2.

Differentiation

2.1 Defining Average and Instantaneous Rates of Change at a Point

Let us see how much we remember from the definition of the average rate of change.

x 3 1 1 3

g(x) 12 0 1 4

Exercise 2.1 Selected values of a function g are shown in the table above. What is the average
rate of change of g over the interval [ 3, 3]?
3 ( 3)
(A)
( 4) 12
( 4) 12
O
(B)
3 ( 3)
12 + ( 4)
(C)
2
12 + 0 + 1 + ( 4)
(D)
4
⌅
50 Chapter 2. Differentiation

Exercise 2.2 Let f be the function defined by f (x) = e2x . The average rate of change of f over
the interval [1, b] is 20, where b > 1. Which of the following is an equation that could be used to
find the value of b?

(A) f (b) = 20

(B) f (b) f (1) = 20

f (b) f (1)
O (C)
b 1
f (b) + f (1)
= 20

(D) = 20
2
⌅

As mentioned before, our goal is to be able to figure out the tangent at any given point in a
function. So far we are quite familiar with finding secant lines.
⌅ Example 2.1 Find the secant line for f (x) = x2 + 1 through the points (0, 1) and (2, 5).

2
x2 + 1
secant
1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

However, when it comes to finding a tangent we do not have the luxury of considering two points
in our graph instead we need to find the equation of a line tangent to our graph given just one point.
2.1 Defining Average and Instantaneous Rates of Change at a Point 51

⌅ Example 2.2 Observe the tangent through the point (1, 2).

x2 + 1
1 0.5 0.5 1 2
1.5 tangent 2.5
2

The challenge here is finding the slope of said tangent, especially because we only have one
point of reference.
⌅ Example 2.3 Draw secant lines through the point (1, 2) and all the plotted points

x2 + 1
1 0.5 0.5 1 2
1.5 tangent 2.5
2

What can you say about the secant lines as we near the point (1, 2)?

The slope of the secant lines through the points x = 1 + h and x = 1 is given by

f (1 + h) f (1)
=
(1 + h) 1

What happens as h ! 0?
himfilth f D
 52 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2.2 Defining the Derivative of a Function and Using Derivative Notation

Definition 2.2.1 — Slope of a Tangent Line. The slope of a tangent line at any given point
(x, f (x)) is given by
f (x + h) f (x)
m = lim
h!0 h
provided said limit exists.

⌅ Example 2.4 Use the limit of the difference quotient to find the slope of the tangent line to
f (x) = 5x2 at (1) any x and at x = 7.

Thus, we have secured one of the most important concepts in calculus. A recurrent idea that
defines one of the fundamental operations in Calculus - Differentiation.
Definition 2.2.2 — The Derivative of a Function. The derivative of f at x is

f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
provided the limit exists.

Definition 2.2.3 — The Derivative of a Function at a Point. The derivative of f at x = a is

f( + h) f( )
f 0 (a) = lim
h!0 h
provided the limit exists.

R One should note the notation that we used for the derivative, i.e. f 0 (x). It is not a unique
notation, so here are some alternatives:
i. The derivative of f at x = k can be written as f 0 (k) and it is read as .

dy
ii. If y = f (x), means the same as f 0 (x).
dx

dy
iii. The derivative of f at x = k can be written as .
dx x=k

iv. The instantaneous rate of change of f at x = k is the same as f 0 (k).

 2.2 Defining the Derivative of a Function and Using Derivative Notation 53

2.2.1 Calculator Intermission

The second calculator skill you must develop is how to take derivatives.
1. Use your calculator to find the derivative of sin x at x = p.

(a) Press math > 8:nDeriv(

(b) Your input should look like this now

d
( )
d
X=
(c) If you have an older model your input will be as follows

nDeriv( , , )
2. Suppose f and g are two distinct functions. How would we find where they intersect?

(a) Suppose f (x) = ex and g(x) = 4 x2 . Find the x values where this functions intersect.

(b) Let Y1 = eX

(c) Let Y2 = 4 X2

(d) Press graph

(e) Enter the following 2nd > trace > 5:intersect

(f) Now follow my verbal instructions!

3. We also want to learn how to use the memory function in your calculator.

X
(a) Let Y1 = e +X

(b) Go back to the home screen: 2nd > mode

x
(c) Find the average rate of change of f (x) = e + x from x = 1 to x = 2.

(d) Now follow my verbal instructions!

(e) Shortcut for fractions: alpha > y= > 1:n/d

(f) Shortcut for evaluation: alpha > trace > Y1

4. For the AP exam, please note that all calculator problems require an answer with THREE
DECIMAL PLACES.
54 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2 f (1 + h) f (1)
(a) lim+ =
h!0 h
1 f (1 + h) f (1)
(b) lim =
h!0 h
1 1 2 3 f (1 + h) f (1)
(c) lim =
h!0 h
1
f (x) f (0)
(d) lim =
2 x!0 x 0
f (x) f (1)
(e) lim =
3 x!1 x 1
f (x) f (1)
4 (f) lim+ =
x!1 x 1
f (x) f (1)
5 (g) lim =
f (x) x!1 x 1
6 f (x) f (2)
(h) lim =
x!2 x 2

p
⌅ Example 2.5 Find f 0 (x) for f (x) = x. Then, find the slope of the graph of f at the point (9, 3).

at x 9 I
Before we state the connection between differentiability and continuity, it is convenient to
introduce an alternative limit definition for the derivative.
Theorem 2.2.1 — Alternate Form of the Derivative. The derivative of f at c is

f (x) f( )
f 0 (c) = lim .
x! x
c e
5
⌅ Example 2.6 Consider the function f (x) = .
x
1. Find f 0 (x).
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to f at the point (1, 5).
2.2 Defining the Derivative of a Function and Using Derivative Notation 55

Exercise 2.3 An equation for the line tangent to the graph of the differentiable function f at
x = 2 is y = 9x 12. Which of the following must be true?
I. f (0) = 12

II. f (2) = 6

III. f 0 (2) = 9

(A) None

(B) I and II only

(C) II and III only

(D) I, II, and III

trytotrick
1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1
f0
2

1 3
Exercise 2.4 Let f be a differentiable function with f (1) = 3. The graph of f 0 , the derivative of
f , is shown above. Which of the following statements is true about the line tangent to the graph
of f at x = 1?

right
(A) The tangent line has slope 2 and passes through the point (1, 3).

Xxf'noff
(B) The tangent line has slope 2 and passes through the point (1, 2).

x
(C) The tangent line has slope 0 and passes through the point (1, 3).

x
(D) The tangent line has slope 0 and passