wrenches or tools except those provided or approved by the gas
manufacturer. Avoid the use of a wrench on valves equipped with hand wheels, never
hammer the valve wheel in attempting to open or close the valve. For valves that are
hard to open, or frozen because of corrosion, contact the supplier for instructions.

• Never use compressed gas to dust off clothing, as this may cause serious injury to the
eyes or body, or create a fire hazard.

• Connections to piping, regulators and other appliances should always be kept tight to
prevent leakage. Where a hose is used, it should be kept in good condition.

• Before a regulator is removed from a cylinder, close the cylinder valve and release all
pressure from the regulator.

Flammable Gases (may be found in maintenance)

• Do not store cylinders near highly flammable solvents, combustible waste material and
similar substances, or near unprotected electrical connections, gas flames or other
sources of ignition.

• Never use a flame to detect flammable gas leaks. Use soapy water (however, make sure
the soap you use does not contain fats).

• Do not store reserve stocks of cylinders containing flammable gases with cylinders containing
oxygen. They should be segregated. Inside a building, stored oxygen and fuel gas cylinders
should be separated by a minimum of 20 feet, or there should be a fire-resistive partition between
the oxygen and fuel gas cylinders.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Compressed Gas Cylinders 10- 6

The following account of a wayward gas cylinder was found about 15 years ago in an old newsletter from a safety organization.
The story was already several years old. The organization has asked that it not be attributed to them because they don’t
know/can’t find the original account and don’t remember where this actually took place.

The anchoring of compressed gas cylinders, to keep them from being knocked over with the accompanying
possibility of breaking off the valve, is an accepted safe practice. However there has been some skepticism as to
what would happen if a cylinder valve was knocked off.

While it wasn’t asked for, we now have first-hand knowledge as to what happened in one case, thanks to a
compressed gas cylinder (CO2) that caused a few moments of frenzied activity in a building under construction.

Six 220-cubic foot cylinders, part of a fire extinguishment system, had been moved away from their wall supports to
allow painters to complete the painting of the area. While moving them back into position, it was noticed that one
cylinder was leaking. The painter had the cylinder leaning against his shoulder, and was attempting to scoot it across
the floor. At this time, the valve separated from the cylinder and was projected backward hitting the side of a
stainless steel cabinet.

The man suddenly found himself with a jet-propelled 215 pound piece of steel. He wrestled it to the floor, but was
unable to hold it. The cylinder scooted across the floor hitting another cylinder, knocking it over and bending its
valve. The cylinder then turned 90 degrees to the right and traveled 20 feet where it struck a painters scaffold
causing a painter to fall 7 feet to the floor. After spinning around several times, it traveled back to its approximate
starting point, where it struck a wall.

At this point, the cylinder turned 90 degrees to the left and took off lengthwise of the room chasing an electrician in
front of it. It crashed into the end wall 40 feet away breaking four concrete blocks. It turned again 90 degrees to the
right, scooted through a door opening, still chasing the electrician. The electrician ducked into the next door
opening, but the cylinder continued its travel in a straight line for another 60 feet, where it fell into a truck well
striking the truck well door. The balance of the cylinder pressure was released as the cylinder spun harmlessly
around in the truck well area.

The painter who fell from the scaffold received multiple fractures of his leg.

It is surmised that the cylinder valve had obtained previous damage, and it was a matter of chance that it separated
from the cylinder at this particular time.

This incident illustrates what can happen when a valve is separated from a compressed gas cylinder. The one
contained pressure of about 900 pounds per square inch, but many cylinders are pressurized to 2200 pounds per
square inch. If you have any doubts about the need for anchoring compressed gas cylinders, you might think about
the 2200 pounds per square inch and ask yourself, “what if....?”

In preventing the accidental release of compressed gases, all precautions must be taken to avoid dropping, knocking
over, rolling or dragging cylinders as well as striking cylinders against each other. This means that it is imperative
that all cylinders be stabilized in storage, transportation, and in use.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-1

VEHICULAR SAFETY

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (in Motor vehicle accidents occur because of
the United States), over 2,000 deaths a year operator error or mechanical failure. With the
result from occupational motor vehicle incidents, majority of motor vehicle accidents occurring
that’s more than 30% of the total annual number because of operator error, it is necessary to
of fatalities from occupational injuries. These concentrate on a motor vehicle safety program
deaths include driver and passenger deaths in that emphasizes controlled over the driver.
highway crashes, farm equipment accidents, and
industrial vehicle incidents as well as pedestrian This section will first provide an overview on the
fatalities. hazards of driving, then a detailed look into
traffic regulations, driving practices, vehicle
The National Safety Council (NSC) estimated maintenance and construction machinery.
200,000 disabling injuries and more than $4
billion in economic costs as the result of
workplace motor vehicle incidents in 1996.

The underlying causes of these fatalities and

injuries have not been well studied, but they vary
widely from mechanical failure, poor highway
conditions, vehicle design to driver error.
Preventive measures also vary widely, including
preventive vehicle maintenance, increased seat
belt use, effective driver training, anti-locking
brakes, road maintenance and safer vehicle
design. The causes and solutions are so varied
that there is no single strategy for prevention.

Many of the Safety Managers of today don’t

even realize just how many vehicles are utilized
in the company’s operations, as well as the
means of transportation for employees to get to
and from work. Many areas of a workplace have
some form of transportation ability, either to
move material or personnel. Some areas to
consider are maintenance, security,
environmental, etc. Although these particular
vehicles of transportation may not be an
automobile, they are forms of motor vehicles,
which do in deed contribute to many work-
related injuries and fatalities.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-2

Hazards of Driving
According to the Insurance Industry, the majority of vehicular accidents occur due to driver error (unsafe
act), followed by vehicular mechanical failure and then road conditions (unsafe conditions). Further,
investigation into this matter, revealed how drivers have become very complacent and have forgotten some
of the regulations governing traffic safety.

Let us now look at some of the most common reasons (hazards) for vehicular accidents to occur. Then we
will have a review of the traffic regulations, driving practices and vehicle maintenance.

Unsafe Acts Behind the Wheel Unsafe Conditions

o Shaving o Poor visibility
o Putting on make-up  Night time
o Reading a map  Dust storms
o Reaching behind the seat  Rain storms
o Not using a seatbelt  Windshield wipers ineffective
o Driving under the influence o Poor road condition
o Driving at an unsafe speed  Slippery surface
o Failing to stop or yield  Potholes
o Unsafe passing of another vehicle  Lanes not marked
o Tailgating o Improper vehicle maintenance
o Not using turn-indicators  Brakes Failed
 Worn Tires
 Hose Broke
 Headlight Out

Road Rage
o Road rage is driving under the influence of
too much anger.
o Usually provoked by:
 Feeling endangered by someone
else’s driving
 Resentment at being forced to slow
down
 Righteous indignation at someone
who breaks traffic rules
 Anger at someone taking out their
road rage on you

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-3

Traffic Regulations
Traffic Signs, Traffic Signals and Pavement Markings,

• Traffic Signs – are used to control the flow of traffic; some of the most common ones used world-
wide are:

STOP / HALT - eight-sided red sign means STOP. You must make a
complete stop at the stop line. If there is no stop line, stop before
entering the crosswalk. If there is no crosswalk, stop before entering the
intersection. Yield the right-of-way to pedestrians and approaching
traffic. If it is a four-way STOP sign, wait your turn. If the STOP sign
is hand-held, stop until an authorized person, such as a school guard or
construction zone flag-man, signals that it is safe to proceed.

4-Way Stop - this sign means there are four STOP signs at the
intersection. Traffic from all directions must stop. The first driver to
stop is the first driver to go. Other drivers must wait their turn. You
also may see 3-WAY, 5-WAY or ALL-WAY signs.

YIELD - This three-sided sign means YIELD the right-of-way. You

must let all traffic and pedestrians near you go before you proceed.
YIELD signs are usually red and white.

RAILROAD CROSSING AHEAD – indicated by a round sign,

yellow background with black letters. It is an advance warning
sign that means a railroad track will cross the roadway. In rural
areas, the sign is usually 750 ft. in front of the tracks. Slow down,
look and stop if necessary. Roll your vehicle windows down and
listen to make certain other noises do not block out the sound of a
train. If a train is approaching, stop and wait. Do not try to race the
train to the crossing.

WARNING - a diamond-shaped sign which may be either

yellow or orange with black wording or symbols; this sign warns
you about hazards or possible hazards on or near the roadway.
Slow down and use caution when you see these signs.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-4

DO NOT ENTER - this sign is posted on one-way streets and

other roadways you are not allowed to enter. You also will see this
sign if you try to enter an expressway ramp in the wrong direction.

SPEED - this indicates the maximum speed a vehicle can travel on

that particular segment of the roadway.

WRONG WAY - This sign tells you that your vehicle is

moving in the wrong direction. You will see this sign on
expressway ramps a short distance past the DO NOT ENTER sign.
You also will see this sign if you turn the wrong way into a one-
way street, alley or driveway.

SCHOOL ZONE – SCHOOL CROSSING - this five-sided

sign is shaped like an old school house. It is yellow or
yellow/green with black symbols.. If the sign shows two
children walking, a school is near. If the sign shows two
children walking in a crosswalk, you are at a school crossing.

NO PASSING ZONE – this three-sided sign is shaped like a

pennant. It is yellow with black wording. The sign will appear
on the left side of a two-lane, two-way roadway. It is posted at
the beginning of a NO-PASSING ZONE where "no-passing"
pavement markings are also used. Squares and/or rectangles
can be used either as regulatory or as guide signs.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-5

NO PARKING – these signs having a red circle with a red

slash from the upper-left to the lower-right mean no. The
picture within the circle shows what is not allowed. (i.e. No
Parking)

NO U-TURN – these are posted on divided highways or

expressways. You may see one where there is an opening in
the divided highway that leads to the other side. These
openings are for authorized vehicles only such as police cars,
ambulances, snow plows, construction/maintenance
equipment and other emergency vehicles. You may not use
this opening.

ONE WAY – these signs are used on one-way streets or

driveways. You must always go only in the direction of the
arrow.

NO RIGHT TURN – these signs indicate that no right turns

are allowed.

DIVIDED HIGHWAY - this sign is used on approaches to a

divided highway. It tells you that a median separates both
directions of traffic on the road you are going to turn onto or
cross

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-6

• Traffic Signals – also used to control the flow of traffic, usually in more congested areas such as
cities and towns.

Steady Light (red, yellow, green)

- Red, STOP at the marked stop line. If there is not a marked stop line, stop before entering
the crosswalk. If there is no crosswalk, stop before entering the intersection. Do not go
until the light is green and the intersection is clear.

You may make a right turn at a red light or a left turn at a red light when turning from a
one-way street onto another one-way street that has traffic moving to the left. In both
instances, drivers must come to a complete stop and yield the right-of way to oncoming
traffic and pedestrians before turning.

- Yellow, CAUTION - the yellow light warns that the signal is changing from green to red.
When the red light appears, you may not enter the intersection.

- Green, you may proceed after yielding the right-of-way to any pedestrians and vehicles in
the intersection or crosswalk.

Flashing Lights (red, yellow)

- Red (flashing) STOP, yield the right-of-way to traffic within the intersection or crosswalk
and proceed when safe. This sign is used at dangerous intersections or when a stop sign
alone is hard to see. They are also used at railroad crossings to warn of approaching
trains. Stop. Never try to beat a train to a crossing.

- Yellow (flashing) CAUTION, proceed with caution after checking the way is clear.

Arrows – used to indicate when to go or not go in a turn only lane.

- Red Arrow (usually flashing) STOP

- Yellow Arrow (usually flashing) CAUTION

- Green Arrow (usually flashing) PROCEED

• Pavement Markings
Pavement markings are a very important part of the communication system for road users along
our Nation's highways and roads. Can you imagine traveling on the expressway, major highway,
or city street without the information that pavement markings provide? Pavement markings help
you correctly position your vehicle, guide you through the many different situations you
encounter, indicate where passing is allowed, and warn you of upcoming conditions.

In many cases, pavement markings supplement and enhance the messages of other traffic control
devices such as traffic signs and signals. Sometimes pavement markings are the only effective way
of providing positive guidance or communicating certain regulations or other messages. Because
markings are located on the roadway directly in line with the travel path, they can be more
prominently visible than other devices and you don't have to take your eyes off the road to view
them.

In addition to stripes on the roadways, other markings include inlaid markers, roadside delineators,
and flexible posts used to channel traffic.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-7

Longitudinal Lines - delineate vehicular paths of travel along the roadway by marking the center
of the road, lanes of travel, edges of pavement, etc. The color of a longitudinal line tells drivers
whether they are on a one-way road or whether there may be opposing traffic to the left of the line.
The pattern and/or width of a longitudinal line tell drivers whether it is permissible, discouraged,
or prohibited to cross the line.

There are three major types of longitudinal lines:

- center-lines: denote the approximate mid-point of the roadway, indicates a barrier that
you should not pass over; if the centerline is solid in color that means you can not cross
over for any reason; if the centerline is striped then you can cross over momentarily if
you are passing the vehicle in front of you – but only if there is no on-coming traffic.

- edge-lines: denote where the shoulder of the roadway is – vehicles are not permitted to
drive on the shoulder of a roadway.

- lane-lines: many roadways will have more than one lane of traffic moving in the same
direction, lane-lines provide a means for vehicles to follow so they do not drift into
another vehicles path of travel; whenever you change from one lane to traffic to another,
you need to turn your indicator light on – check that it is safe to do so – then flow into the
lane without disrupting traffic.

Transverse Lines – go across one or more lanes or across the whole roadway; these lines indicate
to a driver where he/she must stop their vehicle.

- stop line: is a wide solid white line across a

lane or lanes. It indicates the required
position to stop your vehicle in compliance
with a stop sign, a traffic signal, or a railroad
grade crossing.

- yield line: is a series of solid white isosceles

triangles, pointing toward approaching
vehicles, and extending across a lane or
lanes. It indicates the required position to
yield to other vehicles or to pedestrians
(stopping the vehicle if necessary.) It is used
at intersection approaches controlled by a
Yield sign (including entrances to
roundabouts), and at midblock crosswalk
locations, where it supplements "Yield Here
to Pedestrians" signs.

- cross-walk line: show pedestrians where to

safely cross the road or street, and they
supplement signs to warn drivers of the
possibility that pedestrians may be crossing
at a specific location.

Parking Space Markings – maybe white or yellow lines along the curb-side of a roadway or
diagonal lines in a parking lot.

Curb Markings
- Red, no parking
- Yellow, usually used to indicate a change of elevation.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-8

Driving Practices

• Defensive Driving
- Scan the road well ahead and anticipate upcoming events. Look for tell-tale vehicle signals;
brake-lights, indicators and be prepared to react, but do not always expect them to be used.
Watch for 'urgent' vehicle movement up ahead that can signal trouble.

- Keep an eye on faster rear-closing traffic, and do not pull out in front of it.

- Use headlights at all times, even during the day.

- Keep windows clean, especially when driving at night.

- Adjust rear-view mirrors correctly.

- Keep your distance when driving behind large vehicles, to keep your line of sight clear.

- Do not drive in large packs on the highway; try to either lead the pack or be behind the group;
the bunching of groups of cars is due to undisciplined driving style and traffic light systems.

- Keep windows clear and transparent. Avoid tinting, stick-on toys, light shades, dangling
fuzzy cubes, and the like.

- Drive with hands positioned at 9 and 3 o' clock, or at the 10 and 2 o' clock position. This has
been shown to be the most comfortable position for long time driving as well as the easiest to
maneuver in reaction time.

- Do not talk on a cell phone while driving.

- Do not drive in the blind spot of other vehicles.

- Always use your turn signals well in advance whenever making a turn or lane change.

- Activate your hazard-warning lights on approach to a crash scene or unexpected on-road

obstruction in order to improve the alert/warning given to other drivers further behind. Keep
the hazard warning lights continually on - if you are stopped, or if you will need to stop.

- If equipped, use your vehicle's rear fog lamp when driving in hazardous weather conditions
causing seriously reduced visibility, such as heavy fog, torrential rain, blizzards and when
driving in dust storms. Switch off the rear fog light the moment visibility improves.

- Actively scan for and anticipate the movements of pedestrians, bicycles, motorcycles,
animals, and be aware of all signs that warn you of dangers ahead, objects on the road, and
potholes.

- Drive so that you can safely stop in the visible amount of road ahead, using at least the 2-
second rule and preferably more.
o Following a vehicle too closely is called "tailgating". Use the two-second rule to
determine a safe following distance. Select a fixed object on the road ahead
such as a sign, tree or overpass. When the vehicle ahead of you passes the
object, count "one-thousand-one, one-thousand-two". You should not reach the
object before you count to one-thousand-two. If you do, you are following too
closely. Most rear-end collisions are caused by the vehicle in back following
too closely. The two-second rule also applies to your speed when you are on a
good road and during good weather conditions.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-9

- Beware of blind intersections. If your view of traffic on cross streets is obstructed by

buildings or trees, take your foot off the accelerator and place it over the brake - to reduce
your reaction time.

- Do not drive too slowly or too fast, doing so will increase the likelihood of collision.

- At traffic signals when starting off; ensure you have checked side roads beforehand - other
drivers may not necessarily obey their traffic lights!

- Never do a U-turn on a motorway class road. The potential for disaster is very high, and is an
offense in some places.

- Never trust an indicator; expect that a vehicle indicating that it is about to turn, may not do
so.

- Similarly, expect that a vehicle which is apparently not turning may turn.

- Assume that stop signals will be ignored by others and be prepared for it. Beware of a stale
green light.

- Expect that a red traffic light will be "run" (so don't take off too quickly on your green light).

- Assume that any and all other drivers have not seen your vehicle.

- Assume that any and all other drivers are not capable of preventing an accident.

- Watch for drivers talking on cell phones while driving and be aware that their driving skills
are severely diminished, even greater than a drunk driver. They often drive through stop signs
and traffic signals and change lanes without warning.

- At intersections never assume that you have the right of way.

- Keep the space on either side of your car free. Leave yourself an out.

- Drive in the outer lane on freeways. In case of a problem, you won't have to cross a lane of
traffic to get to the breakdown lane.

- Keep wheels straight when waiting to turn across oncoming traffic. If your car is rear-ended,
it won't be pushed into the opposite lane.

- Do not drive next to large vehicles longer than necessary. The driver may not see you, and a
turning truck can suddenly cut off all exit routes.

- Maintain a three second following distance behind other vehicles. Increase that to five
seconds in fog, rain, or other adverse conditions. It takes most people at least half a second to
react to an emergency condition. Following a car closer than one second effectively
guarantees an accident if the leading car brakes unexpectedly.

- Conversely, change lanes or pull over if tailgated. If that is not possible, slow down, and / or
maintain extra distance to the car in front, to allow for both yourself and the tailgater to stop
safely.

- Avoid visibly damaged or defective cars. A history of accidents indicates that the owner has
poor driving skills.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-10

- Avoid cars that weave, do not stay in lane, brake too late at intersections, stops abruptly or
responds slowly to traffic signals, as their drivers may be intoxicated or distracted.

- Never drive over any object on the road that can be safely avoided -- a plastic bag can conceal
more dangerous items, ropes can wrap around axles, and even mundane objects like sticks can
puncture a tire or the fuel tank.

- On roads of 3 or more lanes, take care not to change lanes as another vehicle in the next one
over moves into that lane. Vehicles in the left lane and the right lane can collide if they try to
change to the centre lane simultaneously. In most jurisdictions, you are required on motorway
category roads to be in the outside lane IF it is clear of traffic - regardless of speed, only
merging then to the middle lane or lanes, and/or the inner (central median area) lane to
overtake. You must then return to the outside lane once you have passed traffic, if it is clear
and safe to do so. Even when not required by law, it is dangerous driving on the inside lane
continuously. If a faster vehicle comes up from behind you, they are more likely to be on the
inside lane. Remember 95% of fatal collisions on an undivided four lane highway occur in the
inside lane and that you can avoid this danger by simply driving in the outside lane.

- Always Stop, Look and Listen at railroad crossings with no lighted signal. At crossings that
have signals slow down and make sure your visual distance of the track is adequate, in case the
signal is not working properly.

- Be wary of learning drivers as they are far less experienced than most other drivers on the road.
They may stop or turn abruptly without necessarily paying due attention to where you are.

• Aggressive Driving
Aggressive driving is the operation of a motor vehicle in a manner that endangers or is likely to
endanger persons or property. Persons doing any of the following may be committing acts of
aggressive driving.

- Speeding
- Running red lights and stop signs
- Tailgating
- Passing on the shoulder of the road
- Cutting off another vehicle
- Slamming on brakes in front of a tailgater
- Improper hand or facial gestures at other drivers
- Yelling
- Repeatedly honking the horn
- Repeatedly flashing of headlights

Aggressive driving is a serious problem that is responsible for many traffic accidents and fatalities. It is
to your benefit to avoid aggressive drivers and potentially dangerous situations. If you encounter an
angry or aggressive motorist:
- Do not retaliate or in any way engage the other driver. Get out of the way.
- Do not make eye contact.
- Keep your doors locked and your windows up.
- Keep enough space between you and the vehicle in front of you to pull out from behind.
- Do not underestimate the other driver’s potential for aggression.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-11

Anyone can become an aggressive driver. Do not let stress and frustration get the best of you while
driving.
- Be patient and courteous.
- Do not drive when angry, overtired or upset.
- Allow extra time to get to your destination.
- When possible, change your schedule to avoid congestion.
- Listen to relaxing music or books on tape.
- Give other drivers the benefit of the doubt - all drivers make mistakes.
- Avoid all conflict, even if you are right.

• Vehicle Control

Speed – driving too fast or too slowly may create a dangerous situation. Regardless of the posted speed
limit, weather and traffic conditions may make it necessary to drive more slowly. However, driving too
slowly also can be dangerous. Your speed should be adjusted for the conditions and match the flow of
traffic, as long as it does not surpass the maximum posted speed.

Stopping -
- The ability to stop your car safely should be considered when deciding your speed.
- The type and condition of the roadway. It will be more difficult and take longer to stop on wet
asphalt.
- The kind of tires you are using and the condition of the tread. Large, wide tires with good
tread will stop a vehicle faster than small, narrow tires with little tread.
- The type, condition and adjustment of your brake.
- The direction and speed of the wind. A strong tail wind can make it very difficult to stop.
- Vehicle design, weight distribution, suspension and shock absorbers

Weather – can create a driving hazard. Special care must be taken in fog, rain, high winds and winter
driving conditions.
- Fog: it best not to drive in fog. However, if you must drive in fog, take the following
precautions:
• Slow down. If you see headlights or taillights, slow down even more. A driver may be
driving in the center of the roadway or may be stopped or barely moving.
• Drive with your headlights set on dim, or use fog lights..
• Do not overdrive your headlights. Stay within the limits of your vision. You may have to
stop suddenly. If the fog is too dense, pull off the roadway and stop. Do not drive at 5-10
mph.
• Use your turn signal long before you turn, and brake early when you approach a stop to
warn other drivers.

- Rain: when rain begins to fall lightly, water, dust, oil and leaves cause the roadway to become
slippery. When this happens, increase your following distance. Take special care on curves and
turns and while braking. Your headlights must be on when operating your wipers. Parking
lights are not acceptable.

When rain begins to fall heavily, your tires may "hydroplane". This means the tires are riding
on a layer of water and not on the roadway. Avoid hydroplaning by slowing down. If you skid
while hydroplaning, try to regain control of the vehicle. Otherwise, release the accelerator and
ride out the skid.

- High Winds: can be a difficult problem for all drivers. Wind is especially difficult for drivers
of trucks, recreational vehicles, campers and trailers-in-tow. In high winds, reduce your speed
and make steering corrections when you go from a protected area to an open area and when
meeting large vehicles such as trucks and buses. Heavy rain or sleet often accompanies high
winds. Be alert to wet or slippery areas and plan for those conditions. In high winds, the
Illinois Toll-way System bans the hauling of house trailers.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-12

Night Driving - is difficult because things may appear differently than in daylight. Also, glare from
lights may interfere with vision. Courtesy and common sense should be used when driving at night.
- Never overdrive your headlights.
- Always keep them clean and aimed properly.
- Use them at dusk and dawn.
- Bright lights must be dimmed 500 ft. before meeting an oncoming vehicle or 300 ft. before
passing a vehicle.
- If street lights cause a lot of glare, dim your dashboard lights and use your sun visor. Avoid
using any other light inside your vehicle.
- Roadway signs are more difficult to see at night.
- Use edge lines and center lines of the roadway as guides.
- Do not stop on the roadway. If you must stop, carry and use a red warning light.

Curves – slow down before beginning the curve. Do not brake suddenly as this may cause skidding or
locked wheels. Never drive over the center line.

Head-On Approaches – when a vehicle is approaching head-on in your lane, slow down immediately.
Pull over to the right and sound your horn.

Skidding – occurs when tires lose traction. If you skid, ease off the gas pedal or brakes. Steer into the
direction of the skid until you feel you have regained traction and then straighten your vehicle.

Driving Off The Pavement – if your wheels drift off the pavement onto the shoulder, grip the wheel
firmly, ease your foot off the gas pedal and brake gently. After checking for traffic behind you, gently
steer back onto the pavement. Do not jerk your wheel to correct your steering. This may cause you to
drive into oncoming traffic.

Fire – if smoke appears, pull off the road. Turn off the engine, move away from the vehicle and call the
fire department. Vehicle fires can be very dangerous. Do not fight the fire yourself.

Water Accident – if your vehicle runs off the roadway into water but does not sink right away, try to
escape through a window. Because of differences in water pressure, you may not be able to open your
car door. If your vehicle does sink, move to the back seat area where an air pocket usually forms. Take
a deep breath and exit from a rear window.

Cellular Phone Use – when using your cellular phone while driving, always remember your number
one responsibility is driving. If you do use a cellular phone, take the following precautions:
- Always assess traffic conditions before calling.
- Be familiar with the phone's keypad - use speed dial if possible.
- Place calls when stopped, or have a passenger dial.
- Ensure phone is within easy reach.
- Use speaker phone/hands-free device.
- Avoid intense, emotional or complicated conversations.
- Avoid talking on phone in congested traffic or bad weather.
- Pull off road to dial or complete a conversation.

Law Enforcement
- if stopped by the police, slow down and pull over safely as soon as possible.
- stay in the driver’s seat with both hands clearly in sight on the steering wheel until the
Manager instructs you otherwise
- comply with the Manager’s request to see driver’s license, vehicle registration and proof of
insurance.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-13

Defensive Driving
Division of Safety & Hygiene
Ohio Industrial Commission

When you're at the controls of any vehicle, it is important to remember that defensive driving is a full-time job.
The most dangerous mile you have to drive is the one directly ahead of you.

Anyone can drive perfectly for 10 feet or 100 feet or even one mile, but it takes a real professional to drive
perfectly for 100,000 miles or more. To be a professional driver there are many things you must observe and
practice. A safe driver is not merely someone who has been lucky enough to avoid accidents, but is one who
drives defensively and looks out for others. But today's driving standards demand more skill, knowledge and
decision-making ability. Drivers who are safety-conscious have developed good habits and practice them daily.
Every time they get behind the wheel, their driving record is on the line. They must drive like a professional and
be prepared mentally and physically. If you are a driver who has a safe attitude about your driving, you will be
able to drive with a sense of security in inclement weather, on difficult roads and through heavy traffic. In
addition, to be a good driver you should respect all traffic laws and be courteous to others. Don't be in a big
hurry--you're just asking for trouble.

When bad weather affects driving conditions, you must adjust your driving time and habits. Driving on wet or
slippery roads is not the same as driving on dry surfaces. The number of traffic accidents and cars running off the
road during rainy weather could be reduced if drivers would anticipate the slippery road conditions and adjust
their driving habits. Stay a safe distance from the vehicle in front of you--one vehicle length for each 10 mph.
Start stopping sooner. Apply your brakes the instant you see a hazard developing, but apply them gradually so
you don't go into a spin or grind to a stop so quickly that you risk a rear-end collision.

Defensive driving is driving to prevent accidents, in spite of the incorrect actions of others or adverse weather
conditions. ANTICIPATE driving hazards and know how to protect yourself from them. Be alert while driving
by keeping your mind free of distractions and your attention focused on driving; alertness involves watching and
recognizing accident-causing factors instantly. The professional driver has foresight, the ability to size up traffic
situations as far ahead as possible. The driver must ANTICIPATE traffic problems that are likely to develop and
decide whether these developments could be dangerous.

Many drivers fail to understand why they were given a "preventable" for an accident when they were not legally
at fault. A "preventable accident" is one in which you fail to do everything you reasonably could have done to
prevent it. Even though the driver cited with a "preventable accident" did not violate any traffic laws, the
professional driver should have seen or anticipated the incorrect actions of the other driver in time to take actions
to prevent the accident from happening. However, you may also learn the valuable lessons that near-misses offer
and make the necessary adjustments in your driving habits. As a defensive driver you must operate your vehicle
in a manner to avoid contributing to an accident or being involved in a preventable accident. Awareness of the
vehicle's limitations is essential; pre-trip checklists and inspections can familiarize you with the vehicle and
point out things that might need attention. Drivers of vehicles with air brakes must take care to protect their air
supplying freezing weather. Brake line freeze can be annoying and dangerous. Many newer trucks are equipped
with synthetic air lines, so the old solution of melting the ice with a fuse or torch is no longer a quick solution. If
the vehicle is not equipped with an air dryer or other means of automatically expelling water and other
contaminants from the air tanks, the driver must take the time to manually drain the air tanks every day.

The lighting systems of vehicles become especially important during the winter months. Nights are longer and
visibility is often reduced by bad weather. Electrical systems are winter-sensitive. Approximately 80 percent of
all light bulb failure is due to environmental reasons. Drivers must inspect their lights more often during the
winter and clean them when necessary so they can see and be seen by other highway users.

Foul weather driving is much more strenuous. Drivers need proper rest Before every trip, and while in route,
fresh air helps keep drivers alert. An open window is an old safety practice, and it helps drivers hear what is
going on around their vehicles. After all precautions are taken and good practices are followed there still will be
occasions when conditions become too hazardous to proceed. Good drivers will pull off the road at the first safe
place, notify their companies of the delay and wait until conditions improve before continuing.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-14

Vehicle Maintenance
A vehicle is like any piece of machinery, it requires maintenance to ensure it remains operational at all times.
Failure to perform such maintenance may resulting in one of the following:

• Failures
Blow-out – a thumping sound may be a warning of a blowout. If this happens, ease your foot off the
gas pedal and keep a firm grasp on the steering wheel. Do not brake suddenly. Pull safely off the
roadway and check your tires.

Steering Failure – if you suddenly have no control of the steering wheel, ease your foot off the gas
pedal. Turn on your emergency flashers and allow your vehicle to come to a slow stop. Brake very
gently to prevent your vehicle from spinning.

Break Failure – if your brake pedal suddenly sinks to the floor, pump it to build pressure. If that
does not work, use your emergency or parking brake. To slow down, shift your vehicle into a lower
gear.

Stuck Gas Pedal – if the gas pedal becomes stuck, hook your toe under it to free it. If it does not
become free, shift your vehicle into neutral and brake gently to slow down. If you have power
steering or a locking steering wheel, do not turn off the ignition, you will lose either your power
steering or your ability to steer.

Head-Lamp Failure – if your headlights fail suddenly, try your emergency flashers, parking lights
and/or turn signals. Pull off the road. If your lights begin to dim, drive to a service station or pull off
the road and seek help.

• Safety Checks
- Check tire pressure, tread, and condition. Low tire pressure can cause tires to fail at high
speeds.
- Check, and clean if necessary, all windows, mirrors, and lenses.
- Check and replace as necessary, all lights (headlights, tail lights, turn signal lights, and
brake lights [this will require two people usually - one to press brake pedal and one to look
at lights]).
- Check fluids- oil, fuel, and water levels before taking long trips.
- Check the mechanical condition of the vehicle at least annually. This inspection should be
done by someone who is mechanically qualified. It should include inspection of the brakes,
suspension, steering gear, and exhaust system, as well as the engine, drive line, and body.
- Check that mirrors, seat, and steering column are suitably positioned.
- It is required by law in some jurisdictions that the driver ensures all seatbelts are locked
and children are secure before starting the engine.
- Lock all doors.
- Check gauges after starting the engine.
- Secure all loose objects inside the vehicle or move them into the trunk. Make a visual circle
check of vehicle before moving. Try to park where reversing is not required.
- Indicate with turn signal and check for traffic before moving away from the road shoulder.
- Keep all car documents updated and reachable.
- Be prepared for variable traffic and weather conditions.
- Be courteous to other drivers.
- Avoid road rage. Don't drive while angry or upset.
- Know if the car has anti-lock brakes or not, and how you should respond to braking
differently depending on your braking system.
- Sample Vehicle Safety Checklist is on page 11-16

References:
National Safety Council (1997) Accident Prevention Manual
OSHA – Motor Vehicle Safety, on-line posting, [Link]/oshainfo

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 Vehicular Safety 11-15

Driver and Vehicle Inspection Report

Check Defects Only and Provide Explanation in Corrective Actions/Repair Section

Driver: _______________________________________________ Department __________________

Driver’s License Number _________________________________ Expiration Date _______________
Insurance Company _____________________________________ Policy Number ________________
Any Moving Violations During The Past Year: ___ Yes ___ No.
If, yes please explain: __________________________________________________________________
Vehicle Description: Year _______ Make: __________________ Model: _________________________
Mileage: _____________________________ Fuel Type: _____________________

General Condition Interior Exterior

Cab/Body Gauges/Warning Indicators Head-Lights
Glass Horn Tail-Lights
Windshield Wipers Heater/Defroster Front Turn Signals
Oil Leak Steering Rear Turn Signals
Fuel Leak Mirror Mirrors
Coolant Leak Foot Brake Front Tires
Other _______________ Parking Brake Rear Tires
Seat Belts Spare Tire
Engine Compartment Spare Fuses Exhaust System
Battery Caution Triangle Front Bumper
Oil Level Fire Extinguisher Rear Bumper
Coolant Level Other ____________________ Other ____________
Belts
Air Filter

Corrective Action/Repairs (if needed) Date Completed

Reporting Driver ___________________________________________ Date______________

Supervisor ________________________________________________ Date _____________

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-16

CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY

Often the safety of actual equipment is intertwined with the safety of the construction site itself. It’s
hard to separate the two variables because unsafe equipment equals an unsafe site and site hazards
can affect the safety of equipment. With this in mind, the Occupational Safety & Health
Administration (OSHA) cites motorized vehilces as the sixth most common hazard associated with
construction sites:

Heavy construction equipment safety is important on many levels. This is another issue, like electrical
issues that can hurt many people at once. If even one mistake is made with heavy equipment it can
start a chain reaction of negative consequences; both to the site itself and more importantly to worker
health and safety.

Workers plus heavy moving equipment plus a site with few safety standards can be deadly. Many
workers each year are crushed by falling equipment, struck by swinging backhoes, run over, or
pinned between vehicles and site walls or other equipment (to name a few).

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) offers some ideas and tips for staying
safe when working around, with, and inside of heavy construction equipment.
 Make sure equipment is in good working order each and every day and before every single
operation.

 Use the buddy system. This mean if you have a blind spot; than you need one or more
buddies carefully directing you where to go when backing up a large piece of equipment.
Technically an ultra safety move would be to also install a loud reverse alarm.

 Triple check that all individuals and co-workers are clear out of the area before dumping a
load of materials or other machinery off of a piece of heavy equipment.

 Never exceed what a machine can carry according to the manual -- can you even find the
manual for your site equipment? If not, you should and read it through.

 All workers should wear bright protective clothing and signs that are highly visible should
be set up in a way to discourage non-workers from entering a site.

 Never forget one simple rule: parking breaks. Easy to operate and can save lives.

There are a variety of ways that heavy equipment can present hazards if you do not have the proper
protection or controls. For example, you can be:
- electrocuted, if the equipment comes in contact with over-head power lines;
- crushed, if your equipment over turns;
- struck by or crushed by material being moved by equipment;
- crushed, if caught between the equipment and a wall; or
- run over by a piece of equipment.

Some common pieces of heavy equipment found on construction site, includes:

Backhoe Excavator Grader Skid Loader
Bulldozers Forklift (all terrain) Road Roller Concrete Truck
Dump Truck Front End Loader Scraper

For a safety inspection checklist for all types of construction equipment visit [Link]

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-17

Backhoe
Backhoes are one of the most common types of
construction equipment found today. And rightly so as
their versatility and maneuverability makes the back hoe
the equipment of choice for most construction jobs. A
backhoe is a piece of excavating equipment or digger
consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part
articulated arm. They are typically mounted on the
back of a tractor or front loader. The section of the arm
closest to the vehicle is known as the boom, and the
section which carries the bucket is known as the dipper
or dipperstick

Backhoe loaders can dig, scrape, load material, lift and with specialized attachments do almost any required
task. No one should operate a back hoe unless specifically trained and authorized by the company. Backhoe
operators are skilled professionals responsible for an expensive piece of equipment as well as the safety of
those working on the project.

 Backhoe operators need a few items for personal safety. Safety shoes, hardhat, safety glasses, heavy
gloves, reflective clothing, hearing protection and quite possibly a respirator where necessary.
Backhoe loaders are complicated machines.

 Be sure to know your equipment's capabilities and limitations such as its load capacity, stability
speed, braking and steering before operating the equipment.

 Check to make sure you have an operator's manual before you use the equipment.

 Inspect your backhoe for protective devices. Are seat belts provided? Seat belts are required for
back hoes or any equipment which has rollover protection. Inspect your lights, warning lights, and
audible buzzer or signal to make sure they are working. Double check the instruments and controls.
The warning and safety signs and instructional decals are very important and will help you to avoid
injury. You should always take them seriously and replace any damaged or missing decals.

 The operator maintenance inspection procedure is really very important before you operate the
equipment. Breakdowns can be disastrous. You can get more dependability of the equipment if you
take care of it and the first step is operator maintenance. Check the hydraulic system for leaks.
Check all the fluid levels, oil, water, battery, transmission and fuel. Check hoses and fittings for
leaks or damage. Inspect the condition of the tires for proper pressure and any noticeable cuts or
damage. OK, the equipment is in good operating condition - you're ready to go.

 Use the handrail or steps when mounting the machine. Don't use the controls as handholds. Put
your seat belt on snugly, set the controls in neutral or park with the parking brake on. Never start
the back hoe from any position other than from the driver's seat. After the vehicle is started and
warming up, check your brakes and other equipment to make sure it's functioning properly.

 When driving, slow speed is safe speed. Often 5 miles per hour is posted on the job site but use
your good judgment and drive slowly for the conditions. There are always people walking around
so take it slow. Be aware that braking conditions may vary due to mud, loose gravel or other
conditions. There are always obstacles on the job such as rocks, stones and debris. Soft soil
conditions exist around edges and deep holes. When operating the loader be sure the back hoe is
secured in the upright position and carry the loader bucket low, close to the ground. This allows
maximum visibility and stability. Stay in gear when traveling downhill. Use the engine's RPM to
help maintain control.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-18

 Before beginning the backhoe digging process, lower the stabilizers so the wheels are off the ground
leveling the unit. Check the boom swings to avoid hitting anyone or anything that may be in the
boom path. Remember, you're permitted to operate the backhoe loader only from the driver's
position. Never when you're on the ground.

 When operating on a slope, be sure the unit is level with the stabilizers. Swing loads uphill to avoid
a balance problem while on the slope and place soil well away from the edge of the trench. When
loading dump trucks, the dump truck driver must be out of the cab and away from the process.
Never swing a load over the cab.

 One of the first safety rules we'll discuss is riders. Absolutely no riders on backhoe loader
equipment.

 Prior to digging be sure all utilities have been located and pot-holed to make their location. Hitting
a power line is extremely hazardous and costly. If you're not sure, check with your foreman before
digging. Damage to water mains, telephone, or cable TV lines have a tendency to make headlines
and headaches.

 Always make sure that you keep bystanders or other workers out of the swing area. If anyone gets
in the way of the boom swinging, they can very easily get seriously injured. Always be aware of
who is around you and where they are standing.

 Anytime you have to leave the operator seat of the backhoe, you should lower the bucket or
attachment to the ground, turn the engine off, remove the ignition key, then exit the machine.

 If you must use a road to travel be sure your slow moving sign is in place and always use hand or
turn signals. Follow the rules of the road. If traffic gets backed up behind you, let them pass.

 When transporting your backhoe, refer to the manufacturer's manual for proper tie-down and
loading procedures. Will the trailer or truck handle the load? Be sure to check the tie down chains
for worn or damaged links. Low binders have always been an accident waiting to happen. Avoid
using the traditional snap binders as they require cheater-bar to tighten. Cheater bars are not
authorized and they tend to cause accidents. Use a ratchet-type binder.

 Backhoes get a lot of wear and tear and maintenance is required from time to time. Be sure the
boom is adequately blocked to avoid a serious injury in case it falls. Never rely upon hydraulics to
hold the boom. It must be blocked to avoid a fall. Chalk the tires when working on the vehicle and
keep the bucket teeth in good shape. Every 8 hours or so, you should grease all of the zerk fittings,
and check the hydraulic fluid and oil and a daily basis. If the fluid is low, the backhoe will not
operate. Therefore, you should always take the time to check your machine.

 Naturally, never smoke when refueling or handling fuel and turn the engine off as well as electrical
or spark-producing motors. Ground the fuel nozzle or funnel against the filler neck to avoid static
electricity. Check the fire extinguishers that is located in the cab. Be sure it is charged and ready
for emergencies.

 Safety is a big deal especially on construction projects with people performing their jobs, backhoes,
dump trucks, just a lot of activity. A short program on safety doesn't tell the whole story. The
experience of the back hoe operators and their attention to safety on the job is what really counts.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-19

Bulldozer
Bulldozers are designed to cut and push large quantities of material in a matter of seconds. With
their enormous size, they can cause serious injury and even death, if not operated properly.
Read below to be in the know about safety measures for the operation of bulldozers.

• Only qualified, competent and

trained workers should be allowed to
operate and ride on bulldozers.

• Operators must always use seatbelts

when riding or operating the
bulldozer.

• Start the engine only when seated on

the operator’s seat and when the path
is clear of workers, objects and other
obstructions.

• Workers must follow proper lockout,

blockout and tagout procedures,
especially when a bulldozer is in
need of repairs.

• Use a system of traffic controls when operating the bulldozer on a public thoroughfare or in an area
close to vehicle traffic or obstructing it.

• Flaggers must be assigned in areas where warning signs and barricades cannot control traffic flow.

• Keep bulldozers away from overhead power lines.

• Before operations, qualified personnel must test if the manual warning device (horn) of the
bulldozer works.

• The bulldozer must also be equipped with an automatic back-up alarm that can be heard through the
whole worksite.

• Shut off the engine whenever refueling.

• The bulldozer must be equipped with rollover protection structures (ROPS).

• Never climb on parts of the machine where hand and foot holds are not provided.

• Be doubly cautious when approaching or operating near trenches or excavations.

• Never use the bulldozer on structures that are taller than the bulldozer itself, unless there is
sufficient overhead protection.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-20

Dump Truck
Dump trucks play an instrumental role in moving earth material to and from a construction site.

 Pre-Use Activities
- Thoroughly review and understand
information provided in the dump truck
operator’s manual with particular attention
given to descriptions of safety procedures.
- Before using, always thoroughly inspect the
dump truck, including the head and tail lights,
horn, rear view mirrors, tires, air brakes, and
fluid levels.
- If any dump truck equipment fails the pre-use
inspection, notify your supervisor and remove
the truck from service by attaching a red tag
that states “DO NOT USE.” Complete red tag
with appropriate information.

 Operating Precautions
- When entering or exiting the cab of a dump truck, always use the hand hold and steps.
- Know the locations of obstacles such as boulders, overhead electric lines, fences, and low tree limbs
in areas where loading, hauling, and dumping are to occur.
- Be aware of blind spots when backing a dump truck. Carefully adjust rear view mirrors to maximize
your field of view. As necessary, use a “spotter” to back a dump truck.
- Always know where other workers are located in the loading, hauling, and dumping areas.
- Maintain awareness of the relationship between increasing braking distance as the dump load weight
increases. Dump box loads should be evenly distributed to enhance vehicle stability.
- Always engage the dump-box lock bars before performing maintenance or other tasks under a raised
dump box (see photograph at right).
- Recognize surface areas hazardous to dumping, such as uneven and sloping surfaces or poorly
compacted fill. Dumping loads while located on hazardous surface areas may result in vehicle tip
overs.
- Assure the length of travel is reasonably level and compacted before spreading material by dumping
from a moving truck.
- Know whether the material being hauled is wet or damp and therefore, will have a tendency to stick
in the dump box as it is raised.
- Prevent vehicle tip overs by deflating the air bags before raising the dump box.
- Always obey all traffic signs, signals, and speed limits.

Dump trucks have tipped over when their boxes were lifted. The result has been death and injury to the driver
and nearby personnel. Just consider some of the dimensions and forces involved:
For Example a 46 foot trailer raised 45 degrees is about 42 feet in height (that is a lot of height
and weight to keep balanced). One small factor can make the truck tip over. All it takes is:
- a slight variation in level,
- a load that gets stuck, or
- soft ground under the tires.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-21

Excavator
An excavator (also called a digger) is an engineering vehicle
consisting of an articulated arm (boom, stick), bucket and cab
mounted on a pivot (a rotating platform, like a Lazy Susan) atop
an undercarriage with tracks or wheels.

Employers should take the following steps to protect workers

from injury while working with excavators or backhoe loaders.

Site Set-Up
• Contact local utilities and other responsible parties to locate overhead and underground utility lines
before beginning work. Avoid working near overhead power lines. If you must work near them,
develop a plan to avoid contact.
• Do not permit hydraulic excavators or backhoes to be operated on grades steeper than those
specified by the manufacturer.
• Make sure that workers position machinery at a safe distance from excavations such as trenches.

Equipment Operators
• Train equipment operators in the proper use of the equipment they are assigned to operate. Be sure
to follow manufacturers’ specifications and recommendations.
• Continually evaluate safety programs to address changing conditions at the worksite.
• Clearly identify and label all machine controls and make sure that the manufacturers’ safety features
are working.
• Install and maintain equipment attachments and their operating systems according to manufacturers’
specifications.
• Securely latch attachments (such as quick-disconnect buckets) before work begins.
• Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for using positive locks on quick-disconnect equipment.
• Train operators to conduct visual and operational checks on all machine systems and operating
controls before working the machine.
• Make frequent visual inspections of quick-disconnect systems—especially after changing
attachments.
• Use the ROPS and seat belts supplied by the manufacturer. Do not remove the ROPS.
• Instruct operators to lower the boom to a safe position with the attachment on the ground and turn
off the machine before stepping off for any reason.

Other Site Workers

• Make all workers on the site aware of the machines’ established swing areas and blind spots before
the operator works the machine. Keep workers on foot outside these areas by marking them with
rope, tape, or other barriers.
• Before each work shift begins, review and confirm communications signals between machine
operators and workers on foot.
• Do not permit workers on foot to approach the hydraulic excavator until they signal the operator to
shut down the machine and receive acknowledgment from the operator.
• Use spotters or signal persons around operating equipment when necessary.
• Never permit workers to ride in or work from excavator.
• Provide appropriate personal protective equipment and ensure it is used.

[Link]/PDF/Excavator/Excavator_Slides.pdf

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Vehicular Safety 11-22

Forklift (All Terrain)

Safety is a vital part of forklift operations. Many forklift safety
practices are as simple and clear as those for driving the family
automobile. For instance, before you start your car, you check to
see if the transmission is in NEUTRAL or PARK. When
stopping your car, you do so gradually, not abruptly. Because a
forklift is a special machine designed for a different purpose,
you must exercise more caution and receive more training to
operate a forklift properly. The techniques for safe forklift
operations are as follows:

1. Avoid lifting or hitting anything that is likely to fall on you or other personnel in the area.
Remember that a forklift equipped with an overhead guard or ROPS and load backrest extension
provides reasonable protection against a falling object but cannot protect you against every impact.
A forklift without an overhead guard provides no protection. For this reason, you should never
attempt to pickup any loose, unstable, or stacked load if it appears that any part of the elevated load
might topple through or over the top of the upright or fall on anybody standing nearby. You should
also avoid hitting certain objects, such as stacked material, that could become dislodged and fall. Do
not move your forklift around with the load carriage elevated. These rules apply whether or not
your forklift is equipped with an overhead guard and are important if you are not protected by an
overhead guard. Enforcing these rules may mean a smaller load, but you are protecting yourself and
others working in your area.

2. Use a secured safety platform when lifting personnel. A forklift is built for only one rider—the
operator. Because of the hazardous conditions that can result, it is unauthorized for anyone to
ride the forks of a forklift or hitch a ride in any manner. If a forklift is used to elevate workers, a
safety platform must be secured to the forks. The platform should be specially built and
secured to keep it from slipping from the forks, and it should have a solid floor and handrail.

3. Keep arms and legs inside the operator’s compartment. Holding them outside the machine
can be dangerous in narrow aisles.

4. Keep yourself and all others clear of the hoisting mechanisms. Never put hands, arms, head or legs
through the hoisting mechanism. This rule applies to both you and the rigger. A rigger should not be
near the load or hoisting mechanism while you are attempting to pick up, hoist, or deposit a load.

5. Never allow anyone under the load.

6. Report damaged or faulty equipment immediately—do not operate a forklift that is unsafe.
You can complete a job with a forklift safely only when it is working correctly; therefore, a forklift
should never be operated when it is not running properly.

7. Avoid bumps, holes, slick spots, and loose materials that may cause your forklift to swerve or tip
over. Different models of forklifts are designed to operate under different conditions. Although
large forklifts can adapt to more uneven ground, do not expect them to maintain their balance under
abusive ground conditions.

8. Travel slowly in narrow aisles and around corners, especially blind corners. To help
avoid collisions, you should sound your horn in advance.

9. Lower the carriage completely, and set the parking brake before leaving your forklift. Block the
wheels when parking on an incline or working on the forklift. These rules apply under all
conditions, even if you are only going to leave your forklift for a moment. A driverless forklift does
not have to move far in close quarters to cause serious injury.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-23

10. Do not turn on an incline. For stability, a forklift should not be driven along the side of an incline
that leans the forklift sideways. Always keep either the rear end or front end of the forklift pointed
up or down the slope.

11. Do not fill the fuel tank while the engine is running.

12. Sudden starts and stops cause premature wear on parts of the forklift, such as axles and gears, and
cause tires to wear faster. Personnel nearby may become injured and materials may be damaged
by a forklift suddenly going into motion or going out of control.

13. Because a forklift is designed to perform so many functions within a small space, you must
anticipate certain clearance situations. As an operator, you must be aware the forks will
sometimes protrude beyond the front of the load. Because of this, you strike objects or lift or nudge
other loads on pallets.

CAUTION Many serious mishaps have been caused by uprights and overhead guards striking pipes
and beams connected to FAILURE TO KEEP A CAREFUL the ceiling in a warehouse. Some
forklift models steer WATCH IN THE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL from the rear axle. On these
machines, the tail swings C A N R E S U L T I N D A M A G E TO and can hurt personnel or
damage property. SOMETHING OR INJURY TO SOMEONE.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-24

Front End Loader

The front-end loader is a self-contained unit mounted on
rubber tires or tracks and is one of the most versatile and
capable pieces of equipment used in the NCF. The front-end
loader can be equipped to operate as a loader, a dozer, a scraper,
a clamshell, a forklift, a backhoe, a crane, an auger, or a
sweeper.

Rubber-Tired Front-End Loader

Mounted on large rubber tires, the front-end loader has a
relatively low ground bearing pressure (approximately
45 pounds) that enables it to perform a large variety of jobs.
The rubber-tired front-end loader has three manually
selected forward gear ranges that permits good mobility
when traveling from one jobsite to another.
The full power soft shift transmission allows the gear range and direction of travel changed at
anytime without stopping the machine from maintaining a high rate of production. The large rubber
tires provide good traction on unstable surfaces and allow the front-end loader to perform on side
slopes of 15 percent and on front slopes up to 30 percent. The hydraulic system gives the operator
positive control of the front-end loader attachments and steering system.

Crawler-Mounted Front-End Loader

Mounted on crawler tracks, the crawler-mounted front-end loader has a low ground bearing pressure
enables it to operate in areas where wheeled front- semi-grouser shoes that permit it to work on end
loaders cannot go. The crawler-mounted front- firm ground with little damage to the surface. end
loader has a lower speed than a rubber-tired front-end loader.

Safety measures are the same as backhoe.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-25

Grader
A grader, also commonly referred to as a road grader, a
blade, a maintainer, or a motor grader, is an engineering
vehicle with a long blade used to create a flat surface. the
grader's purpose is to "finish grade" (refine, set precisely)
the "rough grading" performed by heavy equipment or
engineering vehciles such as scrapers and bulldozers..
Graders are commonly used in the construction and
maintenance of dirt roads and gravel roads. In the
construction of paved roads they are used to prepare the
base course to create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to
be placed on. Graders are also used to set native soil
foundation pads to finish grade prior to the construction of
large buildings.

Safety precautions that apply to graders are as follows:

 Keep hands, feet, and clothing away from power-driven parts.
 Clothing worn by the operator should be relatively tight and belted. Do not wear
loose jackets, shirts, sleeves, or other items of clothing because of the danger of catching
them in moving parts.
 Before starting the engine, always check the service brakes and the parking brake to
ensure they are in proper working condition.
 Do not use the steering wheel as a handhold when getting on and off the grader.
 Keep hands, floors, and controls free from water, grease, and mud to ensure nonslip
control. Never attempt to operate the grader except from the operator’s station.
 Always keep the grader in gear when going down steep hills or grades.
 When transporting or driving on a road or highway at night or during the day, use
accessory lights and devices for adequate warning to the operators of other vehicles. In
this regard, check local government regulations. . Never drive too close to the edge of a
ditch or excavation.
 Do not leave the engine running while making adjustments or repairs unless
specifically recommended. . Never refuel when the engine is running. Do not smoke
while filling the fuel tank or servicing the fuel system.
 Never leave the grader unattended with the engine running.
 Do not oil, grease, or adjust any part of the grader while it is in motion. .
 Check for faulty wiring or loose connections.
 Keep a firm grip on the steering wheel at all times when speed is increased.
 Do not allow anyone near the grader while the driver is in the seat with the engine running.
. Reduce speed before turning or applying brakes. Drive at speeds slow enough to ensure
your safety, especially over rough ground.
 Do not operate the grader so fast on hillsides or curves that you may tip over.
 When you are operating your grader, be sure your path ahead is clear to avoid collision
with other equipment. . Watch for overhead wires. Never touch wires with any part of the
grader. . Do not use the grader as a battering ram. .
 Keep the working area as level as possible.
 Never allow anyone to work under a raised blade or other attachment.
 Do not leave the blade or other attachment in the raised position when it is not in use.
Always lower it to the ground.
 Be sure bystanders are clear of the grader before lowering or moving the blade.
 Park the grader on level ground or across the slope.
 Remove all trash accumulation from the engine and the operator’s station daily.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-26

Road Roller/Compactors (Ride-On)

Workers who operate or work around roller/compactors are at risk of injury from a machine
rollover or being struck by the machine or its components. NIOSH recommends that injuries and
deaths be prevented through wider use of rollover protective structures (ROPS) and seat belts on
roller/compactors, training, establishing and adhering to safety plans and safe work practices, and
using appropriate personal protective equipment.

Site Set-Up
• Develop site-specific safety plans
for all aspects and stages of the
job. Have plans analyzed by a
qualified person to determine the
safest possible methods to
perform the work.
• Minimize the presence of workers
on foot near machinery.
• Provide all workers on-site with
training in site-specific safety
procedures and in hazards they
may encounter at the site.
• Use barriers to separate workers, pedestrians, and vehicles from moving equipment.
• Continually evaluate safety plans to address changing conditions at the worksite.
• Provide appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) such as high-visibility reflective
vests and hard hats, and ensure that workers use and maintain them.
• Use machinery equipped with ROPS and seatbelts, and ensure their use. Replace seatbelts
if they are damaged, worn, or too small.
• Contact equipment manufacturers or equipment dealers to determine whether approved
retrofit ROPS and seatbelts are available for machinery without these safety features.
• Ensure that machines are not operated on grades steeper than those specified by the
manufacturer.
• Establish a documented maintenance program for all machinery.
• Replace worn or damaged warning labels on machinery.
• Ensure that operators' manuals are present on all machinery or available to the operator.
• Make sure that all the manufacturers' safety features are operational.
• Ensure that all site workers comply with all applicable requirements of machine warning
labels and operator manuals.

Equipment Operator
• Take training in safety procedures at the site and in the proper use of the equipment.
Follow manufacturers' specifications and recommendations.
• Check work areas for workers on foot in the machine's path before moving the machine or
changing the direction of travel. Use spotters or barriers where necessary. Be aware of
equipment blind spots.
• Be aware of the hazards associated with operating machinery on non-level surfaces to
prevent rollover.
• Do not operate machinery without the ROPS and seat belts supplied by the manufacturer.
Do not remove the ROPS or seatbelts.
• Wear the seat belt and do not jump from the equipment in the event of a rollover. Keep
knees and elbows close to the body, hold on firmly, and lean away from the impact to
avoid being crushed by the ROPS.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-27

• Conduct daily or pre-shift visual and operational checks on all equipment systems and
operating controls before working the machine.
• Make sure that all the manufacturers' safety features are operational.
• Comply with all warning labels.

Other Site Workers

• Take training to recognize and avoid unsafe conditions and follow required safe work
practices that apply to the work environment.
• Be aware of the hazards and blind spots associated with working near moving equipment.
• Before each work shift begins, review and confirm communications signals to be used
between equipment operators and workers on foot.
• Do not approach machinery without first signaling the operator to shut down the equipment
and receiving acknowledgment from the operator.
• Do not ride as a passenger on rollers or similar mobile equipment.
• Wear PPE that is provided, such as high visibility reflective vests and hard hats, to increase
visibility.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-28

Scraper
Scrapers are designed for self-loading, hauling,
and spreading material on long-haul
earthmoving operations. Scrapers are most
efficient when operated in light and medium
materials that are nearly free of roots, stumps, and
boulders. Heavy or consolidated materials require
ripper-equipped dozers to rip open the surface and
assist loading operations by pushing the
scraper through the cut to achieve maximum
loading. The dozer pushing the scraper is referred
to as a push cat. Scrapers are built with open tops
to make them suitable for loading by crane
clam shell, conveyor, or front-end loader.

Safety precautions that apply to scrapers are as follows:

 Never operate a scraper at speeds that are unsafe.
 Always wear seat belts. Uneven terrain can cause a violent tilt of the scraper, causing
possible personal injury by throwing you off or against the steering wheel if NOT
secured in the operator’s seat.
 Block up the scraper bowl and apron before performing any work on the cutting edges
of the scraper.
 Keep the operator’s cab clear of debris, grease, oil, and mud which can cause the operator
to slip or fall.
 Never kick the scraper out of gear when going downhill. The increased speed will make
control of the scraper very difficult. Keep the scraper in gear at all times and use the cutting
edge to control the speed When the brakes fail to hold the load, lower and drag the scraper
bowl.
 When securing the scraper, ensure the apron is closed and the bowl on the ground.
 Do NOT spread when turning.
 When working on slopes, always turn uphill.
 Do NOT drop the bowl suddenly; ease the cutting edge onto the ground.
 Load and spread when going downgrade, whenever possible.
 When constructing a fill, keep the outside edge high and the center low to prevent the
scraper from sliding over the edge.
 When the scraper begins to fall off the fill, steer downhill, drop the bowl, and rapidly
accelerate to maximum rpm. Do NOT attempt to turn the scraper back up the slope. Do
NOT stop the forward motion of the scraper when there is any danger of the unit tipping
over.
 Wear any required personal protective equipment, such as hard hats and steel toe
safety shoes.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-29

Skid Loader
A skid loader is a small loader utilizing four wheels
with hydraulic drive that directs power to either, or
both, sides of the vehicle. Very similar in
appearance and design is the track loader, which
utilizes a continuous track on either side of the
vehicle instead of the wheels.

Safety Operation Requires:

Know your machine
• Balance is the key to the stability and turning capability of a skid steer. With no load in the
bucket, roughly two-thirds of the weight is on the rear axles. Weight shifts to the front
wheels when the bucket is loaded.
• Overloading can make a skid steer excessively front heavy. This reduces stability and
handling response. Don't exceed a loader's rated operating capacity.
• Never attempt to operate the steering levers or any other hydraulic controls while standing
outside of the cab! Hydrostatic drive means that the skid steer will respond instantly when
the levers are engaged.
• Operation of controls becomes almost instinctive for an experienced skid steer driver.
Novices can become confused as a result of having to perform a number of functions at one
time. If this happens, it is usually best to remove hands and feet from the controls. All
machine functions will stop when pressure on the controls is released.
• Never remove the rollover protective structure from a skid steer. Keep side screens in
place-fatal crushing injuries have occurred when individuals were caught between the
loader arms and the skid steer frame on "unscreened" machines.
• The seat belt and seat bar should be employed whenever you are operating a skid steer.
• Always make sure that attachment locking devices are in place, even if you are switching
attachments for only a few minutes. If not locked, an attachment could break free and roll
back down the loader arms, or fall onto a bystander.

Safe skid steer travel

• Skid steer stability decreases as the loader arms are raised. Always keep the bucket as low
as possible when traveling or turning.
• Avoid steep slopes and rough terrain. Always travel up and down slopes, never across.
• Move up and down slopes with the heavy end of the loader pointed uphill. Remember, no
load=most weight on the rear of the skid steer; loaded bucket=more weight on the front.
• Try to go around obstacles, rather than over or through them.
• Stay as far away from creeks, gullies and ravines as the banks are deep. Otherwise, the
earth could shear and send the skid steer crashing to the bottom.
• Road travel with a skid steer is not recommended.

Work efficiently
• Drive slowly into the manure pack or material pile, then raise the front of the attachment.
Back away with the load in the tilted-up bucket or fork.
• Drive to the unloading site with loader arms down. Stop, raise the arms, and drive forward
slowly until the bucket is just over the spreader or pile.
• Use the hydraulics to keep the attachment level while raising the lift arms at a slow, even
rate. Be prepared to lower the load quickly if the skid steer becomes unstable.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-30

Work safely
• Familiarize yourself with warning devices, gauges, and controls. Study operating
procedures outlined in the manual.
• Check for obstacles or soft soil conditions in the work area.
• Check for overhead powerlines.
• Riders must never be permitted on skid steer loaders.
• Never use a skid steer as a work platform or personnel carrier-hydraulic failure is always a
possibility.
• Adjust speed to suit working conditions and terrain. Avoid sudden stops, starts, or turns.
• Never lift, swing, or otherwise move a load over anyone. In fact, you should insist that all
bystanders leave the area before you start work.
• Take care when handling loose materials, such as rocks. Lifting the arms too high and
rolling the bucket back too far could cause the objects to fall into the cab. That's way it is
so important to keep the bucket level while the arms are being raised.
• Avoid dumping over fence posts or similar obstructions that could enter the cab if the
loader were to tip forward.
• Take care when backfilling. The trench wall could collapse under the skid steer's weight.
• Never undercut a high embankment. The earth could give way and bury the loader.
• Never place any part of body or limb under raised loader arms. That's why it is so
important to keep' the safety screens in place.
• If it is necessary to carry out repairs with the loader arms raised, be sure to lock the arms in
place.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-31

Concrete Truck
Concrete truck driver occupational hazards include:
 Slips and Trips Resulting in a Fall
 Struck By
 Ergonomic Risk Factors
 Noise
 Confined Space and Silica Dusts
 Chemicals
 Burns
 Eye Injuries
 Driving

Slips, Trips, and Falls

Slips, trips, and falls from truck equipment, elevated work stations, and walking surfaces.
According to the National Safety Council (1986), falls account for 50% of injuries to
concrete truck drivers. Hazards include slippery surfaces, unsure footing, damaged ladders
and walkways, and unsure hand- and footholds during climbing and descending truck cab
and equipment. These hazards may occur at the plant or at the delivery site.

"Struck By" and Mechanical Hazards during Equipment Operations

Handling of the loadout chute can cause pinch point injuries to hands and fingers, struck by
injuries from swinging parts and falling materials and equipment. At both the plant and
delivery site, falling objects and materials from overhead materials, tools, and equipment
pose hazards.

Ergonomic Risk Factors

Concrete truck drivers show similar exposures to musculoskeletal risk factors as many
other professional truck drivers and construction workers. This is shown from the literature
review and from site visit videotapes and photographs (appendixes A-C). These exposures
include whole-body vibration from driving the trucks, awkward and fixed postures (for
instance, while hosing down the inside of the truck and holding the driving wheel of an
empty truck over bumpy roads), forceful muscular activities (for instance, lifting heavy
chutes, frequently lifting chutes, and activating a drum when discharging concrete),
extremes in temperature (cold and hot), and repetitive twisting of the back and neck (for
instance, when delivering concrete or looking out the back of a truck).

Other factors compound the problems. For instance, working for very long hours in
extremes of temperature can induce stress. Work-related stress, which can impair work
performance and cause numerous health problems (for instance, high blood pressure), has
also been shown to be related to chronic work-related musculoskeletal disorders and
increased periods of sick leave.

Noise
As with other construction and truck driving trades, ready mixed drivers are exposed to
high noise levels during all phases of their work. The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) studied noise exposure among ready mixed truck drivers from
one company and concluded that the drivers were at risk for noise-induced hearing loss.
Almost all the personal noise measurements exceeded the OSHA General Industry action
level of 85 decibels averaged over 8 hours, which requires a hearing conservation program;
and all noise exposures exceeded the NIOSH recommended limit of 85 decibels (as
measured using NIOSH criteria). Some loading and unloading operations reached peak

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 Vehicular Safety 11-32

levels in excess of 100 decibels. Audiometric testing is not common in the ready mixed
concrete industry, although one company reported 17 cases of noise-induced hearing loss
in one year. Conversation normally is at 70 decibels; hearing is measured on a logarithmic
scale, which means 73 decibels is twice as loud as 70.

Confined Spaces and Silica Dust

After several months, residual concrete inside the truck mixer drum hardens into a thick
layer. This concrete must be removed periodically. Workers - drivers, laborers, or contract
workers - enter the drum and use a pneumatic chipping hammer to break up the hardened
concrete. This operation can result in excessive exposure to noise and silica dust from
concrete-aggregate materials, like sand and gravel. Drivers may also be exposed to silica
dust during drum loading operations at dry mix plants and from reentrainment of settled
dust at the plant and at construction sites. Exposure to other confined space hazards, such
as oxygen deficiency, accidental startups, heat stress, and mechanical hazards, should also
be evaluated.

Chemicals
Drivers may be exposed to dust containing silica, cement, and other aggregate materials
during loading operations at the plant. At the plant and delivery site, drivers may have skin
contact with mixed concrete and admixtures, which may contain irritant and sensitizing
materials. Cement products are highly alkaline by nature and concrete contains hexavalent
chromium, a powerful skin sen-sitizer. These materials can cause skin irritation and
allergic reactions once sensitized. Drivers can also experience so-called bystander
exposures of substances generated by activities at the delivery site

Burns
During normal operations, truck equipment generates heat resulting in hot surfaces on
equipment and truck components that pose contact hazards to drivers. During winter
months, supplemental water used on the trucks is heated to temperatures as high as 160 F
(National Ready Mixed concrete Association 1995; National Safety Council 1986).

Eye Injuries
Flying particles and splashes of aggregate material, slurry water, and concrete expose
drivers to serious hazards during loading and unloading operations. Eye-injury hazards
may also be present at nearby operations at construction sites.

Driving
Hazards to drivers during truck operations include collisions at the plant, on the road, and
at the delivery site; being struck by vehicles backing up in the plant yard and at the
delivery site; and rollovers while driving and unloading on unstable, uneven or steep
ground at delivery sites.

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 Vehicular Safety 11-33

Operating Heavy Equipment - Hazard Alert – Construction Safety Council

More than 100 people each year are killed by mobile heavy equipment – including backhoes/excavators,
mobile cranes, road grading and surfacing machinery, loaders, bulldozers, and tractors – on construction
sites.

The Hazard
• Workers on foot are struck by equipment, usually when it’s backing up or changing direction.
• Equipment rolls over and kills the operator while on a slope or when equipment is loaded or unloaded from
a flatbed/lowboy truck.
• Operators or mechanics are run over or caught in equipment when the brakes aren’t set, equipment is left in
gear, wheel chocks are not used, or the equipment and controls aren’t locked out.
• Workers on foot or in a trench are crushed by falling equipment loads, backhoe buckets, or other moving
parts.

Protecting Yourself
 The Equipment:
o Be trained before operating any piece of equipment.
o Be sure equipment is equipped with roll-over protective structure (ROPS) and seat belts.
o Operator’s manual available.
 The Heavy-Equipment Operator:
o Identify potential hazards in the work area (power-lines, utilities, etc)
o Check equipment out before starting work.
o Set a limited access zone (swing radius of each piece of equipment)
o Establish communication between ground crew and operator (hand-signals)
o Use trained spotters, especially around trenches.
o Prevent slips and falls by maintaining three-point contact at all times when getting on or off
the equipment.
o Prevent rollovers – do not travel or work parallel to steep grades or embankments or
unstable soil.
o Follow shut-down procedures before working on or leaving the equipment.

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 Office Safety 12-1

OFFICE SAFETY

Most people do not generally realize that it is possible for persons working in offices to be disabled or
killed. Each year about 40,000 office workers become disabled due to an office accident. An accident that
could have been prevented through worker awareness of office hazards and their control measures.

Numerous types of office hazards exist and as each office

environment is unique to itself, so are the types of hazards that
can exist. This segment is going to cover the most common
types of office hazards and their control measures:
 Slips, Trips and Falls
 Objects Striking or Struck
 Caught In or Between

Slips, Trips and Falls

According to the BLS there are over 80,000 slips, trips and falls annually in the workplace. The
BLS further states that the average number of lost-days due to a fall is 8 days. The type of injuries
that occur may include lacerations, contusions, muscle strains or sprains, back injury, fractures and
even death.

In order to get a better understanding of this, let’s review the physics of walking (or running). There
are three physiological factors involved when we walk: (1) friction, (2) momentum, and (3) gravity.

(1) Friction is the resistance between two

surfaces: walking surface and soles of the
shoes. Slips occur when there is a loss of
traction thereby resulting in a loss of balance.

(2) Momentum is the motion of a body

moving (usually forward). Trips
occur when momentum is interfered
with.

(3) Gravity is a force that pulls on an object, thereby

holding it on to the surface. Falls occur when an
object gets out of balance with the earth’s forces,
thereby submitting the object to gravity.

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 Office Safety 12-2

• Slips
Prevent slipping accidents by cleaning up spills immediately.

• Trips
Trip hazards such as electrical cords or a change in elevation should be eliminated or
marked as hazard.

Report all defects such as loose tiles, broken steps, railings and doors immediately to
maintenance.

Side Note: Most non-employee injury producing accidents occur in the parking lot and on
the sidewalks leading into the building (except restaurants). Parking lots have a tendency
to develop pot-holes and sidewalks crack in cold regions over a period of time, sidewalks
will lift – thus creating a trip hazard). Another point to remember is that a curb is a
physical hazard, therefore any curb area where employees or non-employees may step
upon to the sidewalk shall be painted yellow – the color for caution.

• Falls
Falls account for the majority of injury producing accidents in the office. Of these falls
nearly 90% involve a chair. However, other factors include slipping and tripping, changes
in elevation and mis-use of office furniture.

The two most common reasons for falling in the office environment are (1) attempting to
incorrectly retrieve something from a high office shelf accounts for a large percentage, and
(2) going to sit down in a chair.

Always use a ladder or step stool to retrieve anything above shoulder level.

Ladders, or step stools, should be sturdy and not have any broken rungs or legs.

Do not lean too far back in chairs.

Swivel chairs are not acceptable ladder substitutes.

Cardboard boxes are not acceptable ladder substitutes.

Upturned trash bins are not acceptable ladder substitutes.

Side Note: Most facilities have parking for their employees and visitors and sidewalks which bring
them from the parking lot to the building entrance. Parking lots and sidewalks account for over
75% of slips, trips and falls in any given facility. In order for a parking lot to be functional without
hidden hazards it needs to have an easy to follow layout with conspicuous markings and adequate
signs. To further ensure safety in the parking lot, the entrance and exit should be clearly marked.

Another factor to consider is illumination of the parking lot and sidewalks. A well-lighted area not
only reduces accidents in the hours of darkness, but also discourages crime. The usual amount of
light needed for a parking lot and sidewalk ranges between 0.5 to 1 foot candle.

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Objects Striking or Struck By

Being struck by or striking against an object generally accounts for
11% of all office accident producing injuries. Most accidents
involving being struck by an object occurred from a falling object,
such as a file cabinet and material falling off a supply shelf.
Whereas, striking against an object, generally occurs by walking into
something, such as an open desk drawer.

File cabinets and bookcases taller than 64 inches should be secured

or anchored to the wall to prevent tipping over.

Maintain worker awareness of their surroundings. And, encourage

work practices that eliminate hazards, such as making sure the file
drawers are closed when not in use and not stacking heavy objects
on high shelves

Caught In or Between
Being caught in or between objects in the office setting happens more often than one thinks, however,
these are generally not life-threatening situations. Although, they can lead to serious problems, if left
unattended. Some situations of being caught in or between include windows, doors, drawers and even
copying machines.

- Know where your fingers are at when closing drawers.

- Guard the sharp edges of furniture to prevent personal injury.

Keep desk “pull-out” writing surfaces closed when not in use.

- Keep razor blades, tacks and other sharp objects in closed

containers.

- Use the proper tool for the job at hand (e.g. a staple remover to
remove staples).

- Jewelry, long hair, and clothing must be kept clear of the moving
part of all office machines.

- Paper cutters are guillotines and are very hazardous pieces of equipment. Whether operated by
mechanical power or not, guillotines must be adequately guarded at all times. When not in use, the
blade should be in the fully down position and fastened securely.

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 Hazardous Materials Management 13-1

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS MANAGEMENT

Hazardous materials can cause harm to the community (people) or damage the environment (air, land &
water). Many of the products we use in the workplace contain hazardous ingredients. It is through the
understanding of how a product can cause harm to a worker or threaten the environment if misused (hazard
communication) that a worker can protect themselves, and just as importantly knowing how to handle and
dispose of a hazardous material.

HAZARD COMMUNICATION

What is Hazard Communication? And, Why Is a Standard Necessary?

About 32 million workers work with and are potentially exposed to one or more chemical hazards. There
are an estimated 650,000 existing chemical products, and hundreds of new ones being introduced
annually. This poses a serious problem for exposed workers and their employers. Employers are
responsible for informing employees of the hazards and the identities of workplace chemicals to which
they are exposed.

Chemical exposure may cause or contribute to many serious health effects such as heart ailments, central
nervous system, kidney and lung damage, sterility, cancer, burns, and rashes. Some chemicals may also
be safety hazards and have the potential to cause fires and explosions and other serious accidents.
Because of the seriousness of these safety and health problems, and because many employers and
employees know little or nothing about them, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) issued the Hazard Communication Standard. The basic goal of the standard is to be sure
employers and employees know about work hazards and how to protect themselves; this should help to
reduce the incidence of chemical source illness and injuries.

The Hazard Communication Standard establishes uniform requirements to make sure that the hazards of
all chemicals imported into, produced, or used in U.S. workplaces are evaluated, and that this hazard
information is transmitted to affected employers and exposed employees. Employers and employees
covered by an OSHA-approved state safety and health plan should check with their state agency, which
may be enforcing standards and other procedures “at least as effective as,” but not always identical to,
federal requirements. See also pages 13 and 18 of this publication for more information on state plans.
What Is Hazard Communication, And Why Is a Standard Necessary?
Chemical Hazard Communication
Basically, the hazard communication standard is different from other OSHA health rules because it
covers all hazardous chemicals. The rule also incorporates a “downstream flow of information,” which
means that producers of chemicals have the primary responsibility for generating and disseminating
information, whereas users of chemicals must obtain the information and transmit it to their own
employees. In general, it works like this:

Chemical – determine the hazards of each product

Hazard Determination - conducted by the manufacturer (and/or importer)
Product – labeled to identify hazard
Employer – provide list of all products in the workplace that contain a hazardous ingredient
- obtain a Material Safety Data Sheet for each product used in the workplace
- develop & implement a written hazard communication program
- communicate hazard information to employees through labels, MSDS and training

Who is Covered?
OSHA’s standard (Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1910.1200, 1915.99, 1917.28, 1918.90,
and 1926.59 ) applies to general industry, shipyard, marine terminals, longshoring, and construction
employment and covers chemical manufacturers, importers, employers, and employees exposed to
chemical hazards.

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How Can Workplace Hazards Be Minimized?

The quality of the hazard communication program depends on the adequacy and accuracy of the
assessment of hazards in the workplace. Chemical manufacturers and importers are required to review
available scientific evidence concerning the hazards of the chemicals they produce or import, and to
report the information they find to their employees and to employers who distribute or use their products.
Downstream employers can rely on the evaluations performed by the chemical manufacturers or
importers to establish the hazards of the chemicals they use.

The chemical manufacturers, importers, and any employers who choose to evaluate hazards are
responsible for the quality of the hazard determinations they perform. Each chemical must be evaluated
for its potential to cause adverse health effects and its potential to pose physical hazards such as
flammability.

Why Is a Written Hazard Communication Program Necessary?

A written hazard communication program ensures that all employers receive the information they need to
inform and train their employees properly and to design and put in place employee protection programs.
It also provides necessary hazard information to employees, so they can participate in, and support, the
protective measures in place at their workplaces.

Employers therefore must develop, implement, and maintain at the workplace a written, comprehensive
hazard communication program that includes provisions for container labeling, collection and availability
of material safety data sheets, and an employee training program. It also must contain a list of the
hazardous chemicals, the means the employer will use to inform employees of the hazards of non-routine
tasks (for example, the cleaning of reactor vessels), and the hazards associated with chemicals in
unlabeled pipes. If the workplace has multiple employers onsite (for example, a construction site), the
rule requires these employers to ensure that information regarding hazards and protective measures be
made available to the other employers onsite, where appropriate. In addition, all covered employers must
have a written hazard communication program to get hazard information to their employees through
labels on containers, MSDSs, and training.

The written program does not have to be lengthy or complicated, and some employers may be able to
rely on existing hazard communication programs to comply with the above requirements. The written
program must be available to employees, their designated representatives, the Assistant Secretary of
Labor for Occupational Safety and Health, and the Director of the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH).

(Sample programs are available in the Compliance Directive CPL 2-2.38 D, Appendix E. Also, see
Hazard Communication—A Compliance Kit (OSHA 3104) (a reference guide to step- by-step
requirements for compliance with the OSHA standard.) The kit can be obtained from the Government
Printing Office.

How Must Chemicals be Labeled?

Chemical manufacturers and importers must convey the hazard information they learn from their
evaluations to downstream employers by means of labels on containers and material safety data sheets
(MSDSs). Also, chemical manufacturers, importers, and distributors must be sure that containers of
hazardous chemicals leaving the workplace are labeled, tagged, or marked with the identity of the
chemical, appropriate hazard warnings, and the name and address of the manufacturer or other
responsible party.

In the workplace, each container must be labeled, tagged, or marked with the identity of hazardous
chemicals contained therein, and must show hazard warnings appropriate for employee protection. The
hazard warning can be any type of message, words, pictures, or symbols that provide at least general
information regarding the hazards of the chemical(s) in the container and the targeted organs affected, if
applicable. Labels must be legible, in English (plus other languages, if desired), and prominently
displayed.

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 Hazardous Materials Management 13-3

Exemptions to the requirement for in-plant individual container labels are as follows:
• Employers can post signs or placards that convey the hazard information if there are a number of
stationary containers within a work area that have similar contents and hazards.
• Employers can substitute various types of standard operating procedures, process sheets, batch
tickets, blend tickets, and similar written materials for container labels on stationary process
equipment if they contain the same information and the written materials are readily accessible to
employees in the work area.
• Employers are not required to label portable containers into which hazardous chemicals are
transferred from labeled containers and that are intended only for the immediate use of the employee
who makes the transfer.
• Employers are not required to label pipes or piping systems

What Are Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)? And, Are They Needed?
The MSDS is a detailed information bulletin prepared by the manufacturer or importer of a chemical that
describes the physical and chemical properties, physical and health hazards, routes of exposure,
precautions for safe handling and use, emergency and first-aid procedures, and control measures.
Chemical manufacturers and importers must develop an MSDS for each hazardous chemical they
produce or import, and must provide the MSDS automatically at the time of the initial shipment of a
hazardous chemical to a downstream distributor or user. Distributors also must ensure that downstream
employers are similarly provided an MSDS.

Each MSDS must be in English and include information regarding the specific chemical identity of the
hazardous chemical(s) involved and the common names. In addition, information must be provided on
the physical and chemical characteristics of the hazardous chemical; known acute and chronic health
effects and related health information; exposure limits; whether the chemical is considered to be a
carcinogen by NTP, IARC, or OSHA; precautionary measures; emergency and first-aid procedures; and
the identification (name, address, and telephone number) of the organization responsible for preparing
the sheet.

Copies of the MSDS for hazardous chemicals in a given worksite are to be readily accessible to
employees in that area. As a source of detailed information on hazards, they must be readily available to
workers during each workshift. MSDSs have no prescribed format. ANSI standard no. Z400.1—
Material Safety Data Sheet Preparation—may be used. The non-mandatory MSDS form (OSHA 174)
also may be used as a guide and a copy can be obtained from OSHA field offices.

Employers must prepare a list of all hazardous chemicals in the workplace. When the list is complete, it
should be checked against the collected MSDSs that the employer has been sent. If there are hazardous
chemicals used for which no MSDS has been received, the employer must contact the supplier,
manufacturer, or importer to obtain the missing MSDS. A record of the contact must be maintained.

What Training is Needed to Protect Workers?

Employers must establish a training and information program for employees who are exposed to
hazardous chemicals in their work area at the time of initial assignment and whenever a new hazard is
introduced into their work area. At a minimum, the discussion topics must include the following:
• The hazard communication standard and its requirements.
• The components of the hazard communication program in the employees’ workplaces.
• Operations in work areas where hazardous chemicals are present.
• Where the employer will keep the written hazard evaluation procedures, communications program,
lists of hazardous chemicals, and the required MSDS forms.
• The employee-training plan must consist of the following elements:
• How the hazard communication program is implemented in that workplace, how to read and interpret
information on labels and the MSDS, and how employees can obtain and use the available hazard
information.

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 Hazardous Materials Management 13-4

• The hazards of the chemicals in the work area. (The hazards may be discussed by individual
chemical or by hazard categories such as flammability.)
• Measures employees can take to protect themselves from the hazards.
• Specific procedures put into effect by the employer to provide protection such as engineering
controls, work practices, and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
• Methods and observations—such as visual appearance or smell—workers can use to detect the
presence of a hazardous chemical to which they may be exposed.

How Does Labeling Affect Trade Secret Disclosure?

A “trade secret” is something that gives an employer an opportunity to obtain an advantage over
competitors who do not know about the trade secret or who do not use it. For example, a trade secret may
be a confidential device, pattern, information, or chemical make-up. Chemical industry trade secrets are
generally formulas, process data, or a “specific chemical identity.” The latter is the type of trade secret
information referred to in the Hazard Communication Standard.

The term includes the chemical name, the Chemical Abstracts Services (CAS) Registry Number, or any
other specific information that reveals the precise designation. It does not extend to PELs or TLVs. If the
hazardous chemical or a component thereof has a PEL or TLV, this must be reflected on the MSDS.

The standard strikes a balance between the need to protect exposed employees and the employer’s need
to maintain the confidentiality of a bona fide trade secret. This is achieved by providing for limited
disclosure to health professionals who are furnishing medical or other occupational health services to
exposed employees, employees and their designated representatives, under specified conditions of need
and confidentiality.

What About Disclosure in a Medical Emergency?

The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer must immediately disclose the specific chemical
identity of a hazardous chemical to a treating physician or nurse when the information is needed for
proper emergency or first-aid treatment. As soon as circumstances permit, the chemical manufacturer,
importer, or employer may obtain a written statement of need and a confidentiality agreement.

Under the contingency described here, the treating physician or nurse has the ultimate responsibility for
determining that a medical emergency exists. At the time of the emergency, the professional judgment of
the physician or nurse regarding the situation must form the basis for triggering the immediate disclosure
requirement. Because the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer can demand a written statement
of need and a confidentiality agreement to be completed after the emergency is abated, further disclosure
of the trade secret can be effectively controlled.

In a Non-Emergency?
Employers must disclose the withheld specific chemical identity to health professionals providing
medical or other occupational health services to exposed employees, and to employees and their
designated representatives, if certain conditions are met. In this context, “health professionals” include
physicians, occupational health nurses, industrial hygienists, toxicologists, or epidemiologists.

The request for information must be in writing and must describe with reasonable detail the medical or
occupational health need for the information. The request will be considered if the information will be
used for one or more of the following activities:
• To assess the hazards of the chemicals to which employees will be exposed.
• To conduct or assess sampling of the workplace atmosphere to determine employee exposure levels.
• To conduct pre-assignment or periodic medical surveillance of exposed employees.
• To provide medical treatment to exposed employees.
• To select or assess appropriate personal protective equipment for exposed employees.
• To design or assess engineering controls or other protective measures for exposed employees.
• To conduct studies to determine the health effects of exposure.

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The health professional, employee, or designated representative must also specify why alternative
information is insufficient. The request for information must explain in detail why disclosure of the
specific chemical identity is essential, and include the procedures to be used to protect the confidentiality
of the information. It must include an agreement not to use the information for any purpose other than the
health need stated or to release it under any circumstances, except to OSHA.

The standard further describes in detail the steps that will be followed in the event that an employer
decides not to disclose the specific chemical identity requested by the health professional, employee, or
designated representative. (See 1910.1200( i)(7).)

Reprint OSHA 3084 Chemical Hazard Communication 1998

Special emphasis needs to be placed on ensuring workers know how to read a material safety data sheet and
that these are readily available in the work area.

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 Hazardous Materials Management 13-6

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

Hazardous materials are substances, which have hazardous characteristics such as: flammable, corrosive,
reactive, toxic, radioactive, poisonous, carcinogenic or infectious. In a general sense, these materials are
considered hazardous because they present a potential risk to human and/or the environment. A waste is
any discarded material. By law (United States) a hazardous waste is defined as a waste, or combination of
wastes, that because of its quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics may
cause or significantly contribute to an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness or
pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health, safety or welfare or to the environment when
improperly treated, stored, transported, used or disposed of or otherwise managed. Hazardous waste
management plans generally separate waste into three broad categories: radioactive, chemical and
biological.

Common Chemicals Found in the Workplace That Produce Health Hazards

Sodium Hydroxide (caustic soda) – used as strong chemical base in the manufacturer of pulp, paper,
textiles, drinking water, soaps, detergents and as a drain cleaner.

Calcium Carbonate (lime water) – primarily used in construction industry as building material.

Methanol (also called Methyl Alcohol) used as solvent and antifreeze.

Toluene – used as solvent (able to dissolve paint)

Benzene – highly flammable liquid, known carcinogen; used as industrial solvent and precursor in
production of drugs, plastics, synthetic rubbers and dyes

Chlorine – powerful oxidant and used in bleaching processes and disinfectants; is a toxic gas that irritates
the respiratory tract and is heavier than air.

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 Hazardous Materials Management 13-7

Hazardous Materials Management Program

Purpose

All hazardous waste shall be managed in accordance with regulatory regulations.

Responsibility

The Company Safety Manager and all Departmental Managers shall be responsible for ensuring
all hazardous materials are handled, stored and transported and disposed of in a manner to ensure
no worker or the community shall become exposed to the harmful elements of the hazardous
materials.

Each employee is responsible for complying with this program.

Guidelines
Waste Minimization

In an effort to reduce the amount of chemicals needing disposal, the following guidelines shall
be followed:

1. Only purchase what is needed for a three to six month period;

2. If practical, use non-hazardous materials;
3. If the chemical is still useful, recycle the waste instead of disposing of it by finding
an associate that could use the remainder of the chemical;
4. If the material can be safely neutralized at the point of use, then do so; and
5. The contractor providing disposal services shall segregate chemical waste from non-
hazardous waste.

Hazardous Determination

Ignitable

• Flammable Liquids - Flashpoint <140°F (e.g., alcohols, benzene, toluene,

xylene, acetonitrile )
• Oxidizers (e.g., nitrates, perchlorates, bromates, permanganates, peroxides,
iodates )
• Organic Peroxides (e.g., benzoyl peroxide, cumene hydroperoxide, methyl ethyl
ketone peroxide)

Corrosive

Aqueous liquids with a pH < 2 or > 12.5 or other liquids capable of corroding steel at
a rate of > 6.35 mm (0.250 inches) per year at a test temperature of 55o Celsius.

• Inorganic Acids (e.g., hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, perchloric
acid, phosphoric acid)
 Organic Acids – (e.g., formic acid, lactic acid)
 Bases – (e.g., hydroxide solutions, amines)

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 Hazardous Materials Management 13-8

Reactive

Materials which can react violently or create toxic fumes:

• Sulfides and cyanides
• Peroxide formers (e.g., ethers, potassium amide, sodium amide, vinyl acetate,
tetrahydrofuran)
• Alkali metals (e.g., sodium, potassium, lithium)
• Dinitro and trinitro compounds (e.g., picric acid)
• Isocyanates
• Perchlorate crystal formers (e.g., perchloric acids)

Toxic

A waste which, when using the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure, leaches
any number of metallic, organic, or pesticide constituents in concentrations greater
than specified in the regulation. Examples for these constituents include arsenic,
barium, cadmium, chloroform, chromium, m-cresol, mercury, selenium and silver.

Handling Hazardous Materials

Only trained employees shall handle hazardous waste.

Storage Hazardous Waste

Typical storage considerations may include temperature, ignition control, ventilation,

segregation and identification. Proper segregation is necessary to prevent incompatible
materials from inadvertently coming into contact. If incompatible materials were to
come into contact, fire, explosion, violent reactions or toxic gases could result.

All hazardous waste containers shall be properly labeled to indicate the type of material
contained in the container. If bottles are reused, remove the old chemical name and
hazards completely and put the type of chemical waste on container. Hazardous waste
containers not labeled in accordance with this policy shall not be removed from the area
until such label is affixed to the container. If the contents of the container are unknown,
please indicate this on the label. All containers of hazardous waste shall have an
accumulation start and end date. If labels are needed, the Company Safety Manager will
supply a limited amount.

Another means of labeling hazardous materials is through color-coding, commonly used

on the labels especially for larger containers.
• Yellow, oxidizers and organic peroxides
• Red, flammables
• Orange, explosives
• Black & White, corrosives
• White, poisons and irritants
• Green, non-flammable gases

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Transporting Hazardous Waste

All hazardous waste shall be packaged in accordance with the following instructions.

1. Use a leak-proof container that will safely contain the contents. Chemical
flasks, plastic bags or culture dishes will not be accepted. Containers must be
closable.
2. The container shall not be overfilled with liquid waste. Empty space of at least
five percent of the container volume shall be left to allow for thermal expansion.
3. Be suspicious of any pressure build-up inside the container. If this is a concern
when closing the container, do not secure the cap tightly and if appropriate,
place the container inside a fume hood or other well ventilated area until the
chemical is removed by the waste collector.
4. If a safety can(s) or re-usable container(s) is used, write your location on the can
with a permanent marker to ensure the return of your safety can within one
week.
5. Old cans of ether, picric acid and other peroxide forming compounds shall be
left in place and not moved until the waste collector has evaluated the condition
of the container.
6. If waste is accumulated over time, list the accumulation start date and disposal
date on the container.

During transportation of chemicals, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE)

shall be worn. Minimum PPE includes safety glasses, lab coat, or other appropriate lab
attire and closed toe shoes. Appropriate gloves shall be kept on the cart for protection of
transporter in case of a spill during transit. Hazardous chemicals shall be attended at all
times while being transported.

During transport, if a spill occurs and there is question as to whether a spill can be safely
cleaned up, or you are uncertain of the hazards of the substance, or you do not feel
comfortable in dealing with the spill, immediately contact Safety Manager and your
supervisor. Do not leave spill unattended at anytime.

Do not attempt to clean up any spill if the following conditions apply:

• More than one chemical has spilled;

• If quantity spilled is more than the available absorbent provided in the spill
control station or the spill is greater than one liter;
• If the chemical is classified as a toxic/poison; or
• If the chemical is highly flammable or explosive.
All spills shall be cleaned up in accordance with the Chemical Spill Response
quick reference

Disposal of Hazardous Material

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has developed a listing of
chemicals considered to be hazardous. These chemicals include spent solvents, poisons
and corrosives. If a chemical exhibits any one of the following characteristics, the
chemical would be considered hazardous: ignitable, corrosive, reactive or toxic.

Disposal of these materials into sinks, drains, commodes or other sewage disposal
channels is strictly prohibited. Empty containers with 3% or less chemical residual can
be disposed of in the general waste stream.

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 Hazardous Materials Management 13-10

Hazardous Material Identification System

The Hazardous Material Identification System (HMIS) is a four color Diamond or Rectangle that
is used in labeling containers to help identify the hazards pertaining to an individual chemical.
Inside the specific colors are numbers identifying the particular hazard associated with the
individual chemical.

A. Colors

1. Blue is for Health Hazards.

2. Red is for Flammability Hazards
3. Yellow is for Reactivity Hazards
4. White is for Special Hazards

B. HMIS Number System

HEALTH (4) Deadly!-Requires SPECIAL Protective Clothing

(Blue) (3) Extremely Dangerous!-Wear FULL Protective Clothing
(2) Hazardous-Use SCBA
(1) Slightly Hazardous-SCBA Desirable
(0) No Hazard-Ordinary Combustible Material

FLAMMABILITY (4) Extremely Flammable Gases & Very Volatile Liquids

(Red) (3) Ignites at Normal Temperatures
(2) Ignites when Heated
(1) Must be Preheated to Burn
(0) Will not Burn

REACTIVITY (4) May Detonate at normal Temperatures! Vacate area if

(Yellow) materials are exposed to Fire!
(3) Strong SHOCK or HEAT may DETONATE! Use Monitors from
Behind Explosion Resistant Barriers
(2) Possible violent Chemical Change. Use Hose Streams from
Distance
(1) Unstable if Heated. Use CAUTION
(0) Normally Stable

SPECIAL HAZARD -W- Water Reactive

(White) OXY Oxidizing Chemicals
POL Hazardous Polymerization
EXP Explosive-Heat of Shock Sensitivity

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 Confined Spaces and Hot Work Permit 14-1

CONFINED SPACES and HOT WORK PERMIT

Confined spaces and hot work are common problems found in the workplace. And, many times the workers
will be confronted with both problems while performing their job.

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 Confined Spaces and Hot Work Permit 14-2

CONFINED SPACES

Many workplaces contain spaces that are considered “confined” because their configurations hinder the
activities of any employees who must enter, work in, and exit them. For example, employees who work in
process vessels generally must squeeze in and out through narrow openings and perform their tasks while
cramped or contorted. In addition, there are many instances where employees who work in confined spaces
face increased risk of exposure to serious hazards. In some cases, confinement itself poses entrapment
hazard. In other cases, confined space work keeps employees closer to hazards, such as asphyxiating
atmospheres or the moving parts of machinery. An appropriate definition for confined space would be any
area not designed for human occupancy, with limited entrance(s) or exit(s). Furthermore, it must be
understood that when any part of the human body breaks plane to the confined space – it shall be deemed
confined space entry, because there may be other forms of hazards besides atmospheric, such as corrosive
chemical concentration, which could eat away at the skin if the worker put there un-protected hand into the
confined space.

Confined Space Program

Purpose

This program will include; a written Confined Space policy; the identification, evaluation, and
labeling of Confined Spaces; employee training and certification; implementation of a confined
space permitting system, and the identification of responsible individuals and their roles during
confined space procedures.

Responsibility

The Company Safety Manager and all Departmental Managers shall be responsible for ensuring all
workers required to enter a confined space

Each employee is responsible for complying with this program.

Outside Contractors shall be responsible for submitting a confined space entry program prior to any
of their employees entering a confined space.

Guidelines

Defining a Confined Space

• A space that is large enough, and so configured, that an employee can bodily enter and perform
assigned work.
• A space that has limited or restricted means for entry or exit.
• A space that is not designed for continuous employee occupancy.

Examples: bins; boilers; digesters; ventilation ducts; utility vaults; pipelines; tunnels; tanks;
trenches; vessels; vats; silos; open top spaces more than 4 feet deep such as pits, tubs, and
excavations, or any space with limited ventilation or suspect atmosphere.

Confined Spaces are classified into two main categories; permit-required and non-permit required.

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A Permit Required Confined Space is any space having the following characteristics;

• Its primary function is something other than human occupancy and is large
enough and is so configured that an employee can enter and perform assigned
work.
• Limited openings for entry and exit.
• Not designed for continuous worker occupancy.
• Unfavorable natural ventilation.
• Potential for toxic or oxygen deficient atmosphere.
• Potential for engulfment, such as hoppers, and silos for sand and gravel.
• Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated
by inwardly converging walls or by a floor that slopes downward and tapers to a
smaller crosssection.
• A space that contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard.

Non-permit required confined spaces are confined spaces that do not have, or have the
potential to, contain any hazard or hazardous atmosphere capable of causing death or
serious physical harm.

• If it can be demonstrated that the only hazard posed by the permit-required space
is an actual or potentially hazardous atmosphere, and continuous forced air
ventilation can safely maintain the permit space, then the space can be considered
a non-permit required confined space pending satisfactory air monitoring results.

Identification of Confined Spaces

(Company Name) has been evaluated to determine if any work areas are permit-required confined
spaces and to identify and evaluate the hazards associated with these spaces. Permit required
confined spaces have been identified, and all affected employees will be notified by posting signage
or by any other effective means of the existence and location of the permit spaces. A sign will be
posted stating the following; "DANGER – CONFINED SPACE - ENTRY PERMIT REQUIRED"
at each permit-required confined space.

Designated Roles

When a permit-required confined space entry is to take place, the supervisor or project manager,
will designate the persons who will have active roles in the entry operation. Additionally, the duties
of each such employee will be identified, and provided with the required training required by the
training section of this policy. A typical confined space entry team may include, but is not limited
to, the following:

1. Authorized entrants
2. Attendants
3. Entry supervisors
4. Atmospheric monitoring personnel
5. Certifying personnel
6. Rescue/Emergency services personnel

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The supervisor or project manager, must develop procedures prior to the commencement of
confined space operations for the following:

1. Summoning rescue and emergency services

2. Rescuing entrants from permit spaces
3. Providing necessary emergency services for rescue
4. Preventing unauthorized personnel from attempting a rescue

 Authorized Entrant

• Must know the hazards that may be encountered during entry, including
information on the mode, signs or symptoms, and consequences of the exposure.
• Must communicate with the attendant as necessary to enable the attendant to
monitor entrant status and to enable the attendant to alert entrants of the need to
evacuate the space as required by this section.
• Must know how to properly use personnel protective equipment (PPE) provided.
• Must alert the attendant whenever:
• The entrant recognizes any warning sign or symptom of exposure to a
dangerous situation.
• The entrant detects a prohibited condition.
• Must exit from the permit space as quickly as possible whenever:
• An order to evacuate is given by the attendant or the entry supervisor.
• The entrant recognizes any warning sign or symptom of exposure to a
dangerous situation.
• The entrant detects a prohibited condition.
• An evacuation alarm is activated.

 Authorized Attendants

Attendants are individuals stationed outside one or more confined spaces who
monitor the authorized entrants. Authorized attendants:

• Must know the hazards that may be faced during entry, including information
on the mode, signs or symptoms, and consequences of the exposure.
• Must be aware of possible behavioral effects (i.e. disorientation, faulty
judgement) of hazard exposure in authorized entrants.
• Must continuously maintain an accurate count of authorized entrants in the
permit space and ensure that the means used to identify authorized entrants
accurately identifies who is in the permit space.
• Must remain in a predesignated location outside the permit space during entry
operations until relieved by another attendant.
• Communicates with authorized entrants as necessary to monitor entrant status
and to alert entrants of the need to evacuate the space.
• Monitors activities inside and outside the space to determine if it is safe for
entrants to remain in the space and orders the authorized entrants to evacuate
the permit space immediately under any of the following conditions:
• If the attendant detects a prohibited condition.
• If the attendant detects the behavioral effects of hazard exposure in
an entrant.
• If the attendant detects a situation outside the space that could
endanger the entrants.
• If the attendant cannot effectively and safely perform all the duties
stated in this section.

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• Summon rescue and other emergency services as soon as the attendant

determines that entrants may need assistance to escape from permit space
hazards.
• Takes the following actions when unauthorized persons approach or enter a
permit space while entry is underway:
• Warn the unauthorized persons that they must stay away from the
permit space.
• Advise the unauthorized persons that they must exit immediately if
they have entered the permit space.
• Inform the authorized entrants and the entry supervisor if
unauthorized persons have entered the permit space.
• Performs no duties that might interfere with the attendant's primary
duty to monitor and protect the entrants.
• Performs non-entry rescues.

 Entry Supervisors

Entry supervisors are responsible for determining if acceptable entry conditions

are present prior to entry, for authorizing entry and overseeing entry operations,
and for terminating the entry. An entry supervisor may also serve as an attendant
or authorized entrant of properly equipped and trained. Depending on the nature
of the confined space work, the Entry Supervisor may be the project supervisor,
project manager, company safety Manager, or other designated person. However,
this individual will be identified prior to issuing a confined space permit.

Entry Supervisor responsibilities;

• Must know the hazards that may be faced during entry, including
information on the mode, signs or symptoms, and consequences of the
exposure.
• Verifies, by checking that the appropriate entries have been made on the
permit, that all tests specified by the permit have been conducted and that
all procedures and equipment specified by the permit are in place before
endorsing the permit and allowing entry to begin.
• Verifies that rescue services are available and that the means for
summoning them are operable.
• Ensures removal of unauthorized individuals who enter or who attempt to
enter the permit space during entry operations.
• Determines, whenever responsibility for a permit space entry operation is
transferred and at intervals dictated by the hazards and operations
performed within the space, that entry operations remain consistent with
terms of the entry permit and that acceptable entry conditions are
maintained.
• Terminates the entry and cancels the permit as required in accordance
with this policy.

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 Rescue and Emergency Services

(Company Name) shall utilize the Fire Department whenever an emergency

situation arises pertaining to permit-required confined space work. Prior to
authorizing the entry, the emergency procedures must be reviewed with all
involved with the entry.

Rescue and emergency services workers are employees who enter permit spaces
to perform rescue services. These individuals must have the knowledge and skills
of authorized entrants. In addition, they must be trained to do their assigned
rescue duties. Rescue service members must know the proper use of PPE
equipment and rescue equipment. They will also have basic first aid and cardio
pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training, with at least one member holding a valid
certification in first aid and CPR.

Permit-Required Confined Space Entry Procedures

The following steps are to be followed by project supervisors, project managers, or any other
individual who will be overseeing work that involves entering confined spaces:

1. Determine if the upcoming work, or project, will involve entry into permit-required confined
space.

Note: If there is any question as to whether or not the work space is a confined space, consult
the company Safety Manager to conduct an evaluation. This request should be made well in
advance of the scheduled start of work.

If it has been determined that the work will involve entering a permit-required confined space
the following procedures must be followed;

2. Identify the appropriate trained personnel who will be involved in the work operation.

Note: Only those employees who have received confined space certification training will be
allowed to conduct confined space work.

Note: If work is to be performed by an outside contractor, a copy of the company's written

confined space program, employee training certificates, and any MSDS's must be submitted to
the company Safety Manager at least two days prior to the commencement of work for review.

3. Follow steps in " Pre-Entry Preparation Procedures " section of this program.

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Pre-Entry Preparation Procedures

• These procedures are the responsibility of project supervisors, project managers, or any other
individual who will be overseeing work that involves confined spaces. These items, if
applicable, must be carried out before a Confined Space Permit will be issued.
• Isolate the permit space - Confined spaces that contain equipment or operations that through the
activation of electricity, air, or hydraulics, may injure an employee or cause property damage
must be isolated by lock-outs and tags or other positive means of preventing an accident. All
involved employees must take part in the lockout/tagout procedures. All electrical and
mechanical systems must be tested prior to entry to ensure actual isolation of the systems.
• Purge, inert, flush, or ventilate the permit space as necessary to eliminate or control atmospheric
hazards.
• Provide pedestrian, vehicle, or other barriers as necessary to protect entrants from external
hazards. This may include, but is not limited to, the following methods: set-up cones, post
signs, partition-off the area with caution tape, erect barricades, arrange for traffic control..
• Confined Space operations involving entry into hot and cold environments may require use of
appropriate protective clothing. Consult with the company safety Manager prior to selecting any
form of personnel protective equipment (PPE), this may include; safety glasses, gloves,
chemical resistant suits, hearing protection, etc.
• Equipment used in confined space work operations will only be issued to those employees who
are trained in their use. This may include:

1. Ventilating equipment needed to obtain acceptable entry conditions.

2. Communications equipment necessary to enable the authorized entrant(s) and
attendant maintain constant communication and to enable the attendant to summon
rescue services without leaving his/her post.
3. Personal protective equipment when feasible engineering and work practice controls
do not adequately protect employees.
4. Lighting equipment needed to enable employees to see well enough to work safely and
to exit the space quickly in an emergency.
5. Barriers and shields

• Obtain equipment, such as ladders, needed for safe ingress and egress by authorized entrants.
• Obtain rescue and emergency equipment except to the extent that the equipment is provided by
or for rescue services.
• Obtain any other equipment necessary for safe entry into and rescue from permit spaces.
• Make necessary arrangements with the Company Security office if access through various gates
is necessary for contractors and/or equipment.

Pre-Entry Evaluation Procedure

Atmospheric testing of the permit space conditions will be evaluated by the Company Safety
Manager prior to any entry operations. Outside contractors who provide their own safety personnel,
may also conduct the atmospheric testing as long as the Company Safety Manager determines their
means of assessing atmospheric conditions are acceptable. Conditions will be tested in the permit
space to determine if acceptable entry conditions exist before entry is authorized to begin, except
that, if isolation of the space is impractical because the space is large or is part of a continuous
system (such as a sewer), pre-entry testing shall be performed to the extent feasible before entry is
authorized and, if entry is authorized, entry conditions will be continuously monitored in the areas
where authorized entrants are working.

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Procedures for Atmospheric Testing

Atmospheric testing for confined space entry is required for two distinct purposes:

• Evaluation of the hazards of the permit space, and

• Verification that acceptable entry conditions for entry into that space exist.

Evaluation Testing:

The Company Safety Manager will ensure that the atmosphere of a permit-required
confined space is analyzed using equipment of sufficient sensitivity and specificity to
identify and evaluate any hazardous atmospheres that may exist or arise. This is required
to ensure that appropriate permit entry procedures specific to the operation can be
developed and acceptable entry conditions stipulated for that specific space. The internal
atmosphere will be tested, with a calibrated direct-reading instrument, for the following
conditions in the order given:

Oxygen Content (19.5% to 23.5%)

Flammable and Combustible Gases
Toxicity

Verification Testing

The atmosphere of a permit space which may contain a hazardous atmosphere will be
tested for residues of all contaminants identified by evaluation testing using permit
specified equipment to determine that residual concentrations at the time of testing and
entry are within the range of acceptable entry conditions. Results of testing (i.e., actual
concentration, etc.) will be recorded on the permit in the space provided adjacent to the
stipulated acceptable entry condition.

Duration of Testing

Measurement of values for each atmospheric parameter will be made for at least the
minimum response time of the test instrument specified by the manufacturer.

Testing Stratified Atmospheres

When monitoring for entries involving a descent into atmospheres that may be stratified,
the atmospheric envelope will be tested a distance of approximately 4 feet (1.22 m) in the
direction of travel and to each side. If a sampling probe is used, the entrant's rate of
progress will be slowed to accommodate the sampling speed and detector response. The
stratified atmosphere will be tested, with a calibrated direct-reading instrument, for the
following conditions in the order given:

Order of Testing

A test for oxygen will be performed first, because most combustible gas meters are oxygen
dependent and will not provide reliable readings in an oxygen deficient atmosphere.
Combustible gases will be tested next, because the threat of fire or explosion is both more
immediate and more life threatening, in most cases, than exposure to toxic gases and
vapors. If tests for toxic gases and vapors are necessary, they will be performed last.

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Confined Space Entry Permits

Confined Space Entry Permits will be maintained and issued by the Company Safety Office.
Terminated entry permits will also be kept on file in the Safety office.

Content of Confined Space Entry Permit:

• The permit space to be entered.

• The purpose of the entry.
• The date and the authorized duration of the entry permit.
• The authorized entrants within the permit space, by name or by such other means to enable
the attendant to determine quickly and accurately, for the duration of the permit, which
authorized entrants are inside the permit space. This requirement may be met by inserting a
reference on the entry permit as to the means used, such as a roster or tracking system.
• The employee(s), by name, currently serving as attendant(s).
• The employee, by name, currently serving as entry supervisor, with a space for the
signature or initials of the entry supervisor who originally authorized entry.
• The hazards of the permit space to be entered.
• The measures used to isolate the permit space and to eliminate or control permit space
hazards before entry.
• Those measures can include the lockout or tagging of equipment and procedures for
purging, inerting, ventilating, and flushing permit spaces.

Acceptable Entry Conditions.

• The results of initial and periodic tests, accompanied by the names or initials of the testers
and by an indication of when the tests were performed.
• The rescue and emergency services that can be summoned and the means (such as the
equipment to use and the numbers to call) for summoning those services.
• The communication procedures used by authorized entrants and attendants to maintain
contact during the entry.
• Equipment, such as personal protective equipment, testing equipment, communications
equipment, alarm systems, and rescue equipment, to be provided for compliance with this
program.
• Any other information whose inclusion is necessary, given the circumstances of the
particular confined space, to ensure employee safety.
• Any additional permits, such as for hot work, that have been issued to authorize work in the
permit space.

Permit System

• To ensure accessibility of the confined space equipment, only one confined space entry
permit will be active during any 8-hour shift. A new permit may be issued during the same
shift only after the preceding permit has been canceled.
• Before entry begins, the Entry Supervisor, identified on the permit, will sign the entry
permit to authorize entry.
• The completed permit will be made available at the time of entry to all authorized entrants
by posting at the confined space access opening so that the entrants can confirm that pre-
entry preparations have been completed. All adjacent openings will be
monitored/controlled by the confined space permit.
• The duration of the permit may not exceed the time required to complete the assigned task
or job identified on the permit without approval of the Company Safety Manager.

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Concluding the Entry

• When work operations are complete, the authorized entrant(s) will inform the attendant that
he/she plans to exit the space.
• The attendant will instruct the entrant(s) to survey the work area and verify that there are
no stray tools in the space before exiting. If feasible, all tools should be removed from the
space before the entrant(s) exits.
• The attendant will visually check that all authorized entrants have exited the space.
• The confined space entry point(s) will be secured by the attendant.
• The entry permit will be removed, canceled by the Entry Supervisor, and original returned
to the Company Safety Office within 24 hours or before the end of the following work day.

After the permit is cancelled, reentry of the space is prohibited.

Termination of Entry and Cancellation of Entry Permit

An active confined space permit may be terminated under the following conditions:
• The entry operations covered by the entry permit have been completed.
• A condition that is not allowed under the entry permit arises in or near the permit space.

The Company Safety Office will retain each canceled entry permit for at least 1 year to facilitate the
review of the permit-required confined space program. Any problems encountered during an entry
operation will be noted on the pertinent permit so that appropriate revisions to the permit space
program can be made.

Permit to Non-Permit Reclassification

A space classified by the Company Safety Office as a permit-required confined space will be
reclassified as a non-permit confined space under the following conditions:

• If the permit space poses no actual, or potential, atmospheric hazards and if all hazards
within the space are eliminated without entry into the space, the permit space may be
reclassified as a non-permit confined space for as long as the non-atmospheric hazards
remain eliminated.
• If it is necessary to enter the permit space to eliminate hazards, such entry will be
performed under the assumption that a hazard exists. If testing and inspection during that
entry demonstrate that the hazards within the permit space have been eliminated, the permit
space may be reclassified as a non-permit confined space for as long as the hazards remain
eliminated.

Note: Control of atmospheric hazards through forced air ventilation alone does not constitute
elimination of the hazards. Periodic monitoring will be conducted to ensure forced air ventilation
maintains a safe worker environment for reclassification to a non-permit confined space.

The Company Safety Manager will document the basis for determining that all hazards in a permit
space have been eliminated, through a certification that contains as a minimum; the date, the
location of the space, and the signature of the person making the determination. The certification
shall be made available to each employee entering the space.

If hazards arise within a permit space that has been declassified to a non-permit space, each
employee in the space shall immediately exit the space and notify their supervisor. The Company
Safety Manager will then reevaluate the space and determine whether it must be reclassified as a
permit space, in accordance with other applicable provisions of this instruction.

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Retrieval Systems

Only non-entry rescue procedures will be conducted by Company employees. Any other method of
rescue will be performed by the emergency rescue team on call. The emergency rescue phone
number will be conspicuously listed on the confined space permit.

Retrieval Systems will meet the following requirements:

• Each authorized entrant will use a full body harness, with a retrieval line attached at the
center of the entrant's back near shoulder level, or above the entrant's head.
• The other end of the retrieval line will be attached to a mechanical device or fixed point
outside the permit space in such a manner that rescue can begin as soon as the rescuer
becomes aware that rescue is necessary. A mechanical device will be available to retrieve
personnel from vertical type permit spaces more than 5 feet deep.
• If an injured entrant is exposed to a substance for which a Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) or other similar written information is required to be kept at the worksite, that
MSDS or written information will be made available to the medical facility treating the
exposed entrant.

Employee Information and Training

Training will be provided so that all employees whose work is regulated by this program acquire the
understanding, knowledge, and skills necessary for the safe performance of the duties assigned
under this program. It is the responsibility of the employee's supervisor to ensure all employees
involved with confined space work receive the proper training. The Company Safety Manager will
either provide the training, or make arrangements with an outside vendor, to provide the training.

Training will be provided to each affected employee:

• Before the employee is first assigned duties under this program.

• Before there is a change in assigned duties.
• Whenever there is a change in permit space operations that presents a hazard about which
an employee has not previously been trained.
• Whenever there are deviations from the permit space entry procedures required by this
program or that there are inadequacies in the employee's knowledge or use of these
procedures.

The training will establish employee proficiency in the duties required by this program through
testing and will introduce new or revised procedures, as necessary, for compliance with this
program.

The Company Safety Manager will certify through recordkeeping that the employee training and
testing required by this program has been accomplished. The certification will contain each
employee's name, the signatures or initials of the trainers, and the dates of training. The certification
will be available for inspection by employees and their authorized representatives. A certificate of
completion will be issued by the Company Safety Manager to the employees upon successful
completion of the training program.

Reference:
Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations 2007

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HOT WORK PERMIT

Hot work operations include tasks such as welding, brazing, torch cutting, grinding, and torch soldering.
These operations create heat, sparks and hot slag that have the potential to ignite flammable and combustible
materials in the area surrounding hot work activities. The United States averages 12,630 hot work fires,
$308.9 million in property damages and 31 deaths per year.

Most hot work permits are written using the OSHA regulations and NFPA recommendations as guidelines.
But, first we need to see who is involved in the hot work permit process, then

Who Is Involved in the Hot Work Permit Process?

Department Managers - oversee the Hot Work Permit program for hot work operations under their
supervision. Supervisors are responsible for designating employees as Permit Authorizing Individuals
(PAI), who will issue Hot Work Permits. Any employee who has successfully completed hot work safety
training may be a PAI. Hot Work Operators are allowed to be PAI, but they are not allowed to issue their
own Hot Work Permits.

Permit Authorizing Individual - inspects hot work sites prior to the start of hot work operations using the
checklist found on the Hot Work Permit Form. When a fire watch is required, the PAI will designate an
employee to serve as Fire Watch. Once all requirements on the form have been satisfied and the form is
signed by a PAI, the document becomes a Hot Work Permit and must be posted in the area where hot
work is to be performed.

Hot Work Operators – are employees who perform hot work operations. A HWO must always obtain a
Hot Work Permit before beginning hot work.

Fire Watch – is posted to monitor the safety of hot work operations and watch for fires. Fire Watches are
posted by a PAI if the situation requires one, during hot work, and for at least 30 minutes after work has
been completed. Any employee who has successfully completed hot work safety training can serve as
the Fire Watch. See page 6 for information regarding when a Fire Watch is required.

What is the Process for Obtaining a Hot Work Permit?

1- a hot work operator determines a need for hot work.
2- hot work operator ensures the area around hot work activities is in compliance with the safety
requirements of the hot work permit.
3- hot work operator contacts a permit authorizing individual.
4- permit authorizing individual inspects the hot wok site and completes the hot work permit form.
5- permit authorizing individual posts a fire watch.
6- once all permit safety guidelines are satisfied, the permit authorizing individual signs and posts the
permit
7- hot work operators can then begin hot work

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What Safety Measures are Required by the Hot Work Permit?

• Thirty-five (35) foot rule:
o all flammable and combustible materials within 35 feet radius of hot work area removed.
o when flammable and/or combustible materials can not be removed, they must be covered with a
flame resistant tarps and a fire watch posted.
o floors and surfaces within 35-feet radius of the hot work area must be swept free of combustible
dust and debris.
o all openings or cracks in the walls, floors, or ducts that are potential travel passages for sparks,
heat and flames must be covered.

• Fire Detection and Suppression

o a fire extinguisher must be readily available and accessible
o entire building smoke detection and alarm systems can not be shut down; instead smoke detectors
in the area of hot work may be covered for the duration of hot work to prevent false alarms.
o automatic sprinkler systems may not be shut down to perform hot work; instead, individual
sprinkler heads in the area of hot work may be covered with a wet rag to prevent accidental
activation.

• Fire Watch
o posted by permit authorizing individual,
o trained in portable fire extinguisher usage,
o assigned no other duties, while performing the duties of fire watch, and
o remains for 30 minutes upon completion of hot work activities.

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Sample Hot Work Permit

Date: _____________________________ Building ____________________________________

Location _______________________________________________________________________________

Description of Hot Work __________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Name of Hot Work Operator _______________________________________________________________

Is Fire Watch Required? ___Yes ___No

Permit Checklist:
___ Flammable and combustible materials within a 35-foot radius of hot work have been removed or covered
with fire retardant tarps or metal shields.

___ All floors and surfaces within a 35-foot radius of the hot work area have been swept free of combustible
dust or debris.

___ Any openings or cracks in the walls, floors, or ducts that are potential travel passages for sparks, heat
and flames have been covered.

___ An operable fire extinguisher is nearby and accessible.

___ Sprinkler heads that could be activated by hot work have been covered with a wet rag.

___ Smoke detectors in the area of hot work have been covered to prevent false alarms.

___ A Fire Watch has been posted, if it is required, during hot work operations and for 30 minutes after work
has been completed.

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Designated Hot Work Room

A designated hot work room is a permanent location designed for hot work (welding, cutting and
brazing). These rooms do not require a permit to perform hot work. However, for a room to receive such
designation it must:
• It must be of noncombustible fire-resistive construction, essentially free of combustible and
flammable contents.
• It must be suitably segregated from adjacent areas.
• It must be equipped with fire extinguishers.
• It must be inspected and approved by the Safety Manager

Operations Not Requiring a Hot Work Permit

All operations that produce a flame, sparks, hot slag or enough heat to ignite combustible materials should
be considered hot work with a few exceptions. The following operations generally do not require a Hot
Work Permit:
• Bunsen burners in laboratories
• Fixed grinding wheels
• Electric soldering irons

Situations Where Hot Work Shall Not Be Permitted

• In sprinklered buildings where the entire sprinkler system is impaired.
• When an entire building fire detection system is shut down.
• In the presence of explosive atmospheres, where mixtures of flammable gases, vapors, liquids or
dusts may exist.
• In tanks, drums or other containers and equipment that contain or previously contained materials
that could create explosive atmospheres.

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Welding – Hazard Alert – Construction Safety Council

Welding produces metal fumes and gases that can make you sick. The hazard depends on:
 The welding method (such as MIG, TIG, or stick)
 What the welding rod (electrode) is made of
 Filler metals and base metals (such as mild steel and stainless steel)
 Paints and other coatings on the metals being welded
 Ventilation.

The Hazards of Welding:

 Confined Spaces
o Insufficient ventilation, toxic fumes and gases can be stronger.
o Shielding gases, like argon, displace oxygen – resulting in oxygen deprivation.

 Metals
o Stainless steel contai8ns nickel and chromium, which can cause asthma.
o Nickel and chromium 6 is a carcinogen (causes cancer)
o Chromium can cause sinus problems and “hole” between the nostrils.
o Carbon steel contains more manganese than some other metals do, manganese is known to cause
Parkinson’s disease (crippling the nervous and muscular systems).
o Zinc in galvanized metal or in paint can cause metal fume fever (flu like symptoms that generally
disappear after a couple of hours once exposure ends).

 Coatings and Residues

o Lead (paint) can cause lead poisoning (headaches, sore muscles and joints, nausea, stomach
cramps, irritability, memory loss, anemia, and kidney and nervous system damage)
o Cadmium (paint and fillers) can cause kidney problems and cancer.
o Other coatings may contain isocyanates, which can cause asthma.

 Solvents
o Welding through or near some (chlorinated) solvents can produce phosgene, a poisonous gas,
which can cause fluid to build in the lungs (the fluid build-up may not be noticed until hours after
the welding operation is complete).

 Gases
o Carbon dioxide used for shielding, will produce carbon monoxide (deadly gas).
o Carbon monoxide may also form during oxyacetylene welding.
o Welding arc can form ozone and nitrogen oxides from the air (MIG and TIG welding make the
most ozone – especially when aluminum is welded) – these fumes irritate the eyes, ears, nose,
throat, and lungs.
o Some nitrogen oxides can cause fluid build-up in the lungs.

Protecting Yourself
 Check the Material Safety Data Sheet for all metal, paints, fluxes, degreasers, and rods used during welding
to see if they emit gases, fumes, and vapors.
 Remove paints and solvents before welding, cutting or brazing (ensure even the residue has been removed.
 Use welding rods that produce a low fume – 90% of the fume can come from the rod.
 Monitor the air in a confined space at all times.
 Ensure maximum ventilation when welding, cutting or brazing operations occur.
 Keep your face far from the welding plume.
 If you can not ventilate, use a respirator

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EXCAVATIONS

The primary hazard of trenching and excavation is employee injury from collapse. Soil analysis is important in order
to determine appropriate sloping, benching, and shoring. Additional hazards include working with heavy machinery;
manual handling of materials; working in proximity to traffic; electrical hazards from overhead and underground
power-lines; and underground utilities, such as natural gas.

Excavation Program
Purpose

To assure the safety of employees who work in or around excavations as part of their job duties.

Responsibility

The Company Safety Manager and all Project Managers shall be responsible for ensuring all safeguards for
excavation projects are in place prior to any employee(s) working in or near an excavation. Furthermore,
each excavation shall have a company competent person assigned.

The designated excavation competent person for each project shall be responsible for the following:
Evaluating the excavation site and conducting inspections according to this program;
Evaluation and selection of protection methods; and
Ensuring compliance with this program.

Each employee has the responsibility to follow established procedures, enter an excavation only after
receiving training, and must demonstrate a complete understanding of the safe work practices to be
followed while working in an excavation. Employees must also wear required personal protective
equipment.

Guidelines
Hazards Associated with Excavations
o Surface Encumbrances – All equipment, materials, supplies, permanent installations (e.g. buildings,
roadways), trees, brush, boulders, and other objects at the surface that could present a hazard to
employees working in the excavation must be removed or supported, as necessary, to protect employees.

o Underground Installations – The location of sewer, telephone, fuel, electric, and water lines as well as
any other underground installations that may be encountered during excavation work must be located and
marked prior to opening the excavation. Arrangements must be made as necessary by the Competent
Person with the appropriate utility agency for the protection, removal, shutdown, or relocation of
underground installations. – If it is not possible to establish the exact location of underground
installations, the work may proceed with caution provided detection equipment or other safe and
acceptable means (e.g. using hand tools) are used to locate the utility as the excavation is opened and
each underground installation is approached. – Excavation work will be conducted in a manner that does
not endanger underground installations or employees engaged in the work. Utilities left in place must be
protected by barricades, shoring, suspension, or other means as necessary to protect employees.

o Access and Egress – Stairs, ladders, or ramps must be provided where employees are required to enter
trench excavations four feet or more in depth. Stairs, ladders, and ramps, where used, will be in
accordance with the Virginia Tech Walking and Working Surfaces Program. The maximum distance of
travel in an excavation to a means of egress shall not exceed 25 feet.

o Vehicular Traffic – Employees exposed to vehicular traffic must be provided with, and will wear,
warning vests or other suitable garments marked with or made of reflectorized or high-visibility material.
Warning vests worn by flagmen must be red or orange and be of reflectorized material if worn during
night work.

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o Falling Loads – No employee will be permitted underneath loads handled by lifting or digging
equipment. Employees will be required to stand away from any vehicle being loaded or unloaded.
Vehicle operators may remain in the cabs of vehicles being loaded or unloaded when the vehicle
provides adequate protection for the operator during loading and unloading operations.

o Mobile Equipment – When mobile equipment is operated adjacent to the edge of an excavation, a
warning system will be used when the operator does not have a clear and direct view of the edge of the
excavation. The warning system must consist of barricades, hand or mechanical signals, or stop logs. If
possible, the surface grade will slope away from the excavation.

o Hazardous Atmospheres – Atmospheric testing must be conducted in excavations over four feet deep
where hazardous atmospheres could reasonably be expected to exist (e.g. landfill areas, near hazardous
substance storage, gas pipelines). – Adequate precautions will be taken to prevent employee exposure to
atmospheres containing less than 19.5 percent oxygen or other hazardous atmospheres. These
precautions include providing appropriate respiratory protection or forced ventilation. Forced ventilation
or other effective means will be used to prevent exposure to an atmosphere containing a flammable gas in
excess of 10 percent of the lower flammable limit. Where needed, respiratory protection will be used in
accordance with the Virginia Tech Respiratory Protection Program. – Atmospheric monitoring will be
performed using a properly calibrated direct reading instrument with audible and visual alarms.
Monitoring will be continuous where controls are used to reduce the level of atmospheric contaminants.
Monitors will be maintained and calibrated in accordance with manufacturer’s specifications.

o Water Accumulation – Employees will not work in excavations that contain or are accumulating water
unless precautions have been taken to protect employees from hazards posed by water accumulation.
The precautions taken could include, for example, special support or shield systems to protect from cave-
ins, water removal to control the level of accumulating water, or use of safety harnesses and lifelines. – If
water is controlled or prevented from accumulating by the use of water removal equipment, the water
removal equipment and operation must be monitored by a person trained in the use of the equipment. – If
excavation work interrupts the natural drainage of surface water (such as streams), diversion ditches,
dikes, or other suitable means will be used to prevent surface water from entering the excavation.
Precautions will also be taken to provide adequate drainage of the area adjacent to the excavation.

o Adjacent Structures – Support systems (such as shoring, bracing, or underpinning) will be used to assure
the stability of structures and the protection of employees where excavation operations could affect the
stability of adjoining buildings, walls, or other structures. – Excavation below the level of the base or
footing of any foundation or retaining wall that could be reasonably expected to pose a hazard to
employees will not be permitted except when:
A support system, such as underpinning, is provided to ensure the safety of employees and
the stability of the structure; or
The excavation is in stable rock; or
A registered professional engineer has approved the determination that the structure is
sufficiently removed from the excavation so as to be unaffected by the excavation activity;
or
A registered professional engineer has approved the determination that such excavation
work will not pose a hazard to employees.

Sidewalks, pavements and appurtenant structures will not be undermined unless a support system or
other method of protection is provided to protect employees from the possible collapse of such
structures.

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o Loose Rock or Soil – Adequate protection must be provided to protect employees from loose rock
or soil that could pose a hazard by falling or rolling from an excavation face. Such protection will
consist of:
Scaling to remove loose material;
Installation of protective barricades, such as wire mesh or timber, at appropriate intervals
on the face of the slope to stop and contain falling material; or
Benching sufficient to contain falling material.
Excavation personnel will not be permitted to work above one another where the danger of
falling rock or earth exists.
Employees must be protected from excavated materials, equipment or other materials that
could pose a hazard by falling or rolling into excavations.
Protection will be provided by keeping such materials or equipment at least 2 feet from the
edge of excavations, by the use of restraining devices that are sufficient to prevent materials
or equipment from falling or rolling into excavations, or by a combination of both if
necessary.
Materials and equipment may, as determined by the Project Manager, need to be stored
further than 2 feet from the edge of the excavation if a hazardous loading condition is
created on the face of the excavation.
Materials piled, grouped or stacked near the edge of an excavation must be stable and self-
supporting.

o Falling Into
Barricades, walkways, lighting and posting must be provided as necessary prior to the start
of excavation operations.
Guardrails, fences, or barricades must be provided on excavations adjacent to walkways,
driveways, and other pedestrian or vehicle thoroughfares. Warning lights or other
illumination must be maintained as necessary for the safety of the public and employees
from sunset to sunrise.
Wells, holes, pits, shafts, and all similar excavations must be effectively barricaded or
covered and posted as necessary to prevent unauthorized access. All temporary excavations
of this type will be backfilled as soon as possible.
Walkways or bridges protected by standard guardrails must be provided where employees
and the general public are permitted to cross over excavations. Where workers in the
excavation may pass under these walkways or bridges, a standard guardrail and toeboard
must be used.

General Requirements
Employees who work in or around excavations must be provided training.
The excavation or trench must either be sloped or supported.
Traffic around the site must be controlled, and barricades, signs, and/or flag persons used as
needed to control both vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Utilities on the site must be protected and suitable precautions taken if any utility will be
disturbed by the work.
Employees must use required personal protective equipment (PPE).

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Inspections of Excavation Sites

The departmental competent person will conduct daily inspections of excavations, adjacent areas,
and protective systems for evidence of a situation that could result in possible cave-ins, failure of
protective systems, hazardous atmospheres, or other hazardous conditions. An inspection will be
conducted by the competent person prior to the start of work and as needed throughout the shift.
Inspections shall also be made after each hazard-changing event (e.g. rainstorm). These inspections
are required when the excavation will be or is occupied by employees.

Where the competent person finds evidence of a situation that could result in a possible cave-in,
failure of protective systems, hazardous atmosphere, or other hazardous conditions, exposed
employees shall be removed from the hazardous area until precautions have been taken to assure
their safety.
The competent person shall maintain a written log of all inspections conducted. This log shall
include the date, work site location, results of the inspection, and a summary of any action taken to
correct existing hazards.

Employee Protection in Excavation Sites

Each employee in an excavation shall be protected from cave-ins by using either an adequate sloping
and benching system or an adequate support or protective system – unless excavation is made in
stable rock; or excavation is less than 4 feet in depth where examination of the ground by a
competent person provides no indication of a potential cave-in.

Protective systems shall be capable of resisting all loads that could reasonably be expected to be
applied to the system.

Sloping and Benching

The slope and configuration of sloping and benching systems shall be selected and constructed by
the Competent Person. Employees shall not be permitted to work above other employees on the
faces of sloped or benched systems except when employees at the lower levels are protected from
the hazard of falling, rolling, or sliding material or equipment. Further details for Sloping and
Benching are cover in this section.
Shield Systems
o Shield systems shall not be subjected to loads that are greater than those they were designed
to withstand.
o Shields shall be installed in a manner that will restrict lateral or other hazardous movement of
the shield that could occur during cave-in or unexpected soil movement.
o Employees shall be protected from the hazard of cave-ins when entering or exiting the areas
protected by shields.
o Employees shall not be allowed in shields when shields are being installed, removed, or
moved vertically.
o In trench excavations, excavation of material to a level no greater than 2 feet below the
bottom of the shield system is allowed, but only if the system is designed to resist the forces
calculated for the full depth of the trench. There shall be no indications while the trench is
open of a possible loss of soil from behind or below the bottom of the shield system.

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 Excavations 15-5

Materials and Equipment

o Materials and equipment used for protective systems shall be free from damage or defects.
o Manufactured materials and equipment used for protective systems shall be used and
maintained in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer.
o When material or equipment used for protective systems are damaged, the Competent
Person shall ensure that these systems are examined by a competent person to evaluate
its suitability for continued use. If the competent person can not assure the material or
equipment is able to support the intended loads or is otherwise suitable for safe use, then
such material or equipment shall be removed from service. These materials or equipment
shall be evaluated and approved by a registered professional engineer before being
returned to service.

Installation and Removal of Support

o Members of support systems shall be securely connected together to prevent sliding,
falling, kickouts, or other potential hazards.
o Support systems shall be installed and removed in a manner that protects employees
from cave-ins, structural collapses, or from being struck by members of the support
system.
o Individual members of support systems shall not be subjected to loads exceeding those
which those members were designed to support.
o Before temporary removal of individual support members begins, additional precautions
shall be taken as directed by the Competent Person to ensure the safety of employees.
These precautions could include, for example, the installation other structural members
to carry the loads imposed on the support system.
o Removal of support systems shall begin at, and progress from, the bottom of the
excavation. Members shall be released slowly. If there is any indication of possible
failure of the remaining members of the structure or possible cave-in of the sides of the
excavation the work shall be halted until it can be examined by the Project Manager.
o Backfilling shall progress together with the removal of support systems.

Sloping and Benching Systems

The slope and configuration of sloping and benching systems must be selected and
constructed by the Competent Person in accordance with one of the following:

Option 1 – Allowable configurations and slopes.

Excavations must be sloped at an angle not steeper than one and one-half horizontal to one
vertical (34 degrees measured from the horizontal), unless the Competent Person uses one
of the other options listed below. The slopes used must be excavated in accordance with the
slopes shown for Type C soil in Appendix C2 – Sloping and Benching.

Option 2 – Determination of slopes and configurations.

Maximum allowable slopes, and allowable configurations for sloping and benching
systems, must meet the requirements of Appendix C2 – Sloping and Benching and
Appendix C3 – Soil Classification.

Option 3 – Designs using other tabulated data.

The design of sloping or benching systems may be selected from, and must be constructed
in accordance with, other tabulated data, such as tables and charts. The tabulated data used
must be in written form and include all of the following:
Identification of the factors that affect the selection of a sloping or benching system;
Identification of the limits of use of the data, including the maximum height and the
angle of the slopes determined to be safe;
Other information needed by the user to make correct selection of a protective
system.

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Excavations Made in Type A Soil

All simple slope excavations 20 feet or less in depth will

have a maximum allowable slope of ¾:1.

All benched excavations 20 feet or less in depth will have

a maximum allowable slope of ¾ to 1 and maximum
bench dimensions as indicated.

All excavations 8 feet or less in depth which have

unsupported vertically sided lower portions will have a
maximum vertical side of 3 ½ feet.

All excavations more than 8 feet but not more than 12 feet
in depth with unsupported vertically sided lower portions
will have a maximum allowable slope of 1:1 and a
maximum vertical side of 3 ½ feet.

All excavations 20 feet or less in depth which have

vertically sided lower portions that are supported or
shielded will have a maximum allowable slope of ¾:1.
The support or shield system must extend at least 18
inches above the top of the vertical side.

All other simple slope, compound slope, and vertically sided lower portion excavations will be in accordance
with the other options described in Appendix C1 – Sloping and Benching Systems.

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 Excavations 15-7

Excavations Made in Type B Soil

All simple slope excavations 20 feet or less in depth will

have a maximum allowable slope of 1:1.

All benched excavations 20 feet or less in depth will have

a maximum allowable slope of 1:1 and maximum bench
dimensions as indicated.

All excavations 20 feet or less in depth which have

vertically sided lower portions will be shielded or
supported to a height at least 18 inches above the top of
the vertical side. All such excavations will have a
maximum allowable slope of 1:1.

All other sloped excavations must be in accordance with the other options permitted in Appendix C1 –
Sloping and Benching Systems.
Excavations Made in Type C Soil

All simple slope excavations 20 feet or less in depth will

have a maximum allowable slope of 1 ½:1.

All excavations 20 feet or less in depth which have

vertically sided lower portions will be shielded or
supported to a height at least 18 inches above the top of
the vertical side. All such excavations will have a
maximum allowable slope of 1 ½:1.

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Excavations Made in Layered Soils

All excavations 20 feet or less in depth made in layered soils will have a maximum allowable slope for each
layer as set forth below.

Type B over Type A

Type C over Type A

Type C over Type B

Type A over Type B

Type A over Type C

Type B over Type C

All other sloped excavations must be in accordance with the other options described in Appendix C1 –
Sloping and Benching Systems.

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Soil Classification
This segment describes a method of classifying soil and rock deposits based on site and
environmental conditions, and on the structure and composition of the earth deposits. This
segment contains definitions, sets forth requirements, and describes acceptable visual and
manual tests for use in classifying soils.

Definitions for Soil Classification

• Cemented soil means a soil in which the particles are held together by a chemical agent,
such as calcium carbonate, such that a hand-size sample cannot be crushed into powder
or individual soil particles by finger pressure.
• Cohesive soil means clay (fine grained soil), or soil with a high clay content, which has
cohesive strength. Cohesive soil does not crumble, can be excavated with vertical
sideslopes, and is plastic when moist. Cohesive soil is hard to break up when dry, and
exhibits significant cohesion when submerged. Cohesive soils include clayey silt, sandy
clay, silty clay, clay and organic clay.
• Dry soil means soil that does not exhibit visible signs of moisture content.
• Fissured means a soil material that has a tendency to break along definite planes of
fracture with little resistance, or a material that exhibits open cracks, such as tension
cracks, in an exposed surface.
• Granular soil means gravel, sand, or silt (coarse grained soil) with little or no clay
content. Granular soil has no cohesive strength. Some moist granular soils exhibit
apparent cohesion. Granular soil cannot be molded when moist and crumbles easily
when dry.
• Layered system means two or more distinctly different soil or rock types arranged in
layers. Micaceous seams or weakened planes in rock or shale are considered layered.
• Moist soil means a condition in which a soil looks and feels damp. Moist cohesive soil
can easily be shaped into a ball and rolled into small diameter threads before crumbling.
Moist granular soil that contains some cohesive material will exhibit signs of cohesion
between particles.
• Plastic means a property of a soil which allows the soil to be deformed or molded
without cracking, or appreciable volume change.
• Saturated soil means a soil in which the voids are filled with water. Saturation does not
require flow. Saturation, or near saturation, is necessary for the proper use of
instruments such as a pocket penetrometer or sheer vane.
• Soil classification system means, for the purpose of this subpart, a method of
categorizing soil and rock deposits in a hierarchy of Stable Rock, Type A, Type B, and
Type C, in decreasing order of stability. The categories are determined based on an
analysis of the properties and performance characteristics of the deposits and the
characteristics of the deposits and the environmental conditions of exposure.
• Stable rock means natural solid mineral matter that can be excavated with vertical sides
and remain intact while exposed.
• Submerged soil means soil which is underwater or is free seeping.

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• Type A means cohesive soils with an unconfined, compressive strength of 1.5 ton per
square foot (tsf) (144 kPa) or greater. Examples of cohesive soils are: clay, silty clay,
sandy clay, clay loam and, in some cases, silty clay loam and sandy clay loam. Cemented
soils such as caliche and hardpan are also considered Type A. However, no soil is Type A
if:
The soil is fissured; or
The soil is subject to vibration from heavy traffic, pile driving, or similar effects; or
The soil has been previously disturbed; or
The soil is part of a sloped, layered system where the layers dip into the excavation
on a slope of four horizontal to one vertical (4H:1V) or greater; or
The material is subject to other factors that would require it to be classified as a less
stable material.
Type B means cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength greater than
0.5 tsf (48 kPa) but less than 1.5 tsf (144 kPa); or granular cohesionless soils
including: angular gravel (similar to crushed rock), silt, silt loam, sandy loam and, in
some cases, silty clay loam and sandy clay loam.
Previously disturbed soils except those which would otherwise be classed as Type C
soil.
Soil that meets the unconfined compressive strength or cementation requirements for
Type A, but is fissured or subject to vibration; or
Dry rock that is not stable; or
Material that is part of a sloped, layered system where the layers dip into the
excavation on a slope less steep than four horizontal to one vertical (4H:1V), but
only if the material would otherwise be classified as Type B.
Type C means cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength of 0.5 tsf (48
kPa) or less; or
granular soils including gravel, sand, and loamy sand;
submerged soil or soil from which water is freely seeping;
submerged rock that is not stable, or
material in a sloped, layered system where the layers dip into the excavation or a
slope of four horizontal to one vertical (4H:1V) or steeper.
Unconfined compressive strength means the load per unit area at which a soil will
fail in compression. It can be determined by laboratory testing, or estimated in the
field using a pocket penetrometer, by thumb penetration tests, and other methods.
• Wet soil means soil that contains significantly more moisture than moist soil, but in such a
range of values that cohesive material will slump or begin to flow when vibrated. Granular
material that would exhibit cohesive properties when moist will lose those cohesive
properties when wet.

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Soil Classification Requirements:

• Classification of soil and rock deposits – Each soil and rock deposit shall be classified by a
competent person as Stable Rock, Type A, Type B, or Type C in accordance with the
definitions set forth in this segment.

• Basis of classification – The classification of the deposits shall be made based on the
results of at least one visual and at least one manual analysis. Such analyses shall be
conducted by a competent person using tests described below, or in other recognized
methods of soil classification and testing.

• Visual and manual analyses – The visual and manual analyses, such as those noted as being
acceptable in this appendix, shall be designed and conducted to provide sufficient
quantitative and qualitative information as may be necessary to identify properly the
properties, factors, and conditions affecting the classification of the deposits.

• Layered systems – In a layered system, the system shall be classified in accordance with its
weakest layer. However, each layer may be classified individually where a more stable
layer lies under a less stable layer.

• Reclassification – If, after classifying a deposit, the properties, factors, or conditions

affecting its classification change in any way, the changes shall be evaluated by a
competent person. The deposit shall be reclassified as necessary to reflect the changed
circumstances.

Visual Tests
Visual analysis is conducted to determine qualitative information regarding the excavation
site in general, the soil adjacent to the excavation, the soil forming the sides of the open
excavation, and the soil taken as samples from excavated material.
o Observe samples of soil that are excavated and soil in the sides of the excavation.
Estimate the range of particle sizes and the relative amounts of the particle sizes. Soil
that is primarily composed of fine-grained material is cohesive material. Soil composed
primarily of coarse-grained sand or gravel is granular material.
o Observe soil as it is excavated. Soil that remains in clumps when excavated is cohesive.
Soil that breaks up easily and does not stay in clumps is granular.
o Observe the side of the opened excavation and the surface area adjacent to the
excavation. Crack-like openings such as tension cracks could indicate fissured material.
If chunks of soil spall off a vertical side, the soil could be fissured. Small spalls are
evidence of moving ground and are indications of potentially hazardous situations.
o Observe the area adjacent to the excavation and the excavation itself for evidence of
existing utility and other underground structures, and to identify previously disturbed
soil.
o Observed the opened side of the excavation to identify layered systems. Examine
layered systems to identify if the layers slope toward the excavation. Estimate the degree
of slope of the layers.
o Observe the area adjacent to the excavation and the sides of the opened excavation for
evidence of surface water, water seeping from the sides of the excavation, or the location
of the level of the water table.
o Observe the area adjacent to the excavation and the area within the excavation for
sources of vibration that may affect the stability of the excavation face.

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Manual Tests
Manual analysis of soil samples is conducted to determine quantitative as well as qualitative
properties of soil and to provide more information in order to classify soil properly.

o Plasticity. Mold a moist or wet sample of soil into a ball and attempt to roll it into
threads as thin as 1/8-inch in diameter. Cohesive material can be successfully rolled into
threads without crumbling. For example, if at least a two inch (50 mm) length of 1/8-
inch thread can be held on one end without tearing, the soil is cohesive.
o Dry strength. If the soil is dry and crumbles on its own or with moderate pressure into
individual grains or fine powder, it is granular (any combination of gravel, sand, or silt).
If the soil is dry and falls into clumps which break up into smaller clumps, but the
smaller clumps can only be broken up with difficulty, it may be clay in any combination
with gravel, sand or silt. If the dry soil breaks into clumps which do not break up into
small clumps and which can only be broken with difficulty, and there is no visual
indication the soil is fissured, the soil may be considered unfissured.
o Thumb penetration. The thumb penetration test can be used to estimate the unconfined
compressive strength of cohesive soils. (based on the thumb penetration test described in
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard designation D2488 –
“Standard Recommended Practice for Description of Soils (Visual – Manual
Procedure).”) Type A soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 1.5 tsf can be
readily indented by the thumb; however, they can be penetrated by the thumb only with
very great effort. Type C soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 0.5 tsf can be
easily penetrated several inches by the thumb, and can be molded by light finger
pressure. This test should be conducted on an undisturbed soil sample, such as a large
clump of spoil, as soon as practicable after excavation to keep to a minimum the effects
of exposure to drying influences. If the excavation is later exposed to wetting influences
(rain, flooding), the classification of the soil must be changed accordingly.
o Other strength tests. Estimates of unconfined compressive strength of soils can also be
obtained by use of a pocket penetrometer or by using a hand-operated shearvane.
o Drying test. The basic purpose of the drying test is to differentiate between cohesive
material with fissures, unfissured cohesive material, and granular material. The
procedure for the drying test involves drying a sample of soil that is approximately one
inch thick (2.54 cm) and six inches (15.24 cm) in diameter until it is thoroughly dry:
If the sample develops cracks as it dries, significant fissures are indicated.
Samples that dry without cracking are to be broken by hand. If considerable force is
necessary to break a sample, the soil has significant cohesive material content. The soil
can be classified as an unfissured cohesive material and the unconfined compressive
strength should be determined.
If a sample breaks easily by hand, it is either a fissured cohesive material or a granular
material. To distinguish between the two, pulverize the dried clumps of the sample by
hand or by stepping on them. If the clumps do not pulverize easily, the material is
cohesive with fissures. If they pulverize easily into very small fragments, the material is
granular.

Reference:
Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations 2007

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Excavation Competent Person Evaluation

This is a check list which has been devised to help/assist the employer determine if the person he/she has designated as
competent person is competent within the description and intent of the Excavation – Department of Labor and Industries;
State of Washington, USA.

Employee Name _____________________________________________ Employee Position _____________________________

Date of Evaluation by Employer ___________________ Job Site Name ________________________________
Length of time with employer ____________________ Length of time in excavation and trenching _________
Training: (does the designated individual have training in) Knowledge: (does the individual have knowledge about)
Soil classification? Yes No Soil classification? Yes No
Use of protective systems? Yes No Use of protective systems? Yes No
Requirements of the standard? Yes No Requirements of the standard? Yes No
Authority: (does the individual have authority to)
Take prompt corrective measures to eliminate existing and predictable hazards? Yes No
Stop work until hazards are corrected or eliminated or controlled and remove
employees from the hazardous area until proper systems are in place? Yes No

Inspections:
Has the competent person conducted a daily inspection of the excavation? Yes No
Of adjacent areas and protective systems Yes No
Were inspections conducted prior to start of work? Yes No
As needed during work & after rainstorms or other hazard occurrences? Yes No
Is there water in the trench? Yes No
Is water removal equipment being monitored to insure safe operations? Yes No
Has the soils analysis been verified allowing for the influence of water? Yes No
Is there evidence of failure of any portion of the protective systems? Yes No
Is damage evident to structural members of the protective systems? Yes No
If so, has the equipment been evaluated for suitability of use? Yes No
Has the employer selected a protective system which relies on soils classification? Yes No
What type of soils have been identified? ________________________________________________________________________
What visual tests were performed? ____________________________________________________________________________
What manual test(s) were performed? _________________________________________________________________________
Who performed the test(s)? _________________________________________________________________________________
Have the conditions changed since the classification was made? Yes No
Has the proper soils classification been made? Yes No
If yes, does the protective system selected comply or exceed the requirements? Yes No
Are utilities involved? Yes No
If yes, are they properly protected? Yes No
Are ramps involved? Yes No
If yes, are they constructed according to standards? Yes No
Are confined spaces involved? Yes No
If yes, has a competent person evaluated the environment in question? Yes No
Comments:
Do you consider the individual to be competent within the requirements of the Fall Protection Standard? Yes No
If Not, Why? ______________________________________________________________________________________________

Employer/Representative Signature ___________________________________________________________________________

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 Excavations 15-14

Safe Work in Trenches – Hazard Alert – Construction Safety Council

Most trenches are dug to lay pipe or place footings. It is easy to try to work fast in a trench and get out
without taking safety steps – don’t. Each year, more than 40 construction workers are killed in trenches.

The Hazards
 A trench is a confined space with special programs.
 Most deaths in trenches are from cave-ins.
 Other hazards are falls, electrocution, and being struck by falling objects (or a backhoe).

Protecting Yourself
 Follow the guidance of the designated competent person – the contractor digging the trench is
responsible for appointing someone knowledgeable about trenches as the competent person – it is
the competent person’s responsibility to check the trench everyday before anyone gets in the trench
to ensure it is safe – trenches shall also be checked following an rain-storm or any other activities
that may damage the integrity of the trench walls.
 Ensure all equipment to be used in the trench is in good working order before placing in the trench –
especially water pumps and ventilators if needed.
 Ensure there is a ladder for entering and exiting within 25 feet of you at all times.
 If the trench is classified as a confined space – be sure that the atmospheric testing (oxygen,
flammable/combustible, toxicity) has been conducted prior to entry.
 Keep the spoil pile at least two-feet from the edge of the trench.
Never enter a trench that has caved-in or is starting to cave-in – not even to rescue others.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Demolition and Explosives 16-1

DEMONLITION and EXPLOSIVES

Every project involves some form of demolition. And without a plan and a competent person to led the
demolition project untold amounts of money are lost due to equipment damage and lost production time.
Explosives are often a commonly used prior to demolition work – such as to bring a building down or in road
work to bring up rock. Each of these bring with them a special need for safety – as demolition occurs in
buildings that are structural unsound and explosives can send debris great distances.

DEMOLITION

Preparatory Operations
Prior to the start of any demolition operations, an engineering survey shall be made, by a competent
person, of the structure to determine the condition of the framing, floors, and walls, and possibility
of unplanned collapse of any portion of the structure. Furthermore, any adjacent structure where
workers may be exposed shall also be similarly checked.

A demolition plan shall than be developed and put in writing, this plan shall remain at the jobsite at
all times, so that it may be available for reference during the demolition operations.

Guidelines during Manual Demolition

 All power to the structure shall be turned off and disconnected, unless indicated on the
demolition plan as being needed and then extreme care shall be taken to ensure all workers are
made aware of what power is remaining and where it is located.

 Only approved access to the structure being demolished shall be used, other access points such
as stairways, passageways and ladders shall be closed off. The approved access points shall be
inspected periodically to ensure they are structural sound, have sufficient illumination and clean
of debris at all times.

 All openings in the floor, which workers have the potential for exposure to, shall be covered.
Holes used for dropping debris to the next level, shall be guarded. The area below for the
accumulation of dropped debris shall also be guarded to ensure workers do not accidental enter
the designed area of accumulation for debris.

 Chutes shall be used for the disposal of material outside the exterior walls of the structure and
the area around the discharge of the chute shall be of sufficient space to accommodate the
debris and shall be secured.

 Workers shall not be permitted to work on the top of a wall when weather conditions constitute
a hazard.

 Wall removal shall only occur when the wall section to be removed is properly secured and
braced.

 Structural support beams in the wall or floor shall not cut or removed until all stories above
such a floor have been demolished and removed.

 The storage of waste materials and debris on any floor shall not exceed the allowable floor
loads.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Demolition and Explosives 16-2

Guidelines during Mechanical Demolition

 No workers shall be permitted in any area, which can be adversely affected by demolition
operations, when balling or clamming is being performed. Only those workers necessary for the
performance of the operations shall be permitted in this area at any other time.

 The weight of the demolition ball shall not exceed 50 percent of the crane’s rated load, based on
the length of the boom and the maximum angle of operation at which the demolition ball will be
used, or it shall not 3exceed 25 percent of the nominal breaking strength of the line by which it
is suspended, whichever results in a lesser value.

 The crane boom and loadline shall be as short as possible.

 The ball shall be attached to the loadline with a swivel-type connection to prevent twisting of
the loadline, and shall be attached by positive means in such manner that the weight cannot
become accidentally disconnected.

 When pulling over walls or portions thereof, all steel members affected shall have been
previously cut free.

 All roof cornices or other such ornamental stonework shall be removed prior to pulling walls
over.

 During demolition, continuing inspections by a competent person shall be made as the work
progresses to detect hazards resulting from weakened or deteriorated floors, or walls, or
loosened material. No worker shall be permitted to work where such hazards exist until they are
corrected by shoring, bracing or other effective means.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Demolition and Explosives 16-3

Pre-Demolition Environmental Checklist

State of Wisconsin DNR WA-651-03

Planning to demolish a building? Here is a handy checklist to help building owners and inspectors,
demolition contractors, consultants, subcontractors and others identify and address environmental issues in a
demolition project and find out how to properly handle any hazardous or problem materials.

Thoroughly inspect your project site before beginning any demolition. Carefully planning your
deconstruction project can save time, money and resources!

All projects will generate a large quantity and variety if materials that can be recycled or reused. Keeping
them separated and free of hazardous problems will make recycling easier and can significantly reduce
disposal costs.

Bear in mind that it's illegal to burn an unwanted building. The only exception is for a fire department
practice burn of a standing structure where the material that's illegal to burn has already been removed. See
further details under "Open Burning" below.

This document lists commonly-found building materials and products that may pose environmental or health
problems. It references specific regulations which must be addressed for many materials and points to sound
guidance on handling others. It is not intended to substitute for reading the rules and statutes and making
your own determination of how they apply to your demolition project.

The examples presented here do not represent an exhaustive listing of types of materials that may be required
to be removed from a building prior to deconstruction.

Asbestos
Asbestos is a known human carcinogen which can cause other serious health problems when disturbed and
inhaled. Commercial, industrial and residential structures commonly contain Asbestos Containing
Materials (ACM).

The disturbance of asbestos is regulated in part by Chapter NR 447, Wisconsin Administrative Code. Prior
to beginning a demolition or renovation project, the owner/operator of a structure is required by NR 447 to
have the structure inspected for the presence of asbestos by an asbestos inspector licensed by the WI
Department of Health and Family Services (DHFS). The DHFS maintains a list of licensed
inspectors for the public’s review. This inspection will determine the categories of asbestos present in the
structure. As a result, some categories of asbestos may be able to remain in place. Others will have to be
removed before the project is started.

Two different state agencies and three different state programs have authority over asbestos removal,
storage, transport and disposal in the State of Wisconsin.

1) The DHFS regulates asbestos training accreditation and certification for inspectors, management
planners, project designers, abatement workers and supervisors. The DHFS also requires prior notification
for all asbestos removals. Contact the DHFS Asbestos and Lead Section for more information about these
requirements.

2) The DNR Air Management Program regulates disturbance of regulated asbestos containing Pre-
Demolition Environmental Checklist Bureau of Waste Management 2 material, as determined by the
inspection. In the case of an asbestos removal that involves greater than 260 linear feet of pipe insulation or
160 square feet of any other regulated ACM, a notification of intent must be filed with the DNR.

For a demolition, a notification of intent must be filed with the DNR in all cases, regardless of the amount
of asbestos present. This notification must be postmarked at least 10 working days before the demolition or
removal will occur. For more information about these requirements, contact the DNR Asbestos
Coordinator.

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 Demolition and Explosives 16-4

The DNR Waste Management Program regulates generation, storage, transport and management of solid
and hazardous wastes, including any ACM and other construction and demolition materials. The following
checklist notes the various building components and the suspect types of ACM that a building might
contain. This list is by no means all-inclusive. All layers of materials, behind walls, ceiling spaces, etc.,
should be inspected.
o HVAC Systems: Duct, pipe and joint insulation (elbows/joints are often coated with asbestos
fiberglass insulation on the straight runs), forced air dampers, wall, floor and chimney penetrations,
lining and mortar, fire brick, fire-proofing materials (such as transite sheets or heavy paper), boiler
insulation, flexible fabric connectors, packing/gaskets and adhesives. paper backing,
mastic/adhesives (floor tile, carpet, etc.), grout and felt paper under hardwood floors.
o Electrical: Insulators, spark arrestors and transite panels in electrical boxes, wiring insulation,
ducts/conduits (transite pipe) and light fixtures.
o Interior Walls: Wall plaster, joint compound, patches, textured paint, other spray-applied materials,
transite wallboard and fire doors.
o Exterior Walls: Window putty/glazing, mortar, transite siding, asphalt shingles/siding, felt under
siding, stucco, paint (rare except in commercial applications, where it was usually applied as a very
thick, often silver-colored coating) and fire doors.
o Roofing: Asphalt shingles, tar-type coatings (often around vents, chimneys, etc.), transite shingles,
roofing felts (often under a layer of other material), flashings, mag-block type material under other
material. Check all flat roofs and multiple layers.
o Ceilings: Tiles (which may or may not be asbestos; also, asbestos debris from pipe insulation may
be laying on top of tiles), tile adhesives, textured paint, wall plaster, joint compound, patches, other
spray-applied materials and transite wallboard. Spaces above ceilings should also be checked.
o Plumbing: Pipe wrap, pipe joints, transite counter tops in bathroom, faucets/ packing gaskets and
adhesives.
o Flooring: All sizes of vinyl floor tile, sheet flooring, linoleum.
o Insulation (ceiling/wall): Blown-in, spray-applied and block.
o Miscellaneous: Fire curtains and blankets, laboratory tabletops, fume hood lining, blackboards and
fire-resistant clothing (gloves, hoods, aprons, etc.).

CFCs, Halons and Other Refrigerants

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and halons are manmade substances that damage the earth’s
protective ozone layer high in the atmosphere, allowing greater exposure to the sun’s dangerous ultraviolet
rays. They are known as ozone-depleting refrigerants. Increased skin cancer, eye cataracts, immune system
deficiencies and crop damage are some of their harmful effects. CFCs and HCFCs are commonly found in
refrigeration and air conditioning equipment. Halons are used in portable and installed fire control
equipment.

o Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Equipment

Under chapter NR 488, Wisconsin Administrative Code, ozone-depleting refrigerants may not be
released to the environment during salvaging or dismantling activities. Federal laws also prohibit
releases and also require recovery of these substances, as well as other refrigerants that are Pre-
Demolition Environmental Checklist Bureau of Waste Management 3 global warming gases or pose
other health or environmental problems. They must be properly recovered, using approved equipment
operated by qualified technicians. The entity recovering these refrigerants must be registered with the
DNR and supply documentation to whomever receives the scrapped equipment that the refrigerants
were properly removed.

o Air Conditioners, Vending Machines / Food Display Cases, Dehumidifiers, Refrigerators / Freezers /
Chillers, Heat Pumps, Water Fountains, Walk-In Refrigerated Coolers and Fire Extinguishers
Check both portable and installed fire suppression systems. Look for those containing halons. Do not
discharge halon fire extinguishers; intentionally releasing these substances is prohibited under federal
regulations. Halons and halon-containing
equipment must be recycled or disposed of in accordance with EPA standards. If you send
haloncontaining equipment offsite for disposal, it must be sent to a manufacturer, fire equipment

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 Demolition and Explosives 16-5

dealer or recycler operating in accordance with National Fire Protection Association standards
(NFPA10 and NFPA12A). Halons must be recovered by trained technicians.

Lead
Inhaling or swallowing lead can cause serious acute or chronic health effects to the brain and endocrine,
reproductive, and immune systems. Lead plumbing and lead-based paint are commonly found in many
older buildings. Although lead paint use was discontinued in 1978, many buildings have multiple layers of
paint and should be examined carefully. When recycling demolition debris, dispose of painted wood in a
landfill. Do not burn or chip wood containing lead paint or use it for landscaping.
o Lead Based Pain – woodworking, metal equipment, interior/exterior use
o Lead flashing molds and roof vests
o Lead pipes and solder
o Lead-Acid batteries: lighting, exit signs, security systems

Mercury
Mercury is a heavy, shiny, silvery-white poisonous metal that is a liquid at room temperature. Mercury can
be found in thermometers, barometers, thermostats, dental offices, blood-pressure devices, and fluorescent
and other types of light bulbs. Liquid mercury evaporates at room temperature and gives off harmful,
invisible, odorless vapors. Breathing these vapors causes the most harm to people, but mercury can also be
harmful when swallowed or when it contacts broken skin. Mercury is quite toxic: it causes birth defects
and works its way into the food chain. Women and children are most at risk from mercury poisoning,
which can cause brain and nerve damage resulting in impaired coordination, blurred vision, tremors,
irritability and memory loss.

Mercury is a fast-moving liquid that spreads quickly. Prompt containment and control of both the liquid
and its vapors is very important. If any mercury is spilled or released, you must report the spill
immediately by calling the DNR 24-hour Spills Hotline.

Do not remove mercury from a device such as a switch or thermostat. Keep the product intact as you
remove it and store it in a covered container in a manner that will prevent breakage, spillage, or release.
Label the container to assist proper handling and disposal. Most such devices can be shipped off to recycle
the mercury.

o Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning Systems and Appliances

Devices in this category control a variety of switch functions such as temperature, water
pressure, air pressure, on/off, and flow control. Check thermostats Pre-Demolition
Environmental Checklist Bureau of Waste Management 4 and any control associated with
air handling units for switches containing mercury.

o Thermostats, Aquastats, Pressurestats, Firestats, Manometers, Thermometers, Boilers, Furnaces,

Heaters & Tanks, Mercury Flame Sensors by pilot lights, Gauges, Float or Level Controls, Space
Heater Controls, Sump Pump Limit Switches, Electrical Systems, Load Meters, Phase Splitters,
Microwave Relays, Mercury Displacement Relays, and other industrial equipment and areas of
mercury concern.
Any control used for measurement of vacuum, pressure, fluid level, temperature, or flow rate
could contain mercury. Included are thermostats, thermometers, manometers, pressurestats, etc.
Other switches may have been used in sump pumps, water cleaning systems, pneumatic control
switches, old clocks and other areas.

o Switches for Lighting may Use Mercury Relays:

Look for any control associated with exterior or automated lighting systems, such as "silent" wall
switches.

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 Demolition and Explosives 16-6

o Specialty Buildings and Locations

Dairy barns, hospitals, clinics, laboratories, dental offices and schools. Mercury may be
found in sink traps and many other pieces of equipment and devices.

o Lighting
Several types of lights can contain mercury and must be properly processed for disposal. These
include:
- fluorescent lights,
- high intensity discharge (metal halide, high pressure sodium, mercury vapor)
- neon

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)

PCBs are a family of chemicals manufactured and used in the United States until the late
1970’s, which were mostly used in electrical devices like capacitors, transformers and lighting
ballasts to protect their oils from breaking down at high temperatures. These substances are
strictly regulated because of their toxicity and persistence in the environment. PCBs continue to
be a major source of fish contamination, leading to fish consumption advisories for people.
Management of PCBs is based on their concentration in an item. Materials with PCB
concentrations of 50 parts per million (ppm) or greater are regulated by the U.S. EPA under the
Toxic Substances Control Act.

For electrical devices manufactured prior to 1978, it is safe to assume that they contain PCBs
and should be managed accordingly. Most equipment manufactured after this time will say
“PCB FREE.” The following is a list of areas in buildings where PCBs may be found:
Transformers Light Ballasts
Capacitors (appliances) Specialty Paints (swimming pool)
Heat Transfer Equipment Sumps or Oil Traps

Other Environmental Issues

The following is a list of other environmental and regulatory issues that should be considered
prior to demolition. Check with DNR websites under "Publications" for additional information.

o Appliances - may contain ozone-depleting or other regulated refrigerants; PCB-containing

capacitors or ballasts; or mercury.
o Batteries (non-lead-containing) – may be found in smoke detectors, emergency lighting systems,
elevator control panels, exit signs, security systems and alarms. Batteries may be managed as
universal wastes as allowed by chapter NR 690, Wisconsin Administrative Code.
o Computers – may contain hazardous materials such as lead, cadmium, chromium, and mercury
and may be regulated as hazardous wastes if not recycled.
o Demolition Waste – many materials, fixtures and components can be donated, sold or recycled
prior to demolition. Clean brick, building stone, concrete and asphalt may be stockpiled for
crushing and reusing in future building projects. Clean drywall waste can be returned to
manufacturers to make into new sheetrock, and some farmers are land-spreading clean, crushed
drywall waste to enrich soil. It's illegal to burn demolition wastes. See further details under "Open
Burning."
o Exit Signs – many self-luminous exit signs contain significant amounts of radioactive tritium. All
self-luminous exit signs are required to have a permanent label affixed to the sign that identifies it
as containing radioactive material. In addition, the label will include the name of the
manufacturer, the product model number, the serial number, and the quantity of tritium contained.
It is illegal to abandon or dispose of these signs except by transferring them to the manufacturer or
others licensed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to accept them.
o Hazardous Waste – all hazardous waste, including household, must be properly handled and
disposed of prior to demolition. Hazardous wastes can include ignitable, corrosive, reactive or
toxic liquid, solid or contained gaseous wastes.

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 Demolition and Explosives 16-7

o Oil – used oil in containers or tanks, hydraulic oils in door-closers, elevator shafts, etc. must be
collected and properly recycled or disposed of prior to demolition.
o Open Burning – it is illegal to burn unwanted buildings in Wisconsin. State laws prohibit the
burning of painted, treated or unclean wood, asphalt, plastics of any kind, oily substances, tires
and other rubber products, wet rubbish and other materials. In the case of building demolition,
that would include roofing materials, all kinds of flooring materials, insulation, plywood and other
composition board, electrical wiring, cabinetry and countertops, and plastic plumbing. The only
exception is for a fire department practice burn of a standing building from which the materials
that are illegal to burn have already been removed.

One-time burning of clean, unpainted, untreated wood is allowed with approved methods and
prior notification of the DNR. However, in the case of demolition waste, it would be necessary to
separate out all the illegal materials and painted or treated wood before any burning could be
allowed. Burning permits are often required by local regulations and state law. Many communities
have local ordinances about open burning that are even stricter than the statewide requirements.
Check with the local municipality and DNR officials to see if you must obtain a permit to burn
these materials at your location.

o Solid Waste – recycle and reuse as much as possible. For example, paper (cardboard, files,
magazines, etc.), steel and tires should be recycled. All non-building components such as files,
books, trash, desks, and chairs must be removed prior to demolition, unless the building materials
are being taken to a solid waste landfill. Landfills that are licensed to accept only construction and
demolition wastes cannot take non-building materials, so check with any landfill prior to your
demolition project to be certain they can manage your wastes.
o Smoke Detectors – smoke detectors that contain a small amount of radioactive material will be
labeled and should be returned to the manufacturer for Pre-Demolition Environmental Checklist
Bureau of Waste Management 6 disposal. Otherwise dispose of smoke detectors in the trash.
o Soil Contamination - a qualified environmental consultant can conduct environmental property
assessments.
o Spills – in Wisconsin, all discharges of hazardous substances that adversely impact, or threaten to
adversely impact public health, welfare or the environment must be immediately reported to the
DNR via the Spills Hotline.
o Storage Tanks – stored material such as oil, solvents and other petroleums, or other dangerous
(toxic or flammable) materials. The tanks may be indoors or outdoors, buried or above ground.
The DNR does not require removal except for leaking underground storage tanks. Determination
of responsibility for potential liability lies with the property owner and buyer.
o Well Abandonment – unused and improperly abandoned wells are a significant threat to
groundwater quality. If not properly filled, abandoned wells can directly channel contaminated
surface or soil water into groundwater. Chapter NR 812, Wis. Adm. Code, requires that any wells
or drill-holes be properly filled prior to any demolition or construction work on the property.
o Wood Waste – clean, untreated wood can be recycled or chipped for ground cover. Treated or
painted can go to a licensed construction/demolition landfill. Burning painted or treated wood
waste is prohibited. See Open Burning, above.

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 Demolition and Explosives 16-8

EXPLOSIVES

Hazards of Explosives
o Heat
Created by the chemical reaction – heat precedes the blast effects
Capable of producing thermal burns
o Blast
Rapid generation of high pressures from the released gas – shock wave.
Effects of shock wave (blast):
1- Primary – overpressure: may damage eardrums, sinuses and lungs.
2- Secondary – fragmentation: impact damage or penetrate the body.
3- Tertiary – physical displacement of a person

Placard
o Diamond shape with orange background and black lettering
and/or numbering.
o Uses Class/Division designator and is recognized
internationally.
o Class 1 – identifies the hazard as explosives; then
subdivided into 6 divisions (the smaller the number the
more dangerous the explosive).
o Letter designator identifies the compatibility group to help
segregate items during transport or storage.

Classes / Divisions / Letters

Class 1 / Division 1 (1.1) – mass explosion hazard
Class 1 / Division 2 (1.2) – non-mass explosion, but are fragment producing.
Class 1 / Division 3 (1.3) – mass fire, and may produce minor blast or fragments
Class 1 / Division 4 (1.4) – moderate fire, with no significant blast or fragment hazard
Class 1 / Division 5 (1.5) – explosive substance, very insensitive (with mass explosion hazard)
Class 1 / Division 6 (1.6) – minor fire hazard, with an insignificant mass explosion hazard

Letter Designation:
A-primary explosive substance
B-containing primary explosive substance and not containing two or more effective protective
features.
C-propellant explosive substance or other deflagrating explosive substance or article containing such
explosive substance.
D-secondary detonating explosive substance or black powder or article containing a secondary
detonating explosive substance – without means of initiation and without propelling charge.
E-article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance without means of initiation, with a
propelling charge – other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid.
F-containing a secondary detonating explosive substance with its means of initiation, with a propelling
charge - other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid.
G-pyrotechnic substance or article containing pyrotechnic substance.
H-article containing both an explosive substance and white phosphorus
J-article containing both an explosive substance and flammable liquid or gel
K-article containing both an explosive substance and a toxic chemical agent
L-explosive substance or article containing an explosive substance and presenting a special risk.
N-articles containing only extremely insensitive detonating substances.
S-substance or article so packed or designed that any hazardous effects arising from accidental
functioning are limited to the extent that they do not significantly hinder or prohibit fire fighting or
other emergency response efforts in the immediate vicinity of the package.

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 Demolition and Explosives 16-9

EXPLOSIVE SAFETY GUIDE

The Explosive Safety Guide has been compiled from explosive experts and Federal Documents dealing with
explosives. This material is to ensure an understanding of explosives and policies, procedures and methods
utilized when handling explosives.

A basic recognition of explosives is pertinent before handling may occur. It is recommended that a certified
explosive technician review what explosive compounds are being utilized and their individual chemical make
up.

Low explosives (burn rate of less than 3,300 fps) including black powder, smokeless powder, flash powder
and chlorates, are EXTREMELY SENSITIVE to heat, shock and friction. Keep in mind powders have been
involved with a majority of training accidents.

High explosives (burn rate of more than 3,300 fps) including RDX, PETN,TNT, boosters, plastics,
ammonium nitrate, commercial dynamites, gels/slurries are SHOCK AND CAP SENSITIVE.

One must understand and remember Safe Handling procedures to include that low explosives are static
sensitive and are susceptible to moisture intrusion. High explosives are shock or cap sensitive and require
safe separation. All explosives are sensitive to climatic conditions and STATIC Electricity is always present!

Safe storage requirements must be adhered to. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
Guideline requirements give Law Enforcement exemptions but still mandate storage recommendations. A
copy of their guide will give you the examples and recommendations for proper storage and handling. The
private sector is required to be properly licensed and inspected on an annual basis. When dealing with
inventories, one must keep a current log and include who is responsible for that inventory. An inventory log
must be current and readily available for inspection. This log must include amounts stored as well as amounts
signed out and returned upon completion of its use. This inventory log will also help when explosives have
completed their shelf life and are to be disposed of by certified explosive technicians. A rule of thumb is
replacement annually or sooner when deterioration is observed.

It is recommended no more than two pounds of any explosive substance be kept in inventory for training
purposes. Large amounts for training should be at the discretion and preparation of an on site explosive
technician.

The training environment is a critical element to ensure the canine is exposed to as many scenarios as are
available in your environment. When utilizing explosives one must be aware to avoid cross-scent
contamination. Even though it is well known that several explosive compounds in a device are used in
today‘s world of terrorism, training to detect a single compound is the priority. Storage in non-static
producing containers such as Tupperware, glass Ball jars with pressure lid inserts to name a few. One
component per each container. Avoid any static producing containers!

Training aid placement has become the most critical element of potential tragedy. The training area must be a
safe environment. Turn off or remove any source of electricity. Vehicle batteries must be removed or avoided
when placing aids. Remember that vehicles also contain other electric components that have electric sources
you may encounter. Buildings also will have electric sources that must be avoided. Outlets and switches will
be encounter and must be avoided with placements.

Be aware of potential hazardous toxics that are within the training environment. Acids from vehicle batteries
and other components will be present. Common cleaners and antifreeze solutions are also present. One must
give a thorough overview of the training environment before aids are placed in the environment.

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 Demolition and Explosives 16-10

Placement logs are a must for documentation and inventory. Simply, who placed the aid and who recovered
the aid are essential. Remember, varying the people handling the explosive aids will vary the scent picture to
assist the canine. Included in the placement log include the amount and location of the aid. A two person
check and balance will ensure the aids are safely placed and properly recovered.

Finally, documentation is critical when handling explosives and training with explosives. Storage/Inventory
logs must be maintained on a regular basis. It has been recommended a weekly inventory log be maintained.
Individual training logs are crucial to the development of a training program as well as the individual
canine‘s development. A good training log should include the explosive compound, amount, date, time,
location, environment, weather conditions, time aid placed, location of aid placement, who placed aid and
who retrieved aid. These logs should be maintained by a trainer as well as a file for the handler and a file for
the canine.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Elevated Work Platforms 17-1

ELEVATED WORK PLATFORMS

Many taskings can not be performed for the walking surface and therefore, equipment such as ladders,
scaffolding and aerial lifts must be used to gain the additional height needed to do the job. Although
beneficial, each of these pieces of equipment do bring with them the added hazard of falling.
 Ladders
 Scaffolding
 Aerial Lifts
 Fall Protection

LADDERS

Each year in the United States, accidents involving ladders cause an estimated 300 deaths and 130,000
injuries requiring emergency medical attention. Twice as many falls occur stepping down compared to going
up ladders. The main cause of falls from straight and extension ladders is sliding of the ladder base. For self-
supported ladders or stepladders, the main cause is tipping sideways. A lot of workers carrying ladders hurt
their backs, too.

Ladder Program
Purpose
All ladders and portable ladders used in construction, renovation, repair (including painting and
decorating) and demolition shall be constructed, erected and used in accordance with this program.

Responsibility
The Company Safety Manager and all Project Managers shall be responsible for ensuring all
safeguards for ladders are in place prior to any employee(s) working with any ladder.
Each employee shall be responsible for bringing to the attention of the Safety Manager or their
immediate supervisor (foreman), any defective ladder or hazard where a ladder may be needed.

Guidelines
General Requirements for Ladders
 Whenever a worker’s point of access is broken in elevation by 19 inches or more and no ramp,
egress, embankment or personal hoist is provided; a stairway or ladder shall be provided.
 When there is only one point of access or egress between levels, this shall remain clear from
obstruction to permit free passage by workers. If the passage becomes obstructed, then a
second point of access or egress shall be provided and used. Where there are more than one
point of access or egress between levels, at least one point shall be kept clear.

Placement of Ladders
• Ladders, including step ladders, shall be placed so that each side rail (or stile) is on a level and
firm footing and so that the ladder is rigid, stable and secure.
• The side rails (or stile) shall not be supported by boxes, loose bricks, or other loose packing.
• No ladder shall be placed in front of a door opening towards the ladder unless the door is
fastened open, locked or guarded.
• Wherever possible, ladders shall be used at such an angle that the horizontal distance from the
foot of the ladder to the structure the ladder rests against is one-quarter (1/4) of the length of the
ladder.
• Whenever possible, a ladder used as a place from which a person has to work shall rise to a
height of at least 1 meter above the highest rung upon which the person must stand to work. If a
height of 1 meter above the working height cannot be achieved, then the ladder should reach as
far as possible above the level at which the person is required to work.
• Every ladder or run of ladders rising vertical distance of 6 meters or more shall be provided
with an intermediate landing place or places so that the vertical distance between any two
successive landing places is not more than 6 meters

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• Ladders shall rise to a height of at least 1 meter above any landing place for people using those
ladders.
• Where a ladder passes through an opening in the floor of a landing place, the opening shall be
as small as it reasonably practicable.
• A ladder placed such that its top end rests against a window frame shall have a board fixed to its
top end. The size and position of this board shall ensure that the load to be carried by the ladder
is evenly distributed over the window frame.

Securing a Ladder
 Ladders shall be securely fixed at the top and foot so that they cannot move either from their
top or bottom points of rest. If it is not possible to secure a ladder at both the top and bottom
then it shall be securely fixed at the base. If this is not possible, then a person should stand at
the base of the ladder and secure it manually against slipping.
 Ladders set up in public thoroughfares or other places (where there is potential for accidental
collision with them) must be provided with effective means to prevent the displacement of the
ladders due to collisions, for example, use of barricades.

Usage of Ladder
 Only one person at a time may use or work from a single ladder.
 Always face the ladder when ascending or descending it.
 Keep three limbs on the ladder at any one time, i.e. both hands and one foot or both feet and one
hand.
 Carry tools in a tool-belt, pouch or holster, not in your hands, so you can keep hold of the
ladder.
 Wear fully enclosed slip resistant footwear when using ladder.
 Do not climb higher than the third rung from the top of the ladder.
 When working from a ladder, always work within an easy arm’s reach from the ladder.
 Do not “walk” a ladder whilst standing on it. Get down off the ladder to move it to another
location.
 Keep ladders free of oil, grease and other slipping hazards.
 Use the ladder only for the purpose it is designed.

Ladder Inspection
Ladders shall be inspected by a competent person for visible defects
prior to each use and after any incident that could affect their safe
use.
Portable ladders with structural defects such as broken or missing
rungs, cleats, or steps, broken or split rails, corroded components, or
other faulty or defective components shall immediately be marked
defective or tagged with “Do Not Use”, as shown and withdrawn
from service until repaired.

Employee Training for Ladders

All employees using a ladder shall be trained to recognize hazards related to ladders and to use
proper procedures to minimize these hazards. Employees shall be trained to demonstrate
competency in the following areas:
• The nature of fall hazards in the work area;
• The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining and disassembling the fall protection
systems to be used;
• The proper placement, use and care in handling of all ladders; and
• The maximum intended load-carrying capacities of ladders used.

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eLCOSH Questions to ask your crew during Portable Ladder Safety Training: -

o More than half of all ladder accidents happen because the ladder slips. What are some ways to keep a
ladder from slipping?
• Place the ladder on a firm, level surface that isn't slippery.
• Use a ladder with safety feet, especially if you're setting it on a smooth floor.
• Always secure portable ladders. Nail it to a permanent structure, tie off, or block them.
• Make sure the ladder's supports (feet and upper risers) are free of grease and mud.
• Make sure the ladder is leaning against something secure (not a gutter, window sash, window pane,
or anything that can move).
• If the ladder is leaning against a smooth surface, have wall grips on the risers to prevent side
slipping.
• Make sure the ladder is leaning against something secure (not a gutter, window sash, window pane,
or anything that can move).
• Don't set a ladder on top of boxes or other movable objects.
• Never use a ladder in high winds.
• Barricade a ladder if it's in an area where it could get bumped. For example, don't use a ladder in
front of a door that might open, unless there is a barricade or guard.

o What's the correct angle for a ladder?

• Set it one foot out from the wall for every four feet of ladder length (75° pitch).

o Nearly a third of all ladder accidents happen because a person slips. What are some things you can do to
keep yourself from slipping?
• Use a ladder with non-skid treads (or a nonskid coating) on the rungs.
• Make sure the rungs are free of mud, grease, and other slippery material.
• Make sure your shoes are free of mud and grease.
• When you're on a ladder, don't lean too far out -- never beyond arm's length.
• When going up or down a ladder, always face the ladder and use both hands.
• Don't try to adjust an extension ladder when you're standing on a surface above it.
• Don't stand or work on the top three rungs of a straight ladder unless you're tied off. At the top,
there's nothing to grip.
• Don't step on any rung above a ladder's upper support. It may cause the bottom of the ladder to kick
out.
• Don't stand or work at the top (cap) of a stepladder.
• If you use a stepladder, make sure it's fully open and locked.

o How should you carry tools or materials up or down a ladder?

• Use a tool belt to keep your hands free.
• Pull equipment and materials up with a line.

o To make sure your ladder is in good repair, you should inspect it before and after each job. When you
inspect a ladder, what should you look for?
• All rungs are connected securely to the side rails.
• No rungs or side rails are missing, loose, broken, cracked, or corroded.
• No nails, screws, or rivets are sheared off or missing.

o What if a ladder is defective?

• If you notice an unsafe ladder don't use it. Report it right away.
• Defective ladders should be removed from service and tagged.

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o What are some things to keep in mind when you're choosing a ladder for a specific job?
• Use a ladder that is safety-approved. Look for a label showing that it meets American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) safety requirements.
• Use a ladder of the right length. The side rails should extend at least three feet, but not more than
four feet, above the ladder's upper support.
• Use a ladder that's strong enough to support you.
• Never splice two ladders together.
• Don't let more than one person at a time on a ladder unless you're using a ladder that's specially
designed for that purpose.
• Don't use a metal ladder near live electrical parts or within six feet of high voltage electrical lines.
(Increase the distance for very high voltage). Remember that electricity can arc. Portable metal
ladders should have a warning label on them to remind you.
• Don't use a ladder for anything but its intended purpose. For example, don't use it as a brace or skid.
Don't use it horizontally as a walkway or scaffold.

Ask: Do you have any other concerns about portable ladders? Do you see any problems on our job? (Let the
steward answer first, if there is one.)

What about other jobs you've worked on? Have you had any experience with portable ladders that might help
us work safer on this job?

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SCAFFOLDING

An estimated 2.3 million construction workers, or 65% of the construction industry work on scaffolds
frequently. Protecting these workers from scaffold-related accidents would prevent 4,500 injuries and 50
deaths every year in the United States. And, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 72% of workers
injured in scaffold accidents attributed the accident either to the planking or support giving way, employee
slipping, or being struck by a falling object.

Scaffolding Program
Policy

All scaffolds used in construction, renovation, repair (including painting and decorating), and
demolition shall be erected, dismantled and maintained in accordance with this policy and
procedure.

Responsibility

The Company Safety Manager and all Project Managers shall be responsible for ensuring all
safeguards for scaffolds are in place prior to any employee(s) working with any scaffolding.

The Company’s Scaffold Competent Person shall be responsible for:

• Directing employees who erect, dismantle, move or alter scaffolding;
• Determining if it is safe for employees to work from a scaffold during storms or high
winds, and ensure that a personal fall arrest system is in place;
• Training employees involved in erecting, disassembling, moving, operating, repairing,
maintaining, or inspecting scaffolding to recognize associated work hazards;
• Inspecting scaffolds and scaffold components for visible defects before each work shift,
and after any occurrence which could affect the structural integrity, and to authorize
prompt corrective action;
• Inspecting ropes on suspended scaffolds prior to each work-shift and after every occurrence
which could affect the structural integrity, and to authorize prompt corrective actions;
• For suspension scaffolds evaluating direct connections to support the load to be imposed;
• For erectors and dismantler’s, determining the feasibility and safety of providing fall
protection and access; and
• For scaffold components:
o Determining if a scaffold will be structurally sound when intermixing components
from different manufacturers’; and
o Determining if galvanic action has affected the capacity when using components
of dissimilar metals.

The Company’s Scaffold Qualified Person shall be responsible for:

• Designing and loading scaffolds in accordance with design specifications;
• Training employees working on the scaffolds to recognize the associated hazards and
understand procedures to control or minimize those hazards; and
• For suspension scaffolds;
o Designing platforms on two-point adjustable suspension types that are less than 36
inches wide to prevent instability;
o Making swaged attachments and spliced eyes on wire suspension ropes; and
o Designing components in accordance with design specifications.

Each employee shall be responsible for bringing to the attention of the Safety Manager or their
immediate supervisor (foreman), any defective scaffold or hazard associated with a scaffold.

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Guidelines

General Requirements for Scaffolds

No employee shall erect scaffold greater than or equal to 20 feet. All erection of scaffold greater or
equal to 20 feet shall be conducted by a licensed contractor.

Capacity/Loads

A qualified person must design all scaffolds and their components must support without failure its
own weight and at least four times the maximum intended load applied or transmitted to the
scaffold.

Stationary scaffolds over 125 feet in height and rolling scaffolds over 60 feet in height shall be
designed by a professional engineer. All equipment shall be inspected to see that it is in good
condition and is serviceable. Damaged or deteriorated equipment shall not be used.

Platforms

Platforms shall be constructed as follows:

• Platforms shall be entirely planked and decked with space not more than one inch wide
between the platforms and uprights;
• The platform shall not deflect more than 1/60 of the span when loaded;
• All platforms shall be kept clear of debris or other obstructions that may hinder the
working clearance on the platform;
• Wood planks shall be inspected to see that there are graded for scaffold use, are sound and
in good condition, straight grained, free from saw cuts, splits and holes;
• Platforms and walkways shall be at least 18 inches in width. When the work area is less
than 18 inches wide, guardrails and/or personal fall arrest systems shall be used;
• Where platforms are overlapped to create a long platform, the overlap shall occur only over
supports, and shall not be less than 12 inches unless the platforms are nailed;
• A platform greater than 10 feet in length shall not extend over its support more then 18
inches, unless it is designed and installed so that the cantilevered portion of the platform is
able to support employees without tipping, or has guardrails which block employee access
to the cantilevered end;
• Wood surface shall not be covered with opaque finishes, other than the edges for making
identification;
• Platforms may be coated periodically with wood preservatives, fire-retardant finishes, and
slip-resistant finishes; however, the coating shall not obscure the top or bottom wood
surfaces; and
• Each end of the platform, unless cleated or otherwise restrained by hooks or equivalent
means, shall extend over the centerline of its support at least six inches.

Scaffold components manufactured by different manufacturers shall not be intermixed unless the
components fit together without force and the scaffold’s structural integrity is maintained. Scaffold
components made of dissimilar metals shall not be used together unless a competent person has
determined that galvanic action will not reduce the strength of any component.

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Guardrails

All scaffolds more than six feet above the lower level shall protect employees with guardrails on
each open side of the scaffold. Guardrails shall be installed along the open sides and ends before
releasing the scaffold for use by the employees, other than erection or dismantling crews.

Guardrails are not required when:

• The front end of all platforms are less than 14 inches from the face of the work; and
• When employees are plastering and lathing 18 inches or less from the front edge.

Materials such as steel or plastic banding shall not be used for top-rails or mid-rails.

Erection of Scaffolds

Prior to Erection – All Scaffold Assemblies

All jobsites and work areas shall be inspected prior to the erection of scaffolds to determine
the site’s ability to support structure, and for location of electric power lines, overhead
obstructions, wind conditions, and the need for overhead protection or weather protection
coverings.

Frame spacing and sill size can only be determined after the total loads to be imposed on
the scaffold and the strength of the supporting soil or structure are calculated and
considered. Special consideration is required when scaffolding is to be erected on fill, soft
or frozen ground. Sills shall be level and in full contact with the supporting surface. A
qualified person must do this analysis. Load carrying information on components is
available from the scaffold manufacturer.

Wood planks used for platforms on scaffolding shall be specifically graded for scaffold use
by an approved grading agency. Planks are stamped for scaffold approved loading and
usage on one end.

Erection of Fixed Scaffold

Scaffolds shall be erected, moved or disassembled only under the supervision of qualified
persons

Base plates or screwjacks shall be in firm contact with both the sills and the legs of the
scaffolding. Screwjacks with base plates shall be used to compensate for uneven ground.
Do not use unstable objects such as loose bricks, blocks of wood or concrete to shore up
the uneven surface.

All scaffolding shall be plumb and level. Tying, guying, or bracing may be needed to
assure a safe and stable scaffold assembly. Do not force members to fit. Be sure
scaffolding stays level and plumb as erection progresses. The height of the scaffold in
relation to the minimum base width, wind loads, the use of brackets or cantilevered
platforms and imposed scaffold load determines the need for stability bracing.

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Access Requirements

Access shall be provided when scaffold platforms are more than 24 inches above or below the point
of access. Direct access is acceptable when the scaffold is not more than 14 inches horizontally and
not more than 24 inches vertically from the other surfaces. Cross-braces shall not be used as a
means of access.

Type of accesses which are permitted:

• Portable ladders tied off to the structure;
• Hook-on ladders;
• Attachable ladders
• Stairways;
• Stair towers;
• Ramps and walkways; or
• Integral prefabricated frames.

When erecting or dismantling supported scaffolds, a safe means of access shall be provided when a
competent person has determined the feasibility and analyzed the site conditions.

Use Requirements

The use of shore scaffolds and lean-to-scaffolds is strictly prohibited. All employees are prohibited
from working on scaffolds covered with snow, ice or other slippery materials.

Clearance Distances Between Scaffolds and Power-lines

The following table provides the clearance distances between scaffolds and power-lines, or any
other conductive material, while being erected, used, dismantled, altered or moved.

Insulated Lines
Minimum Distance Alternatives
Voltage
Less than 300 3 feet
volts 10 feet
Two times the length of the line insulator,
300 to 50 kv 10 feet
but never less than 10 feet
More than 50 kv General Rule: 0.4 inches for each 1 kv
over 50 kv
Uninsulated
Lines Minimum Distance Alternatives
Voltage
Less than 50 kv 10 feet
More than 50 kv 10 feet plus Two times the length of the line insulator,
General Rule: 0.4 inches for each 1 kv but never less than 10 feet
over 50 kv

EXCEPTION: Scaffolds and materials may be closer to power lines than specified where such
clearance is necessary for performance of work and only after the utility company or electrical
system operator has de-energized or relocated the lines.

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Stilts

All employees using stilts shall:

• Wear the stilts on surfaces that are flat and free of holes, pits, and obstructions, such as
debris or other tripping and falling hazards; and
• Properly maintain the stilts. The manufacturer must approve alterations to stilts.

Fall Protection

All employees working on scaffolds six (6) feet or more above ground/floor level shall use fall
protection.

All scaffolding shall have toe-boards, screens, a guardrail system and/or debris nets as determined
by a competent person.

Employee Training for Scaffolding

All employees who perform work on a scaffold shall be trained to recognize the hazards associated
with the type of scaffold being used and the procedures to control or minimize those hazards.
Employees shall be trained to demonstrate competency in the following areas:
• Nature of electrical, fall hazards and falling object hazards in the work area;
• Proper use of scaffolds;
• Proper handling of materials on scaffolds;
• Proper erecting, maintaining and disassembling of fall protection systems;
• Proper construction, use, placement and care in handling of scaffolds; and
• Maximum intended load and load-carrying capacities of scaffolds used.

Reference:
Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations 2007

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Aerial Lifts

From 1992-99, there were 26 deaths per year from lifts in construction.
• 18 per year from boom-supported lifts
• 8 per year from scissor and other vertical lifts

This is 3% of all deaths in construction

Causes of Death from Aerial Lifts in Construction, 1992-99

#Data for scissor lifts do not meet Bureau of Labor Statistics publication criteria
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics data

Deaths from Aerial Lifts in Construction, by Trade, 1992-99

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#Data from scissor lifts does not meet Bureau of Lab or Statistics publication criteria
* Electricians, electrician apprentices, power installers, and their supervisors
** Structural metal workers and welders and cutters
*** Includes plumbers, pipe fitters and steam fitters, brick masons and stone masons , drywall installers
Source : US Bureau of Labor Statistics data

Boom-Supported Lifts
Electrocutions - almost all due to overhead power lines
• 1/2 of electrocutions involved body contact with overhead power lines
• One-third involved overhead power lines contacting lift booms or buckets

Falls
• 1/2 of fatal falls involved ejection from the bucket after worker or lifts was struck by vehicles,
cranes or objects.
• 1/6 occurred while transferring to or from the
bucket at a height

Collapses/tipovers
• 2/5 of deaths involved collapse of boom
• Almost one-third were due to tipovers.
• 1/4 involved collapses of bucket

Caught in /between
• Most involved the worker getting caught
between the bucket edge and a roof joist or
beam.

Struck by/against
• Mostly involved workers being struck by collapsing materials, girders, etc.

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Scissor Lifts
Falls
• 1/5 of deaths involved ejections, after being struck by object
• Cause of fall unknown in 3/5 of deaths
• Other causes included removal of chains, standing on or leaning
over railings

Tipovers
• Caused almost 1/3 of scissor lift deaths
• Mostly while elevated over 15 feet
• 1/4 of tipovers occurred where lift hit a hole or curb while
moving

Electrocutions
• 1/2 involved overhead power lines

Renting an Aerial Lift

• Get maintenance history of aerial lift
• Get operator's manual and maintenance manual (if separate)
• Ensure a detailed maintenance check is done before rental
• Make sure operator controls are easily accessible and properly
marked

Operator Training
• Training must be done by a qualified person experienced with the particular lift model
• Training must include:
o Nature of electrical, fall, and other hazards involved in operating lift
o Precautions for dealing with hazards
o Rated load capacity for the lift (including workers, tools, materials, bucket liner, etc.)
o Manufacturer requirements, as outlined in operator manual
o Demonstration of skill and knowledge in actual operation of the aerial lift

Qualified Person Definition

• OSHA 1926.450(b)
A qualified person ....by extensive knowledge, training, and experience
can....solve....problems related to the subject matter....

Maintenance Requirements
• Training of mechanics should be done by qualified person experienced with lift model
• Maintenance should include:
o Knowledge of manufacturer's maintenance requirements
o Frequent inspections of aerial lift by qualified mechanic
o At least annual detailed inspections by qualified mechanic
• Insulated aerial lifts have special electrical test requirements
• De-energize and lockout/tagout aerial lift before conducting maintenance and repairs

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Before Operating Aerial Lifts

• Do not modify aerial lift without written permission
• Check safety devices, operating controls before each use
• Check area in which aerial lift will be used for:
o Level surface (Do not exceed manufacturer slope recommendations)
o Holes, drop-offs, bumps, debris, etc.
o Overhead obstructions and overhead power lines
o Stable surface
o Other hazards
• Set outriggers, brakes, wheel chocks

Preventing Electrocutions
• Non-electrical workers must stay at least 10 feet away from overhead power lines.
• Electrical workers must de-energize/insulate power lines or use proper PPE/equipment.
• Use insulated buckets near overhead power lines
• Regularly check insulation on buckets

Preventing Tip-Overs
• Do not exceed manufacturer rated load capacity limits
• Do not travel to job location with lift in elevated position.
• Set up proper work zone protection when working near traffic
• Positioning of lifts
o Do not drive near drop-offs or holes.
o Do not raise platform on uneven or soft surfaces.
o Do not drive onto uneven or soft surfaces when elevated.
o Do not raise platform on slope or drive onto slope when elevated.
o Do not raise platform in windy or gusty conditions.
• Avoid excessive horizontal forces when working on elevated scissor lifts

Fall Protection
• OSHA regulates aerial lifts as scaffolds
o 1926.453 Aerial Lifts only applies to bucket trucks
o Fall protection is required (full body harness with lanyard or body belt with 2-foot lanyard
as restraint device)
o OSHA does not require harnesses and lanyards on other boom lifts and scissor lifts if there
are guardrails
• Fall arrest systems (harness plus lanyard to stop a fall)
o Can tip over some boom lifts and scissor lifts due to fall stopping force
• Fall restraint systems intended to prevent falls are preferred
o e.g. Full body harness plus lanyard designed for size of lift platform
• Always close entrance chains or doors
• Stand on floor of bucket or lift platform
o Do not climb on or lean over guardrails

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Aerial Lift Safety – Hazard Alert – Construction Safety Council

About 26 construction workers die each year from using aerial lifts. More than half of the deaths involve
boom-supported lifts, such as bucket trucks and cherry pickers; most of the other deaths involve scissor lifts.
Electrocutions, falls, and tip-overs cause most of the deaths. Other causes include being caught between the
lift bucket or guardrail and object (such as steel beams or joists) and being struck by falling objects. (A
worker can also be catapulted out of a bucket, if the boom or bucket is struck by something.) Most of the
workers killed are electrical workers, laborers, painters, ironworkers, or carpenters.

Pre-Aerial Lift Operations

 Only qualified personnel shall use an aerial lift and perform pre-aerial lift operations.
 Check operating and emergency controls, safety devices (such as, outriggers and guardrails),
personal fall protection, gear, wheels and tires, and other items specified by the manufacturer. Look
for possible leaks (air, hydraulic fluid, and fuel-system) and loose or missing parts.
 Check where the lift will be used. Look for a level surface that won’t shift. Check the slope of the
ground or floor; do not work on steep slopes that exceed slope limits listed by the manufacturer.
Look for hazards, such as, holes, drop-offs, bumps, and debris, and overhead power lines and other
obstructions.
 Set outriggers, brakes, and wheel chocks – even if you’re working on a level slope.

Operating an Aerial Lift

 Always close lift platform chains or doors.
 Stand on the floor of the bucket or lift platform. Do not climb on or lean over guardrails.
 Do not exceed manufacturer’s load-capacity limits (including the weight of such things as bucket
liners and tools).
 If working near traffic, set up work-zone warnings, like cones and signs.
 Prevent electrocutions:
o Non-electrical workers must stay at least 10 feet away from overhead power lines.
o Electrical workers must de-energize/insulate power lines or use proper personal protective
equipment and tools.
o Insulated buckets protect from electrocution due to electric current passing through you and the
boom to ground. The buckets do not protect if there’s another path to ground – for instance, if
you touch another wire.
 Prevent falls:
o To help keep workers inside guardrails or in buckets, OSHA requires either a full-body harness
or a positioning device on bucket trucks or boom-supported lifts. OSHA accepts a positioning
device (belt) with a short lanyard, if there is an anchorage inside the bucket.
 Prevent tip-overs:
o Comply with manufacturer’s instructions.
o Do not drive with the lift platform elevated (unless the manufacturer says that’s OK).
o Do not exceed vertical or horizontal reach limits or the specified load-capacity of the lift.
o On an elevated scissor lift, avoid too much pushing or pulling.
 Training (conducted by qualified person)
o Any electrical, fall and falling-object hazards.
o Procedures for dealing with hazards.
o How to operate the lift correctly (maximum intended load and load capacity).
o Operator capable of demonstrating safe operation of the aerial lift.
 Maintenance and Inspections
o De-energize (lockout) aerial lifts before any maintenance or repairs
o Inspected per manufacturer’s recommendations, at least every 3 months or after 150 hours of
use.
o Detailed annual inspection.
o Aerial lifts may not be modified without manufacturer’s approval.

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Fall Protection
In 2004, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 1,224 construction workers died on the job, with 36% of
those fatalities resulting from falls. Events surrounding these types of accidents often involve a number of
factors, including unstable working surfaces, misuse of fall protection equipment, and human error. Studies
have shown that the use of guardrails, fall systems, safety nets, covers, and travel restriction systems can
prevent many deaths and injuries from falls.

Fall Protection Program

Purpose
All employees working six (6) feet or more above a lower level shall be protected from fall hazards
and falling objects in accordance with this policy.

Responsibility
The Company Safety Manager and all Project Managers shall be responsible for ensuring all
safeguards for fall protection are in place prior to any employee(s) working at or near a fall hazard.
These fall hazards shall include, but not be limited to:
• Controlled access zones;
• Ramps, runways and other walkways;
• Holes;
• Leading edge work;
• Unprotected sides and edges;
• Roofing work;
• Wall openings; and
• Other walking/working surfaces.

Each employee shall be responsible for bringing to the attention of the Safety Manager or their
immediate supervisor (foreman), any fall hazard, in which fall protection is missing or non-
operational.

Guidelines

Controlled Access Zones

Controlled access zones, are created to limit entrance to areas where leading edge work and other
operations are taking place, and shall be defined by a controlling line or other means that restricts
access. Control lines shall consist of ropes, wires, tapes or equivalent material, supporting stanchions
and each shall:
• Be flagged or otherwise clearly marked at not more then six (6) foot intervals with
high visibility material;
• Be rigged and supported in such a way that the lowest point (including sag) is not less
then 39 inches from the walking/working surface and the highest point is not more
than 50 inches;
• Be strong enough to sustain stress of not less than 200 pounds;
• Extend along the entire length of the unprotected leading edge and shall be parallel to
the unprotected or leading edge; and
• Be connected on each side to a guardrail system or wall.

When control lines are used they shall be erected not less than six (6) feet and no more than 25 feet
from the unprotected or leading edge, except when precast concrete members are being erected. In
the latter case, the control line shall be erected not less than six (6) feet and no more than 60 feet or
half the length of the member being erected, whichever is less, from the leading edge.

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Controlled access zones when used to determine access to areas where overhand plastering and
related work are taking place shall be defined by a control line erected not less than 10 feet and no
more than 15 feet from the working edge. Additional control lines shall be erected at each end to
enclose the controlled access zone. Only employees engaged in overhand bricklaying or related
work are permitted in these zones.

On floors and roofs where guardrail systems are not in place prior to the start of overhand
bricklaying operations, controlled access zones shall be enlarged as necessary to enclose all points
of access, material handling areas and storage areas.

On floors and roofs where guardrail systems are in place, but need to be removed to allow leading
edge work to take place, only the portion of the guardrail necessary to accomplish that day’s work
shall be removed.

Excavations
Each employee at the edge of an excavation six (6) feet deep or more shall be protected from falling
by a guardrail system, fence barricade or cover. Where walkways are provided to permit employees
to cross over excavations, guardrails are required on the walkway.

Guardrail Systems
If a guardrail system is used to protect employees from falls, the system shall meet the following
criteria:
• Toprails and midrails of guardrail systems shall be at least one quarter (1/4) inch in diameter;
• If wire rope is used for toprails, it shall be marked every six feet with highly visible material;
• Steel or plastic banding material shall not be used as toprails or midrails;
• Manila, plastic or synthetic rope used for toprails or midrails shall be inspected frequently to
ensure strength and stability;
• The top edge height of toprails or guardrails shall be 42 inches plus or minus three (3) inches
above the walking level;
• When workers are using stilts, the top edge height of the top rail or equivalent shall be
increased equal to the height of the stilts;
• Screens, midrails, mesh, intermediate vertical members or equivalent intermediate structural
members shall be installed between the top edge of the guardrail system and the
walking/working surface when there are no walls or parapet walls at least 21 inches high;
• When midrails are used, they shall be installed at a height midway between the top edge of the
guardrail system and the walking/working level;
• When screens and mesh are used they shall extend from the toprail to the walking/working level
and along the entire opening between toprail supports;
• Intermediate members, such as balusters, when used between posts, shall not be more than 19
inches apart;
• Other structural members, such as additional midrails and panels, shall be installed so that there
are no openings larger than 19 inches;
• The guardrail system shall be capable of withstanding a force of at least 200 pounds;
• Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, solid panels and equivalent structural
members shall be capable of withstanding a force of at least 150 pounds;
• Guardrail systems shall have smooth surfaces to protect employees from punctures or
lacerations and prevent clothing from snagging;
• The ends of toprails and midrails shall not overhang terminal posts, except where such
overhang does not constitute a projection hazard;
• A chain gate or removable guardrail section shall be placed across the access opening between
guardrail sections when hoisting operations are not taking place;
• At holes, six feet or more in depth, guardrail systems shall be set up on all unprotected sides or
edges and all holes shall be covered when not in use;

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 Elevated Work Platforms 17-19

• Guardrail systems with a gate shall be used around holes that are access points to prevent
employees from falling into these holes; and
• If guardrail systems are used at the sides or edges of ramps and runways, they shall be erected
on each side or edge.

Personal Fall Arrest Systems

The use of a body belt for fall protection is prohibited.

All personal fall arrest systems shall be inspected by the user prior to each use. The inspection shall
include examination for wear, damage and other deterioration. If during the inspection the user
discovers defects or damage, the user shall immediately remove the component from service.

Dee-rings and snap-hooks shall have a minimum tensile strength of 5,000 pounds without cracking,
breaking or suffering permanent deformation. Snaphooks shall be sized to be compatible with the
member to which they will be connected, or shall be of a locking configuration.

Snaphooks that are not of the locking type and designed for the following connections shall not be
engaged directly to:
1. Webbing, rope or wire rope;
2. To each other;
3. To a dee-ring to which another snaphook or other connector is attached;
4. To a horizontal lifeline; or
5. To any object incompatible in shape or dimension relative to the snaphook, thereby causing
the connected object to depress the snaphook keeper and release unintentionally.

A hook is considered to be compatible when the diameter of the dee-ring to which the snaphook is
greater than the inside length of the snaphook when measured from the bottom (hinged-end) of the
snaphook keeper to the inside curve of the top of the snaphook. Thus, no matter how the dee-ring is
positioned or moved with the snaphook attached, the dee-ring cannot touch the outside of the
keeper, thus depressing it open. The use of non-locking dee-rings is prohibited.

On suspended scaffolds or similar work platforms with horizontal lifelines that may become vertical
lifelines, the devices used to connect to a horizontal lifeline shall be capable of locking in both
directions on the lifeline.

Horizontal lifelines shall be designed, installed and used under the supervision of a qualified person,
as part of a complete fall arrest system that maintains a safety factor of at least two. Lifelines shall
be protected against being cut or abraded.

Self-retracting lifelines and lanyards that automatically limit free fall distance to two (2) feet or less
shall be capable of sustaining a minimum tensile load of 3,000 pounds applied to the device with the
lifeline or lanyard in the fully extended position.

Self-retracting lifelines and lanyards that do not limit free fall distance to two (2) feet or less,
ripstitch lanyards, and tearing and deforming lanyards shall be capable of sustaining a minimum
tensile load of 5,000 pounds applied to the device with the lifeline or lanyard in the fully extended
position.

Ropes and straps used in lanyards, lifelines and strength components of body belts and body
harnesses shall be made of synthetic fibers.

Anchorage shall be designed, installed and used under the supervision of a qualified person.
Anchorage used to attach personal fall arrest systems shall be independent of any anchorage being

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used to support or suspend platforms and shall be capable of supporting at least 5,000 pounds per
person attached.

Lanyard and vertical lifelines shall have a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 pounds.

Personal Positioning Device

Body harness systems shall be set up so that a worker can free fall no more than two (2) feet. All
belts or harnesses shall be secured to an anchorage capable of supporting at least twice the potential
impact load of an employee’s fall or 3,000 pounds, whichever is greater.

Warning Line Systems

Warning line systems used on roofs shall consist of ropes, wires or chains, and supporting stanchions.
The warning lines shall be constructed as follows:
• Flagged at not more than six (6) foot intervals with high visibility material;
• Rigged and supported so that the lowest point including sag is no less than 34 inches from the
walking/working surface and its highest point is no more than 39 inches from the
walking/working surface;
• Stanchions, after being rigged with warning lines, shall be capable of resisting, without
tipping over, a force of at least 16 pounds applied horizontally against the stanchion, 30
inches above the walking/working surface, perpendicular to the warning line and in the
direction of the floor, roof or platform edge;
• The rope, wire or chain shall have a minimum tensile strength of 500 pounds and after being
attached to the stanchions, shall support without breaking the load applied to the stanchions
as prescribed above; and
• Shall be attached to each stanchion in such a way that pulling on one section of the line
between stanchions will not result in slack being taken up in the adjacent section before the
stanchion tips over.

When mechanical equipment is being used, the warning line shall be erected not less than six (6)
feet from the roof edge parallel to the direction of mechanical equipment operation, and not less
than 10 feet from the roof edge perpendicular to the direction of mechanical equipment operation.

When mechanical equipment is not being used, the warning line shall be erected not less than six (6)
feet from the roof edge.

Hoist Areas
All employees in a hoist area shall be protected from falling six (6) feet or more by guardrail
systems or personal fall arrest systems. If guardrail systems or portions thereof must be removed to
facilitate hoisting operations, as during the landing of materials, and a worker must lean through the
access opening to receive or guide equipment and materials, that employee shall be protected by a
personal fall arrest system.

Holes, Openings, Ramps, Runways and Other Walkways

All holes, openings, ramps, runways, and other walkways crossing or covering openings six (6) feet
or more, shall be protected with a guardrail system.

Wall Openings
All employees working on, at or near wall openings where the bottom edge of the wall opening is
six (6) feet or more and the inside bottom edge of the wall opening is less than 39 inches above the
walking/working surface, shall be protected by use of either a guardrail system or a personal fall
arrest system.

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Covers
Covers used over openings in the roadways and vehicular aisles shall meet the following criteria:
• Support twice the maximum axle weight of the largest vehicle the cover might be
subjected;
• Support twice the weight of employees, equipment and materials that may be imposed on
the cover at anytime;
• Be secured at all times; and
• Be identified with markings indicating “HOLE” or “COVER”.

Roofs
Low-Sloped Roofs – All employees working on low-sloped roofs with unprotected sides and edges
six (6) feet or more above the lower levels shall be protected from falling by guardrail systems or a
combination warning line system and personal fall arrest system, or a combination warning line
system and a safety monitoring system. Roofs that are 50 feet or less in width can use a safety
monitoring system without a warning line system.

Steep Roofs –All employees on a steep roof with unprotected sides and edges six feet or more above
the lower levels shall be protected by either guardrail systems with toeboards or a personal fall arrest
system.

Protection from Falling Objects

When guardrail systems are used to prevent materials from falling from one level to another, any
opening shall be small enough to prevent passage of potential falling objects. No materials or
equipment, except masonry or mortar shall be stored within four feet of working edges. Excess
mortar, broken or scattered masonry, and all other materials and debris shall be kept clear of the
working area by removal at regular intervals.

During roofing work, materials and equipment shall not be stored within six (6) feet of a roof edge
unless guardrails are erected at the edge, and materials piled, grouped, or stacked near a roof edge
shall be stable and self-supporting.

Canopies – When canopies are used as protection from falling objects they shall be constructed
strong enough to prevent collapse and to prevent penetration by any objects that fall onto them.

Toeboards – When toeboards are used as protection from falling objects, they shall be erected along
the edges of the overhead walking or working surface for a distance sufficient to protect persons
working below. Toeboards shall be capable of withstanding a force of at least 50 pounds applied in
any downward or outward direction at any point along the toeboard. Toeboards shall be a minimum
of three and one half inches tall from their top edge to the level of the walking/working surface,
have no more than 0.25 inches clearance above the walking/working surface, and be solid or have
openings no larger than one inch in size. Where tools, equipment, or materials are piled higher than
the top edge of a toeboard, paneling or screening shall be erected from the walking/working surface
or toeboard to the top of a guardrail system’s top rail or midrail, for a distance sufficient to protect
persons below.

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 Elevated Work Platforms 17-22

Safety Monitoring Systems

If no fall protection, including personal fall arrest systems, warning line systems, controlled access
zones or guardrail system can be implemented, then a safety monitoring system shall be
established. The responsible department shall designate a safety monitor to monitor the safety of
the workers. The safety monitor shall:
• Be competent in the recognition of fall hazards;
• Be capable of warning workers of fall hazard dangers;
• Detect unsafe work practices as in accordance with this policy;
• Work on the same surface as the workers and maintain visual contact of all employees;
• Be close enough to the work operations to communicate orally with the workers; and
• Have no other duties that will interfere or distract from the monitoring function.

Mechanical equipment shall not be used or stored in areas where safety monitoring systems are
being used to monitor employees engaged in roofing operations on low-sloped roofs.

No worker, other then than one engaged in work on low-sloped roofs, or covered by a personal fall
arrest system, shall be allowed in an area where the employee is being protected by a safety
monitoring system.

All workers in a controlled access zone shall be instructed to promptly comply with all fall warnings
issued by the safety monitors.

Employee Training for Fall Protection

All employees that are exposed to fall hazards shall be trained in the recognition and minimization
of such hazards. Training shall be arranged through Safety and Environmental Affairs. The
employee shall be trained in the following areas:
• Nature of fall hazards in the work area;
• The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining, disassembling and inspecting fall protection
systems;
• The use and operation of controlled access zones and guardrail, personal fall arrest and
warning lines;
• The limitations on the use of mechanical equipment during the performance of roofing work
on low-slope roofs;
• The correct procedures for equipment and materials handling and storage and the erection of
overhead protection; and
• The employee’s role in fall protection plans.

Reference:
Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations 2007

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Fall Protection Competent Person Evaluation

This is a check list which has been devised to help/assist the employer determine if the person he/she has designated as
competent person is competent within the description and intent of the Fall Protection – Department of Labor and
Industries; State of Washington, USA.

Employee Name _____________________________________________ Employee Position _______________________________

Date of Evaluation by Employer ___________________ Length of time with employer ______________________

Length of time in fall protection ___________________________________________________________________________________

Training: (does the designated individual have training in)

Use of fall protection equipment Yes No
Inspection requirements of fall protection equipment Yes No
Maintenance of fall protection equipment Yes No
Storage of fall protection equipment Yes No
Identifying fall hazards Yes No
Requirements of the fall protection standard Yes No

Knowledge: (does the individual have knowledge about)

Fall hazards Yes No
Use of protective systems Yes No
Requirements of the standards Yes No
Fall protection work plans Yes No
Emergency removal Yes No
Line capacity Yes No

Authority: (does the individual have authority to)

Take prompt corrective measures to eliminate existing and predictable hazards? Yes No
Stop work until hazards are corrected or eliminated or controlled and remove
employees form the hazardous area until proper systems are in place? Yes No

Comments:
Do you consider the individual to be competent within the requirements of the Fall Protection Standard? Yes No
If Not, Why? ________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Employer/Representative Signature ________________________________________________________________________________

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 Safety Inspections 18-1

SAFETY INSPECTIONS
The American Federation of Government Safety inspections should be conducted by
Employees Policy states “Safety inspections are inspectors who know how to locate health and
undoubtedly the oldest of all accident prevention safety hazards and have the authority to act and
techniques. Safety inspections are a necessary make recommendations. A good safety inspector
segment of a complete occupational safety and must know the company’s accident experience,
health program.” familiarity with accident potentials, ability to
make intelligent recommendations for corrective
Safety inspections provide for an evaluation of action, and diplomacy in handling situations and
the workplace’s present condition and may personnel.
involve the observation of work practices as well.
However, inspections need to go beyond the mere Safety inspections need to take into
detection of an unsafe condition or an unsafe consideration the entire work force and therefore
work practice, they need to provide for an should be conducted at times that the workers are
analysis of why unsafe conditions and practices in place. Furthermore, health and safety
exist and provide recommendations for the inspections should not be conducted primarily to
eliminating or mitigating of the hazards detected. find how many things are wrong, but rather to
determine if everything is satisfactory. Their
Safety inspections provide a systematic purpose should be to discover conditions that, if
approach for involving managers and employees corrected will bring the plant or project up to
in the safety process (primarily eliminating and accepted and approved health and safety
mitigating hazards). Furthermore, these standards, and result in making it a safer and
inspections serve to document the company’s more healthful place in which to work.
commitment to safety, as well as play an
instrumental role in maintaining safety awareness In order to understand the significance of safety
in the workplace. inspections we must understand the types of
inspections and documenting of inspections.

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 Safety Inspections 18-2

Types of Safety Inspections

Informal Inspections The primary drawback of informal inspections

Each and everyone that walks onto the jobsite is that they rely on the workers and management
or into the workplace they conduct an informal personnel who are at the same workplace day
inspections. Examples of informal inspections after day. This drawback resulting from the fact
are when we notice: the portable fire extinguisher that we, as human beings, have a tendency to not
is missing; or the handrails are loose. From the notice something if left in place long enough.
employee to top management everyone is The National Safety Council states an analogy
responsible for ensuring accident-producing “an old newspaper left on a table for some time
hazards are identified and corrected. becomes part of the decor, a hazard can become
so familiar that it is no longer noticed.”
However, in order for an informal inspection to Therefore, poor housekeeping conditions may go
be effective the employees and management need unnoticed because the hazard occurs through
to be aware of the hazards which may present subtle accumulation.
themselves and know how to report these hazards,
so that they can be corrected.

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 Safety Inspections 18-3

Formal Inspections
Formal inspections may consist of being a Formal inspections check to make sure the items
periodic, intermittent, or general inspection. being inspected are still functional. For example:
Formal inspections are planned and involve a a portable fire extinguisher sitting in its
considerable amount of time, if executed properly designated location is seen everyday and therefore
(looking at each and everything - to ensure the available in the event of a fire (informal
safety measures in place are operational). inspection), however, upon a formal inspection –
checking to make sure the portable fire
 Periodic Inspections are those which extinguisher is still operational – it was noted that
occur at pre-set time intervals, such as: the portable fire extinguisher did not have a
weekly, monthly, yearly. Periodic safety charge. Thus making the portable fire
inspections are generally specific for an extinguisher non-operational.
area of the workplace and often times
include preventative maintenance.
These inspections are usually conducted
by the Safety Manager and work area
Supervisor (Foreman).

 Intermittent Inspections occur whenever

there is an indication that something is
wrong, usually based on accident
reports. Should a particular work area
experience an unusual number of
incident and accident reports, as well as
work orders; then an inspection is called
for. These inspections generally involve
a detailed review of the data collected
prior to the inspection and are conducted
by a Safety Manager.

 General Inspections occurs for those

areas that are often not considered
important, because no one gets hurt in
these areas. General inspections need to
be planned and put on the schedule.
These areas may include parking lots,
sidewalks, fencing, and overhead areas.

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 Safety Inspections 18-4

Documenting Inspections

The most popular method for conducting and Another means for documenting a safety
documenting a formal inspection is to use a inspection is merely to writing a report of
checklist. Checklists are popular because they are findings. Regardless which method is used,
an excellent way to help delegate safety please keep in mind that safety inspections play a
responsibility to supervisors and team leaders. A vital role in identifying hazards and therefore can
checklist not only helps them identify hazards, be used to help establish a company’s safety
but provides the opportunity for the employees to intend – if safety inspections are conducted
see that safety is a concern, enough of a concern frequently and corrective actions are taken for the
that the supervisor is out doing safety inspections. hazards identified.
The biggest advantage to a checklist is that it
provides a guide for everything that needs to be Safety inspections will reveal unsafe acts and
inspected. Whereas the biggest drawback to unsafe conditions on occasion, this need to be
using checklist is that who ever is using it, will address in the form of a corrective action.
only look for things that are on the checklist. Primarily because there is a potential for an
injury/illness and also should a Regulatory
Numerous checklist of a generic fashion are Compliance Manager show up and you have
available on the market and just like the ones indicated on a safety inspection a hazard and it
provided in this section, they need to be used as has gone uncorrected it becomes a willful
guidelines in the development of a company violation.
specific checklist. Three-safety checklist
(Construction, Maintenance, and Office) have Being able to document corrective actions for
been started for you at the end of this section, plus unsafe acts and unsafe conditions created by
a list of inspection type questions to further help employees can be quite challenging, however,
you in the development of a company specific this plays a vital role in establishing an
checklist. affirmative defense of unpreventable. A sample
Safety Disciplinary Policy will be discussed in the
section Documenting for Safety.

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 Safety Inspections 18-5

Safety Inspection – Construction

Jobsite ____________________________________________________ Date _________________

Employees _____________________________ ____________________________
________________________ _____ ____________________________
Inspector _________________________________ Supervisor __________________________

Inspection Item Y N N/A Comments

GENERAL
Barriers in Place
Work Area Clean and Orderly
Tools Serviceable
Hazardous Materials Labeled

FIRE & EMERGENCY

Knowledgeable of Project Emergency Alarm
Knowledgeable of Project Exits

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Hard Hat
Hear Protection
Safety Glasses / Goggles
Gloves
Safety Shoes

LIFTING TECHNIQUE
Pre-Stretch & Deep Breathe
Bend at the Knees
Back Straight
Team Lifting

VEHICLE
Fire Extinguisher Serviceable

This checklist is merely a guide to help you develop a company specific checklist. See page 17-8 for a list of
checklist type questions that you may wish to use.

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 Safety Inspections 18-6

Safety Inspection – Maintenance

Jobsite ____________________________________________________ Date _______________

Employees _____________________________ ____________________________
________________________ _____ ____________________________
Inspector _________________________________ Supervisor _________________________

Inspection Item Y N N/A Comments

GENERAL
Barriers in Place
Work Area Clean and Orderly
Tools Serviceable
Hazardous Materials Labeled
Knowledgeable of Building Fire Alarm
Knowledgeable of Fire Exit Locations
Mechanical Room Clean and Orderly

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Hard Hat
Hear Protection
Safety Glasses / Goggles
Gloves
Safety Shoes

LIFTING TECHNIQUE
Pre-Stretch & Deep Breathe

VEHICLE
Fire Extinguisher Serviceable

This checklist is merely a guide to help you develop a company specific checklist. See page 17-8 for a list of
checklist type questions that you may wish to use.

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 Safety Inspections 18-7

Safety Inspection – Office

Department ____________________________________ Date __________________

Employees ________________________ ____________________________
________________________ ____________________________
Inspector ____________________________ Supervisor _________________________

Inspection Item Y N N/A Comments

FIRE & EMERGENCY
Knowledgeable of Building Fire Alarm
Knowledgeable of Fire Exit Locations
Exits Marked and Unobstructed
Work Area Clean and Orderly
Emergency Evacuation Routes posted

OFFICE EQUIPMENT
Operated only by trained personnel
Electrical cords – serviceable

LIFTING TECHNIQUE
Pre-Stretch & Deep Breathe

GENERAL
Job Safety Poster – posted and unobstructed
Hazard Communication & MSDS available

This checklist is merely a guide to help you develop a company specific checklist. See page 17-8 for a list of
checklist type questions that you may wish to use.

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 Safety Inspections 18-8

Self-Inspection Checklist Questions

Recordkeeping
 Is one person clearly responsible for overall activities of the safety & health program?
 Are all accidents and incidents reported?
 Do you have disciplinary procedures for violations of your safety & health rules?
 Are all occupational injuries or illnesses, other than minor first aid being reported?
 Are all operating permits and records up-to-date for such items as elevators, air pressure tanks, etc.?

Medical and First Aid

 Are emergency phone numbers posted?
 Are first aid kits easily accessible to each work area, with the necessary supplies available?
 Are means provided for quick drenching or flushing of the eyes and body in areas where corrosive
liquids or materials are handled?

Fire Protection
 Is the fire alarm system tested at least annually?
 Are interior stand pipes and valves inspected regularly?
 Are fire doors in good operating condition?
 Are fire doors unobstructed and protected against obstruction, including their counterweights?
 Are fire door fusible links in place?
 Are portable fire extinguishers provided in appropriate types?
 Are fire extinguishers recharged regularly and so noted on the inspection tag?
 Are employees periodically instructed in the proper use of portable fire extinguishers and fire protection
procedures?

Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment

 Are protective goggles or face shields provided and worn where there is a danger of flying particles or
corrosive materials?
 Are approved safety glasses required to be worn at all times in areas where there is a risk of eye injuries?
 Are protective gloves, aprons, shields or other means provided and required where employees could be
cut or where there is a reasonably anticipated exposure to corrosive liquids, chemicals, blood, or other
potentially infectious materials?
 Are hard hats provided and worn when there is a danger of falling objects?
 Is appropriate foot protection required where there is a risk of foot injuries form hot or corrosive
materials, falling objects, or crushing or penetrating injuries?
 Are approved respirators provided for regular or emergency use as required?
 Is all personal protective equipment maintained in a sanitary condition and ready for use?
 Do you have an eye wash station for quick drenching of the eyes in areas where employees are exposed
to corrosive materials?
 Is protection against occupational noise exposure provided when the sound levels exceed limits?

General Work Environment

 Are all work areas clean, sanitary and orderly?
 Are work surfaces kept dry or appropriate means taken to assure the surfaces are slip-resistant?
 Is combustible scrap, debris and waste stored safely and removed form the worksite promptly?
 Are accumulations of combustible dust routinely removed form the work areas?
 Are covered metal waste cans used for oily and paint-soaked rags?
 Are paint spray booths, dip tanks and spray areas cleaned regularly?
 Are all toilets and washing facilities clean and sanitary?
 Are all work areas adequately illuminated?
 Are pits and floor openings covered or otherwise guarded?

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 Safety Inspections 18-9

Walkways
 Are aisles and passageways kept clear?
 Are aisles and walkways marked as appropriate?
 Are wet surfaces covered with a non-slip material?
 Is there safe clearance for walking in aisles where motorized or mechanical handling equipment is
operating?
 Are spilled materials cleaned up immediately?
 Are standard guardrails provided wherever aisle or walkway surfaces are elevated above any floor or
ground?
 Are bridges provided over conveyors and similar hazards?

Floor and Wall Openings

 Are floor openings guarded by a cover, guardrail?
 Are toebaords installed around the edge of permanent floor openings (where persons may pass below the
opening)?
 Are unused portions of service pits or pits not in use covered or protected by guardrails or equivalent?
 Are floor or wall openings in fire resistive construction provided with doors or covers compatible with
the fire rating of the structure and also provided with self-closing devices?

Stairs and Stairways

 Are standard stair rails or handrails provided on all stairways having 4 or more risers?
 Do stairway handrails have at least 3” of clearance between the rail and the wall or surface they are
mounted on?
 Are stairways at least 22” wide?
 Are step risers on stairs uniform form top to bottom?
 Are stairway handrails capable of withstanding a load of 200 pounds, applied within 2” of the top edge,
in any downward or outward direction?

Elevated Surfaces
 Are signs posted, when appropriate showing the elevated surface load capacity?
 Are all surfaces elevated more than 30” above the ground provided with a standard guard?
 Is material on elevated surfaces piled, stacked or racked in a manner to prevent it from tipping, falling,
collapsing or rolling?
 Are dock boards or bridge plates used when transferring materials between a loading dock and truck?

Exiting or Egress
 Are all exits marked with an exit sign and illuminated by a reliable light source?
 Is the direction to exits, when not immediately apparent, marked with visible signs?
 Are doors, passageways or stairways, that are neither exits nor access to exits and which could be
mistaken for exits, marked “Not An Exit”?
 Are all exits kept free form obstructions?
 Are there sufficient exits to permit prompt escape in the event of an emergency?
 Are special precautions taken to protect employees during construction or repair operations?

Exit Doors
 Are doors which are required to serve as exits designed and constructed such that the way of exit is
obvious?
 Are exit doors operable form the direction of exit travel without the use of a key or any special
knowledge or effort?
 Are doors on cold storage rooms provided with an inside release mechanism, which will release the latch
and open the door even when it is padlocked or otherwise locked on the outside?
 Where exit doors open directly to any street, alley or other area where vehicles may be operated, are
adequate barriers and warnings provided to prevent employees form stepping into the path of traffic?
 Are doors that swing in both directions and are located between rooms where ther4 is frequent traffic
provided with viewing ports in each door?

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 Safety Inspections 18-10

Portable Ladders
 Are ladders maintained in good condition?
 Are non-slip safety feet provided on each ladder?
 Are ladder rungs and steps free form grease or oil?
 Is it prohibited to place a ladder in front of doors opening toward the ladder except when the door is
blocked, locked or guarded?
 Is it prohibited to place ladders on boxes, barrels, or other unstable bases to gain additional height?
 Are employees instructed to face the ladder while ascending or descending?
 Are employees prohibited form using ladders that are broken, missing steps, rungs or cleats, or otherwise
defective?
 Are employees instructed not to use the top step of the stepladder as a step?
 When portable ladders are used to gain access to elevated platforms, roots, etc., does the ladder always
extend at least 3’ above the elevated surface?
 Are all ladders inspected periodically for damage?
 Are the rungs of ladders uniformly spaced at 12” center to center?

Hand Tools and Equipment

 Are all tools, used by the employees at the workplace in good condition?
 Are hand tools such as chisels, and punches, which may develop mushroom heads during use,
reconditioned or replaced as necessary?
 Are broken or fractured handles on hammers, axes and similar tools replaced immediately?
 Are worn or bent wrenches replaced as necessary?
 Are appropriate safety glasses, face shields, etc., used while using hand tools or equipment which might
be subject to breakage or could result in flying parts such as metal form chisels?
 Are tools stored in dry, secure locations where they won’t be tampered with?
 Are grinders, saws and similar equipment provided with appropriate safety guards?
 Are power tools used with correct shield, guard or other attachment as recommended by the
manufacturer?
 Are portable circular saws equipped with guards above and below the blade?
 Are portable circular saws checked to assure that the guard is not wedged in the up position?
 Are rotating or moving parts of equipment guarded to prevent physical contact?
 Are all cord-connected, electrically operated tools and equipment effectively grounded or of the
approved double insulted type?
 Are effective guards in place over belts, pulleys, chains, sprockets, and gears?
 Are portable fans provide with full guards or screens with openings not larger than ½”?
 Is hoisting equipment available and used for lifting heavy objects, and are ratings and characteristics
appropriate for that task?
 Are ground fault circuit interrupters provided on all temporary electrical 15 & 20-ampere circuits used
during periods of construction?

Abrasive Wheel Equipment – Grinders

 Is the work rest adjusted to within 1/8” of the face of the abrasive wheel?
 Is the adjustable tongue guard on the top side of the grinder used and kept adjusted to within ¼” of the
wheel?
 Do side guards cover the spindle end, nut and flange and 75% of the wheel diameter?
 Are bench and pedestal grinders permanently mounted?
 Are goggles and/or face shields worn while grinding?
 Is the maximum RPM rating of each abrasive wheel compatible with the RPM rating of the grinder
motor?
 Are fixed or permanently mounted grinders connected to their supply system with metal conduit or other
permanent wiring?
 Does each grinder have it’s own on-off control?
 Before new abrasive wheels are mounted, are they visually inspected and ring tested?

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 Safety Inspections 18-11

Machine Guarding
 Is there a training program to instruct employees on the safe methods of machine operation?
 Is there a regular program of inspection to assure the safe operation of machine and equipment?
 Is sufficient clearance provided around and between machines to allow for safe operations, set up and
servicing?
 Is there a power shut-off switch within reach of the operator’s station?
 Can all power sources to each machine be locked out for safe maintenance or set-up?
 Are all non-current carrying metal parts of electrically operated equipment properly grounded?
 Are foot-operated switches guarded or arranged to prevent accidental operation from personnel or falling
objects?
 Are all emergency stop buttons colored red?
 Are all pulleys and belts within 7’ of the floor properly guarded?
 Are all moving chains and gears guarded?
 Are methods provided to protect the operator and other employees in the machine area from hazards
created at the point of operation?
 Are machine guards secure and so arranged so that they do not pose a hazard by their use?
 Are provisions made to prevent machines from automatically re-starting following a restoration of power
after a power outage?
 Are saws used for ripping equipped with an anti-kick back device and spreader bar?
 Are radial arm saws so arranged so that the cutting head will gently return to the back of the table when
released?

Lockout/Tagout Procedures
 Is there a program that describes the procedures for safely locking out machinery and equipment prior to
repairs, routine maintenance and set-up?
 Are employees properly trained in the correct lockout techniques?
 Does the lockout program include all energy sources such as electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and all
other stored energy?

Welding, Cutting and Brazing

 Are only authorized and trained personnel permitted to use welding, cutting and brazing equipment?
 Are compressed gas cylinders regularly examined for obvious signs of defects, rusting or leakage?
 Are cylinders kept away form heat sources?
 Are all hoses, regulators and valves checked periodically for war or defects?
 Are electrodes removed form the holder when not in use?
 Are firewatchers assigned when welding or cutting is performed in locations where there is a danger of
fires starting?
 Is eye protection worn whenever welding or cutting operations are performed?

Compressed Gas Cylinders

 Are compressed gas cylinders stored in the upright position and secured to prevent them from being
knocked over?
 Are fuel cylinders and oxygen cylinders stored at least 20’ apart or separated by a non-combustible
petition at least 5’ high and with a fire rating of at least ½ hour?
 Are valve protection caps in place when cylinders are transported, moved or stored?

Industrial Trucks – Forklifts

 Are only trained employees allowed to operate powered industrial trucks?
 Are forklifts with extended lifts equipped with an overhead guard?
 Are forklifts maintained in good operating condition and are repairs performed in a timely manner?

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 Safety Inspections 18-12

Spraying Operations
 Is adequate ventilation assured before spray operations begin?
 Is mechanical ventilation provide when spraying operations are conducted in confined areas?
 Is the spray area at least 20’ from any flames, sparks, operating electric motors or other ignition sources?
 Are “No Smoking” signs posted in any spray area or booth?
 Is approved respiratory equipment provide and used when spraying operations are undertaken?
 Are spray booth filters checked on a regular schedule and replaced when necessary?

Confined Space Entry

 Is there a plan for assuring the safety and health of employees when they are required to enter into any
confined workspace?

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 Motivation 19-1

Motivation

Maintaining production is a vital aspect for any When Mayo provided more illumination in the
supervisor (foreman). However, production workplace, he noted that production increased,
suffers whenever an accident occurs. Even just as he had theorized. However, when he
though every precaution may be taken by the turned the illumination down in the same
equipment manufacturer, supplier, first line workplace, he noted that production still
supervisor and safety manager, accidents continue increased. This led Mayo to try other controllable
to occur. More often than not, the cause for the factors regarding the workers environment, such
accident is contributed to the human factor which as temperature variations, humidity and length of
may affect managers as well as the workers. rest periods. Regardless of the element Mayo
controlled, production always showed a positive
The human factor in relation to production was effect. Mayo’s conclusion was that it was not the
first published in the papers known as the work conditions that influenced productivity, but
Hawthorne Effect, a series of experiments merely the attention given to the employees that
conducted between the years 1924 and 1932 by increased production. The publication of the
Elton Mayo. Mayo wanted to study how the Hawthorne Effect provided a basis for further
amount of illumination in the workplace would studies in the area of industrial social psychology.
affect production. So with the cooperation of
Western Electric, Mayo was able to conduct his
experiment in a wiring room at the Hawthorne
Plant, just west of Chicago.

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 Motivation 19-2

Industrial Social Psychology Theories

Maslow Landy
Abraham Maslow continued studies in the area Landy, a noted psychologist cites other studies
of industrial psychology and developed the in the area of industrial psychology, more
Maslow’s Model of Hierarchy of Human Needs, specifically motivation, to include:
consisting of five (5) steps: physiological,
security, social, ego and self-actualization. • The Need Achievement Theory - a study
conducted by Murry on the desire to
• Physiological: basic biological functions of overcome obstacles and to exercise power.
food, water and warmth; these needs are
generally provided through payment of • ERG Theory - Alderfer’s study offers three
wages to the employee. basic human needs: existence, relatedness
and growth.
• Security: employees want to know what is
expected of them; these needs can be • Two-Factor Theory - presented by Herzberg
provided by training. concentrating on hygiene (basic maintenance
needs) and motivator (growth needs - job
• Social: need to belong; therefore will do enrichment).
anything (including taking risk) in order to
belong to a group.

• Ego: self-esteem; need for recognition.

• Self-Actualization: putting all others above

them self.

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 Motivation 19-3

National Safety Council

The NSC concluded that although these studies • Attitude. This is the behavior we can see
utilize different terminology or titles when they displayed by a person toward another person,
draw their conclusions, they still agree that group or situation. Vogel best describes
people are different and what will motivate one attitudes in an article that appeared in
person may not motive another. However, the Today’s Supervisor, August 1992; “You
National Safety Council has been able to can’t see attitudes, but they affect the way
generalize these psychological factors, with the your workers behave and that’s what you
six most common being: individual differences, see”. Attitudes are internal and develop
motivation, emotion, stress, attitudes and learning through cumulating experiences.
process.
• Learning Process. This results through our
• Individual Differences. This psychological development with acquired knowledge from
factor reflects that each person is different our surroundings and those we trust, the
and generally implies that individuals will acquisition of knowledge. It is from this
behave differently given the same situation. knowledge that at an early age we form our
It is this difference that creates problems attitudes, behavior and personality which we
among people and will continue to be an on- will utilize to face life. Thus if a person
going problem in most businesses and forms the wrong attitude toward safety, the
industries. process of unlearning the old way and
learning the new way will require time.
• Motivation. This refers to an individual’s
internal drive to acquire something or to not
want something. Many areas have been
identified that are known to provide
motivation. However, three factors that have
the greatest influence on safety in an
organization are: peer pressure, positive
involvement and recognition. Each of these
areas contributes significantly to meeting our
individual needs and sense of belonging.

• Emotion. Davis defines emotion as “a

mental state or feeling such as fear, hate,
love, anger, grief, or joy arising as a
subjective experience rather than as a
conscious mental effort.” Emotions
therefore, can interfere with a worker’s
thought processes, resulting in behavior that
conflicts with a rational approach to work
performance.

• Stress. Davis defines stress as “the result

produced when a structure, system, or
organism is acted upon by forces that disrupt
equilibrium or produce strain.” Stress occurs
when the individual experiences difficulty in
coping with these excessive disruptive forces.

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 Motivation 19-4

It is with an understanding of these utilize an appropriate poster, place it in an

psychological factors of human behavior that we area where it will be seen and most
can approach employee safety through importantly change them periodically – as we
motivation. The National Safety Council become complacent very fast.
identifies three of the most common approaches:
involvement, awareness and recognition. • Recognition. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
identifies the importance of belonging.
• Involvement. Safety applies to the entire Through recognition we are able to let the
company, both the workers and management. safe employee know that they belong to a
Therefore, the workers should be a part of the group of people whose primary interest is
safety decision making process. This can be safety for all employees. Recognition does
achieved through an employee suggestion not have to be expensive, merely
program, participation in the safety acknowledging a person’s safety
committee and safety contests. With achievements and practices in front of their
involvement on the part of the employee, peers can contribute to the success of safety’s
they feel more strongly to making safety a overall program. Awards are beneficial in
success. providing a daily reminder of the employee’s
safety achievement – however, in order for
A Safety Committee’s primary objective is to an award to be effective there must be a
create and maintain an interest in safety. consistency in the awarding of them. Merely
Therefore, by including employees on the passing awards out to one’s favorite workers
committee it helps instill a sense of will undermine an incentive program fast.
ownership for safety among the employees.

• Awareness. Motivating employees toward

positive safety is not a one time deal, it
requires an on-going program. Through
awareness we can maintain motivation and
one inexpensive means is with safety posters.
However, in order to be effective we must
Safety
Award

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 Motivation 19-5

Motivating
Motivation more often than not is attempted Safety is an issue at the workplace or jobsite,
through positive approaches, such as those above which is easily affected by human behavior.
mentioned (involvement, awareness and Behavior which demonstrates the attitude of a
recognition). However, there are also negative person, as well as demonstrates a person’s
approaches which can achieve motivation for knowledge and skill regarding safety. With this
safety, such as fear. The National Safety Council understanding of human behavior we are able to
cites Cohen’s fear-tactic as being one where fear apply the safety measures of motivation in order
is instilled into the employees about the risk to achieve the desired effect for safety.
involving a hazardous behavior and then reducing
the fear by providing safety measures to reduce Multiple studies in the area of industrial
the risk involved. psychology have identified the human needs and
desires. Through the results of these studies,
Another negative approach is by imposing psychological factors were identified as:
disciplinary action for violations of safety individual differences, motivation, emotion,
procedures and practices. Disciplinary action stress, attitude and the learning process. These
may involve everything from monetarily fining an psychological factors were further studied to
employee up to termination. A safety disciplinary provide the motivational factors that influence
action program should involve a three step human behavior: involvement, awareness and
process: 1) Written Warning; 2) Written recognition.
Notification of Failure to Comply and appearance
before the safety committee; and 3) Written Motivating equates out to the force which
Notification of Failure to Comply and some form influences our internal desire to do something or
of disciplinary action. This three-step process is to not do something and each person may have
utilized when the employee violates the same (or different needs that affect that force. Simply put,
similar) safety procedure or practice, such as what may motivate one person may not motivate
failing to utilize personal protective equipment. another person. Therefore, we may need to
The disciplinary action process should not be employ several motivational measures in an
progressive when the safety infractions are not of attempt to instill a safe work behavior in the
the same nature, such as one time failing to utilize employees and supervisors (foremen).
personal protective equipment, one time using
improper lifting technique, nor one time smoking
in a non-designated area; however, for each of
these safety violations the employee should be
given a written warning.

References:
Davis, F.A. (1989) (17th ed.) Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary.
Landy, Frank J. (1989) (4th ed.) Psychology of Work Behavior.
National Safety Council (1997) (11th ed.) Accident Prevention Manual.
National Safety Council (1993) (8th ed.) Supervisor’s Safety Manual.

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 Occupational Health 20-1

Occupational Health

To be effective in recognizing and evaluating on-the-job hazards and recommending controls, Safety
Managers must be familiar with the potential hazards that can affect a workers’ health. These potential
hazards can include air contaminants, chemical, biological, physical, ergonomic and industrial toxicology.

 Air Contaminants
These are commonly classified as either Solvents
particulate or gas and vapor contaminants. Solvents are the primary source for producing
The most common particulate contaminants mist in the work area. A substance that dissolves
include dusts, fumes, mists, aerosols, and another substance is called a solvent, which
fibers. Dusts are solid particles generated by generally refers to organic solvents. A solution is
handling, crushing, grinding, colliding, a mixture of two or more substances which have
exploding, and heating organic or inorganic uniform chemical and physical properties.
materials such as rock, ore, metal, coal, Therefore, solutions have two components: the
wood, and grain. Any process that produce solvent and solute (solvent generally refers to the
dust fine enough to remain in the air long major component and solute refers to the lesser
enough to be inhaled or ingested should be component).
regarded as hazardous until proven
otherwise. The term mist is applied to liquid For Example: The acetylene cylinder used in
suspended in the atmosphere. Mists are fuel-oxygen welding actually contains acetone
generated by liquids condensing from a vapor (solvent) which dissolves the acetylene. This is
back to a liquid or by a liquid being dispersed done so that the acetylene can be released as a gas
by splashing or atomizing. Aerosols are also (under pressure) in a uniform consistency,
a form of a mist characterized by high adequate for welding.
respirable, minute liquid particles. Fibers are
solid particles whose length is several times The term solvent can be used for gases states of
bigger then their diameter, such as asbestos. substances, as well as liquid. However, for
Environmental Management, we will restrict the
usage of solvents to include liquids commonly
used to dissolve other substances. Such liquid
solvents include: naphtha, mineral spirits,
turpentine, benzene, alcohol, perchloroethylene,
and trichoroethane.

Gases
Gas is a formless fluid that completely fills its
container and whose exerted pressure is the same
in all directions. When a volatile chemical
vaporizes it takes the form of a vapor gas.

Commercially, gases are available as

compressed or liquefied gases. The following
Gases are formless fluids that expand to table provides the common industrial gases,
occupy the space or enclosure in which they cylinder pressures, and physical state.
are confined. They are atomic, diatomic, or
molecular in nature as opposed to droplets or  Gases whose predominant health effect is
particles which are made up of millions of asphyxia.
atoms or molecules. Through evaporation,
liquids change into vapors and mix with the  All other gases whose health effects and
surrounding atmosphere. Vapors are the toxicity are determined by their chemical
volatile form of substance that are normally functional group and reactivity.
in a solid or liquid state at room temperature
and pressure. Vapors are gases in that true
vapors are atomic or molecular in nature.

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 Occupational Health 20-2

Gas Pressure (psig) Form

Ammonia 114 Liquid Particulates present a health problem by ingestion
Argon 225-6,000 Gas and inhalation. Ingestion of a non-soluble usually
Arsine 190-205 Liquid does not present a problem, because it will
Carbon generally pass right through the intestinal tract.
Dioxide 830 Liquid However, soluble particulates will be absorbed in
Helium 225-6,000 Gas the digestive system, picked up by the blood and
Hydrogen 225-3,500 Gas deposited in a target organ, such as oxide collects
in the liver. However, as a health problem our
Hydrogen
biggest concern is inhalation as this is the primary
chloride 613 Liquid
route for exposure to particulates.
Hydrogen
flouride 0.6 Liquid
Four factors have the greatest influence on
Methane 1,500-2,300 Gas particulate exposure:
Neon 225-1,900 Gas 1. Type of particulate involved;
Nitrogen 225-6,000 Gas 2. Length of exposure;
Nitrous oxide 745 Liquid 3. Concentration of airborne particulate in the
Oxygen 225-2,200 Gas breathing zone of those exposed; and
Phosphine 400-2,200 Liquid 4. Size of the particulate.
Silane 150-1,200 Gas
Type of Particulate Involved – industrial dust can
Particulates be categorized as organic and inorganic. Organic
Particulate is a collective term for dusts, fumes, particulates originate from animals, plants and
fibers and mists. synthetic material. Generally speaking organic
particulates tend to produce allergic responses
 Dusts; solid particles generated by handling, after an exposure. Inorganic particulates originate
crushing, grinding, rapid impact, detonation, from metallic or non-metallic material and
and decrepitation of organic or inorganic generally produce local dermatitis and
materials, such as rock, ore, metal, coal, sensitization and systemic toxicity (particularly to
wood and grain. Dusts do not diffuse in air the kidneys, blood and central nervous system).
but settle under the influence of gravity.
Generally speaking dusts involve a wide Length of Exposure – various aliments can result
range of particle sizes. from various lengths of exposure. For example,
pneumoconioses (“dusty lung”) generally takes
 Fume; airborne particulate formed by the years of exposure to such particulates as silicosis,
condensation of solid particles from the asbestosis or coal. However, toxic metals such as
gaseous state. Usually, fumes are generated lead and manganese can produce a health problem
after initial volatilization from a combustion after just several days of exposure. And, an acute
process, or from a melting process (such as exposure of just a few hours to some metal fumes
metal fume emitted during welding). Fume can produce fume fever, a transit illness that
size is usually less than 1 µm in diameter. displays signs and symptoms like the flu.

 Fibers; connote thinness and elongation, as in Particulate Concentration – refers to how much of
the case of asbestos. Thread-like fibers the particulate is in the breathing zone of the
separated from the base rock during crushing, worker(s). The ACGIH establishes guidelines in
cutting or mining. the form of TLV’s (Threshold Limit Values) for
specific particulates, these exposure limits help
 Mists; suspended liquid droplets generated by control exposure and should not be exceeded.
condensation from the gaseous to the liquid
state or by breaking up a liquid into a
dispersed state, such as by splashing,
foaming, or atomizing. Mist is formed when
a finely divided liquid is suspended in air,
such as the mist produced by oil being used
in cutting operations or spray painting.

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 Occupational Health 20-3

Particulate Size – is of extreme importance when Common Health Problems Due to Exposure to
considering inhalation as the route of entry for a Air Contaminates
particulate. Particulates less than 5 microns in Lung Diseases – the body’s reaction to the
size can easily be inhaled and settle in the accumulation of particulates in the lungs.
alveolar sacs of the lungs. Generally speaking, a
person can see particulates measuring 50 microns  Systemic Reactions – when blood absorbs
and larger with the naked eye, particulates of this inorganic toxic particulates.
size usually settle to the ground in a very short
time. However, particulates that are small enough  Metal Fume Fever – inhalation of fumes of
to cause considerable lung damage can remain zinc, magnesium, copper or their oxides.
airborne for several minutes, thereby increasing
the probability of being inhaled by a unsuspecting  Allergic or sensitization Reactions – body’s
worker. reaction when exposed to particulates.

 Bacterial and Fungus Infections – inhalation

of particulate containing live organisms.

 Irritation of Nose and Throat – caused by

acid, alkali, or other irritating dusts or mists.

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 Occupational Health 20-4

 Chemical Hazards
Harmful chemical components in the form of solids, liquids, gases, mists, dusts, fumes, and vapors
exert toxic effects by inhalation (breathing), absorption (through direct contact with the skin), or
ingestion (eating or drinking). Airborne chemical hazards exist as concentrations of mists, vapors,
gases, fumes, or solid. Some are toxic through inhalation and some of them irritate the skin on contact;
some can be toxic by absorption through the skin or through ingestion, and some are corrosive to living
tissue. The degree of worker risk from exposure to any given substance depends on the nature and
potency of the toxic effects and the magnitude and duration of exposure. Information on the risk to
workers from chemical hazards can be obtained from the Safety Data Sheets by the manufacture or
importer to the purchaser of all hazardous materials.

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 Occupational Health 20-5

 Biological Hazards
Biological hazards encompass exposures to infectious microorganisms, biological allergens and toxins.
In 1988, Dutkiewicz, conducted a review of occupational biohazards and noted some 193 biological
agents capable of producing infectious, allergens, toxic and/or carcinogenic reactions in the worker.
For the purpose of hazard recognition most of these biological agents can be categorized into one of the
four following groups:

1. Microorganisms and their toxins;

2. Arthropods (crustaceans, arachnids, and insects);

3. Allergens and Toxins from plants; and

4. Protein allergens from vertebrate animals.

For the most part workers involved in agricultural, medical and laboratory activities have the greatest
risk for exposure to biological hazards. However, please note that all industries can be affected.

 Microorganisms – are a diverse group of microscopic organisms that include bacteria, fungi, algae,
protozoa and viruses. Although only a small percentage of all the microorganisms are disease
producing (pathogenic), much attention is given to microorganisms because of the adverse effect
they can cause humans, usually in the form of an infection.

Infection is the result of microorganisms invading the human body and having an effect, which
causes damage to tissues or organs or the body as a whole. Most occupations that work with
infectious microorganisms take rigid control measures to protect their workers.

However there are five distinct microorganism that can present a biological hazard to all workers in
general and every workplace should be assess to determine their presence and control:

 Hepatitis B (Bloodborne Pathogens)

 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (Bloodborne Pathogens)

 Mycobactirum Tuberculosis (Respiratory)

 Legionnnaire Disease (Respiratory)

 Histoplasmosis (Respiratory)
A fungal infection as a result of exposure to histoplasmosis. Commonly found in bird and
bat droppings. Can be picked up by the HVAC system and carried throughout a building.

Other biological microorganisms that can present a problem to workers who work outside are:

 Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease)

Worker gets bit by an infected tick – bite produces a small red circle – like a bull’s eye.

 Bacillus anthracis (anthrax)

This bacterium generally lives on the hairs of sheep, but has also be known to live in soil.
- cutaneous anthrax results when the bacterium enters through a wound or the mucus
membrane.
- pulmonary anthrax results when the bacterium is inhaled, usually misdiagnosed and
therefore spreads quickly causing death.

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 Occupational Health 20-6

 Clostridium tetani (Tetanus)

This bacterium is found everywhere and generally enters the body through a wound. It is
recommend that outdoor workers be vaccinated against tetanus at least once every 5 to 10
years.

Bloodborne Pathogens
The most prominent way to protect workers from microorganisms is by abiding by the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration’s Bloodborne Pathogens standard 29 Code of Federal Regulation
1910.130.

Bloodborne pathogens are microorganisms in the blood or other body fluids that can cause illness and
disease in people. These microorganisms can be transmitted through contact with contaminated blood
and body fluids.

When bloodborne diseases are mentioned, most people think automatically of AIDS, but actually
HBV, or the hepatitis B virus, is much more common. AIDS is usually fatal, though it may take years
for symptoms to appear. HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is primarily transmitted through sexual
contact, though it may also be contracted through contact with contaminated blood or some body
fluids. HBV attacks the liver, and is sometimes fatal. It is transmitted through saliva, blood and other
body fluids.

According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), as of June 1994, there were 401,749 confirmed
cases of AIDS in the U.S., and approximately 300,000 people become infected with hepatitis B
annually. It is estimated that a further 1.5 million people in the U.S. are infected with HIV, and that
most are between the ages of 25 and 49 and are active members of the workforce.

Bloodborne Pathogens
• Exposure Control Plan
Each work area where employees may be exposed to blood or body fluids must formulate an
Exposure Control Plan. This plan attempts to minimize the risks of infection by bloodborne
pathogens. It covers:
- identification of employees who are covered by the plan and the tasks where there is a
potential for exposure to blood
- train employees who are at risk
- specific measures the employer will take to minimize the risk of exposure; these will
include:
 adhere to "Universal Precautions"
 engineering and work practice controls
 personal protective equipment
 housekeeping issues
 hepatitis B vaccine
- procedures to follow if there is an exposure
If you are an "affected" employee, that is, if there is a potential for you to be exposed to
human blood or body fluids, check with your supervisor and determine your and your
supervisor's responsibilities and make certain that you understand those responsibilities.

• Minimizing the Risk

The employer must minimize the exposure of students and employees to bloodborne pathogens
whenever the potential for that exposure exists. OSHA has taken the position that there are no
"risk-free" populations, and enforcement of OSHA's "general duty clause" implies that
employers must be knowledgeable of and comply with the bloodborne pathogens standard.
Risk is minimized through improved engineering design and work practices, through the use of
protective equipment as appropriate and by addressing housekeeping issues in the following
manner:

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 Occupational Health 20-7

Universal Precautions
Universal Precautions are the Center for Disease Control's (CDC) recommendations
for handling body fluids and blood in the workplace. The CDC's position is that all
body fluids and blood should be handled as if they were contaminated.

Engineering and work practice controls

Use autoclaves to sterilize all equipment and to treat infectious waste.
Use puncture resistant, labeled sharps containers for disposal of needles, razor blades,
etc.
Do not break, bend or recap needles - place them directly in the sharps container.
Do not pick up broken glass with your hands - sweep it up.
Wash hands immediately after removing gloves and after any hand contact with blood
contaminated surfaces.
Don't keep food or water in areas where blood is worked with.
Don't eat, drink, smoke or apply make-up in areas where blood is worked with.
Eliminate splashing of infectious materials when possible.
Never pipette by mouth!
Protect open wounds from infectious materials.

Personal protective equipment

Employers must make available and employees must use personal protective
equipment (PPE) when the possibility of exposure to blood or infectious materials
exists.
Employees must be trained in the use off PPE.
PPE must be accessible and clean.
Disposable gloves must be replaced as soon as they are torn or punctured.
Eye protection must be worn if there is a chance for a splash to occur.
The level of protection required is dependent upon the task at hand.

Housekeeping issues
Clean up all blood or body fluid spills immediately.
Clean and decontaminate all surfaces and equipment which have been in contact with
blood thoroughly.
Contaminated laundry must be handled with extreme caution and contact minimized.

Hepatitis B vaccine
Must be provided at no cost to at-risk personnel
85% to 97% effective

Some do’s and don’ts regarding bloodborne pathogens:

Do
Use appropriate PPE when working with blood or infectious materials.
 Check it first for damage.
 Remove PPE carefully to avoid self-contamination.
 Dispose of contaminated PPE correctly in leak-proof containers for disposal or for
decontamination.
 Make sure you have been trained in the use of PPE and it is documented!
Use good personal hygiene
 Wash exposed skin immediately with soap and water.
 Wash thoroughly after removing PPE.
 Flush exposed eyes, nose or mouth quickly and thoroughly with water.
 Cover open cuts.
Use good work practices.
 Minimize splashing of infectious materials.
 Clean up spills immediately.

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 Clean and decontaminate all equipment and surfaces in contact with blood or other
infectious material.
 Dispose of sharps in a puncture-proof, labeled container.
Know the proper response for accidental exposures.
 Know the Bloodborne Pathogens Standard so you can respond without fear.
 Report on-the-job exposures promptly and seek immediate medical attention.

Do Not
 Don't have unprotected sex, use illicit drugs or share needles.
 Don't worry about getting one of these diseases through casual contact.
 Don't eat or drink, or keep food and drinks in areas where infectious materials are
used.
 Never pipette by mouth.
 Never break, bend or recap contaminated needles.
 Don't clean up broken glass by hand, use a broom and dustpan.

• Exposure Response
An exposure can occur whenever a bloodborne pathogens incident occurs-that is there is an
exposure involving the eyes, mouth, other mucous membrane or broken skin contacts blood or
other infectious materials on the job. If an exposure occurs, arrange for an immediate medical
evaluation that includes the following:
- document what happened
- identify and test the source individual if feasible
- test the exposed person's blood, if consent is obtained
- provide counseling
- evaluate any reported illness

• Means of Transmission
Bloodborne pathogens are transmitted when contaminated blood or body fluids enter the body
of another person. This can occur through a number of pathways, such as:
- An accidental puncture by a sharp object contaminated with the pathogen. "Sharps"
include objects such as:
o needles
o scalpels
o broken glass
o razor blades
- Open cuts or skin abrasions coming in contact with contaminated blood or body fluids
- Sexual contact
- Indirect transmission (a person touches dried or caked on blood and then touches the
eyes, mouth, nose or an open cut) (HBV only)

There are also many ways that these diseases are not transmitted. For instance bloodborne
pathogens are not transmitted by touching an infected person, through coughing or sneezing or
by using the same equipment, materials, toilets, water fountains or showers as an infected
person. It is important that people are educated as to which ways are viable means of
transmission of these dangerous diseases, and which are not.

Provided by: [Link]

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 Physical Hazards
These include excessive levels of ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation, noise, vibration,
illumination, and temperature. In occupations where there is exposure to ionizing radiation, time
distance and shielding are important tools in ensuring worker safety. Danger from radiation increase
with the amount of time one is exposed to it; hence, the shorter the time of exposure the smaller the
radiation danger.

Distance also is a valuable tool in controlling exposure to both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
Radiation levels from some sources can be estimated by comparing the squares of the distances between
worker and source. For example, at a reference point of 10 feet from the source, the radiation is 1/100
or the intensity at 1 foot from the source. Shielding also is a way to protect against radiation. The
greater the protective mass between radioactive source and the worker, the lower the radiation
exposure. Similarly, shielding workers from non-ionizing radiation can also be an effective control
method. In some instances, however, limiting exposure to or increasing distance from certain forms of
non-ionizing radiation, such as lasers, is not effective. For example, an exposure to laser radiation that
is faster then the blinking eye can be hazardous and require workers to be miles from the laser source,
before being adequately protected.

Noise, another significant physical hazard, can be controlled by various measures. Noise can be
reduced by installing equipment and systems that have been engineered, designed, and built to operate
quietly; by enclosing or shielding noisy equipment; by making certain the equipment is in good repair
and properly maintained, with all worn or unbalanced parts replaced; by mounting noisy equipment on
special mounts to reduce vibration; and by installing silencers, mufflers, or baffles. Substituting quiet
work methods for noisy ones is another significant way to reduce noise-for example, welding parts
rather than riveting them. Also, treating floors, ceilings and walls with acoustical material can reduce
reflected or reverberant noise. In addition, erecting sound barriers at adjacent work stations around
noisy operations will reduce worker exposure to noise generated at adjacent work stations. It is also
possible to reduce noise exposure by increasing the distance between the source and the receiver, by
isolating workers in acoustical booths, limiting workers exposure time to noise, and by providing
hearing protection.

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Non-ionizing Radiation
When the fields of electricity and magnetism equals one wavelength. Short wave lengths
are combined, the results is electromagnetic represent high frequencies, whereas long
radiation. Simply put, electromagnetic wavelengths represent low frequencies.
radiation is the type of radiation that does not
cause ionization and includes ultraviolet, Electromagnetic Spectrum
laser, infrared, microwave and The electric and magnetic fields consist of
radiofrequency radiation. numerous frequencies, which can be divided
into an electromagnetic spectrum.
However, non-ionizing radiation is
generally not radiation at all, but the  Subradiofrequency Fields - frequencies
conditions brought on as separate fields of below 3,000 Hz and are generally used
electricity and magnetism. Which consist of for voice modulation at 3,000 Hz,
the frequencies below 300 MHz. Radiation submarine communications and electric
on the other hand, is when the fields of heating at 300 Hz and DC at 0 Hz. TLV
electricity and magnetism are tightly for DC electric field Magnetism can
interwoven. have an effect on the circulatory system
due to blood being a briny material.
As identified earlier, there are several
different forms of non-ionizing radiation,  Radiofrequency/Microwave Fields -
each of which has found its way into frequencies between 3,000 Hz and
industry, as well as our homes. Non-ionizing 300,000,000,000 Hz and are generally
radiation has become part of our progress, used for AM radio at 3 MHz, CB radio at
but not without its hazards. Hazards that can 30 MHz, navigation aids, FM and
best be identified and controlled when the Television (channels 2-13) at 300 MHz.
Safety Manager has an understanding of
electromagnetic radiation.  Optical Radiation 300 GHz to 3 X 10
15 Television (channels 14-82), taxi
Electricity and Magnetic Fields dispatch, radar, ovens and cellular
Electricity produces an electric field, phones at 3 GHz; satellite
whether it is moving or not, and as the communications, radar, fire, and police
electric charge is increased so will the speed guns at 30 GHz; Satellite
electric field. Electric fields are measured communications, radio relay and
using a displace sensor (a pair of flat navigation aids at 300 GHz.
conductors inserted into the field and
measuring the electrical potential between the  Ionizing Radiation – to be discussed in
plates). the next section.

Magnetic fields, however, are created when Biological Effects

the electricity moves (current). Magnetic Non-ionizing radiation in the form of
fields occur perpendicular to electric fields ultraviolet and infrared radiation target the
and are measured using loops of conductive skin and eyes. However it is the eyes that are
wire (the lines of magnetism passing through the most susceptible because they contain
the loops causes a measurable current flow). very little pain receptors, meaning we do not
always know when the eye is being burnt.
Electromagnetic Radiation Frequencies The further the wavelength enters the eye, the
Electric and Magnetic fields are subject to more intense (and permanent) the damage
polarity and strength changes. A cycle is will be.
when a field has undergone one complete
polarity and strength change. Frequency is The term welder’s flash describes damage
the number of times a field goes through done to the cornea of the eye by exposure to
cycles and is expressed as Hertz (Hz - the intermediate and far ultraviolet radiation.
number of cycles completed in one second). Usually it is not the welder, but their helper
that experiences welder’s flash – because
Cycles occur over a distance which is they do not use appropriate eye protection.
referred to as a wavelength, with one cycle

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Ionizing Radiation penetration can be long or short

Radiation is a form of energy, including: depending on their kinetic energy and
light, infrared, and radio and television can penetrate human tissue from 0.25
waves. Ionizing radiation is electromagnetic inch to several inches. Human exposure
or particulate radiation capable of producing to neutrons occurs from reactors,
ions, directly or indirectly, by interaction accelerators and sources designed to
with matter. Ionization is an energy transfer produce neutrons.
process that changes the normal electrical
balance in an atom.  X-radiation – commonly considered as
electromagnetic radiation produced by
The most common types of ionizing an x-ray machine. X-radiation is
radiation are alpha-, beta-, neutron particles, electromagnetic radiation that originates
x-, and gamma- electromagnetic radiation. outside the nucleus. X-radiation occurs
when high-speed electrons are suddenly
 Alpha-Particles - originate in the nuclei slowed down by striking a target,
of radioactive atoms during the process thereby losing their energy in the form of
of disintegration. Due to the large mass x-radiation. The penetration of x-
of Alpha-particles (rang in energy to radiation is depended upon the length of
over 7 Mev) they are not capable of the wave and the material being
traveling a great distance (approximately irradiated. Short wave lengths can
4 inches in air) and can be stopped by a penetrate several centimeters of steel,
piece of paper. Alpha-particles are not whereas long wave lengths are less
capable of penetrating the epidermis penetrating.
layer of the skin. However, if ingested,
alpha-particles can settle into the bones  Gamma radiation – similar to x-
(due to their similar characteristics of radiation, because it is also
Calcium) and emit tissue damaging electromagnetic in nature. However, the
alpha-particles. Alpha particles are also difference is that gamma radiation
known to settle in various organs of the originated for within the nucleolus of an
human body, such as kidneys, liver, atom.
spleens and lungs. Where they
constantly emit tissue damaging alpha-  Health Concerns for Radiation – we are
particles. constantly being exposed to background
radiation (from natural sources – cosmic
 Beta-Particles – are electrically charged radiation from outer space & radioactive
particles ejected from the nuclei of materials in the earth’s crust) with the
radioactive atoms during disintegration average dose being 300 mR/yr.
and capable of penetrating wood 1.5 Exposure to radiation can cause damage
inches and up to 0.5 inch in the human to the cellular reproduction process.
body (usually noted as “skin burn”). Thereby, when cells divide they are
Beta-particles can be stopped with 0.5 malformed and incapable of performing
inch of aluminum sheeting or plexiglass. their intended functions. Tissues – bone
marrow, digestive tract lining and skin
 Neutrons – are not commonly found as are more susceptible to damage by
alpha- or beta-particles; as their name radiation then bone, muscle and nerves
implies have no electrical charge. the NRC Title 10 CFR 20 provides
Neutrons are released on disintegration permissible does, levels and
of certain radioactive materials (the concentrations.
fissionable isotopes). Neutron range of

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 Occupational Health 20-12

Thermal Stress
The influence of the workplace temperature on the worker and is generally considered as heat stress or cold
stress. The human body is designed to function within a limited temperature range. It is vital that we
maintain a core temperature – as to hot or to cold will cause permanent damage or death.

 Heat Stress
Heat Stress is the relative amount of thermal train from a hot environment. This heat is generally the
results of three factors: (1) hot environment, (2) high work demands, and (3) clothing. These three
factors tend to produce the physiological affects of increased body temperature, heart rate and sweating,
collectively known as heat strain.

Heat Disorder Signs Symptoms First Aid

Heat Rash Skin eruptions Itching skin Keep skin clean and dry
Reduced sweating Reduce heat exposure
Heat Cramps Incapacitating muscle pain Muscle cramping Rest in cool environment
Drink salted water (0.5%)
Heat Syncope Fainting behavior Blurred vision Rest in cool environment
Fainting Drink water
Dehydration Loss of work capacity Fatigue Drink salted water (0.5%)
Increased response time Weakness
Dry mouth
Heat Exhaustion High pulse rate Fatigue Lay flat on back in cool
Profuse sweating Weakness environment
Insecure gait Blurred vision Drink water
Pale face Dizziness Loosen clothing
Collapse headache
Body temperature normal or
slightly elevated
Heat Stroke Euphoria Chills Immediate, aggressive, effective
Red face Restlessness cooling.
Disorientation Irritability Transport to hospital
Hot, dry skin
Erratic behavior collapse
Shivering unconsciousness
Convulsions
Body temperature above 103°

Heat Stress Assessment Wetted wick wrapped around a

– the environmental factors of air temperature sensor and air forced over
temperature, humidity, air speed and average the wick. This provides a measure of
temperature of the solid surroundings, play a water in the air. The more water in the
significant role in the assessment for heat air (humidity) the less likely air
stress. temperature will decrease.
◊ Dry Bulb Temperature (Tdb)- direct
measurement of air temperature – room Air Speed – measured by an
air surrounds the temperature sensor, can anemometer. Due to the numerous
be affected by radiant heat source. variations of air speed, several
measurements should be taken and the
◊ Natural Wet Bulb Temperature (Tnwb) – average air speed use.
measures the degree of evaporative
cooling, without the use of forced air.

◊ Psychrometric Wet Bulb Temperature –

measures the degree of evaporative
cooling that can occur.

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 Cold Stress
Cold stress is the relative amount of thermal strain from a cold environment. Cold stress is the result of
two climatic factors air temperature and air speed, which manifest either systemic (hypothermia) or local
(localized tissue damage).

The problem with cold stress versus heat is that the human body has a mechanism for dispersing heat –
sweating and acclimation (to moderately hot environments). Whereas, cold produces the physiological
response of body heat conservation by restricting blood flow in the peripheral circulation – skin and
limbs. Followed by shivering (muscles quickly contracting trying to generate heat).

Cold Disorders Signs Symptoms First Aid

Raynaud’s Fingers blanch with cold Fingers tingle Place in warm environment
exposure Reddening of fingers
Chilblain Swelling Recurrent, localized itching Place in warm environment
Severe spasms Painful inflammation
Trench Foot Edema Severe pain Place in warm environment
Blisters response to touch Tingling & itching Remove wet clothing
depends on depth of Drink water fluid
freezing Seek medical attention
Frostnip Skin turns white Possible itching or pain Place in warm environment
Remove wet clothing
Drink water fluid
Seek medical attention
Frostbite Skin color white or grayish Burning sensation at first Place in warm environment
yellow to reddish violet to Coldness, numbness, Remove wet clothing
black tingling Drink water fluid
Blisters Seek medical attention
Response to touch depends
on depth of freezing
Hypothermia Euphoria Chills Place in warm environment
Slow, weak pulse Pain in extremities Remove wet clothing
Slurred speech Fatigue or drowsiness Drink water fluid
Collapse Seek medical attention
Shivering
Unconsciousness
Body temp. below 96° F

Cold Stress Assessment Cold Stress Control Measures

Monitor workplace whenever temperatures  Engineering
fall below 61° F - warming devices and shelters
- reduce conductive heat transfer
 Systemic (hypothermia) evaluation: (metal chairs, uninsulated tools, etc.)
- can occur with air temperature of 50° F  Administrative – monitor worker exposure
 Personal Protection – insulated clothing
 Local Cold Stress  General Controls (NIOSH)
Training of employees and supervisors
- skin freezes at 30° F,
on cold stress
- noticeable loss of manual dexterity
Personal Hygiene Practices – fluid
when uninterrupted work for 10 –
replacement
20 minutes occurs at temperatures
below 61° F.

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Hypothermia
A big hazard associated with oil rig operations is falling into the ocean. When this happens the worker
becomes subjective to Hypothermia (abnormally low body temperature). Hypothermia is when the
body’s temperature is too low, which then affects the brain, making the victim unable to think clearly or
move well. This makes hypothermia particularly dangerous because a person may not know it is
happening and will not be able to do anything about it.

Hypothermia is most likely at very cold temperatures, but it can occur even at cool temperatures (above
40°F) if a person becomes chilled from rain, sweat, or submersion in cold water.
Victims of hypothermia are often (1) elderly people with inadequate food, clothing, or heating; (2)
babies sleeping in cold bedrooms; (3) people who remain outdoors for long periods—the homeless,
hikers, hunters, workers, etc.; and (4) people who drink alcohol or use illicit drugs.

Warnings signs of hypothermia

Adults:
• shivering, exhaustion
• confusion, fumbling hands
• memory loss, slurred speech
• drowsiness
Infants:
• bright red, cold skin
• very low energy

What to Do
If you notice any of these signs, take the
person’s temperature. If it is below 95°, the
situation is an emergency - get medical
attention immediately.

If medical care is not available, begin warming

the person, as follows:
• Get the victim into a warm room or
shelter.
• If the victim has on any wet clothing,
remove it.
• Warm the center of the body first—chest,
neck, head, and groin—using an electric
blanket, if available. Or use skin-to-skin
contact under loose, dry layers of blankets, clothing, towels, or sheets.
• Warm beverages can help increase the body temperature, but do not give alcoholic beverages. Do
not try to give beverages to an unconscious person.
• After body temperature has increased keep the person dry and wrapped in a warm blanket, including
the head and neck.
• Get medical attention as soon as possible.

A person with severe hypothermia may be unconscious and may not seem to have a pulse or to be
breathing. In this case, handle the victim gently, and get emergency assistance immediately. Even if the
victim appears dead, CPR should be provided. CPR should continue while the victim is being warmed,
until the victim responds or medical aid becomes available. In some cases, hypothermia victims who
appear to be dead can be successfully resuscitated.

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 Occupational Health 20-15

Noise
Noise is an unwanted sound, which is defined The most dangerous sounds are high in
as any pressure variation that the human ear intensity (dB level) and have a high
can detect. Simply put sound is a stimulus frequency. This is because a large number of
that produces a sensory response in the brain. sound waves are transmitted to the ears with
a force greater than your ears can tolerate.
Noise will be discussed in greater detail later, Noise-induced hearing loss cannot be
however, for the purpose of hazard reversed, and a hearing aid does little good.
recognition we need to be aware of the fact Therefore, prevention is by far the best
that sound can cause hearing loss. treatment.
Furthermore, OSHA has established
guidelines for protecting the worker: Title 29 Duration is the amount of time you are
CFR 1910.95. If the noise level in the exposed to a sound level.
workplace exceeds that indicated in the
following table, then OSHA requires a
The average person can be exposed to a
Hearing Conservation program.
sound source producing 90dBA for a
maximum of eight hours.
Time (hours) Decibels
8 90
6 92 When the daily noise exposure is composed
4 95 of two or more periods of noise exposure of
3 97 different levels, their combined effect should
2 100 be considered, rather than the individual
1½ 102 effect of each.
1 105
½ 110 If the sum of the following fractions:
¼ or less 115 C(1)/T(1) + C(2)/T(2) C(n)/T(n) exceeds
unity, then, the mixed exposure should be
Factors Affecting the Human Ear: considered to exceed the limit value. Cn
- Frequency indicates the total time of exposure at a
- Duration specified noise level, and Tn indicates the
total time of exposure permitted at that level.
Frequency is the number of sound waves
(high and low pressure areas) produced by a Noise Problem Indicators
noise source passing a given point per - Physiological
second. Frequency is measured in cycles per Noise induced hearing loss, aural pain,
second (cps), also called hertz (Hz). The nausea and reduced muscular control.
higher the number, the higher the frequency.
- Psychological
The human voice has a range of about 200 to Startle effect, annoyance, make difficult
4,000 Hz. A noise-induced hearing loss first to concentrate (work and sleep)
causes the loss of the ability to hear sounds at
4,000Hz. Then hearing loss proceeds until - Interference
the ear cannot hear frequencies between 500 Interfere with communication
and 3,000Hz, a range crucial to
understanding conversation.

One of the first signs of loss is the inability to

understand people (especially in a crowd) or
other sources of voice communication such
as the television or radio. You become "hard
of hearing," and sounds seem muffled.

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 Occupational Health 20-16

Hearing Loss
Early warning symptoms of over-exposure Sound Intensity Levels
may include: dBA Source
Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) 140 threshold of pain, gunshot, siren
Tinnitus (ringing of the ears) at 100 ft
After leaving a noisy area or piece 135 jet taking off, amplified music
of equipment, many people 120 chain-saw, jack-hammer,
commonly experience both of these snowmobile
symptoms. If no additional exposure 100 tractor, farm equipment, power-
to noise, the hearing is usually saw
restored almost completely within 85 inside acoustically insulated
12 to 14 hours. tractor-cab
Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS) 75 average radio, vacuum cleaner
Hearing loss has a cumulative effect, 60 normal conversation
which causes permanent damage. The 45 rustling leaves, soft music
amount of hearing loss experienced by 30 whisper
a worker can only be determined 15 threshold of hearing
through hearing testes. 0 weakest sound heard

Controlling Noise
- Source Reduction:
Performing maintenance, mufflers,
substitution of a less noisy process

- Noise Pathway Reduction:

Sound-proof barriers, padding, and
spring suspension.

- Personal Protective Equipment

Ear muffs, ear plugs

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 Occupational Health 20-17

Construction Noise – Hazard Alert – Construction Safety Council

Most construction workers lose a lot of their hearing. You lose hearing slowly, so you may not notice. But if
you can’t hear, you may be in danger on the job. Noise doesn’t just hurt your hearing. You can also get
tinnitis, a ringing sound in your ears. Too much noise can make you tired and nervous. It can raise your blood
pressure and add stress that can help lead to heart disease.

Exposure Levels
Noise levels are measured in decibels (dBA). We talk at about 70 decibels. Decibels are measured on a
scale like the one for earthquakes. So when the decibels go up a little, the noise goes up a lot. 73 decibels is
2 times as loud as 70. OSHA has rules about how long you may be exposed to a noise level, before you
must wear hearing protection:

Allowed to be unprotected At this noise level

Up to 8 hours 90 decibels
Up to 4 hours 95 decibels
Up to 1 hour 105 decibels

When the noise is 95 decibels, OSHA says you may work with no hearing protection for only 4 hours.
Even so, this noise level is not safe; 1 in 5 people exposed regularly to 90 decibels (as OSHA allows) will
lose some hearing. Short, very loud (impact) noises can do the most harm.

If you have to raise your voice for someone 3 feet away to hear you, the site may be too noisy and you
need hearing protection.

Most construction noise comes from equipment. These decibel levels have been measured:

Equipment decibels:
Pneumatic chip hammer 103-113 Earth Tamper 90-96
Jackhammer 102-111 Crane 90-96
Concrete joint cutter 99-102 Hammer 87-95
Portable saw 88-102 Earthmover 87-94
Stud welder 101 Front-end loader 86-94
Bulldozer 93-96 Backhoe 84-93

The noise levels change. The noise from an earthmover is 94 decibels from 10 feet away. The noise is only
82 decibels if you are 70 feet away. A crane lifting a load can make 96 decibels of noise; at rest, it may
make less than 80 decibels.

Protecting Yourself
1- Make the workplace quieter – good maintenance and new mufflers on equipment, plywood barriers
around noisy equipment.
2- Cut the time one spend around loud noises – rotate workers.
3- Wear protective equipment – ear plugs / ear muffs.
4- Have your hearing checked annually – hear loss occurs gradually.
5- Measure the noise on site – identifies areas to stay away from or provide shielding.

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 Occupational Health 20-18

Illumination
It is valuable to provide the correct light intensity and color spectrum for each task or environment.
Otherwise, energy not only could be wasted but over-illumination can lead to adverse health and
psychological effects.

Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much illumination is
required for a given task. Clearly, much less light is required to illuminate a hallway or bathroom
compared to that needed for a computer work station.

Illumination Related Hazards

o Light fixtures covered with dirt, grease or oil, significantly reducing the amount of light available.
o Little or no provision for emergency lighting.
o Unlighted or dimly-lighted exits.
o Temporary (and usually inadequate) lighting that has become permanent through oversight.
o Poorly-placed lighting sources that cast shadows in the employee’s work areas.

Lighting in the Workplace

(unknown author)

The quality of lighting in a workplace can have a significant effect on productivity. With adequate lighting
workers can produce more products with fewer mistakes, which can lead to a 10-50 % increase in
productivity. Good lighting can decrease errors by 30-60 % as well as decrease eye-strain and the
headaches, nausea, and neck pain which often accompany eyestrain.

Adequate lighting allows workers to concentrate better on their work which increases productivity.

The level of lighting that workers need varies depending on the nature of the task, the sharpness of the
workers’ eyesight, and the environment in which the work is done. For example, detailed work, such as
inspection, assembling of small parts or technical drawing, needs a great deal of light. Coarse work, on the
other hand, such as loading or unloading materials, handling of materials or packaging, requires less light.

Good lighting in the workplace promotes:

1. a reduced risk of occupational accidents and health problems;
2. better concentration and accuracy in work;
3. a brighter, cleaner workplace resulting in a more active, cheerful environment;
4. improved work performance;
5. better visibility, improved accuracy and increased work speed enhancing production.

It can be easy to improve lighting without increasing the number of light bulbs, light fixtures or the
electric bill. Improved lighting can be achieved by using more daylight, by changing the position of light
sources or workstation layouts and by effectively using reflected light.

Consider the following guidelines when planning to improve the lighting conditions in your workplace:
1- Determine the problem:
- talk to workers and find out if they suffer from headaches, neck pain, or nausea, all of which
may be caused by eye-strain – ask if they have difficulty seeing their work – it is essential to
implement safety activities with the workers’ cull cooperation as they might have very
positive ideas for improving safety and productivity – the worker doing the job can best
evaluate the impact of a change;
- see for yourself if there are any obvious lighting problems – if workers have their eyes
unnaturally close to the object they are working on, it is likely their is a problem, or if workers
feel there is a need to make extra efforts to make out details when it is cloudy, rainy or at
certain times of the day.
2- Consider alternative solutions which are best adapted to the company’s capacities.
Take these into consideration before implementing an improvement.

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 Occupational Health 20-19

3- Get advice and observe a similar improvement under similar conditions in another enterprise or
workplace.
4- Make small but continuous improvements by trying out the idea first on a small-scale to see
how it works.
5- Consider quick implementation of ideas that can be put into practice immediately to
demonstrate positive change.

Low-Cost Measures that Promote a Safe Working Environment:

Make Full Use of Daylight – natural lighting is most effective in improving illumination. Using
daylight improves morale and it is free. Examine the workplace layout, material flow and workers’
needs, then try out these tips on how to make good use of daylight:
1. provide skylights, for example by replacing roof panels with translucent ones;
2. equip the workplace with additional windows;
3. place machines near windows;
4. move work requiring more light near windows.

Consider the following before planning and installing windows and skylights:
1. consider the height, width and position needed for windows or skylights. More light is available
when the window is placed high on a wall;
2. install shades, screens, louvers, canopies or curtains on the windows and skylights to protect the
workplace from external heat and cold while taking advantage of the natural light;s
3. orient skylights and windows away from direct sunlight to obtain constant but less bright light;
4. direct skylights and windows towards the sun if variations in levels of brightness throughout the
day do not disturb workers;
5. avoid storage or placement of flammable liquids in direct sunlight as the magnification of the
sun’s heat may lead to vaporization of the liquid and increase the risk of fire.

Use Local Light – the use of local light has many advantages. Local lighting requires less power to
get adequate brightness since brightness is decreased exponentially by the distance from a light
source. Here are some suggestions for maximizing the use of local lighting:
1. place and direct light the way it seems best for the work being performed;
2. light up the spot where light is needed;
3. use mobile stands or flexible arms to enable directing light where it is needed;
4. select the correct direction of the light to prevent annoying shadows and glare;
5. the effects of different directions of lighting are as follows:
i. lighting from the back of an object helps to distinguish it from its background;
ii. lighting coming from an upper angle clearly reveals the shape and surface
texture;
iii. direct lighting from the front may clearly reveal surface markings but the ability
to see texture is reduced;
6. add or take away local lighting as necessary to obtain the optimum level of lighting;
7. combine general and local lighting by providing the minimum required light with
general lighting and adjust lighting levels at specific locations using local lighting.

Paint Ceilings and Walls in a Light Color – light colors create more reflection than dark colors.
Light colors make it easier to keep ceilings and walls clean. Glossy white painted surfaces reflect
100% of the light whereas black surfaces reflect no light at all. To achieve improved illumination,
follow these recommendations:
1. use white or a very light color on ceilings;
2. paint walls white;
3. use light or half-tone colors on tables and machines.

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Choose an Appropriate Background – the background at the workstation is important, especially for
visual tasks that demand close, continuous attention. A simple background will allow for more
accuracy and an increase in production whereas a complex background may disturb the work and
increase the workload. To obtain an optimum visual task background:
1. eliminate potential sources of distraction, such as posted papers, forms or schedules on walls;
2. use light-colored partitions and screens to eliminate or screen sources of distraction;
3. select an appropriate color for the work background.

Eliminate Shadows and Glare – shadows and direct or indirect glare reduce lighting, make it
difficult to work and decrease productivity. Glare is usually caused by light from lamps, skylights
and windows. Here are some low-cost suggestions to eliminate shadows and glare:
1. change the position of light sources;
2. change the position of the workstation;
3. use multiple light sources by mixing direct and reflected light;
4. use lamp shades which reflect light upwards, since reflected light from ceilings provides the
best visibility;
5. provide lamp shades with a white inside and black inside-edges;
6. use lamps with a movable stand or a flexible arm to easily change the direction of light;
7. use a magnetic lamp stand with a clip to easily change the position of the lamp;
8. hang lamps high and use light sources with a relatively large surface area such as fluorescent
lamps to obtain even general lighting with less glare;
9. construct skylights and windows on the non-sunny side to obtain an evenly lit working area;
10. provide blinds, curtains, louvers, trees and vines to shade the building;
11. use matte paint or darker colours for all surfaces (for example, tables, machines, tools);
12. install screens, covers or partitions for shielding strong light which produces glare;
13. combine daylight from windows and skylights with ceiling and local lights to reduce sharp
shadows and glares and to achieve optimum lighting conditions.

Provide Separate Electric Switches – separate and individual electrical switches allow workers to
switch off unnecessary lamps resulting in considerable savings on electricity. Consider these tips:
1. supply separate and individual switches for each general lighting fixture and for local lights or a
group of lamps;
2. install switches within easy reach of workers;
3. install switches which are easy to operate;
4. assure that each local light has its own plug allowing it to be easily moved according to work
requirements;
5. provide an individual plug and socket at the workstation to reduce the need for extension cords
and reduce the potential for having entangled wires which can result in dangerous situations.

Maintenance of Lighting – periodic maintenance is important for productivity and cost-savings.

Lamps give off less brightness when they are dirty but still consume the same amount of electricity.
If lamps, skylights, windows, ceilings, walls and work areas are maintained in good condition,
lighting can be improved without increasing the number of fixtures or light bulbs. In a dusty
workplace, light coming from windows is reduced 30-40% after three months and 45-55% after 6
months. Therefore it is important to periodically:
1. clean all the essential elements in workplace at regular intervals;
2. replace light bulbs and tubes which have blown or are reduced in brightness;
3. use open top type lamp shades to prevent dust from collecting on light bulbs and tubes.

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 Occupational Health 20-21

 Ergonomics

The concept of ergonomics is not new. Mr. Wojeciech Jastrzebowski, a Polish educator and scientist,
first used the term ergonomics in a paper he wrote in the mid 1800’s in an attempt to raise public
awareness of this health problem. Mr Jastrzebowski complied the word ergonomics from two Greek
words; ergo meaning work and nomos meaning laws; thus ergonomics is the laws of work.

It wasn’t until the 1950’s that the United Kingdom coined the term ergonomics to describe the
interdisciplinary efforts of scientists and expanded the meaning of ergonomics to the study of human
characteristics for the appropriate design of the living and work environment. With this new definition
for ergonomics, these scientists were then able to expand the goals of ergonomics from making a safe
work place to increasing human efficiency and promoting human well-being. Simply put the
ergonomic goal is to achieve a balance between the demands placed on the workers and their
capabilities. In order to be effective in the workplace the human body must maintain an energy
balance between the external demands produced by work and the work environment.

Ergonomics means Fitting the Job to the Worker.

The science of ergonomics studies and evaluates a full range of tasks including, but not limited to,
lifting, holding, pushing, walking and reaching. Many ergonomic problems result from technological
changes such as, increased assembly line speeds, adding specialized tasks, and increasing repetition.
Some problems arise from poorly designed job tasks. Any of those conditions can cause ergonomic
hazards such as excessive vibration and noise, eye strain, repetitive motion and heavy lifting problems.

Improperly designed tools or work areas also can be ergonomic hazards. Repetitive motions or
repeated shocks over prolonged periods of time as in jobs involving sorting, assembly and data entry
can often cause irritation and inflammation of the tendon sheath of the hands and arms, a condition
known as carpal tunnel syndrome.

Ergonomic hazards are avoided primarily by the effective design of a job or jobsite and environment
and job tasks. Through thorough worksite analysis, employers can set up procedures to correct or
control ergonomic hazards by using the appropriate engineering controls (e.g. designing or redesigning
work stations, lighting, tools, and equipment); teaching correct work practices (e.g. proper lifting
methods); employing proper administrative controls (e.g. shifting workers among several different
tasks, reducing production demand, and increasing rest personal protective equipment breaks); and if
necessary, providing and mandating.

Evaluating working conditions from an ergonomic standpoint involves looking at the total
physiological and psychological demands of the job on the worker. Overall, the benefits of a well-
designed, ergonomic work environment can include increased efficiency, fewer accidents, lower
operating costs and more effective use of personnel.

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 Occupational Health 20-22

Ergonomic Risk Factors

Occupational demands on the worker can be categorized into three major groups (Physical,
Environmental, & Mental), as well as a group for worker contributing factor. These demands on the
human body produce stress, which is triggered by stressors:

Stress – the physical and psychological forces that are experienced by individuals. It is
generally believed that biological organisms require a certain amount of stress in order to
maintain their well-being. However, when stress occurs in quantities that the system cannot
handle, it produces pathological changes.

Stressor – an agent or condition capable of producing stress.

 Physical Demands
Physical demands place stress on the muscular-skeletal system of the body. These physical demands
are influenced by three factors: posture, repetition, and force.

Posture
Ergonomic risk factor occurs when there is a deviation from the human
body’s neutral position. The neutral position for the human body consist of –
head centered over the shoulders, shoulders over the hips, feet shoulder width
apart and arms down along the side. In this neutral position there are virtually
no stressors being exerted on any body part. However, deviate from this
position and there are stressors, for example bending forward puts a
tremendous stress on the lower back; reaching your arms out in front of you,
puts a stress on your shoulders; etc.

Repetition
Repetition is the repeated actions sustained by a body part, generally
measured as frequency and duration. Frequency is the number of times an
action is taken, whereas duration is the period of time that a frequency of
action must be sustained. So, when we look at the ergonomic risk factor of
repetition, we are looking for similar actions being sustained for the core of a
worker’s physical activities. Examples:

Computer Operator – keystrokes

Frequency – 80wpm ≈ 6 letters per word = 480 keystrokes per minute.
Duration – 8 hour work-day – lunch, breaks, work assembly ≈ 5 hours of physical work
activity X 60 minutes X 480 keystrokes = 144,000 keystrokes per day.

Force
Force is how much grip or pressure is required to perform a task.

For Example:

Computer Operator – keystrokes; force is the amount

of pressure exerted on a key to make it produce the
key’s letter.

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 Occupational Health 20-23

OSHA identified ergonomic risk factors:

RISK FACTORS Force Repetition Posture

Exerting considerable physical effort to complete a motion • •
Doing same motion over and over again • •
Performing motions constantly without short pauses or breaks in • • •
between
Performing tasks that involve long reaches • •
Working surface are too high or too low • •
Maintaining same position or posture while performing tasks •
Sitting for a long time •
Using hand and power tools • •
Vibrating working surfaces, machinery or vehicles •
Workstation edges or objects press hard into muscles or tendons •
Using hand as hammer • •
Using hands or body as clamp to hold object while performing tasks • •
Gloves are bulky, too large or too small •
Objects or people moved are heavy • •
Horizontal reach it long •
Vertical reach is below knees or above the shoulders •
Objects or people are moved significant distance •
Bending or twisting during manual handling •
Object is slippery or has no handles • •
Floor surfaces are uneven, slippery or sloped •

The State of Washington passed an ergonomic standard, which has been put on hold pending the
Federal Government’s revision of the Ergonomic Standard passed into law by President Clinton
(however, it was rescinded by President Bush). The State of Washington’s ergonomic program
establishes definitive numbers associated with physical demands (regardless type of company) known
to be ergonomic risk factors – Problem Jobs.

• Anyone who lifts 75 pounds or more once per day.

• Anyone who lifts 55 pounds or more ten times per day.

• Anyone who lifts 25 pounds or more over-head or out away from the body twenty-five times
per day.

• Anyone who grips 4 pounds or more for an accumulative total of 2 hours throughout the
work-shift.

• Anyone who accumulates an awkward posture totaling 2 hours or more throughout the work-
shift.

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 Occupational Health 20-24

 Environmental Demands
Place stress on the worker due to the physical structure of the building and its layout.

Illumination – we need light to perform our taskings, however, too much light or too little light will place
stress on our eyes.

Temperature – our body functions within a specific temperature range. Excessive heat will cause our
body to lose water, thereby making our tissues susceptible to injury. Excessive cold will subject one to
hypothermia and freezing of exposed body parts.

Humidity – the amount of moisture in the air has direct affect on taking in oxygen.

Noise – unwanted sound; excessive amounts will cause hearing loss. Sound is created by waves of air
pressure and it is the extent of this pressure, which produces the intensity of the sensation – we term
hearing.

Vibration – damages blood vessels, therefore leading to vasospasms. Vibrations are oscillations of mass,
which the human body perceives as either regular or irregular periodic movements.

 Mental Demands
Places stress on one’s ability to process information. Stress is really one’s inability to cope with a given
situation, thereby making occupational stress subjective and extremely difficult to measure. However, studies
have identified two forms of stress that plague the workplace:
Anxiety – uneasiness of mind caused by apprehension of danger or misfortune (constant state of fight or
flight).

Depression – a morbid condition of emotional dejection and withdrawal.

The fact of the matter is one cannot even begin to deal with stress, until one is aware of what is actually
causing the stress. So, through the use of surveys the most common workplace stressors have been identified
as:
1. Job Control – not having a say in one’s work routine or tasks.
2. Social Support – lack of assistance from supervisors and peers.
3. Job Distress – excessive workload, generally leads to job
dissatisfaction.
4. Task and Performance Demands – deadlines.
5. Job Security – uncertain as to how long one will be working.
6. Responsibility – for others, inability to make decisions which will
affect the lives of others.
7. Physical Environmental Problems – external factors that cause
distraction or stress the physiological aspects of the human body to
perform – poor lighting, noise, etc.
8. Complexity – the quantity of different demands in the job.

Another mental factor to take into consideration is working away from home for the first time – see article
“Working Away From Home” on page 33.

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 Occupational Health 20-25

Worker Contributing Factors

A worker’s health and physical condition must also be taken into consideration, when dealing with ergonomic
risk factors. An individual’s physical tolerance of physical work is usually determined by the capacities of his
or her respiratory and cardiovascular systems to deliver oxygen to the working muscles and by the capacity of
the metabolic system to use chemically stored energy to do muscular work. Numerous studies have shown the
physical condition of the worker is a contributing factor to worker injury or illness:

• Overweight
It is estimated that 90% of the U.S. population is overweight.

Height Weight
5.0 ft/in 129 lbs
5.1 ft/in 133 lbs
5.2 ft/in 137 lbs
5.3 ft/in 142 lbs
5.4 ft/in 146 lbs
5.5 ft/in 150 lbs
5.6 ft/in 155 lbs
5.7 ft/in 160 lbs
5.8 ft/in 165 lbs
5.9 ft/in 169 lbs
5.10 ft/in 174 lbs
5.11 ft/in 180 lbs
6.0 ft/in 185 lbs
6.1 ft/in 189 lbs

 Tobacco Usage - Nicotine

Naturally occurring alkaloid, (causes addiction)
1 mg absorbed with each cigarette
constricts blood vessels.

Cancer & Emphysema caused by

other chemicals in cigarette

Second-hand Smoke is mixture

(burning cigarette & exhaled smoke)
(contains 4,000 chemicals / 50 carcinogens)

CDC states nicotine destroys more people than AIDS,

alcohol, illegal drug abuse, auto accidents, murders,
suicides and fires combined.

• Alcohol and Other Drugs

Alcohol Pulls Water Out of the Body

Alcoholism
-Craving
-Loss of Control
-Physical Dependence
-Tolerance

Safe Drinking Limits

Men – two (2) drinks per day
Women – one (1) drink per day

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 Occupational Health 20-26

 Drugs -OVER MEDICATE

Prescription Abuse
o Men – Pain Killers & Stimulants
Pain Killers are opioids, block neurotransmission,
give false sense of euphoria at first, then drowsiness
and depressed breathing set in.

Stimulants enhance brain activity; increases alertness,

attention and energy. Also increases blood pressure,
heart rate and respirations.

o Women – Sedatives & Tranquilizers

Sedatives & Tranquilizers – CNS Depressants
(slows down normal brain function & respiration)

Barbiturate & Benzodiazapines most common

(sleeping pills & valium)

Over-The-Counter
Cold & Allergy Season

• Poor Nutrition

Diet
Bread, Cereal, Rice & Pasta (6-11)
Vegetable (3-5) & Fruits (2-4)
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans,
Eggs & Nuts (2-3)
Milk, Yogurt & Cheese (2-3)
Fats, Oils & Sweets (sparingly)

Serving Size
¾ cup (6 oz) fruit drink-100%
½ cup cooked or canned vegetable/fruit
1 cup raw leafy vegetable
½ cup dried beans or peas
¼ cup dried fruit

Five A Day
Five servings a day of fruits & vegetables

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• Improper / Lack of Exercise

Benefits of Exercise
o Increases energy & metabolism
o Improves strength & flexibility
o Decreases stress
o Brightens your mood

Exercising
 Pick the right exercise buddy
 Mix up your routines
 Get a daily dose
 Have a backup plan
 Aim high, but within reason
 Chart progress
 Schedule exercise or do workouts
 Reward yourself

• Restrictive Clothing / Bad Shoes / Wrong Glasses

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 Occupational Health 20-28

Ergonomic Disorders
Ergonomic disorders occur when the human body is subject to stressors

Eye Strain – a stain placed on the muscles Cubital Tunnel Syndrome – is the
that control the movement of the eye. compression of the ulnar nerve below the
 Improper lighting. notch of the elbow.
 Glare  Resting forearm near the elbow on a
 Eyewear hard surface.
 Viewing Angle & Distance

Neck Tension Syndrome – is the irritation Epicondylitis (tennis elbow) – is when the
of the levator scapulae and trapezius group tendons attached to the epicondyle become
of muscles of the neck. irritated.
 Static head position.  Impacting or jerky throwing motions.

Thoracic Outlet Compression Syndrome – Guyon Tunnel Syndrome – is a disorder

a symptom complex caused by conditions affecting the wrist. The Ulnar nerve is
in which nerves or blood vessels are entrapped as it passes through the guyon
compressed in the neck or axilla (usually tunnel in the wrist.
due to the first rib pressing against the  Prolong flexion and extension of the
clavicle). wrist & repeated pressure on the
 Working with arms overhead or hypothenar eminence of the palm.
outright for prolong periods.

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 Occupational Health 20-29

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – is a disorder Lower Back Strain – trauma to the muscle
affecting the hands and wrists. Carpal or the tendon due to violent contraction or
tunnel syndrome is the compression and excessive forcible stretch.
entrapment of the median nerve where it  Lifting something too heavy.
passes through the wrist into the hand in the
carpal tunnel.
 Repetitive motion

De Quervain’s Disease – tenosynovitis, Lower Back Sprain – trauma to a joint that

involves the tendon sheath of the thumb, causes pain and disability depending upon
which becomes inflamed due to excessive degree of injury to ligaments.
friction between two thumb tendons and  Joint stretched beyond its normal range
their common sheath. of motion.
 Combined forceful gripping and hand
twisting.

Raynaud’s Syndrome – a peripheral Herniated Disk – rupture of the nucleus

vascular disorder; occurs when the blood pulposus, esp. between lumbar vertebrae.
vessels of the hand are damaged.  Improper posture and lifting.
 Repeated exposure to vibrations.

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 Occupational Health 20-30

Ergonomic Program Development

The purpose of an ergonomic program shall be to reduce ergonomic risk factors, identify employees in problem
jobs, and implement preventative ergonomic disorder measures. In order for an ergonomic program to be effective
it must include seven (7) elements:

• Management Involvement • Training

All levels of management must buy into the Employees identified being in a problem
program. job and their supervisor shall receive
training in the following:
• Employee Participation  Muscular-skeletal disorders associated
The easiest way to gain employee with their job and their signs &
participation is through the use of a safety symptoms.
committee.  Ergonomic preventative measures.
 How to report suspected muscular-
• Job Hazard Analysis skeletal disorder.
A Job Hazard Analysis consists of  Company’s ergonomic program.
analyzing a problem job. OSHA defines a
problem job as one that has already • Management of Muscular-Skeletal Disorder
produced a muscular-skeletal disorder When a suspected muscular-skeletal
(determined by reviewing the company’s disorder is reported the following
OSHA form 300 Log of Work-Related provisions must be addressed:
Injuries and Illnesses) or one that clearly  A prompt response to the
demonstrates an ergonomic risk factor employee

• Muscular-Skeletal Disorder Reporting • Program Evaluation

System As with any program associated with safety
To keep abreast of any new problem jobs, of employees, the company’s ergonomic
as well as provide prompt attention to a program shall be evaluated for its
potential muscular-skeletal disorder, the effectiveness annually. This evaluation
company needs to establish a muscular- shall include conversing with employees in
skeletal disorder reporting system problem jobs and their supervisors, as well
as previously implemented control
measures.

Ergonomic Injury Prevention

REQUIRES: Educational Awareness for both Management and the Workers:

With a big emphasis on proper lifting techniques and conditioning the human body for the taskings it is
expected to perform throughout the workday – stretching. Please note that the stretches identified in this book
are merely an indication of the various forms of stretching. In order for a stretching routine to be effective,
one must first evaluate the taskings imposed on the human body then develop stretches to condition those
body parts impacted by the taskings.

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 Occupational Health 20-31

Lifting Technique

Know Your Lifting Know What Your Lifting Get a In Close

Abilities & Zone

Get a Grip Look Up When Keep It In Close

You Stand Up

Have A Clear Path of Travel Keep Your Nose Watch for Fingers &
Between Your Toes Toes - Lowering

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 Occupational Health 20-32

Stretching – a form of exercise (Breathe – Counter Stretch – Feel Pain Stop).

Each stretching exercise should be – stretch and hold for the count of 3, then relax or counter-stretch for the
count of three: that’s one cycle need to do three cycles for each stretching exercise in the routine.

Maintain Your Posture

Worker Wellness

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 Occupational Health 20-33

Working Away From Home for an Extended Period of Time

Article by Amy Nutt

It's not uncommon for people to have to travel for business. Some work trips are short and sweet,
and others can be drawn out for weeks or even months. If a special project has you working in a
different state or country from where you live for an extended period of time, the following tips can
help make you more comfortable and feel more at home.

A Home Away From Home

If you're away on business for more than two weeks, it is wise to look into a short-term
rental. Accommodations such as these can provide more comfort than a hotel room because they
typically offer more living space including a kitchen where you can cook as many meals as you
want. Short-term rentals may also have amenities such as DVD and music players that can make
your stay more pleasant. Also, if you have a pet, a short-term rental is more likely to allow you to
bring him or her with you.

Stay In Touch
When your traveling for work, it is easy to get so absorbed in the project that you tune everything
out. To maintain healthy relationships, make sure you find ways to connect with friends and family
members while you are away. Call home daily (or twice a day if you can). If you are in a different
time zone, communicate via email, Twitter, MySpace or Facebook.

Your Daily Rituals

In order to not disrupt your life too much while away for work, it is important to partake of at least
some of the routine things you do at home. For example, if you usually pray or meditate in the
morning, find time to do it while on your trip. You daily ritual could be something as simple as
reading before bed at night or as complicated as updating your blog about the day's events.

Bring a Piece of Home With You

In order to feel more at home, you need to bring home on the trip with you. Select a few easily
packable items that are representative of the comfort you feel at home. This could be a special
pillow or cushion, a candle, or pictures of your family.

Maintain Healthy Habits

It is easy to fall into unhealthy habits when traveling away from home, especially when you are
completely immersed in work. If you are traveling for a long time, the effects of eating high-calorie
restaurant foods, not exercising, drinking too much or not getting enough rest can be downright
harmful. If you can get a short-term rental, try to cook healthy meals in the kitchen. Make time each
day to go for a brisk walk or do some yoga. Make sure you drink plenty of water and try not to have
more than two alcoholic drinks a day, even at happy-hour meetings. Most importantly, try to go to
bed at a reasonable hour and make sure you get at least 6 hours of sleep each night.

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 Occupational Health 20-34

 Industrial Toxicology
Toxicology is the study of poisons and for the Safety Manager; the primary concern is toxic effects on
the human body. Toxic effects are undesirable disturbances of physiological functions caused by
chemical toxicity. Toxicity is the capability of a chemical to harm or injure a living organism by other
than mechanical means.

Our body requires small quantities of many chemicals that have a toxic effect if taken in large amounts,
such as zinc, manganese, copper, molybdenum, selenium, chromium, nickel, tin and potassium. The
Safety Professional’s responsibility is to determine safe levels of exposure to toxic chemicals and
establish precautionary measures. This is accomplished by first having an understanding of:

Routes of Entry Physiological Responses to Toxins

Regulatory Exposure Limits Clinical Laboratory Tests for Toxin
Toxic Action Chemical Excretion

Routes of Entry
In order for chemical toxicity to occur, the chemical must gain access into the body. This access can
be achieved by one or a combination of four ways: inhalation, ingestion, injection or skin
absorption.

 Inhalation, the chemical is brought into the body under the normal process of breathing. The
respiratory systems consist of two major parts in which chemicals can have an effect on, the upper
respiratory tract and the alveolar sacs.

The upper respiratory tract merely serves as a passage way for the movement of air to and from our
alveolar sacs. It serves the purpose of moisten and warming the air as it is brought into us and
generally is capable of filtering out foreign matter measuring 5 microns and larger. However,
aerosols tend to be absorbed in the upper respiratory tract.

The alveolar sacs is where gas exchange takes place, usually oxygen transfers from our lungs to the
blood and carbon dioxide transfers from the blood to our lungs for expiration. Chemical substances
in the form o f gases and vapors, general reach the alveolar sacs and become part of the gas
exchange – thereby gaining access to our entire body via the blood stream.

 Ingestion, of a chemical is usually not a common route of entry, because most workers would not
intentionally swallow a toxic substance. Unintentional occurrences have taken place, when workers
contaminated with a substance eat or smoke. Our respiratory tract produces approximately one
quart of mucus a day and this mucus (which can contain contaminates) is moved up the respiratory
tract to the back of the throat where it is swallowed. Anything swallowed will be introduced to the
digestive system where it is passed along into the intestines. Absorption into the bloodstream
generally occurs in the small intestines and detoxification of the toxic material is occurs in the liver
(usually).

 Injection, usually occurs when substance is introduced into the body by way of a needle. An
injection can occur to any part or system of our body such as skin, muscle or even the bloodstream.

 Skin Absorption, can take place through either intact or abraded skin depending on the chemical.
Chemical contact with the skin can have one of four reactions.
1. The skin can be an effective barrier;
2. The chemical can react with the skin and produce a local irritation;
3. The chemical can produce skin sensitization; or
4. The chemical passes through the skin and is absorbed by the blood.

Keep in mind that skin has varying thickness, depending on the region of the body that absorption might
take place. Also note that higher temperatures means our periphery blood vessels will be dilated,
thereby making it easier for chemicals to reach the blood.

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 Occupational Health 20-35

Regulatory Exposure Limits

Regulatory exposure limits are set so that
the combination of concentrations and time  Lethal Dose is the amount of a toxic
durations are theoretically below the levels substance required to produce death.
that produce injury to exposed individuals. Using animals, lethal doses of toxic
Through regulatory exposure limits, substances are calculated, where LD50,
governing agencies can establish Lethal Dose means 50% of the animals will die when
and Lethal Concentration levels, but first we exposed to a set concentration of a toxic
need an understanding of the Threshold. substance and just because half of the
animal population dies it does not mean
 Threshold, the level where the first the other half is unaffected, their health
effects occur. Regardless, what the will be poor. Whereas, LD100 means
toxicity of substance, given in a small 100% of the animals will die.
enough dose, there will be no noticeable
effect. As the dosage increases so does  Lethal Concentration provides a means
the level of toxicity in the body until it for identifying death-producing levels
reaches a point where noticeable damage for airborne substances. A LC50 might
occurs. be 500 parts of the substance per million
Generally the body is capable of detoxify parts of air, which would kill 50% of the
(at least most substances), however, it animals if they were exposed. With
takes time for detoxification to work and inhalation hazards, the length of
if the exposure produces an exposure has a great deal to do with the
accumulation faster than the body can dosage received by a person or animal.
detoxify then significant damage will
occur. Accumulation of toxins can be
identified through biological test (urine,
blood and breath).

Toxic Actions
Exposure can be defined as Acute or  Chronic Effects, usually involve
Chronic. exposure to a substance over a long
 Acute Effect, usually involve exposure period of time, generally months or
to high concentrations or doses in a short years. A chronic effect brought on by a
period of time. Generally occurs as a exposure, usually produces an ailment
result of an accident and immediate which is characterized by signs and
reactions to the human body take place, symptoms of a disease long before death
such as illness, irritation or death. would ever occur. Exposure to lead in
Carbon monoxide poisoning, is small amounts can produce an
considered an acute effect, because it accumulative affect in the human body.
occurs from a single exposure and As this level increases then we see signs
depletes the body of oxygen (by and symptoms of lead poisoning being
attaching to the hemoglobin of the red manifested.
blood cells), death can occur within
minutes.

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Physiological Responses to Toxins

Exposure to air contaminants is the most Laboratory Tests for Toxins
prominent exposure risk in the workplace. Biological samples are an effective way of
The effect of an air contaminant has on the measuring substance absorption by a worker.
human body can be used to classify them: Each substance that the worker can be
irritant, asphyxiates, CNS depressant and exposed to has a varying effect on when to
others. test; as some are rapidly excreted, whereas
others accumulate within a specific organ.
 Irritant - a substance that produces an However, the rate of absorption, metabolism
irritating (inflammation) effect when it and excretion for a particular substance
contacts the skin, eyes, nose, or determine when it is most appropriate to test
respiratory tract. samples in relation to duration and time of
exposure.
 Asphyxiates - a gas whose primary or
most acute health effect is asphyxiation. Three most widely used biological test are:
There are two classes of asphyxiates (1) urine, blood and respiration.
Simple asphyxiates, such as nitrogen or
methane, which act by replacing oxygen  Urine can reveal metabolites of toxic
, and (2) Chemical asphyxiates, such as agents. The concentration of metabolites
carbon monoxide, which causes in the urine is related to the
asphyxiation by preventing oxygen characteristics of worker exposure.
uptake at the cellular level.
 Blood can reveal the accumulation of
 CNS depressant - those substances toxins, such as lead. Blood testing does
produce unconsciousness, as they require collecting a sample from the
prevent the brain and spinal cord form worker using an invasive (going through
functioning properly. Generally, these the skin) procedure.
substances are capable of causing simple
anesthesia. Without serious systemic  Respiratory test can reveal the excretion
effects (depending on their of fat soluble substances.
concentration).

 Others - many substances can be found

in industry today, and although a great
majority of these can be categorized into
the three aforementioned groups, there
are still others that do not. These
include:

Cardiac Sensitization, occurs from

exposure of certain volatile
hydrocarbons which effect the heart, by
making it sensitive to epinephrine
(adrenaline).

Neurotoxic Effect, caused by exposure

of toxins to the nervous system, such as
manganese, lead and mercury.

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Chemical Excretion Once a chemical or substance enters the body,

When a chemical is absorbed into the blood the body will attempt to eliminate it, if it is not
stream it has the potential of reaching all the needed. There are three major ways chemicals
organs of the body. However, before this happens and toxic substances are excreted from the
there are three processes that may occur to the human body.
chemical first:
1- Expiration; a good majority of inhaled
Binding; the liquid portion of the blood (plasma) solvents are exhaled before the solvent
contains a variety of salts and substances of substances have a chance to cross the
which a high portion if protein. Many chemicals membrane between the alveolar sac and the
are attracted to the protein and therefore bind with blood-stream. However, fat soluble
it. This reduces the amount of toxic chemical that chemicals that are easy to vaporize will
will have an immediate effect on its target organ, also be excreted through exhalation, such
however it does prolong the circulation of the as acetone and alcohol.
toxic chemical in the blood stream, which will
eventually be released by the protein as the 2- Urine; chemicals that are excreted through
protein is metabolized. urine must first be filtered from the blood-
stream by the kidneys. The average person
Storing; chemicals that are held in a particular will filter 180 quarts of fluid from their
body’s organ or tissues are considered to be blood-steam, which up to 99% is
stored as it waits to be processed for elimination. reabsorbed back into the blood-steam after
Two of the most common storage places for going through additional filtering within
chemicals are fats and bone. The primary problem the kidneys. The problem is water soluble
here is as a person loses weight quickly the chemicals can easily be passed through the
chemicals will be released in large amounts and kidneys and then reabsorbed back into the
could cause significant damage to the body. Lead blood-stream. Therefore it is critical a
as we all know mimics Calcium, which means it person remain well-hydrated, which means
collects in bone and teeth. One of the biggest less chance for the water soluble chemicals
problems with stored lead is for pregnant women, to be reabsorbed because the body is not
a significant amount of calcium is needed for the lacking water.
baby, so it will pull calcium from the bones and if
lead is present it will pull the lead as well. 3- Feces; chemicals and toxic substances
Another problem for stored toxic chemicals is for filtered by the liver are excreted in feces.
workers exposed to cadmium, which is stored in The liver filters the blood, pulls any
the kidneys and can lead to kidney failure. unwanted substances which are then
collected into the liver’s bile which is
Metabolism; this is the term applied for the passed to the gallbladder for storage. And,
breaking down of chemicals or substances so that as waste material (very liquid state) is
the body can use the elements, such as for passing through the small intestine the
nutrients, energy and waste products for gallbladder empties its contents (bile).
elimination. Toxic chemicals that enter the blood- Then when the waste material to be
stream (or body) are subject to enzymes which are excreted from the body passes through the
responsible for metabolism. When a toxic large intestine, water is reabsorbed back
chemical or substance is reduced through into the blood-stream – therefore once
metabolism to a mild toxin or harmless toxin the again water soluble chemicals can also be
chemical or substance is said to be detoxified. easily be reabsorbed.

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Food Safety Management

Part I Introduction
The Importance of Food Safety

Part II Food Hazards and Foodborne Illnesses

Hazards to food
Biological hazards – bacteria
Other biological hazards
Biological hazards and illnesses
Potentially hazardous foods
Physical and chemical hazards

Part III Preventing Foodborne Illnesses

Personal hygiene
Time and temperature control
Receiving and storing food
Preparing and presenting food
Cleaning and sanitizing
Integrated pest management
Designed for food safety

Part IV Food Safety Control

Professional good practice
Management matters

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Part I Introduction
We all need to eat and drink to stay alive, so it is important that our food does not harm us in any way.
Everyone who works with food has a responsibility to safeguard the health of consumers. As a manager or
supervisor, you have special responsibilities for consumer health, so you must make certain the food sold
at your workplace does not cause illness, injury or any other problem.

The Importance of Food Safety

Food safety involves safeguarding food from anything that could harm the health of consumers. High
standards enable everyone to enjoy their food without illness, injury or other problems, but poor
standards can lead to all kinds of harm – and even death. As food safety is so important to everyone, the
people who work with food have legal, ethical and economic responsibilities for keeping food safe to
eat. This section outlines the impact of foodborne disease and introduces some of the responsibilities of
food service professionals.

Key terms
• Case – the occurrence of illness affecting one person
• Food – anything that people normally eat or drink, including water and ice.
• Foodborne illness / disease – any illness caused by eating or drinking contaminated food
• Food safety – the safeguarding, or protection, of food from anything that could harm
consumer’s health. This includes all practical measures involved in keeping food safe and
wholesome through all the stages of production to point of sale and consumption
• Hazard – anything that could cause harm to consumers
• Foodborne disease outbreak – the occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illness that result
from eating the same type of food
• Reasonable care – the management responsibility to take all reasonable precautions and care to
avoid committing a violation

Consumer awareness
The safety of food is high on the list of consumer expectations, but outbreaks of foodborne illness
and scares about health hazards from food have often been in the headlines in recent years. Despite
increased public awareness of food safety issues, there are still millions of cases of foodborne illness
every year and thousands of deaths. Many of these cases are linked to retail eating establishment.
No single reason has been identified for these high figures, but factors may include:
• Changes in menu trends – such as eating out more often, eating more reheated food, eating raw
food (such as suchi) or eating lightly cooked food (such as meat that is still pink in the center)
• Changes in domestic shopping habits – including more bulk-buying so that food is stored at
home for longer periods before it is eaten
• Changes in farming practices, with food produced in massive quantities rather than at a small
farm or by local industry
• More interstate shipping, so that food spends more time in transit, which may increase the
possibility of temperature abuse
• More importation of food and ingredients
• A reduction in the use of preservatives
• Seasonal variations in menu demands – so, for example, in summer there maybe insufficient
refrigeration space or there could be temperature abuse associated with cook-outs
• The identification of new foodborne diseases
• An increase in the number of cases of foodborne illness that are reported as a result of better
public awareness – but the figures

The modern approach to food safety

In recent years food codes have tended to concentrate on methods that anticipate problems before
they occur. The best known such methods that Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP).
This involves identifying foodborne hazards and stopping them from occurring if possible, or, at the
very least, minimizing the possible impact from hazard.

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The DFA recommends HACCP as “ the most effective and efficient way to ensure that food
products are safe.” In line with the Food Code, many jurisdictions require food business to develop
a HACCP plan. Even where HACCP is not a legal requirement, food service employers are still
expected to demonstrate that they took reasonable care in dealing with food safety issues.

The manager’s responsibility

The manager or supervisor is often the individual who are recognizes by law as “the person in
charge” of an establishment. For example, the Food Code defines the person in charge as “the
individual present at a food establishment who is responsible for the operation at the time of as
inspection.” There should be someone in charge of the food premises throughout its hour of
operation.

Included in the duties of the person in charge are ensuring that the relevant regulations are observed
and that employees:
• Clean their hands effectively
• Check foods as they are received to determine that they are from approved sources and
meet the requirements for temperature and protection from contamination
• Cook and cool potentially hazardous food properly
• Sanitize multi-use equipment and utensils after cleaning and before reuse
• Prevent the cross- contamination of ready-to-eat food from bare hands by ensuring that
suitable utensils, dispensing equipment, deli paper or gloves are used
• Receive proper training in food safety that is relevant to their assigned duties

Getting the best from your employees

• Everyone who works with food is responsible for safeguarding consumer health. A manager’s
responsibility includes making that all food service employees know exactly:
• What they must do at work and why they must do it
• How their actions can protect or endanger consumer health
• What standards are expected of them, as well as their legal obligations

You can do this in many ways – for example, by providing each employee with appropriate training
for his or her job
New International Food Safety Icons
The 11 international food safety icons were
published in 2003 by the International
Association for Food Protection (IAFP). The
purpose of the icons is to provide an easily
recognizable symbol that conveys a specific
food safety message to food handlers of all
nationalities.

1. Thoroughly cook foods to appropriate

temperatures.
2. Do not cross-contaminated between raw and
ready-to-eat or cooked foods.
3. Wash hands with soap and warm running water.
4. Do not touch ready-to-eat foods with bare hands.
5. Food contact surfaces and utensils must be properly washed, rinsed, and sanitized.
6. Do not work with food or beverage if you are ill or experiencing gastrointestinal symptoms.
7. A food that requires time and temperature control for safety.
8. Cold foods must be held at 5°C (41°F) or below.
9. Hot foods must be held at 60°C (140°F) or above.
10. Do not allow foods to stay in the temperature danger zone.
11. Hot foods must be cooled from 60°C to 21°C (140°F to 70°F) within two hours and from 60°C
to 5°C (140°F to 41°F) within six hours.

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Part II Food Hazards and Foodborne Illnesses

How the Threat to Health Starts

Even the simplest or least processed food could go through several stages before reaching the
consumer’s plate. Among the stages could be growing or rearing, slaughtering or harvesting or catching,
processing, packing, delivering, storing, preparing, cooking, displaying, selling and serving. There are
hazards all around food. They exist in the natural world and they can be created by people. However,
they become a threat to consumer health only when they are on or in food – in other words, when the
food is contaminated.

Contamination is the presence of something harmful or objectionable in food and drink that could cause
illness, injury or discomfort. Contamination is the starts of events that can lead to foodborne illness. No
one wants to eat contaminated food and the law says that people who work with food must protect food
from contamination.

Biological Hazards – Bacteria

Biological hazards are the main cause of foodborne illness. Most cases of illness are caused by bacteria –
“invisible” life forms that live on and in our bodies and throughout the natural world. There are
thousands of different types of bacteria, many serving useful purposes. But very small proportions are
harmful and can cause foodborne illnesses or spoil food. This section examines why and how bacteria
are of such concern to food establishments.

Key terms
• Bacteria – microorganisms responsible for most foodborne illnesses
• Contamination – the presence in food of any harmful or objectionable substance or object
• Food-contact surface – any surface that is touched by food
• Hand contact surface – any surface that is touched by hand
• Microorganism (or microbe) a very small (micro) life form (organism), including bacteria, viruses,
molds, yeasts and some parasites
• Potable – safe for humans to drink
• Pathogen – an organism that causes disease
• Spoilage – the process by which food becomes unwholesome
• Vehicle of contamination – hands, utensils or tools that can carry microorganisms onto food,
causing contamination

Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are too small to see without the help of a powerful
microscope. Even when food is contaminated, it is impossible to see bacteria with the naked eye or
to taste or smell them. Food appears to be safe could make you or even cause death.

Bacteria are found throughout the natural world and survive under many conditions. Although they
responsible for most cases of foodborne illness, it is important to remember that not all types of
bacteria are harmful. Indeed, most types are beneficial and humans would find it difficult to survive
without them. Bacteria can be considered under just three headings – helpful bacteria, pathogenic
bacteria and spoilage bacteria.

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Helpful bacteria
Helpful bacteria are the types that help us to:
• Grow crops
• Digest the food we eat
• Make foods, including yogurt, cheese and carbonated
drinks
• Treat sewage to make it safe
• Develop new foods
• Create medicinal drugs
• Manufacture laundry and cleaning products.

Pathogenic bacteria
These are harmful types of bacteria that cause illness and are responsible for most cases of
foodborne illness.

Where pathogenic bacteria come from:

Raw food
Food of animal origin – meat, poultry, fish, shellfish and eggs – and vegetables are
significant source of contamination. Bacteria are naturally present in animal intestines.
When animals are slaughtered, the skin and flesh may be accidentally contaminated by
these bacteria. If the meat is then ground for instance for burgers, the bacteria can spread
throughout the food.

Water
Untreated and incorrectly treated sources of drinking water, such as rivers, lakes and
reservoirs, can carry the pathogenic microorganisms that cause foodborne illnesses. So, all
water used in food preparation and recipes must be potable.

Soil
There are many bacteria living in the soil. These can cause foodborne illness if raw food is
not washed thoroughly before it is eaten.

People
Pathogenic bacteria can be found on human skin and in
the ears, nose, throat, hair and intestine. They are also in
cuts, pimples, and boils. Food handlers can spread
bacteria by touching their faces, hair or other parts of
their body before handling food; by not washing their
hands after going to the bathroom; or by coughing or
sneezing near food.

Pests and Pets

Insects, such as flies and cockroaches, and animals, including rodents, dogs, cats, hamsters,
amphibians and reptiles, all carry harmful microorganisms on and in their bodies.

Air, Dust, Dirt and Food Waste

The air carries dust and dirt containing millions of microscopic particles of dead skin, food
and other debris covered in pathogenic bacteria which can settle on uncovered food.
Bacteria from food waste (and from the pests that the scraps may attract) can contaminate
food if the waste is not disposed of properly.

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Spoilage Bacteria
These are the types of bacteria that make food spoil
(sometimes called “rooting,” “decaying,” “deteriorating”
or “going bad”). Food that is putrid or decomposed is
considered unfit for human consumption and must not be
sold.

How bacterial contamination occurs

As bacteria exist in the environment – in water, the soil and the air – and on and inside animals,
many raw foods are contaminated before they reach your establishment.

Careless or inappropriate handling may add bacteria to food – for example, through poor personal
hygiene and habits. It can also spread bacteria from one food to another – such as from a raw
potentially hazardous food to a ready-to-eat food. This is called cross-contamination, and it can
happen when foods touch or drip, but it also often occurs via “vehicles of contamination,” such as
cutting boards and knives. Although bacteria can move, they cannot travel far on their own, but they
often “transported” from one place to another on people, animals, equipment, utensils and wiping
cloths, in particular by:
• Hands
• Hand-contact surfaces, such as preparation tables, cutting boards, door handles and faucets
• Food-contact surfaces, such as cutting boards, containers and utensils that have not been
cleaned and sanitized properly between uses.

Other Biological Hazards

Although bacteria are the most common form of biological hazard and cause more cases of foodborne
illness than anything else, other types of biological hazard should not be overlooked. This section
outlines the non-bacterial hazards that should be of concern to all food service companies.

Key Terms
• Foodborne illness – any illness caused by eating contaminated food
• Parasite – an organism that lives on or in another life form
• Pathogen – an organism that causes disease
• Toxin – a poison produced by some living organisms, such as bacteria and molds
• Virus – an extremely small, highly infectious pathogen

Viruses
Viruses are even smaller than bacteria, but, unlike most foodborne bacteria, viruses do not depend
upon particular types of food for their survival. This means that anything we eat and drink could be
contaminated by a virus.

In order to reproduce, viruses invade the cells of a living host such as human or on animal. They
cause illnesses such as colds “flu” and the foodborne infection Hepatitis A. Infections from other
foodborne viruses – including rotaviruses, Norwalk, Norwalk-like viruses and small round
structured viruses (SRSVs) – have increase in recent years. Just one virus, or a very small number of
them, can cause illness and person-to-person spread is common.

Fungi
Fungi include mushrooms and microscopic molds and yeasts. Some mushrooms are edible, but
others are poisonous. It is important to buy from reputable suppliers and not to collect mushrooms
from the wild.

Certain types of mold are used for making blue-veined cheeses, some soft cheeses and soy sauce.
Some types of yeast are used for making bread, beer and vinegar. However, the presence of
unwanted yeast or mold can spoil food, making it unfit for human consumption. Molds and yeast are
significant causes of spoilage when food is not stored in appropriate conditions. Yeast tend to

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colonize fruits, fruit juices, wines, pickles and preserves, while molds often spoil biscuits, nuts and
cheeses. Some molds produce mycotoxins- particular types of toxin 9 such as aflatoxins and ergot)-
on foods such as rye, other cereals and nuts especially peanuts. The mycotoxins are not destroyed by
cooking.

Naturally poisonous fish and plants

Some reef fish, such as amberjack, barracuda, grouper, mackerel and snapper, become contaminated
with ciguatera toxins by eating smaller fish that have fed on toxic marine algae. Although the fish
are unaffected, the toxin causes ciguatera poisoning in the people who eat the fish. The illness can
be life threatening.

A number of other dangerous illnesses can be caused by other types of toxin in fish. These include:
• scombrotoxin poisoning ( sometimes known as “histamine poisoning”)
• paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
• diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP)

You might sometimes see all of these types of naturally occurring poisons described as chemical
hazards, rather than biological hazards, because toxins are chemicals. It makes no difference to
everyday food safety measures how they are classified. The important thing is to make certain that
you purchase fish only from reliable sources.

As some wild berries and plants are poisonous, it is also important to purchase fruit and vegetables
from reputable supplier.

Parasites
Parasites are organisms that depend on another organism (known as a “host”) to survive and
reproduce. They live on or inside human and animal bodies. Foodborne parasites usually have
complicated life cycles that may involve a number of different hosts before they infect humans.
Parasites of concern to food businesses include:
• roundworms- examples are Trichina ( trichinella spiralis) which is a particular problem in
hogs and can cause trichinosis in humans that have consumed infected pork, and Anisakis
which can be found in fish such as cod and herring.
• flatworms- examples are beef, pork and fish tapeworms, and flukes such as liver fluke
• Protozoa- single-celled microorganisms, such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium
parvum, which often infect water.

Biological Hazards and Illness

Foodborne illnesses are caused by eating or drinking contaminated food. The symptoms of biological
contamination usually involve the stomach and intestines, leading to discomfort, distress and weakness.
This section outlines the main causes of biological foodborne illnesses and their symptoms.

Key Terms
• Foodborne infection – an illness caused by pathogenic microorganisms that live and multiply in
your body after you have eaten contaminated food.
• Foodborne intoxication – an illness caused by toxins in food
• Multiplying, multiplication – the way bacteria reproduce and increase their numbers – this is
sometimes referred to as bacterial growth in numbers
• Onset (or incubation period) – the time it takes for the symptoms of a foodborne illness to start
after contaminated food has been eaten
• Pathogenic – description of an organism that causes disease
• Toxin – a poison produced by some living organisms, such as bacteria and molds
• Toxin-mediated infection – an illness caused by eating live pathogens that make toxins as they
live in the stomach or intestine

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The prime cause of foodborne illness

Food makes people ill when it is contaminated. Food is contaminated when it contains or carries
something that is harmful to human health. Biological contamination is the most common cause of
problem in food establishment and bacteria are responsible for most cases of illness.

Highly susceptible populations.

Anyone can be affected by a foodborne illness, but some people are particularly badly affected if
they become ill and could even die. The people in this “at risk group” include:
• the elderly
• pregnant women and unborn babies
• breast-fed babies and the very young
• people who are ill, recovering from illness or who have weakened immune systems
(immunocompromised ).

Types of illness linked to food

Biological contamination of food can make you ill in three main ways:
• foodborne infection
A bacterial foodborne infection is cause by eating food contaminated by certain live
pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella (salmonellosis). The bacteria make you ill
as they live and multiply in your body.
A viral infection is caused by eating food contaminated by a virus, such as Hepatitis
A, Norwalk or Rotavirus. Viruses do not need the food to stay alive to multiply, but
they use it to carry them into the human body. Once inside, they damage living body
cells.
Parasites cause infection as they carry out part of their life cycles in a human host.

• foodborne intoxication
A bacterial foodborne intoxication is caused by toxins produced by certain
pathogenic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus (“staph”) and Clostridium
botulinum (botulism). If bacteria have produced toxins in the contaminated food, and
then the food is eaten, foodborne intoxication can occur and cause illness.
Fungal intoxication can be caused by mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin, ergot,
ochratoxin and patulin, which are poisons produced by some fungi.

• toxin-mediated infection
A toxin-mediated infection is an illness caused by eating food contaminated by
certain live pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium perfringerns, that make toxins
as they live in the stomach or intestine. It is the toxins that make you ill.

Symptoms, onset period and duration

When your body detects that you have eaten something harmful, it usually tries to get rid of the food
by the quickest methods. The most common symptoms of foodborne illnesses are therefore:
• abdominal pain
• diarrhea
• vomiting
• nausea
Other signs of illness may include fever and headache.

Food allergies and intolerance

Some people are particularly sensitive to certain foods and become ill after eating products which
are harmless to most other people. The symptoms of food allergies may include some similar to
those of some foodborne illnesses. Other allergy symptoms include rashes, swelling of the throat
and mouth, difficulty of breathing, collapse and unconsciousness. Allergic reactions can occur
rapidly after eating just a small amount of a food or ingredients and may be life threatening. Among
the foods that have been linked to allergic reaction are flour, nuts and seeds and products made from

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them, such as cookies and salad dressings; shellfish; food dyes and flavor enhancers; milk and dairy
products; chocolate; and fruit. Most people who have a food allergy or intolerance know what to
avoid, but they may need help in identifying exactly with ingredients have been used.

The symptoms of many foodborne illnesses a few hours to several days after eating the
contaminated food. They tend to last for 24 to 48 hours, but can continue for a week or more. There
are also foodborne illnesses with incubation periods of weeks or even months. For example, the
symptoms of listeriosis, caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogens (the “deli bug”), may take
from one day to ten weeks to develop, while the onset of symptoms from the virus Hepatitis A is
between two and eight weeks.

The symptoms of some illness linked to food can last for months or even years, causing serious
long-term health problems and symptoms such as kidney failure or paralysis, which can lead to
death.

Low infective dose

It is worth noting that some pathogenic microorganisms do not need to be present in large numbers
before they cause illness. These include viruses and the bacteria Campylobacter ( a common cause
of diarrhea ), Shescherichia coli 0157 ( which has often been linked to undercooked beef), Shigella
dysenteriae ( responsible for bacillary dysentery ) and salmonella Typhi ( responsible for typhoid).

Potentially Hazardous Foods

Some products, described as potentially hazardous foods, are more likely to cause foodborne illnesses
than others. It is important to be able to recognize them so that you can deal with them with special care
and prevent illness.

Key terms
• Ambient temperature – ordinary room temperature
• Binary fission – the process by which bacteria multiply by splitting in two
• Contamination – the presence in food of pathogenic microorganisms or objectionable
substances
• Danger zone – the temperature range most suitable for bacterial growth
• Dehydrate – to dry out
• Dormant – a period of inactivity when bacteria do not multiply
• Multiply – to reproduce
• Pathogen – an organism that causes disease
• Potentially hazardous foods – foods that need temperature control because they support the
rapid growth of pathogenic microorganisms or the formation of toxins
• Spoilage – the process of causing damage – spoilage bacteria make food deteriorate
• Spore – a protective coating formed by some bacteria to help them to survive adverse
conditions such as cooking or drying
• Ready-to-eat foods – food which is edible without preparation or treatment, such as washing or
cooking, immediately before they are eaten

Recognizing potentially hazardous foods

Potentially hazardous foods can support the rapid growth of infectious or toxin-producing
microorganisms. Such foods may be of animal, plant or synthetic origin and may be raw or heat
treated. Examples of potentially hazardous foods include;
• Raw meat and poultry
• Cooked meat and poultry products- such as stews, gravy and soups made with meat or meat
stock
• Milk and dairy products
• Raw shell eggs and uncooked items and lightly cooked items (e.g., hollandaise sauce and
custards

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Ready-to-eat foods
Many, but not all, potentially hazardous foods are ones that are ready to eat. As the name suffests,
these are in a form that can be eaten at once, without any treatment (such as additional washing, or
cooking or other preparation) that would destroy pathogens immediately before the food is eaten.
Ready-to-eat foods are also responsible for many cases of foodborne illness. They include:
• raw, washed fruit
• prepared salad vegetables
• delicatessen products, such as cheese and cold meats
• cooked foods

The Conditions That Encourage Fast Growth

It is important to understand the conditions that enable disease-causing bacteria and fungi to multiply to
levels that are harmful to consumer health. They have six main requirements which are often abbreviated
to FATTOM.
• F food
Like all living things, bacteria need nutrients – although different types of pathogenic
bacteria can live on a range of foods, most prefer something that is high in protein, moist
and slightly acidic- such foods are the potentially hazardous ones described on the previous
page, such as red meat, poultry, shellfish, eggs, milk dairy products.

• A acidity level
Levels of acidity in a food have a significant effect on bacterial and fungal multiplication –
the level of acid or its opposite, alkali, is measured on the pH scale – this runs from 0 to 14,
with 7 as the neutral point – a pH below 7 is acidic, while a pH above 7 is alkaline – most
foods are neutral or slightly acidic.

Pathogenic bacteria prefer foods with a pH between 4.6 and 7.5 – acidic foods such as
lemon juice and vinegar make it difficult for most bacteria to multiply and are therefore
useful for preserving food – for example, as pickles – however, yeasts generally prefer
slightly acidic foods and can spoil products like fruit juices, wine and pickles – molds
prefer neutral conditions but may be able to tolerate acidic food with a pH as low as 2.

• T time
Bacteria do not need long to multiply to levels that cause foodborne illness – they
reproduce by dividing – this process is known as “binary fission” – one bacterium splits in
two, then two become four and four becomes eight and so on – as bacteria need only 10 to
20 minutes to multiply, it is possible for one bacterium to lead to the production of millions
of bacteria within just a few hours – yeasts multiply by budding and molds multiply by
branching or fungal spores.

• T temperature
Most pathogenic bacteria and fungi multiply rapidly at temperatures between 5°C (41°F)
and 60°C (140°F) – this range of temperature is therefore called the temperature “danger
zone” – ambient temperatures, sometimes called room temperature, are generally within
the danger zone – the ideal temperature for bacterial multiplication is at about 37°C
(98.6°F), which is average human body temperature.

At temperatures colder than 5°C (41°F) and hotter than 60°C (140°F), the multiplication of
most bacteria slows down or stops altogether – however, some fungi can grow at
temperatures as low as -15°C (5°F) and there are some types of bacteria, such as Listeria,
that can carry on multiplying at below 5°C (41°F) – for example, in a refrigerator or chilled
buffet – freezing makes most bacteria dormant (inactive), but it may not kill them – most
bacteria can survive and they resume multiplication later when conditions are more
suitable.

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Cooking at high temperatures kills most bacteria, provided that the food is cooked for long
enough throughout the product – however, it is important to remember that high cooking
temperatures do not destroy all toxins or spores, so danger to health can remain even after
cooking.

Spores – a kind of protective coating, to help some bacteria to survive harsh conditions,
such as cooking, dehydration and sanitizing, that might otherwise destroy them – bacteria
do not multiply when they are in spore form, but as soon as conditions become more
acceptable, the bacteria emerge from their spores and are free to resume multiplication –
foodborne bacteria that produce spores include Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens
and Clostridium botulinum.

• O oxygen need
Some bacteria, referred to as “aerobes” need oxygen to reproduce – others, referred to as
“anaerobes” can only survive without the presence of oxygen – there are also bacteria that
can live either with or without it.

• M moisture
Pathogenic bacteria and fungi need moisture to reproduce and they prefer moist foods like
meat and fish – the amount of moisture in a food that is accessible to them is described as
“water activity” or “available water” and is expressed as “aw” on a scale from 9 to 1.0 –
pure water has aw of 1.0 and most fresh foods have aw of about 0.99

Most pathogenic bacteria need aw to be above 0.85 in order to multiple – they cannot
multiple in dried foods, but some molds can tolerate aw as low as 0.6, so they can spoil dry
foods like biscuits and nuts.

Drying (or dehydrating) food is a good way to preserve food from spoilage – however, as
soon as liquid is added to foods, such as dried eggs and powdered milk, the reconstituted
products provide ideal conditions for growth – quantities of salt (in foods such as crackers
and bacon) and sugar (in foods such as candy, jelly and jam) absorb the moisture available
in the food so that the pathogens cannot easily use the moisture and multiply.

Physical and Chemical Hazards

Even though biological hazards cause the greatest number of food safety problems, physical and
chemical hazards must not be overlooked. This section outlines the sources and consequences of typical
foodborne physical and chemical hazards.

Physical hazards
The physical contamination of food can cause considerable customer dissatisfaction and complaint,
probably because the contaminant can be seen, unlike most forms of biological and chemical
contamination.

Among the injuries from foodborne physical hazards are cuts, bleeding, infection, choking and
broken teeth. Even if they are not injured, some consumers can be so disgusted by “foreign objects”
in their food that they are sick or have nightmares.

Some physical hazards are a natural part of a food, like leaves, twigs, shell, scale or bone, that the
consumer expects you to remove. Others, such as glass or wood fragments, are added – usually
accidentally as a result of carelessness – at various pints from farm to fork.

Food service employees are themselves a prime source of physical contamination. This is why it is
so important to enforce personal hygiene rules, such as those about wearing hair covering and other
protective clothing, not wearing jewelry or street clothing while working with open food and not
smoking in food areas.

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Ideally, the outer packaging of food should be removed in an area away from open food. Garbage
should be removed regularly and there should be an effective system of pest control in place.

Chemical hazards
Harmful chemicals can be accidentally added to food from a number of sources and in several ways.
These include:
• chemical hazards in the environment – such as poisonous metals and the by-products of
industrial processing
• agricultural or veterinary residues – such as traces of pesticides, fertilizers, and animal
antibiotics or growth hormones.
• incorrect quantities of additives – such as colorants or flavor enhancers
• inappropriate workplace practices – such as the careless use of lubricants or cleaning
compounds, or contact reactions from the use of unsuitable metal food containers or
utensils for acidic foods

Part III Preventing Foodborne Illness

Personal Hygiene
Even perfectly healthy people have potentially harmful microbes living on and in their bodies. So
everyone who works with food must have very high standards of personal hygiene to avoid
contaminating food and causing foodborne illness. This section outlines the main points you need to
emphasize to food handlers.

Key terms:
• Carrier – a person who carries pathogenic bacteria without suffering symptoms.
• Food-contact-surface – any surface that is touched by food.
• Hand-contact-surface – any surface that is touched by hand.
• Microorganism (microbe) – a very small life form, including bacteria, viruses, molds, yeasts
and some parasites.
• Pathogen – an organism that causes disease.
• Protective clothing – clothing and equipment designed to protect food from contamination and
food handlers from injury

First Impressions
Your employees need to start work clean and neat. This will help them feel good, give a favorable
impression to customers and protect food from contamination.

Encourage employees to maintain good personal habits, like bathing or showering every day. This
removes some fo the bacteria that live on heads and skin, including those that live on stale
perspiration and cause body odor. Using a deodorant can help prevent unpleasant body smells from
developing after washing. Even so, you may wish to ask employees to avoid very strongly scented
deodorants, perfumes, aftershaves and other toiletries and cosmetics because they could affect the
taste or smell of some foods.

Handwashing
Make certain that all food handlers understand why they need to wash their hands regularly and with
care. Handwashing helps:
• remove pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses and parasites) and other harmful substances
(such as dirt or chemicals) from the hands
• prevent direct food contamination and cross-contamination via hands

Even if employees can avoid touching food by hand (by wearing gloves or using utensils), they will
certainly touch some equipment, utensils and surfaces as they work. So, their hands must be
scrupulously clean at all times to prevent the contamination of food-contract surfaces and hand-
contact surfaces.

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When to wash hands

Explain that food handlers must wash their hands frequently throughout the day and they must
always wash their hands:
Before
• starting work
• touching raw food or potentially hazardous food
• touching ready-to-eat food
During
• food preparation, as often as necessary to keep their hands clean and to prevent
cross-contamination
When switching between
• handling raw and cooked food
• handling raw and ready-to-eat food
After
• handling raw food, including raw eggs in their shells
• visiting the bathroom (comfort room)
• coughing, sneezing, blowing their nose, touching a handkerchief or their hair, face
or any other part of the body
• carrying out cleaning or sanitizing tasks, handling containers of cleansing
chemicals, or taking out the garbage
• taking a break, or eating, drinking or smoking
• wearing protective gloves
• handling money
• any other activity that could contaminate hands

How to wash hands

Most people think they know how to wash their hands, but it is important that employees really do
understand what proper handwashing involves – and that they follow the rules every time.

Make it easier for employees to follow the rules by providing:

• separate sinks for handwashing, or an approved automatic handwashing facility
• good supplies of hot and cold running water
• an adequate supply of an approved soap or detergent and nailbrushes
• approved hand-drying facilities, such as disposable towels
• regular training and reminders on handwashing

Explain that 20 seconds may seem like a long time to wash your hands, but it really does help
remove bacteria. Encourage the use of a nailbrush to clean fingernails after handling raw foods or
going to the toilet. If a hand sanitizer lotion or dips are permitted, explain that they are for use in
addition to thorough handwashing and not as a substitute for it. Make it clear that employees would
never dry their hands on protective clothing, dishcloths or service cloths, as this could cause
contamination.

Key points for handwashing:

• always use a handwash sink provided exclusively for this purpose
• wet your hands and exposed parts of your arms with warm water and apply soap
• rub the soap into your hands and arms vigorously for at least 10 to 15 seconds, not
forgetting wrists and paying special attention to the areas under the fingernails and between
the fingers
• the entire handwashing procedure should take 20 seconds – scrubbing, rinsing and drying.
• rinse your hands thoroughly with clean water
• dry your hands carefully on the towel or under the electric hand dryer provided

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Cuts and boils

Make sure food handlers understand that they could accidentally be the source of bacteria, like
Staphylococcus aureus (“staph”), that can cause foodborne illness. If they have an infected cut or
boil that is not properly covered on the face, hands or arms, they must report this to you before they
start work. You can then make sure their wound is completely covered by a suitable waterproof
bandage and disposable gloves if the wound is on the employee’s hands.

The right clothing for the job

What employees must wear depends on the type of work they do, but may include:
• overalls, jackets, pants, aprons
• neck scarves hats, hairnets, hair restraints, beard nets, moustache nets
• non-slip shoes, boots, safety shoes
• gloves
• clothing for working in cold environments, such as walk-in freezers

Whatever style you choose, make certain it is:

• suitable for the work (so it provides maximum protection)
• clean and undamaged
• easy to clean
Many specialist prefer light colored clothing, so dirt shows easily and reminds employees to
change into clean replacement clothing.

Most jurisdictions require food handlers to wear some kind of hair restraint. The principle is to
cover as much of the hair as possible. Some employees may need to secure long hair and wear a
hairnet as well as a hat. Bears and moustaches may also need to be covered.

Good practice
Food handlers must put on their protective clothing before entering a food area. It is a good idea for
them to put on the head covering first, so hair or dandruff does not fall on the other outer clothing.
They should not brush, comb or adjust their hair in a food area because they could cause physical or
biological contamination – remember that bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus can live on your
head and skin.

Designed to protect
Protective outer clothing is designed to safeguard food from contamination and protect employees
from harm (such as hot oil). So although it helps keep employees’ own clothing clean, this is not the
main reason for wearing it. Prohibit employees from wearing protective clothing outside food areas,
such as in the street, and do not permit them to wear or carry street clothing in food areas. Store the
clothing away from food areas in the separate area or locker provided for this purpose.

Jewelry
Bacteria can live on and under straps and rings. Gemstones and other small parts of jewelry could
drop into food. So, ask employees to leave all jewelry, including watches, at home. Alternatively,
provide lockers or somewhere safe in the employee room. Make it clear that employees must not
wear jewelry on their arms or hands, other hand a plain wedding band while preparing food.

Reporting Illness
There are a number of legal requirements for dealing with food handlers when they get sick. It is up
to you to find out about the state or local code. Employees must not work with food if they have
certain illnesses or symptoms because they could contaminate food. They may need medical
attention and they may require physician’s approval before working with food again.

The Food Code requires employees to report to the person in charge if they have, or have recently
had, a foodborne illness or any other illness that has similar symptoms. Employees must report to
you if they have:

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• been diagnosed with an illness due to Salmonella Typhi , Shigetta species, E Coil or
Hepatitis A;
o or have had an illness in the past as a result of one of these;
o or they live in the same household as someone who has such an illness;
o or they have traveled within the last 50 days to an area outside the United States or to
an American territory where there was an epidemic caused by one of these
• symptoms associated with acute gastrointestinal illness, such as diarrhea, fever, vomiting,
jaundice or a sore throat with fever
• a boil that is draining or an open infected wound
• been suspected of causing or being exposed to a confirmed outbreak of illnesses (for
example, by preparing food implicated in an outbreak or by eating suspected foods).

You may need to exclude the employee from the workplace altogether until he or she is no longer ill
or infectious and you have sent he written approval of a physician for the employee to return to
work. Depending on the circumstances, you may be able to give an infected employee alternative
work which does not involve handling unpackaged food.

Time and Temperature Control

The best way to avoid causing foodborne illness is to prevent all types of contamination. The problem is
that bacteria and other microorganisms are a natural, living part of the world around us and many foods
are already contaminated within they arrive at your workplace. So, you need to control the condition that
enable harmful bacteria to multiply to disease-causing levels. One of your best defenses is time and
temperature control. This section outlines the principles involved:

Key terms:
• Core (internal temperature) - the temperature at the center or the thickest part of the food.
• Danger zone – the temperature range from 5°C to 60°C (41°F to 140°F) most suitable for
bacterial multiplication
• Pathogen – an organism that causes disease
• Sanitizing – the process of reducing microorganisms and their spores to generally safe levels
• Temperature abuse – keeping food in the danger zone to long
• Temperature control – keeping food at a safe temperature, or using heat to destroy pathogenic
microorganisms (for example, by cooking).

Keeping Food Out of the Danger

As you know, harmful bacteria reproduce rapidly in the danger zone – the range of temperatures
from 5°C to 60°C (41°F to 140°F). So, the principles of time and temperature control are simple:
keep potentially hazardous food out of the danger zone. This generally involves one or all of the
following:
• limiting the time that potentially hazardous foods are inside the danger zone – the rule of
thumb is a cumulative total of no more than four hours;
• using temperatures outside the danger zone, such as cooking temperatures to kill pathogens
(although toxins might not be destroyed);
• using temperatures outside the danger zone, such as freezing to restrict bacterial
multiplication

Temperature Abuse
Although the principles of time and temperature control are very simple, a potentially hazardous
food could actually pass through the danger zone several times before it is eaten. This could happen
when, for example a frozen food is thawed, cooked, then cooled for severing cold later.

In fact, most cases of foodborne illness are linked to temperature abuse, when potentially hazardous
foods are kept in the danger zone for an unsafe period of time. The most significant problems
identified are:
• inadequate cooking

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• preparing food too far ahead of planned sale or service (and keeping it at danger zone
temperatures)
• inadequate hot holding
• inadequate reheating

This means that food safety managers must take special care to ensure that the combined principles
of time and temperature control are diligently applied during transportation, receipt, storage
(refrigerated, frozen, dry), preparation, thawing, cooking, cooling, reheating and holding for display
and serving. Food service employees must be made aware of:
• the circumstances when temperature abuse could occur in your particular workplace
• the time limits to observe for food that is unavoidable in the danger zone – during
preparation, for example: the procedure to follow, including appropriate corrective action,
if food is found to be at an unsatisfactory temperature.

You’ll find the recommended times and temperatures for specific stages of the food flow on

Measuring Temperatures
All food service establishments should check the temperature of food throughout the food flow –
receipt, storage, preparation and processing, holding and sale – and log the readings. This not only
helps you manage the safety of food, but also provides a proof of reasonable care if you should ever
need to defend your workplace practices.

You should have an appropriate number of approval temperature measuring devices –

thermometers, thermocouples, thermistors or other suitable devices –f or checking the temperature
of food, liquids and air. Such devices include digital, dial-face metal stem (bi-metallic), infrared and
thermocouple types, as well as integral devices (for example in refrigeration units). The temperature
may be given as a numerical scale on a dial, printed record or digital display. Any devices with glass
sensors or sterns (such as candy thermometers) must be encased in a shatterproof coating.

Calibration
To ensure the accuracy of the readings, all devices must be calibrated according ot the
manufacturer’s instructions:
• at regular intervals, as a matter of course
• when there is damage to a device or an inaccurate reading is suspected
• if there has been a confirmed case of foodborne illness linked to temperature abuse in your
premises

Some devices may need to be calibrated by specialist contractors or the manufacturer, but bi-
metallic thermometers can usually be adjusted by carrying out the ice or boiling point methods.

The ice method involves inserting the probe part of the device into a small container of crushed ice
topped up with cold water. When the indicator has stabilized, the calibrator nut may be turned until
the indicator shows 0°C (32°F).

The boiling point method involves inserting the probe part of the thermometer into boiling water
and, once the indicator has stabilized, adjusting it to show 100°C (212°F) at sea level (as the boiling
point of water is altered by altitude, check for the appropriate calibration point for your geographical
area).

All food service employees should be trained how and when to use and calibrate temperature
measuring devices and how to record the readings.

Using temperature devices

To avoid contamination and cross-contamination, thermometers must be undamaged and thoroughly
clean and sanitized by an approved method before they are used.

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When to measure temperatures

When the end-point temperature should be measured depends to some extent upon the types of food
used and the style of the food operation. Employees should measure the temperature of potentially
hazardous food as it is received. The temperature for potentially hazardous foods being cooked or
reheated should be measured towards the end of the predicted cooking period. The temperature for
frozen foods being thawed should be measured towards the end of the estimated thawing period.
When hot holding, cold holding or cooling potentially hazardous food, the temperature should be
measured frequently. Refrigeration and freezer units should be checked at least once a day, more
often if the unit doors are opened and closed frequently.

How to measure temperatures

Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions. It is important to measure the core temperature of
solid, potentially hazardous food that is under refrigeration or being cooked, reheated, cooled or
thawed. This can be done by inserting a clean, sanitized probe into the center or the thickest part of
the food. Cooked liquid food, such as soups, stews and sauces made from potentially hazardous
ingredients, should be stirred before the temperature is measured to ensure that the temperature is
even throughout.

Alternative methods, depending on the measuring device, include hanging the probe – for example
in a freezer unit – or inserting the probe between packs of food, making sure that it is in close
contact with the outer packaging. The important point to emphasize to employ6ees is to wait long
enough for the reading to be accurate.

Corrective action
Make certain employees know what to do if there is a non-conforming temperature and how to log
the action taken. The procedures for correcting temperatures and dispensing of food, if necessary,
should be included in your HACCP plan.

Receiving and Storing Food

Everyone wants their food to be delicious and safe, so all products and ingredients need constant care
until they are sold and served, including the time-during transportation, receipt and storage. It is
important to handle and store food in the best possible way – in the right conditions, at the correct
temperature and for a safe length of time. This section outlines the principles involved.

Key terms
• Code dates – a date on packaging indicating the period when the food is safe and in the best
condition to eat.
• Dehydration – the removal of moisture, drying
• Dormant – a period when microorganisms are inactive and do not multiply.
• Freezer burn – dehydration damaging the food caused by the formation of ice crystals
• Preservation – the treatment of food to delay spoilage and extend shelf life.
• Shelf life – the period when food is safe to eat at its best, if the storage conditions are correct
• Spoilage – the process by which food becomes unacceptable – also described as decaying,
decomposing, deterioration, perishing, putrefying, and rotting.

Natural Factors
Even before food is shipped to your premises, a gradual process of aging has begun. This natural
process starts from the moment food is slaughtered or harvested, largely because of the action of
microorganisms such as spoilage bacteria and fungi (mold and yeast).

The speed of deterioration can be controlled – by preservation methods and safe food handling
practices – so that food is acceptable and safe for eating. However, food spoilage may also be
accelerated – by, for example, damage from careless handling, inappropriate storage conditions
(especially poor temperature control) or contamination by pests or chemicals.

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Some of the microorganisms responsible for spoilage (the change in food that makes it unacceptable
as human food) may also be capable of causing disease, and it is a violation to sell food that:
• Contains anything harmful to health, or
• Is filthy, putrid or decomposed

Protection for your supplies

For thousands of years people have used techniques, such as drying, salting and smoking to prolong
the period when food is safe, appetizing and nutritious to eat – what we might now call the “shelf
life” of food. In more recent years food manufacturers and processors have improved old
preservation methods and created new ones, some of which make food safer to eat (by destroying
pathogens), as well as lengthening the time the food can be stored safely in the right condition.

Government and state agencies play a major part behind the scenes in inspecting the safety and
quality of food intended for human consumption. For example, meat carcasses approved by the
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) are marked with an inspection stamp.
Purchasing
Food purchased for your establishment must come from reputable vendors, who must obtain food
only from approved sources that comply with the federal, state and local food codes. Food service
establishments must not sell food that has been prepared in a private home, unless the domestic food
preparation area has official approval.

Always check that vendors are complying with legislation and following any official
recommendations for their food. Consider creating product specifications for your suppliers and
make random checks on the sanitary conditions of their premises and food-handling practices.

Receiving Food
Train employees to understand the safety and grade standards you expect and to inspect shipments
at receipt. Make certain they understand what to do if supplies do not conform with legal and
business requirements.

Every food business should have guidelines for accepting or rejecting food supplies. The guidelines
will vary from food to food, but the key safety points are to ensure that the food is:
• fresh and within the code date
• contained in clean, undamaged packaging
• free from pest infestation or other forms of contamination
• at the correct, safe temperature
• correctly labeled

Other criteria could cover such things as grade, quantity and price.

How to inspect incoming food

Train employees to inspect food and vehicles immediately. Delivery vehicles can be considered as
an extension of food establishments, so they must be specifically designed for transporting food and
must be kept clean. They must be refrigerated if they carry potentially hazardous or highly
perishable foods.

Reasons for rejecting food might include:

• potentially hazardous or perishable foods received at a danger zone temperature
• frozen food thawed or partly thawed
• packaging damaged or dirty
• cans dented, bulging, rusty or leaking
• wet packaging for dry goods
• discoloration, including dark or pale patches
• visible mold or slime
• changes to the usual odor, often unpleasant

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• changes in texture, including wrinkling, drying and softening

• alteration of the usual flavor, including sourness
• an expired code date
• no inspection stamp, seal or tag present on foods including meat, poultry, eggs or shellfish
• insufficient documentary evidence about sources, grade or temperature

Storing food
Most food businesses have to store food, even if that storage period is brief. Correct storage, when
food is kept in the right conditions, at the correct temperature for the appropriate period helps:
• prevent foodbourne illness
• preserve the food’s taste, appearance and nutritional value
• provide adequate supplies when they are needed
• avoid spoilage and wasted food
• comply with regulatory requirements

Food storage areas should be designed to hold different types of food in the best possible way.
Typical storage includes:
• dry goods – for short-term and long term storage of canned and bottled food, cereals,
grains, tea, coffee and spices
• refrigeration – for storing potentially hazardous and perishable foods for short periods
• refrigerated display cabinets and refrigerated vending machines – for displaying food for
very short periods
• freezers – for keeping food for longer periods

There should also be separate storage for cleaning chemicals and equipment.

The FIFO principle

FIFO is short for “first in, first out.” It is a good way for employees to remember the principles of
safe storage. Teach them to store or display food by putting the products with the shortest shelf life
at the front and placing similar products with the longest shelf life at the back.

To remove food from storage or display, they should take the food from the front. Make sure
employee check the code date, packaging and condition of the food before use, and that they retrieve
a product with the earliest date before using a similar product with a later date.

Code dates
Date marking is a form of labeling that indicates the period when food is safe to eat and/or in its best
possible condition. Some code dates are legal requirements, others are part of the establishment’s
own food safety/quality procedures. Potentially hazardous foods and those that perish rapidly
sometimes carry a use by code date, indicating the last period when the food is safe to eat. A best
before code date indicates the shelf life of other types of food. Information about storage conditions
may also be given.

General Rules for Safety Storage

There are some general rules for safe storage. Make certain that all food service employees
understand and follow the following principles:
• store food immediately after the shipment has been inspected and the temperature has been
measured and tagged
• deal with potentially hazardous, frozen and perishable foods before dry and canned goods
• keep potentially hazardous foods out of the temperature danger zone
• place foods in the appropriate storage areas, following any storage instructions on the
package
• store food so that products with the earliest code date get used from storage first (FIFO)
• protect food from contamination
• use clean, dry containers and wrappers, if food needs to be divided into smaller quantities

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Refrigeration
Potentially hazardous and perishable foods must be stored at 5°C (41°F) or below because most
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms do not multiply, or multiply only very slowly, under
refrigeration.

Loading
If possible, use separate refrigeration units for raw foods (such as meat and poultry) and for ready-
to-eat foods (such as dairy products and cooked meats). If this is not possible and you have multi-
use refrigeration units, always store raw meat and poultry on a shelf below other foods so that juices
or blood cannot drip onto other foods and contaminate them.

Load the shelves so that cold air can circulate and you can easily check the food. Don’t leave the
refrigeration unit doors open any longer than necessary, because the refrigeration temperature will
rise.

Freezing
Freezing (at a temperature of -18°C (0°F) or below) stops the activity of most microorganisms.
Bacteria are dormant, so they cannot multiply. However, some bacteria or their spores may survive
and can multiply again as soon as the food is in the danger zone. Frozen food should not be refrozen
once it has started to thaw because it may have been sufficiently warm for long enough to allow
bacterial growth. Some molds and yeasts can multiply slowly at very low temperatures. Freezing
usually destroys parasites, such as the pork roundworm Trichina, but is may take several weeks.

Storage practices
Train employees to place raw foods below ready-to-eat foods to avoid contamination. In chest-type
freezers, they should pace food with the longest shelf life below food with a short shelf life,
according to the FIFO principle. Make sure that food is not stacked above the load limit line. Keep
the food in the supplier’s packing if it is clean and unbroken. If the food needs to be rewrapped,
make certain employees label the item clearly and include the code date. Don’t allow unwrapped
food in the freezer – it could become contaminated, cause contamination or be damaged by freezer
burn.

Storing dry and other goods

Dry goods should be kept in cool, dry and well ventilated conditions. The ideal temperature is
between 10°C and 21°C (50°F and 70°F). There must be sufficient space between supplies to allow
air to flow freely and for employees to check the products. The packaging must be secure against
pests. Although dry and canned goods have a long shelf life, employees should still take care to
inspect and rotate the stock regularly following the FIFO principle.

Preparing and Presenting Food

People who work with food are legally responsible for producing safe food, so it is important they know
exactly what they should and should not be doing. This section outlines the principles involved.

Preparing food
Food preparation involves a wide range of activities including washing, peeling, cutting, sieving,
mixing, portioning, plating and decorating. Although methods and ingredients vary enormously, the
food safety principles are the same.
• protect food from contamination at all times
• wear suitable, clean outer clothing
• wash your hands before working with food and regularly throughout the preparation period
• touch food with bare hands as little as possible and use clean and sanitized equipment and
utensils
• apply time and temperature principles
• use a fresh clean sanitized spoon each time you need to taste-test food

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Thawing frozen food

Some products may be safely cooked from frozen if the manufacturer’s instructions are followed,
but many large, raw, frozen items, such as meat roasts and poultry, must be completely thawed
before cooking.

Frozen food will enter the danger zone as it thaws, so the thawing period and the final temperature
before cooking must be carefully controlled.

If large food items are not thawed properly before cooking ice crystals may remain at the center.
Although the heat melts the ice and cooks the food surface, the internal temperature may not be hot
enough to kill disease-causing organisms. The internal temperature may be in the danger zone –
ideal for bacterial growth.

Methods of thawing
It is unsafe to thaw food at ambient temperatures (ordinary room temperatures), as bacteria can
multiply rapidly on the surface, even while the center is still frozen. Approved thawing methods are:
• in a refrigerator unit at 5°C (41°F) or colder
• in a microwave oven, provided the food will be cooked immediately and the
manufacturer’s instructions are followed
• submerged under running potable (drinking quality) water at 21°C (70°F) or below
• as part of the cooking process

If a refrigerator is used, a specifically designed thawing cabinet is ideal, or a refrigeration unit

set aside specifically for the purpose. If you have to use a multi-purpose refrigerator for
thawing, ensure that employees take special precautions to prevent cross contamination.

Thawing principles:
• plan your work to take thawing times into account, some foods take a long time
• use containers that will not overflow
• cover the food to prevent contamination during thawing
• select the most suitable thawing method according to the type and size of the food and the
equipment available
• if you have a multi-use refrigerator, place frozen food on the lowest shelf to prevent juices
from dripping onto other foods.

Cooking
All cooked food must be heated thoroughly, so that every part of the food is properly cooked.
This means that the food must be hot enough for long enough to reduce pathogenic
microorganisms to safe levels. And, ensuring an even temperature throughout.

Ask employees to cut large roasts and poultry into smaller portions wherever possible, as this
will make it easier to cook the flesh evenly, right through to the center. Have them cook stuffing
separately, if possible, so that the stuffing mixture does not prevent the poultry or meat from
cooling all the way through.

To equalize the heat so there are no cool spots in the danger zone, ask employees to rotate large
food items part way through the cooking period and to stir stews, casseroles, sauces, soups and
other liquid items frequently

Cooking principles:
• plan your work so that hot food is not prepared too far ahead of service
• rotate large food items part way through cooking and stir liquid foods frequently
• allow food cooked in a microwave oven to stand for two minutes after cooking
• measure the internal temperature at the center or the thickest part of the food

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• be certain the food reaches at least the minimum temperature required for the required
time.

Microwave cooking
Emphasize the importance of turning or stirring food when a microwave oven is used, to help spread
the heat more evenly. Make certain that microwaved foods are allowed to stand for two minutes
after the cooking period, so that the heat can equalize to the required internal temperature.

Measuring the cooking temperature

Make sure employees check the internal temperature of food towards the end of the cooking period
because, even though the surface may be cooked, the center of the food could still be in the danger
zone.

The right temperature and time

There is a range of approved safe minimum internal temperatures for cooking. These vary according
to the type of food to be cooked, the recipe, the cooking method chosen and the food code
governing your workplace. Make certain you are familiar with the relevant requirements and that
employees follow the rules. The table at the top of the next page gives minimum typical minimum
internal cooking temperatures and times for potentially hazardous foods, based on advice in the
Food Code.

Cooling hot food

Inadequate cooling is a major factor behind cases of foodborne illness caused by food service
establishments. The biggest problem is cooling food to slowly. Hot food has to pass through the
danger zone as it cools. As a consequence, you must reduce the temperature as quickly as possible
so the food is in the danger zone for the shortest possible period.

While the food is cooling, it must be protected from contamination. Managers must ensure that
employees cool hot food to the temperature specified in the regulations within the time required. It
is important to check the temperature of food as it cools and particularly near the end of the
estimated cooling period. Employees must know what to do if the food is cooling too slowly.

Food Item Min. Internal Temp. Min. Holding Time

Poultry 74°C (165°F) 15 seconds
Stuffed poultry, fish, meat or pasta
Stuffing containing fish, meat or poultry
Wild game animals
Fish and meat (not listed elsewhere on this chart) 63°C (145°F) 15 seconds
Commercially-raised game animals
Unpasterurized shell eggs prepared for immediate
service
Unpasteurized shell eggs cooked for late service 70°C (158°F) 1 second
Exotic species of game animal
Comminuted fish and meat 68°C (155°F) 15 seconds
Injected meat 66°C (150°F) 60 seconds
63°C (145°F) 3 minutes
Food cooked in a microwave oven 74°C (165°F) Until the minimum
temperature is reached in all
parts of the food, then
allowed to stand for 2
minutes to obtain temperature
equalization

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Methods of cooling
It is easiest to cool food quickly in a blast chiller. This shortens the time that food spends at the
danger zone temperatures. If a blast chiller is not available, other options include:
• dividing the hot food into smaller or thinner portions
• placing the hot food in shallow pans to increase the surface area of the food which
accelerates the cooling process – ideally the containers should allow the food to be only 2
to 3 inches deep
• placing the hot food in smaller containers to reduce the food mass
• using an ice bath – transfer the hot food to a clean, cold container and place the container in
a larger one that holds ice or ice and water
• stirring, or rotating, food while it is cooling
• add ice (made from clean drinking water) as an ingredient

Ask employees to remove cooked roasts and whole chickens from their juices before placing
them in clean containers with enough space for air to circulate. Prohibit the use of a cold table,
refrigerated case or chilled vending machine for cooling food from hot temperatures, because
the equipment is not designed to reduce the temperature quickly enough.

The right time and temperature

According to the Food Code, cooked potentially hazardous foods should be cooled as follows:
• from 60°C (140°F) to 21°C (70°F) within two hours, and
• from 60°C (140°F) to 5°C (41°F) within six hours

Because such a high proportion of cases of illness result from poor cooling practices, these times
and temperature requirements are extremely important.

Reheating food
If you permit the reheating of potentially hazardous foods, it is good practice not to permit
employees to reheat food more than once and ensure that any leftovers are discarded. Instruct
employees to remove food from refrigeration just before reheating – and not any earlier. Have them
follow instructions on prepared products.

Reheating previously cooked and cooled food should be rapid and thorough, as the process is
another common cause of foodborne illnesses in food service establishments. If food does not get
hot enough quickly enough, bacteria have an ideal temperature at which to multiply. All parts of the
food must reach an internal temperature that is high enough to kill most pathogens.

The right time and temperature

According to the Food Code, potentially hazardous food that has already been cooked and cooled
must be reheated to a minimum internal temperature of 74°C (165°F) for at least 15 seconds. This
temperature and time must be achieved within two hours.

Food that is reheated in a microwave oven must additionally be allowed to stand for two minutes
after cooking.

Hot holding
Although the ideal is to cook or reheat food and offer it for sale at once, in practice many food
establishments need to keep food hot for a period before the food is consumed.

Cooked or reheated potentially hazardous food which is not required for immediate consumption
and is intended for eating hot, must be held at 60°C (140°F) or above. In other words, is must be
kept out of the danger zone. Before hot holding, the food must first reach the required minimum
cooking or reheating temperature for the required time.

Stir or rotate the food frequently to prevent cool spots from occurring.

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Cold holding
Potentially hazardous food intended for eating cold should be held at 5°C (41°F) or cooler – in other
words, outside the danger zone. Food that has previously been cooked should be cooled rapidly by
an approved method before refrigerating.

Displaying food
Food displayed for safe or service must be protected against all sources of contamination. Packaged
food must be securely wrapped and labeled. Open food must be covered by lids, or protecte3d by a
sneeze guard.

Cleaning and Sanitizing

Customers expect food premises to be clean and they assume that you handle their food hygienically.
Clean and organized workplaces create a good impression and help make a safe, pleasant environment
for everyone. However, it is important to remember that even when something looks perfectly clean, it
could be contaminated.

Key terms:
• Clean – to make something free from dirt and residue
• Clean as you go – cleaning procedures you carry out as you work
• Contact (or exposure) time – the period that a sanitizer must be left in contact with an item to
enable it to work properly
• Detergent – a chemical that helps dissolve greases and remove dirt
• Food-contact surface – any surface that is touched by food
• Hand-contact surface – any surface that is touched by hands
• Master cleaning schedule – details of the cleaning to be carried out by specified people at
specified intervals and times
• Risk – the likelihood of harm
• Sanitizing – the process of reducing pathogenic microorganisms to safe levels
• Sanitizer – a chemical that destroys many pathogenic microorganisms, reducing them to safe
levels
• Sterilization – the process of killing all microorganisms

The purpose of cleaning and sanitizing

Cleaning is the process of making something free from dirt and residue. It involves the use of
energy – human effort or that of a machine, such as a warewashing machine or floor scrubber.
Activities include wiping, rubbing, scrubbing, scouring, brushing and sweeping.

Sanitizing takes place after cleaning and rinsing. It reduces pathogenic organisms to levels
considered safe for human health. Although cleaning and sanitizing are closely linked, they are
separate processes. Surfaces must be clean before sanitizing is carried out, because soil and food
residue can stop sanitizers from working properly.

Cleaning and sanitizing help:

• reduce the risk of biological contamination
• reduce opportunities for bacterial multiplication by removing food particles
• protect food from physical and chemical contamination
• avoid attracting pests
• maintain a safe environment, for example, to stop employees from slipping on a greasy floor
• comply with legal requirements to keep premises, equipment, utensils and materials clean

Detergents
Detergents are the main chemicals used for cleaning. Used in combination with hot water and
energy, they help dissolve grease and remove dirt. They may also kill some disease-causing
organisms. Even so, as some microorganisms can survive the cleaning process, many surfaces must
also be sanitized after they have been cleaned and rinsed.

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Sanitizing
Sanitization is the reduction of microorganisms to a low level that is safe for human health, even
though some organisms and their spores may survive the process. (Sanitization is not the same as
sterilization, which involves the destruction of all microorganisms – this is not easy to carry out, or
even necessary, in most food premises, although some food, such as milk, may be sterilized by food
manufacturers).

Sanitizing can be achieved by the use of heat or chemicals. In manual warewashing, items must be
immersed in water at 77°C (171°F) or hotter for at least 30 seconds. The temperatures for
sanitization in different types of mechanical warewashing equipment are specified in the Food
Code. Chemical sanitizing solutions must be used in accordance with the manufacturer’s label
approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Thermal and chemical sanitizers must be applied after cleaning and rinsing and must be left in
contact with the surface long enough to work properly: this is referred to as the “contact time” or
“exposure time.”

What to sanitize
All food service employees must know which items in your workplace should be sanitized after
cleaning ad rinsing. Surfaces that come into contact with food (food-contact surfaces) must be
cleaned and sanitized after every use and, where relevant, between uses for different foods.

Food-contact surfaces that must be sanitized include:

• preparation boards, cutting boards, multi-use utensils, tables and work surfaces
• food processing machinery, equipment and utensils, such as spatulas, mixers, mincers,
knives and tongs
• containers

Anything that is frequently touched by hand (hand-contact surfaces) and other items that create a
risk of contamination or bacterial multiplication should be cleaned and sanitized periodically.
Examples include:
• handles, for example on doors, refrigeration equipment, freezers, cupboards and drawers
• faucets, soap and paper towel dispensers
• switches
• wiping cloths, brushes, scrubbers and mops
• trash containers and their lids

When to clean and sanitize

Everything in food premises must be kept clean. Surfaces that come in contact with food or hands
are likely to be contaminated by microorganisms, so they must be cleaned and sanitized frequently.
This is commonly described as “clean-as-you-go” cleaning. Employees should clean and sanitize
food contact surfaces as a matter of course:
• before using the equipment or utensils
• when switching to working with another type of food
• as often as possible during the shift, and at least every four hours if something is in
constant use
• immediately after use
• at the end of the shift

Hand-contact surfaces should be cleaned at least once a day, more often depending on the frequency
of use.

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Some equipment and areas may be cleaned at less frequent intervals than those requiring clean-as-
you-go treatment. For example, the interval could be daily for the floor and trash cans, or weekly for
cleaning underneath refrigeration equipment, and monthly or quarterly for ceilings.

Master cleaning schedule

You need to produce a master cleaning schedule that describes when and how different items and
areas should be cleaned and who should do the cleaning. The master cleaning schedule should show
the:
• item or area to be cleaned
• frequency of cleaning required
• method, including the chemicals to use, the protective clothing to wear and the safety
precautions to take
• employees involved and the job title (such as manager or supervisor) of the person
responsible for checking that the cleaning has been carried out properly

The names of cleaning contractors who carry out specialist tasks, such as moving or dismantling
machinery or using particularly hazardous chemicals or techniques, could also be included.

The stages of cleaning and sanitizing

It is very important to train employees how to clean and sanitize properly and to supervise them as
they work. There are five main stages involved:
• Stage 1 – remove any loose dirt
• Stage 2 – wash surface with hot water and an appropriate detergent, using equipment such
as a scrubbing pad, cloth or brush
• Stage 3 – Rinse with clean water
• Stage 4 – Use a chemical or thermal sanitizer, following the manufacturer’s instructions
and not forgetting the exposure time.
• Stage 5 – leave the item to air dry

These principles can be applied to all cleaning tasks involving food-contact or hand-contact
surfaces. The illustrating at the top of the next page gives the example of manual warewashing in a
three-compartment sink.

Safety points to emphasis to employees:

• make sure your hands are dry before you dismantle or clean any electrical equipment
• switch off the power to electrical equipment before you start cleaning – this may mean
using the breaker or the safety switch – follow the rules for your workplace
• do not use any chemical unless you have been trained how to use it
• never mix chemicals together – they could explode, cause toxic fumes or burn someone’s
skin
• wear protective clothing, such as rubber gloves and goggles, that is appropriate to the task
• use a rack or basket to immerse items in very hot sanitizing water
• always follow the manufacturer’s instructions – if you are in any doubt about the safe use
of a chemical, ask your manager or supervisor for advice before you start work
• wash your hands after carrying out cleaning tasks or disposing of refuse

Simple safety precautions

Teach employees how to work through the states of cleaning in a way that does not spread dust, dirt,
hot water or chemicals that could contaminate food or injure co-workers. Before starting cleaning
tasks, employees must store food safely so that it cannot be contaminated, and refrigerated or frozen
food must be stored at appropriate temperatures.

Check that chemicals, cleaning equipment and protective equipment are stored away from food in
non-food storage. Don’t allow chemicals to be stored in anything other than the labeled containers
designed for that purpose.

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Selecting and using appropriate chemicals

The correct choice of detergents and chemical sanitizing solutions can make a considerable
difference to the effectiveness of the cleaning and sanitizing activities of your workplace.

Among the factors to be considered when making your selection of detergents are the:
• types of surface and the soil to be removed (e.g., grease or burnt deposits)
• pH of the water supply
• requirements and recommendations for the use of the cleaning equipment in your
workplace

The water temperature, the energy applied (such as scouring or rubbing) and the length and
frequency of treatment all influence the effectiveness.

Three main types of chemical sanitizing compounds are approved for use in food premises –
chlorine (hypochlorites), iodine (iodophors) and quaternary ammonium (quaternary ammonium
compounds or quats).

When used correctly, chlorine-based sanitizers are effective against most microorganisms in hard
and soft water. They are relatively cheap, but may corrode some metals when used at high
temperatures.

Iodine based sanitizers are effective, when used correctly, against most microorganisms and they
work rapidly. They may stain silver and copper.

Correctly used quat-based sanitizers are odor-free and non-corrosive. They do not work well in hard
water and are not effective against some bacteria.

As the pH, temperature, concentration of the solution and contact time all impact the effectiveness
of chemical sanitizers, it is important to follow the manufacturer’s instructions. The Food Code
states contact times and concentrations and temperatures according to the pH.

Trash disposal
Unless it is disposed of properly, food waste and other trash, such as food packaging, can easily be a
source of bacterial and physical contamination and can attract pests. Inside the premises, refuse
containers need to be within the food handlers’ easy reach, but not so close to food that they could
cause contamination. The containers should have a disposable liner and a tight-fitting lid. Foot-
operated containers are best because employees do not have to touch any part of the can by hand.

Encourage employees to empty the containers into the outside refuse receptacles regularly
throughout the day and whenever the liner is nearly full. Make certain the containers and their lids
are washed at the end of every day. Don’t allow garbage and trash to remain inside food
establishments overnight – it will attract pests. Employees should tie the liner securely before taking
it out to the refuse station. Check that they always put the liners inside the dumpsters, with the lids
securely closed to protect the contents from scavenging animals. Keep refuse stations, dumpsters
and recycling containers clean. Arrange for regular collections.

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Integrated Pest Management

Pest can be a serious economic and health problem. They can contaminate and destroy food stocks,
damage premises and spread foodborne illnesses. This section discusses the principles of preventing
infestation.

Key terms:
• Infestation – the presence of pests.
• Pest – an animal or insect that contaminates or damages food.
• Integrated pest management – a comprehensive system of pest prevention and control.

Pests
The main pests of concern in food establishments are:
• insects – such as flies, moths, ants, cockroaches and wasps
• stored product pests – such as beetles, mites and weevils
• rodents – rats and mice
• birds – mainly pigeons, sparrows, starlings and seagulls.

The problems they create include:

• loss of profit
• damage to the business’ reputation
• food contamination and waste
• the spread of diseases
• damage to buildings, equipment and electrical cables, causing fire and other safety hazards
• non-compliance with the law

Food premises attract pests because they contain everything most pests need to survive:
• food – in storage, under preparation or as waste
• moisture – as condensation from cooking activities, from plumbing leaks or from stored
liquids
• warmth – from heating systems or from handling and processing activities
• shelter – for sleeping or nesting in any undisturbed areas such as under refrigeration
equipment that has not been moved regularly for cleaning or the back of a store that has not
been checked frequently.

Pet animals can also contaminate food and must not be allowed in any food facility unless they are a
“service animal” on duty.

Unhealthy habits
Many pests inhabit unhealthy places where they pick up pathogenic bacteria on their bodies and legs
– for example, rats live in sewers, while flies feed and breed in landfills, garbage containers, and
animal droppings. Some pest also have pathogenic bacteria living inside their bodies; these can be
spread to food and wate3r from their droppings and urine or through their saliva as they eat. Pests
also cause physical contamination with their droppings, eggs, fur, nest materials, mites, parasites
and their own dead bodies.

Preventing problems
It is essential to have in place an effective pest control program. Integrated pest management (IPM)
is a system of cooperation between a food establishment and a licensed, registered pest control
operator (PCO) to prevent infestation and promptly eliminate any pests that do get into the building,
despite all the precautions. A combination of appropriate methods are used to deny pests food
moisture and shelter. This may involve:
• organizing the premises so that pests cannot get in (e.g. through crevices)
• installing door screens, door curtains, self-closing devices and window screens
• inspecting food on receipt
• protecting food by using pest-proof containers

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• storing food off the floor

• keeping the establishment clean and disposing of refuse properly
• inspecting the premises regularly and disturbing possible hiding places
• maintaining the premises and repairing damage promptly
• installing approved insect control devices
• using pesticides under careful control

The evidence of a problem

Prevention is always better than the cure but it is also important to train employees to inspect for
signs of pests when they are storing food, cleaning and removing garbage and trash. Ask them to
report any sightings immediately. The main signs are:
• dead bodies (mainly insects, rodents and birds)
• torn or damaged packaging, sometimes surrounded by spilled food
• droppings, eggs, larvae, feathers, fur, nesting material
• rub marks and rat runs (rodents)

Dealing with an infestation

The use of pesticides is best left to your PCO, as the chemicals can be very dangerous in untrained
hands. Emphasize that, for their own safety, employees must not attempt to touch anything designed
to eliminate pests, unless they have been specifically trained and authorized to do so. Common pest
control methods include:
• traps
• glueboards
• poisons – pesticides and insecticides
• ultraviolet fly traps

Designed for Food Safety

The physical construction, organization and equipping of food service establishments play a significant
part in the prevention of foodborne illness. This section outlines the main requirements for construction,
food-contact materials and utilities.

Key terms:
• Air gap – an open and unobstructed space separating supplies of potable water from drainage
systems and other sources of contaminated water that could backflow
• Backflow – a reverse flow of contaminated water into potable water supplies
• Durable – hard wearing
• Harbor – provide a shelter or hiding place
• Impervious – does not let water through
• Potable – water that has been treated so that it is safe to drink
• Workflow – the route through food premises for food, employees and equipment during all the
stages from delivery of raw food and ingredients to dispatch, sale or service of finished product

Suitable for their use

The location of food establishments must conform with regulatory requirements and must be
suitable for the storage, preparation and sale of the type of foods and ingredients used. This means
that there can be many designs, but they must all follow some important general principles. Among
the provision tat food establishments must make is:
• prevention of biological hazards (biological contamination and multiplication), physical
hazards and chemical hazards
• supplies of potable water and safe drainage systems
• adequate and suitable storage for food, chemicals, cleaning materials and refuse
• appropriate lighting and ventilation
• suitable facilities for washing food and for washing and sanitizing utensils and equipment
• employee restrooms and other facilities, such as lockers and first aid items

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• easy access to all parts of the premises, including yards and refuse stations, so that effective
cleaning and sanitizing can be carried out
• preventive measures against pest infestation
• devices for controlling the temperature of potentially hazardous food at all stages of the
food flow
Workflow
There must be a well-planned route for food and people through food areas, to safeguard food from
the moment it is delivered until it is a finished product. Make sure that employees can follow a
logical, continuous, linear workflow, with tasks moving from raw ingredients to the finished
product. Cross-contamination should be made physically impossible by such measures as keeping
ray foods apart from other foods and separating work centers for “dirty” processes (such as washing
vegetables) and “clean” process (such as portioning cold, cooked meats). Storage areas should be
near delivery areas and, wherever possible, deliveries should not be carried through food preparation
areas. Initial food preparation should take place as near the appropriate storage areas as possible,
with final work being carried out nearer to the area for packing sale or service.

Construction
Materials for the construction of walls, floors and ceilings must be able to withstand heat, steam,
condensation and grease. The construction should also protect safety – for example, materials
should be fire resistant where appropriate and floors should be non-slip.

The Food Code prohibits the use of carpet in food preparation and storage areas. Materials such as
epoxy resin, ceramic or quarry tiles, welded anti-slip surfaces and vinyl sheeting are suitable.
Coving between walls and floors makes cleaning easier and prevents food and insects from lying
undetected. There should be adequate drainage facilities, including floor drains where appropriate.

Walls and ceilings must not flake and should be able to support pipes and ventilation grilles.
Pipework should be sealed and any brackets should be easy to clean.

Windows and doors should be protected where appropriate by screens, strip curtains or air curtains
to reduce the risk of contamination. All work surfaces should be smooth, without cracks or seams,
and heat resistant where appropriate.

Water and drainage

There must be a good supply of potable water with enough pressure to supply warewashing
machines and to allow the business to work in a sanitary manner. Drinking water must be protected
from contamination caused by cross-connections in the plumbing or by back-siphonage. There
should be air gaps – with a gap between the supply pipe and the rim of the sink of at least 1 inch –
or backflow preventers that comply with your local code. Drainage systems must prevent flooding
and remove contaminated waste and solids from food preparation areas. Grease traps may be
necessary on some drains.

Personal hygiene and welfare

There must be handwashing sinks in the bathrooms and there must also be at least one that is
conveniently located in food preparation areas. Sinks for handwashing must be separate from the
sinks designated for the washing of food or utensils or for janitorial use. Washing and drying
materials must be provided. There must be restrooms for employees’ use, as well as properly
stocked and conveniently located first aid equipment for emergency use.

Electricity and gas

Electricity controls and isolators should be waterproof and installed in positions where employees
do not have to reach across cooking equipment or machinery with moving parts. All electrical
equipment should be positioned so it does not get wet. Flexible gas connections (fitted by a
registered contractor) are recommended so it is easy to clean around the supply pipes without the
risk of damage.

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Lighting, ventilation and air conditioning

Illumination levels should be suitable for working, without causing glare. Shatterproof glass, bulbs,
tubes and diffusers are an important safety measure. Ventilation and air conditioning systems should
prevent high temperatures and humidity that make working conditions uncomfortable, prevent
steam and condensation from collecting and remove contaminated air, grease and unpleasant smells.

Food-contact materials
Your local code may require you to comply with certain standards. Suitable materials include
stainless steel, various types of plastic and polypropylene. Color-coding helps employees remember
to separate raw and ready-to-eat foods or “clean” and “dirty” tasks. Unsealed wood is absorbent and
difficult to clean and maintain. The Food Code approves only maple and similar close-grained
hardwoods for cutting boards, cutting blocks and pizza paddles. Tableware must be non-porous and
without chips or cracks that could harbor bacteria.

You need to make certain there is suitable, certified equipment that is arranged so that employees
can follow a logical workflow and can clean and sanitize thoroughly. Whenever possible, choose
equipment with rounded corners and edges to prevent employees from bruising themselves.

Consider purchasing large stoves, refrigeration units and similar large pieces of equipment that are
mobile, so they can easily be cleaned underneath. Immobile equipment should have a space of at
least 6 inches between the floor and its underside to allow for cleaning underneath. Alternatively,
the base should be sealed to the floor.

There should be enough refrigeration space to keep raw, cooked, ready-to-eat and potentially
hazardous foods apart. If there is not separate refrigeration for segregated storage, employees must
take extra care to store food safely.

All equipment must be maintained so that it does not cause physical contamination.

Food-contact materials – in general the best materials are:

• durable
• impervious
• smooth and resistant to cracking or chipping
• easy to clean and sanitize
• non-toxic
• rust-resistant
• free from joints and seams and areas where contaminants could be trapped or
pests could hide

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Part IV Food Safety Control

Professional Good Practice

Every food service establishment uses, processes and vends food in slightly different ways and each food
safety professional brings his or her special personal expertise ot the business. Even so, the key
management principles for food safety are the same, whatever the style or scope of the food operation.
This section discusses the management practices that are essential wherever food is produced –
complying with regulations and analyzing and controlling foodborne hazards.

Key terms
• Control – an action designed to eliminate a hazard or reduce a risk from an unacceptable level.
• Critical control point – in HACCP, a point or procedure in the food system, where the loss of
control may result in an unacceptable health risk.
• Critical limit – in HACCP, the border between what is safe and unsafe.
• Foodborne hazard – biological, physical or chemical that could cause harm to the consumer.
• HACCP – hazard analysis critical control point, a formal, documented system of hazard
analysis.
• Risk – the likelihood that a hazard will occur.

Underlying principles
Food safety measures are so important to public health that nearly every facet of the food chain is
regulated. The basis of these regulations is to make sure that food offered to consumers is:
• safe
• unadulterated
• honestly presented

Regulatory control
There are three levels of governmental control – federal, state and local (county, municipal and
tribal). Food safety laws are made as statutes, regulations and ordinances. There are also state and
local codes, which have the force of law.

A number of federal agencies have responsibilities for food safety. The Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), which is part of the United States Department of Health and Human
Services, has wide-ranging duties, including:
• regulating the processing, manufacturing and interstate shipping and sale of food, except
eggs, poultry and meat
• setting standards for the composition, quality, safety and labeling of food and food
additives
• issuing a recall of any food that may be a threat to health
• publishing and updating the Food Code, which recommends best practice for food safety

Agencies at state and local levels have primary influence on the day-to-day operation of food
establishments and the protection of public health. The exact arrangements for regulation and
enforcement vary and could, for example, fall to departments responsible for public health,
environmental health or agriculture.

Voluntary control
There are also voluntary, unofficial standards and controls formulated by organizations such as
health and sanitation bodies, trade and manufacturing associations and professional societies.

Managing inspections
Qualified officials of the state or local regulatory agency have “policing” powers to conduct routine
inspections of food establishments. Inspectors may have the authority to carry out the inspection by
prior arrangement, or at any time during normal business hours. They are entitled to observe and
inspect all practices and records relating to food safety, so you should anticipate that they will

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consider such things as personal hygiene standards, time and temperature control, measures to
prevent contamination, the effectiveness of cleaning, sanitizing and pest control, and conformance
with the HACCP plan, where it is required. As the food safety professional, you will be expected to
demonstrate knowledge of safe food handling practices and legal requirements.

Cooperate fully with the inspector, keeping the relationship professional. Instruct employees to
cooperate too. Inspectors can be helpful allies in achieving the highest possible standards. Answer
questions honestly and be prepared to show documentation such as the HACCP plan, shellstock
tags, temperature records and employee training records. Remember that the records will help
demonstrate reasonable care.

Conditions warranting remedy

Regulatory authorities have a range of powers to safeguard public health. They can, for example,
place a hold order on food from an unsafe source. This prohibits the establishment from using,
selling or moving the food from the premise, or from destroying the food, without a written release
order. They can also, for example, suspend a permit to operate because of an imminent health
hazard – a significant danger to health from a product, practice, circumstance or event, which could
include an outbreak of illness that appears to be foodborne, or an emergency like lack of water or
sewage backup.

Legal violations and penalties

If, despite your best efforts, your establishment has deviated from the HACCP plan or violated the
food code, listen carefully to the inspector’s comments and take immediate action to correct the
problem within the time agreed. When establishments fail to comply with the code or to take
appropriate corrective action, the regulatory authority may institute proceedings for misdemeanors
against the permit holder, person in charge or others who are considered responsible for the
violation. If a defense of reasonable care fails, the penalties may include fines, imprisonment or
both. In addition, individuals may face lawsuits for damages.

HACCP
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a scientifically based approach to food safety. It
involves analyzing foodborne hazards and operating effective control measures at the points in the
food flow where control really counts. The system helps ensure that everything which should
happen in a food business to protect food safety does actually take place. There are seven steps
involved in creating and operating a HACCP plan. They are known as the HACCP principles. The
following paragraphs summarize what is involved.

1. Hazard analysis
First, make a list of all the potentially hazardous foods used in your workplace. These could be
raw ingredients through to finished products and menu items. Second, make a list (or better
still, draw a flow diagram) of the stages/process steps for the potentially hazardous foods. Don’t
skip this activity, because it is essential to consider all the stages/process steps in the food flow
that actually take place – the stages for just one potentially hazardous food could include
receiving, storing, thawing, preparing, cooking, cooling, holding and serving. Then, decide
which hazards could occur during the different stages/process steps. It is helpful to consider
each type of hazard in turn:
• biological hazards – including contamination and multiplication
• physical hazards
• chemical hazards

2. Critical control points

Before attempting to identify the critical control points, consider the range of food safety
control measures available – for example, covering food to prevent physical contamination and
measuring the temperature of a potentially hazardous food towards the end of its cooking
period. Then, ask yourself where in the stages/process steps for a particular potentially
hazardous food you could have food safety control measures. The points where you could have

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 Occupational Health 20-71

controls might include locations, employee actions or procedures. Next, decide which of these
points are critical control points (CCPs) – the ones that are truly essential for preventing a
hazard or minimizing the risk that it will occur. For example, a raw turkey is likely to carry
pathogenic bacteria. Keeping it in a refrigerator is an important control, but cooking it
thoroughly to the correct temperature of the appropriate time is a critical control point because
proper cooking should kill the bacteria. If the turkey is to be eaten as soon as it is cold, the
critical control pint will be the cooling time and temperature.

3. Critical limits
Establish and communicate the standards – the “critical limits” – required to keep each critical
control point genuinely under control. A critical limit could be the concentration of a chemical
sanitizer or the time and temperature for reheating a food. There should also be procedures to be
followed if a critical limit is not achieved.

4. Monitor the critical control points

Make the best of your HACCP plan by observing it in action and measuring its results. A
typical monitoring activity is temperature measuring and recording. Monitoring gives you a
good picture of how well your controls are working and indicates when corrective action is
needed.

5. Corrective action
Establish clear procedures for remedying a deviation from the critical limits at a critical control
point. Specify what should be done and who is responsible for taking the action.

6. Verify the system

Check periodically that the whole HACCP plan is working exactly as you intended. If it is not,
you may, for example, need to change working practices, contract with new suppliers or buy
new equipment. Verification should be conducted at regular intervals as a matter of course and
also whenever new ingredients are introduced, a process changes, there is an equipment failure
or new hazards are identified.

7. Document the system

Set up a system of recordkeeping that is easy for employees to use and provides clear evidence
of the care your establishment takes to provide safe food.

Essential teamwork
Ideally, a team of people should draw up and verify the HACCP plan. They should be familiar with
the day-to-day operation of the business and trained in food safety. Small and medium-size
enterprises may benefit from the advice of an external specialist. All employees need to be aware of
the importance of the HACCP system and must be trained to do their part in the monitoring and
hazard spotting processes.

Management Matters
Threats of consumer health are global, but the controls are local. This means that with the right amount
of management commitment and reasonable care, every food service establishment can achieve high
standards of food safety. This page summarizes the manager’s role in food safety.

Foodborne hazards
The first line of defense is to prevent biological, physical and chemical contamination. Purchase
food supplies from reliable sources and ensure that food is covered to protect it from contamination,
recontamination and cross-contamination. Separate raw food from cooked food and establish
effective programs of cleaning, sanitizing, chemical control, pest control and trash and garbage
disposal. Train employees to achieve the highest possible standards of personal hygiene and habits.

Remember, however, that many raw foods are already biologically contaminated when they reach
your premises. So, the second line of defense against biological hazards is to prevent multiplication.

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 Occupational Health 20-72

Train all food handlers to use time and temperature controls and to avoid temperature abuse. The
third line of defense against biological hazards is to treat food – by cooking, for example – in ways
that destroy pathogens. You must also make certain that sanitizing is thorough to kill pathogens in
the food environment.

Team Involvement
Train employees in all the basic aspects of food safety and constantly remind everyone of the crucial
part each food handler plays. Supervise and guide employees, and set a good personal example.
Create suitable procedures and make certain that every food handler knows what to do and what not
to do to produce safe food. Keep yourself up to date on legislation and in touch with recommended
good practices.

Systems for safety

Keep your food safety systems as simple and effective as possible. Make the systems really work
hard for food safety, but don’t allow yourself and your co-workers to become slaves to the system.

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 Occupational Health 20-73

RESTAURANT SAFETY CHECKLIST

Restaurant and Location________________________________________________________________________

Inspector_________________________________________________________Date of inspection_____________

STORAGE AREAS, ATTIC OK Needs Date of

Improvement Correction

1. Are floors clean, dry and in good condition?

2. Are aisles free of boxes or clutter?

3. Are electrical panels accessible and properly labeled?

4. Are doors and latches working properly?

5. Are products or supplies properly stored? (Light items on top, arranged to

avoid toppling.)

6. Is shelving in good condition?

7. Are combustibles kept away from heat sources? (Heating unit, hot water
tank, electrical boxes, etc.)

8. Are outlets, switches and electrical components working properly?

9. Are ladders in good condition and properly stored?

[Link] chemicals separated from foodstuffs?

[Link] trash compactor in good repair?

[Link] first aid kit adequately stocked and accessible?

[Link] lights working properly?

FOOD PREPARATION AND COOKING AREA OK Needs Date of

Improvement Correction

1. Are floors clean, dry and in good condition?

2. Are aisles free of clutter?

3. Are drain screens being cleaned regularly?

4. Are doors and latches working properly?

5. Is food preparation and storage equipment in good repair?

6. Is grill and fryer exhaust system clean and in good repair?

7. Has Ansul extinguishing system been inspected and serviced within last 6
months? (Check tags)

8. Have portable fire extinguishers been inspected and serviced within last year?
(Check tag and guage.)

9. Are combustibles kept away from heat sources? (Ovens, grill, fryer, toaster,
etc.)

10. Are outlets, switches and electrical components working properly?

11. Are lights working properly?

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 Occupational Health 20-74

DINING AND RESTROOM AREAS OK Needs Date of

Improvement Correction

1. Are floors clean, dry and in good condition?

2. Are highchairs, tables and seating in good condition?

3. Are floor mats in good condition? (Lay flat, smooth edges)

4. Is product display equipment in good repair? (½ gallon cases, shelving, cooler

doors, etc.)

5. Are exit signs illuminated?

6. Are outlets, switches and electrical components working properly?

7. Are fixtures in restrooms in good condition?

8. Are lights working properly?

OUTSIDE SEATING AREAS/ PLAYGROUND OK Needs Date of

Improvement Correction

1. Are walking surfaces clean, dry and in good condition?

2. Are tables and seating in good condition?

3. Are gates and access passage locked?

4. Is playground equipment in good condition? (No missing parts, holes or tears,

sharp objects, clean, etc.)

5. Is playground equipment inspected on a daily basis?

6. Is playground area clean and free of debris or clutter? (Balls returned to pit
area)

7. Are proper signs in place?

8. Are lights working properly?

EXTERIOR (WALKWAYS AND PARKING LOT) OK Needs Date of

Improvement Correction

1. Are sidewalks and curbs in good repair?

2. Is landscaping trimmed away from walks and to eliminate possible hiding

places?

3. Is the parking lot free of pot holes or tripping hazards?

4. Is the dumpster area in good condition?

5. Is the garden hose properly stored?

6. Are outside lights working properly?

SAFE WORKING PRACTICES OK Needs Date of

Improvement Correction

1. Do employees demonstrate a team approach in preventing accidents?

2. Are spills or dropped items cleaned up promptly?

3. Are “Wet Floor” warning signs displayed when needed?

4. Are employees wearing proper footwear?

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SAFE WORKING PRACTICES (continued) OK Needs Date of

Improvement Correction

5. Are floors thoroughly cleaned at closing?

6. Are employees instructed in proper lifting techniques?

7. Do employees “practice” proper lifting techniques?

8. Is cooking oil at room temperature before changing or straining?

9. Are knives cleaned safely? (Not left in soapy water)

10. Are slicers cleaned and stored properly?

11. Are employees instructed in the proper use of slicers?

12. Are all cleaning supples properly labeled?

13. Do employees know where Material Safety Data Sheets are kept?

14. Do employees practice safe ladder usage?

15. Do employees use mechanical hand when changing marquee?

16. Are proper posters displayed? (OSHA, Workers’ Compensation, etc.)

17. For ice-cream dipping restaurants:

Are squares “tempered” before placed in dip cabinets?

Are squares “rotated” as needed?

Do employees place hip against dip cabinet for leverage when dipping?

Is ice cream temperature in dip cabinets kept in the proper temperature range?

18. Have all maintenance issues been reported as required?

19. Other:

FOLLOW-UP YES NO

1. Have the hazards that were identified last month been corrected? (If “NO”, specify which
hazards below.)

2. Have maintenance-related items been reported, called in or entered on the restaurant

computer?

3. Have unsafe practices been addressed with all employees?

4. Comments: (Describe all areas that have been marked “Needs improvement”)

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 Occupational Health 20-76

References:
Jergensen, Ernest (1998) “Professional Safety” Safety and Health Auditing, April Volume 43
Nancy (1997) Elements of the Environmental Audit Program,
National Safety Council (1997) Accident Prevention Manual
National Safety Council (1997) Supervisor’s Safety Manual
Nathanson, Jerry (1997) (2nd ed.) Basic Environmental Technology
Nims ((1999) Basics of Industrial Hygiene
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015

 Accident Investigation 21-1

ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Virtually every aspect of an occupational trade involves risks. And, unfortunately on occasion one or more
of these risk manifest into an accident. An accident that can have devastating financial effects on the
company if not managed quickly and in such a manner as to prevent (or minimize) legal repercussions.

Most people when they hear there has been an accident tend to think that an accident investigation is all that
will be required. And, although an accident investigation is necessary to determine the causative factor(s) of
an accident, it is by no means the only consideration. Because, fact of the matter is an accident investigation
will generate an accident report – a report that will either support a company’s safety position.

So what this all really boils down to is should an accident occur on the job it needs to be managed – just like
any phase of a development or production. Through the managing of an accident one can not only establish
the foundation for the company’s safety position, but minimize the project’s (production) downtime, as well.
However, in order to achieve these benefits of managing an accident, one must first have a clear
understanding of the Principles of an Accident Investigation and the skills to Preparing and Responding to an
Accident, apply Data Analysis and Investigative Techniques, and write an Accident Investigation Report.

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 Accident Investigation 21-2

Principles of an Accident Investigation

The principles of an accident investigation means revealing the basic truth. For the facts surrounding each
accident will be clouded. And, it is imperative that the truth be brought out in order to gain any benefit from
an accident. Because accidents don’t just happen. The fact of the matter is there are three (3) causes for
every accident: Direct, Indirect and Basic.

Figure Provided from OSHA Accident Investigation

However in order to discover the truth of an accident one must have a clear understanding of the
Causative Factors of Accidents, Significance of Reporting Accidents and Near Misses, and the Role
of the Accident Investigator.

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 Accident Investigation 21-3

Causative Factors of Accidents Materials

As you recall an accident is an unplanned It takes a variety of materials (of which people
disruption to the normal operation or process, work with) to construct a home: lumber, nails,
which may result in death, injury, illness or wires, pipers, sheet-rock, insulation, paint, etc.
property damage. Furthermore, we understand And, each of these individual pieces of material
that accidents don’t just happen – there is always can be the cause of an accident – usually due to
a cause and for many accidents the cause is the a defect. However, for an accident investigator
result of a multiple of contributory factors one must also consider was the material
generated from the various five (5) components appropriate for use – case in point: fall from
that make up the operation of a business: scaffolding when the planking board broke, the
People, Equipment, Material, Administrative, board in question was not of scaffold grade.
and Working Environment.
Administrative Guidelines
People Policies, procedures & rules are a means for
People are the greatest resource of any management to maintain control over a project
successful business. Unfortunately, people are and ensure specific taskings are performed. For
also the greatest threat to a successful business, example: safety rules govern the behavior of
because statistically speaking people rate the the workers – no horseplay or no smoking near
highest for causing accidents. All too often an combustible material. As an accident
accident investigation will stop once the human investigator it is crucial to take into review all
error has been established. However, the real administrative guidelines to determine if they
causative factor(s) of an accident have not been provide sufficient guidance to prevent the
determined. Because the term human error is a accident or due they need to be re-written.
catch all term, which can be a cover up for lack
of training, improper tools, misdirected Work Environment
motivation, etc. A fact causing accident This factor consist of the external conditions
investigation will reveal (as distasteful as it the workers work: inside-outside, daytime-
may be) the true causative factor(s) of an nighttime, sunshine-rain, hot-cold, damp-soggy,
accident, such as: management’s failure to etc. These external factors that make up the
ensure appropriate training has taken place or work environment create unsafe conditions,
that the worker(s) understood the training, or such as ice forming around the dumpster or on
failure to enforce the company’s policy scaffolding, or the case of a motor vehicle
regarding working with their own tools, or running over a worker off-loading a truck,
management’s failure to recognize the lack of a because she couldn’t see him – the sun was to
safety attitude within the various groups of bright. The accident investigator needs to take
workers. Although not all accidents led back to all these external factors into consideration, but
management failures; employee misconduct, unfortunately some will be gone by the time
defective equipment & materials, inappropriate he/she gets there – so one must ask questions
procedures and work environment must also be such as: was the sun behind a cloud, was the
considered. sprinkler on, etc.

Equipment These factors that make up the operation of a

The tools and machinery people use to business can serve as a multitude of sources for
construct something, such as a structure, can all an accident – either individually or collectively.
be considered equipment. Equipment failure As the accident investigator it is critical that you
leading to an accident can occur for one of two take each of these factors into consideration.
reasons: improper design or misuse. An Unfortunately, we tend to stop our investigations
improper design can be such as a circular saw once the human err is discovered, because as you
with insufficient power to cut the material, can see the causative factor of people is interacted
therefore is forced by the operator and in turn with each of the other components that make up
the motor burns up, which is then a potential the operation of the business. That is because:
ignition source. Whereas, misuse may come in
the form of using the bucket of a front-end People follow procedures to operate
loader as a personnel lift or a worker using a equipment and work with material to
screwdriver as a chisel. accomplish their assigned task within the
perimeters of their work environment.

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 Accident Investigation 21-4

Significance of Reporting Accidents and Near Role of the Accident Investigator

Misses Generally speaking when an accident occurs it is
The single most significant function for accident management’s function to conduct an accident
prevention is the reporting of all near-misses. investigation and rightfully so means
Although, perhaps the most difficult task to management is responsible for the jobsite – plus
accomplish on a jobsite, because nobody wants to management is more likely to reveal other
admit they made a mistake and risk the possibility potential accident causes. However, the term
of getting fired. But, the fact of the matter is management encompasses an assortment of levels
near-misses that go uncorrected will turn into a of management: Corporate Management, Project
bonafide injury producing accident. Managers, Superintendents and Foremen. And,
depending on the degree of accident severity –
The importance of reporting all near-misses and criteria for determining who should conduct the
accidents needs to be stressed during jobsite accident investigation.
safety orientation for all workers (company Problem – accident investigation takes time, but
employees and the employees of subcontractors). this time should be viewed as an investment –
However, in order to get the workers to report because by finding the true causative factor(s) –
near-misses and accidents they are going to have similar accidents will be avoided thereby
to have a safety attitude and not be in fear of preventing downtime on future projects.
reprisal. One good way to foster the reporting of
near-misses is to bring it up in a toolbox meeting The Project Manager and Superintendent are the
– the foreman (supervisor) casually discusses a most knowledgeable about the hazards of the
near-miss he/she had or recently see – ask the jobsite – therefore it stands to reason that the
group for recommendations on how to handle it Project Manager (with the assistance of the
and then ask members of the group to share any Superintendent) conduct the accident
of their recent near-misses. The near-misses are investigation. Just as Department Managers are
noted by the foreman, who then works with the the most knowledgeable about their department.
Project Manager and Superintendent on Because, these individuals will have not only the
implementing corrective actions. knowledge of the resources available to conduct
the investigation, but have a better understanding
of the contributory factors that led up to the
Types of Accidents accident. However, on occasion it may be
There are two types of accidents: Non-Serious necessary to bring a safety professional into the
and Serious. investigation – when this happens the Project
Manager relinquishes control of the investigation
Non-Serious accidents do not cause lost workdays but maintains responsibility for the investigation.
even though the worst that could happen did
happen. Examples of these include paper cuts, The Safety Professional brings authenticity to an
minor scratches or abrasions, or system failures accident investigation from the point of view of
that have minor consequences, such as a low- the courts, as well as provides a fresh approach to
pressure hose that ruptures and sprays cool water. the investigation. The Safety Professional’s
primary duty is to assist the Project Manager
Serious accidents include both those which did responsible for the investigation.
involve lost workdays and those which might
have. This second type of serious accident is
called a "near miss." Examples of near misses
with serious injury potential include:
• A worker twists an ankle in a fall from a low
scaffold (this could easily have been a broken
leg or worse);
A worker tips back in a chair and topples
backward (backward falls are always serious
because head injury might result);-

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 Accident Investigation 21-5

Preparing and Responding to an Accident

What Types of Accidents Occur?

 Unsafe Acts – implies hazards associated  Unsafe Conditions – implies hazards
with the actions of the worker(s). associated with the physical
It has been estimated that over 80% of all surroundings of the worker and can be
fatal accidents are a direct result of a worker classified as either Physical or Health
performing an unsafe act. Meaning that (partial list of hazards)
protective measures where in place (e.g.,
physical barriers, supervision, training, etc.) Physical Health
and the worker circumvented a protective Caught Between Carcinogens
measure or procedure that increased their Caught By Heat Exposure
exposure risk factor to a hazard, which Caught In Cold Exposure
resulted in an accident. Accidents resulting Co-Worker Illumination
from an unsafe act are often labeled human Dusts Ergonomics
error. Electrical Noise
Falling Ionizing
Human error is a collective term used for all Radiation
the numerous actions (or lack of actions) Flying Objects Non-Ionizing
taken by a worker and can be further divided Radiation
into Physical Body and Psychological. Motions Sanitation
Rolling or Vibration
Physical Body Psychological Pinching
Physical Attitude Sharps
Limitations
Slips and Trips
Health Habits Judgment
Struck By
Diet Disobedience
Surface
Smoking Cultural
Temperatures
Differences
Drugs Stress
Exhaustion
Sickness

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 Accident Investigation 21-6

Who Should Conduct the Investigation?

 Supervisor – day-to-day contact with the workers

 Department Manager- most knowledgeable about the hazards of the department

 Safety Manager

 Investigative Committee

ACCIDENT: A semi-truck of trusses arrives at your project; your foreman knows that the crane is down
for repair and that the all-terrain forklift will be needed to off-load the truck. For the past two years the
forklift has been neglected because it doesn’t get that much use, so there are some deficiencies. The
forklift operator, who is actually one of the repair crew, is aware of these deficiencies and has been
compensating for them for the past eight months. Its delivery day and your forklift operator arrives to
work on time, but is intoxicated (by alcohol). The semi-truck arrives ½ hour later then the scheduled
delivery time and your forklift operator proceeds to the yard and gets the forklift. When he arrives at the
truck, the driver ask your forklift operator if he could unload the truck a little quicker so he can get back
on schedule. About half-way through the off-loading of the semi-trailer, the forklift runs into the
hazardous waste barrels.

Exercise: Who should conduct the accident investigation and why?

Obviously not the supervisor, as the employee was permitted to remain at work intoxicated – which
means it probably wasn’t his first time and therefore the supervisor will cover this up.

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 Accident Investigation 21-7

What is Needed for an Investigation?

• Camera and Film

Record scene.

• Paper, Pencil, Forms & Clipboard

Record information.

• Copy of Regulations and Operating Procedures

Provide interpretation.

• Magnifying Glass
Examine minute pieces.

• Gloves
Protect yourself and not contaminate evidence.

• High Visibility Tape

Mark off the scene.

• Cassette Recorder and Tapes

Record statements (if given permission).

• Graph Paper
Sketch or draw scene to scale.

• Tape Measurer
Record distances accurately.

• Identification Tags
Label items.

• Scotch Tape
Hold identification tags in place.

• Specimen Containers
Hold samples without further contamination.

• Compass
Establish directions.

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 Accident Investigation 21-8

Responding to an Accident
Once an accident has taken place, management has a variety of opportunities by their actions to decrease loss
potential simply by planning.

Notification
Management is responsible for operating the company for a profit and an accident shuts down the
operation, therefore, part of management’s job is to get back into operation as quickly as possible. In
order to do this, all members of management affected by the accident (meaning having a role in the
investigation and recovery) must be notified.

Side Note: Among the notification list, one might want to consider the attorney – because if the
attorney directs your company to conduct an accident investigation then the accident report is covered
under attorney-client privilege. Meaning should a lawsuit be filed the information does not have to be
disclosed until the case goes to court.

Getting to the Scene

Numerous reports have been noted of people getting involved in their own accident (usually motor
vehicle) trying to get to an accident scene. So the key is to arrive alive, by paying attention to your
surrounds and off the cell-phone while in route to the accident.

Rescue
Medical Have Priority
Assess the Scene
Take Charge
Establish Priorities
o Treat the injured
o Protect others from injury
o Protect property from further damage
o Preserve and secure evidence

Loss Control
Management must immediately suspend the operation of any similar equipment that was involved in
an accident and secure the project to prevent theft or others getting injured.

Handling the Media

The media loves a juicy story and what is juicier than a construction fatality or serious injury.
Although the media needs to be restricted of getting to the accident scene, one must also make sure
they are provided sufficient information to prevent them from fabricating a story. A story constructed
from bits and pieces they have obtained from talking with witnesses, observing and talking with
former employees.

Unfortunately, a great deal of evidence can be loss during the rescue operations of an accident – however, the
preservation of life and limb must take priority. Although it does not mean one must wait until the rescue
operations have been completed to start the investigation – as an accident investigator he/she should compile
a list of people (involved, witness & rescuers), note any equipment that may have been involved, note any
material in or around the area of the accident, as well as the work environment factors.

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 Accident Investigation 21-9

Investigative Techniques

Gathering the Facts

Four P’s

1. People – those who saw or heard the accident (witnesses), who was involved (victims),
those who performed rescue duties, and those who are knowledgeable about the operations
involved in the accident.

2. Parts – physical components of equipment or machinery or debris involved in an accident.

3. Position – where did the accident take place and under what conditions.

4. Paper – operations records, maintenance records, operating manual, etc.

Studies show that in the data gather phase of an accident investigation, 50% of the information will
come from people. However, these studies further show that only 50% of their information will be
effective.

Promptness – arrive as soon as possible and identify who the witnesses are and begin interviewing
as soon as possible.

Types of Witnesses
Extroverts - will appear very convincing witnesses. But their evidence may not
be as correct as it appears.

Introverts - will appear as poor witnesses. Interviewing them may seem a waste of time, but
they might have the most important information.

Suspicious - will be reluctant to get involved. They hate publicity, guard their
privacy and resent being questioned.

Illiterate - may appear timid and hesitant, to cover their illiteracy, or decline to give a
statement for this reason. They will need compassion and patience to draw out
their testimonies.

Prejudiced - are psychologically ill suited to give testimony.

Intoxicated - should be listened to, but re-interviewed in full when sober.

Juvenile - can give very objective evidence.

Excitable - tend to exaggerate, elaborate and distort evidence.

Know-nothing - are the ones identified as prime witnesses who insist they do not know and did not
see anything

Devious - may distort their testimonies to avoid personal implication or unfavorable

reflection on an associate.

Injured - should generally not be questioned until after they have received medical
treatment.

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 Accident Investigation 21-10

Interviewing Techniques

1. Have a list of questions to ask.

2. Establish purpose of interview.

3. Witness data (future contact).

4. Let the witness tell their story (use models and sketches if needed)

5. Use witness terms.

6. Record interview, if permitted.

7. Tact, courtesy and diplomacy.

Record the Scene

Photography – serves as a means to verify and record damage and injuries.

Sketches – drawings made in the field.

Diagrams – drawings showing sequences of action.

Charts - contain statistical information, such as measurements.

Gradient Maps – provides means for mapping contours (noise, light, etc.).

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 Accident Investigation 21-11

Analyze the Data

Scientific Method
The scientific method forms the basis of nearly all problem solving techniques. It is used for conducting
research. In its simplest form, it involves the following sequence: making observations, developing
hypotheses, and testing the hypotheses. Even a simple research project may involve many observations.
A researcher records all observations immediately. A good investigator must do the same thing. Where
possible, the observations should involve quantitative measurements. Quantitative data are often
important in later development and testing of the hypotheses. Such measurements may require the use
of many instruments in the field as well as in the laboratory.

When making observations, the investigator develops one or more hypotheses that explain the
observations. The hypothesis may explain only a few of the observations or it may try to explain all of
them. At this stage, the hypothesis is merely a preliminary idea. Even if rejected later, the investigator
has a goal toward which to proceed.

Test the hypothesis against the original observations. A series of controlled experiments is often useful
in performing this evaluation. If the hypothesis explains all of the observations, testing may be a simple
process. If not, make additional observations, change the hypothesis, or develop additional hypotheses.
As with scientific research, the most difficult part of any investigation is the formulation of worthwhile
hypotheses. Use the following three principles to simplify this step:

1. The principle of agreement.

An investigator uses this principle to find one factor that associates with each observation.

2. The principle of differences.

This principle is based on the idea that variations in observations are due only to differences in one or
more factors.

3. The principle of concomitant variation.

This principle is the most important because it combines the ideas of both of the preceding principles. In
using this principle, the investigator is interested in the factors that are common as well as those that are
different in the observations.

In using the scientific method, the investigator must be careful to eliminate personal bias. The
investigator must be willing to consider a range of alternatives. Finally, he or she must recognize that
accidents often result from the chance occurrence of factors that are too numerous to evaluate fully.

Change Analysis
As its name implies, this technique emphasizes change. To solve a problem, an investigator must look
for deviations from the norm. As with the scientific method, change analysis also follows a logical
sequence. It is based on the principle of differences described in the discussion of the scientific method.
Consider all problems to result from some unanticipated change.

Make an analysis of the change to determine its causes. Use the following steps in this method:
1. Define the problem (What happened?).
2. Establish the norm (What should have happened?).
3. Identify, locate, and describe the change (What, where, when, to what extent).
4. Specify what was and what was not affected.
5. Identify the distinctive features of the change.
6. List the possible causes.
7. Select the most likely causes.

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 Accident Investigation 21-12

Sequence Diagrams
Gantt charts are sequence diagrams. Use them for scheduling investigative procedures. They can also
aid in the development of the most probable sequence of events that led to the accident. Such a chart is
especially useful in depicting events that occurred simultaneously.

Gross Hazard Analysis

Perform a gross hazard analysis (GHA) to get a rough assessment of the risks involved in performing a
task. It is "gross" because it requires further study. It is particularly useful in the early stages of an
accident investigation in developing hypotheses. A GHA will usually take the form of a logic diagram
or table. In either case, it will contain a brief description of the problem or accident and a list of the
situations that can lead to the problem. In some cases, analysis goes a step further to determine how the
problem could occur. A GHA diagram or table thus shows at a glance the potential causes of an
accident. One of the following analysis techniques can then expand upon a GHA.

Job Safety Analysis

Job safety analysis (JSA) is part of many existing accident prevention programs. In general, JSA breaks
a job into basic steps, and identifies the hazards associated with each step. The JSA also prescribes
controls for each hazard. A JSA is a chart listing these steps, hazards, and controls. Review the JSA
during the investigation if a JSA has been conducted for the job involved in an accident. Perform a JSA
if one is not available. Perform a JSA as a part of the investigation to determine the events and
conditions that led to the accident.

Failure Mode and Effect Analysis

Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) determines where failures occurred. Consider all items used in
the task involved in the accident. These items include people, equipment, machine parts, materials, etc.
In the usual procedure, FMEA lists each item on a chart. The chart lists the manner or mode in which
each item can fail and determines the effects of each failure. Included in the analysis are the effects on
other items and on overall task performance. In addition, make evaluations about the risks associated
with each failure. That is, project the chance of each failure and the severity of its effects. Determine
the most likely failures that led to the accident. This is done by comparing these projected effects and
risks with actual accident results.

Fault Tree Analysis

Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a logic diagram. It shows all the potential causes of an accident or other
undesired event. The undesired event is at the top of a "tree." Reasoning backward from this event,
determine the circumstances that can lead to the problem. These circumstances are then broken down
into the events that can lead to them, and so on. Continue the process until the identification of all
events can produce the undesired event. Use a logic tree to describe each of these events and the manner
in which they combine. This information determines the most probable sequence of events that led to
the accident.

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 Accident Investigation 21-13

Accident Investigation Report

o Facts
Presented in a logical manner (timeline).

o Analysis
A review of the facts and hypothesis for the unknown.

Fault Tree Analysis -

Generally used to identify the causative factor of an accident by examining the
process of a procedure or operation of a piece of equipment. The analysis is to
start at the time of the accident and work back to the causative factor.

Where Did Management Fail? -

For every accident, the causative factor can be traced back to something
management did not do or ordered to be done.

Note: These are merely two of the many different methods or approaches to accident
analysis. Other forms can be found in various management books.

o Conclusions
Causative factor(s) identified.

o Recommendations
Solutions for the prevention of future accidents.

o Summary
Brief account of critical information about the accident, written last, but should be
presented first on all reports.

Exercise: Consider these actual OSHA Cases and determine if the summary provides sufficient
information to get a clear picture as to what happened?

Employee Injured in Fall While Descending Scaffold/Ladder

Employee #1 was working on the platform of a pump jack scaffold. After approximately 30
minutes, he began to descend an extension ladder that was resting against the platform and that
extended approximately 1 foot above the platform’s surface. Employee #1 fell 15 feet 1 inch onto
compacted dirt and suffered a laceration left ear and general body stiffness. He was transported to
the hospital, where he was treated and released. Employee #1 later stated that he had no memory of
why he fell, but he thought that he may have misstepped on the ladder or been partially on the
scaffold and partially on the scaffold and partially on the ladder at the time of the accident.

Employee’s Leg Injured in Same-Level Fall on Snow

Employee #1 was moving a large hot water heater when he slipped on the snow. He sustained
injuries to his right leg, for which he was hospitalized.

References
Hammer (1989) Occupational Safety Management and Engineering (4th ed)
National Safety Council (1997) Accident Prevention Manual (11th ed)
Vincoll (1994) Basic Guide to Accident Investigation and Loss Control
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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 Accident Investigation 21-14

Accident Investigation Report

Company ___________________________________________________________________ Case # _______________

Address __________________________________________________________ Project # _______________________

Name of Injured Social Security Number Sex Age Date of Accident

Home Address Employee’s Usual Occupation Occupation at Time of Accident

Employment Category Length of Employment Time in Occupation at Time of Accident

Nature of Injury and Body Part Others Injured in Same Accident

Name & Address of Physician Time of Injury Severity of Injury

Name & Address of Hospital

Specific Location of Accident

Describe How the Accident Occurred

Accident Sequence – describe in reverse order events proceeding the accident: start with the accident and work backward

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 Accident Investigation 21-15

Task & Activity at Time of Accident Posture of Employee – sitting, standing, etc.

Employee Work Status – alone, crew, etc. Supervision at Time of Accident

Causal Factors – contributing events

Corrective Actions

Prepared By Approved By

Title Title Date

Jobsite Approved By

Date Title Date

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 Documenting Safety 22-1

DOCUMENTING SAFETY

All aspects of a Company’s health and safety program need to be in writing. This not only ensures the
Company a plan of action on their approach to workplace safety, but also ensures management and the
workers are following the same safety measures – only those identified in the Company’s health and safety
program. Furthermore, safety documents play an instrumental role in demonstrating compliance to regulatory
compliance Managers and it serves as the building blocks for the establishment of an affirmative defense for
the Company in the event of legal action brought against the Company.

Safety documentation for a Company’s health and safety program should include:
o Health and Safety Program
o Safety Inspections
o Education and Training
o Enforcement of Safety
o Injury and Illness Recording
o Accident Investigation Reports

Health and Safety Program

A health and safety program should be in writing, comprehensive and valid. The author separates a
Company’s Health and Safety Program into two parts: Accident Prevention Plan (a tool for
management to control the cost of safety) and Safety Programs (protect workers from a specific
hazard, i.e., confined space, lockout/tagout, etc.)

In order to validate the health and safety program it should be reviewed annually, to ensure polices,
procedures and rules are still applicable for the company.

A health and safety program should be written in a simple, standardized format, as this program is
the main document being used to demonstrate compliance with regulatory standards – makes it
easier for the regulatory compliance Manager to see that you’re in compliance. A sample of a
Company’s Health and Safety Program contents is shown on Page 21-2.
Note: Policies - provided general guidelines, usually directed at the entire company.
Procedures - provide step-by-step directions on how to accomplish a task.
Rules - govern our behavior, no room for interpretation.

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 Documenting Safety 22-2

Gizmo’s Construction

ACCIDENT PREVENTION PLAN SAFETY PROGRAMS

Loss Control Management Hazard Communication
 Loss Control Statement Safe Electrical Work Practices
 Safety Policy Letter Scaffolds
 Safety Responsibilities Welding
o Company Material Handling and Storage
o Safety Committee Signs & Signals
o Safety Manager Tools – Hand and Power
o Administrative Claims Manager Fall Protection
o Employee Cranes
o Subcontractors and Vendors Motor Vehicles
 Alcohol and Other Drugs Forklifts
 Safety Disciplinary Action Plan Excavation
Concrete
Emergency Procedures Demolition
 Employee Emergency Action Plan (and Rollover Protective Structures
Alarm System) Stairways and Ladders
 Medical Attention Control of Hazardous Energy
 Accidents – Employees / Non-Employees Confined Space Entry
 Regulatory Inspection Respiratory Protection
 Theft, Burglary and Vandalism Compress Gas Cylinders
 Accident Investigation

Procedural Information
 Fire Prevention & Protection
 Job-site Hazard Assessment
 Safety Communication
 Safety Inspections
 Environmental
o Housekeeping
o Sanitation
o Illumination
o Ventilation
o Noise
o Gas, Vapors and Fumes
o Hazardous Waste
 Access to Employee Medical / Exposure
Records

Safety Training The contents listed in this sample are by no means

 New Employee Orientation all inclusive – as each company has its own
 Annual Training unique hazards that must be covered in a
 Subcontractors Company’s Health and Safety Program.
Loss Control Reports
 Quarterly Loss Control Reports
 Injuries and Illnesses Record

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 Documenting Safety 22-3

Safety Inspections
Safety inspections provide a safety evaluation of the workplace. And, as you recall these inspections
should be conduct to not only identify hazards, but also to check that previously implemented safety
measures are still functional as intended. By documenting your company’s safety inspections, you
can demonstrate the company’s efforts in identifying hazards in a timely manner.

So the next question is “What constitutes a timely manner?” In the United States the national
consensus identifies a timely manner for safety inspections as the following (base on type of
business):
Construction Project - daily
Healthcare - weekly
Manufacturing - monthly

The national consensus further states that even though a safety inspection will occur it he workplace
at some given time – the presence of safety should be felt by all employees at all times.

When safety inspection reports / checklist are used to document safety, they will also be used to
look for trends as well as what time period it takes a company to make corrective actions. This
means supporting documentation, such as work orders should also be considered a part of the
paperwork used in documenting safety.

Education and Training

Management education and employee training in safety means they have an understanding of the
Company’s Health and Safety program and of any topics that cover the hazards associated with their
particular job.
Documentation for training shall indicate as a minimum: date of training, employee names,
name of instructor and qualifications, and a summary of training.

Side Note: In the United States some OSHA training requires that the employee be certified by
the employer, such as forklift operator-documentation shall also include the criteria established
to determine acceptable requirements on the employee’s part to receive certification.
For example: Forklift Training – classroom: written test passing score 80% hands-on (driving)
passing score – no cones knocked down.

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 Documenting Safety 22-4

Enforcement of Safety
Disciplinary action policy for infarctions of the safety rules and policies, and demonstration that this
policy is enforced.

Sample Disciplinary Policy

All employees of Gizmo’s Elevator Company shall be held accountable for complying
with governmental safety regulations, company safety policies, and any other
applicable policies. Failure to comply with such regulations and policies will subject
the employee to disciplinary action up to and including discharge.

(1) First Violation:

The employee will receive a memo from the Safety Manager defining the
violation.

(2) Second Violation

The second violation of the same infraction, the employee will receive a
Written Warning Notice which will be placed in the employee’s
personnel file.

(3) Third Violation

The third violation of the same infraction, the employee will receive a
second Written Notice which will be given to the employee in a meeting
directed by the Safety Manager. A Third Violation of the same infraction
indicates a total disregard towards the Risk Management Programs and is
grounds for Termination of Employment.

Injury and Illness Recording

All injuries and illnesses that occur in the workplace need to be recorded. By examining the
numbers, one can identify trends, which then can direct corrective action taken. Furthermore, a
Regulatory agency compliance Manager may also determine if an accident was a foreseeable by
examining the nature of injuries and illnesses.

Accident Investigation Reports

Causative factor(s) identified, and
Corrective Actions taken.
In regards to Gizmo’s Company forklift accident (backing out of a semi-trailer – load shift and dock
board slipped), the accident investigation revealed that no pieces of equipment were defective and
that it was operator error. Corrective Action called for re-training of all forklift operators
immediately. The re-training needs to take place as soon as possible following the accident, as the
tragedy of the accident is still fresh in their minds and the participants will have a higher retention
of the material – because now they know someone it happened to, not like seeing a make-believe
accident on a video, which they know is staged.

IBOEHS © Dr. Estes 2015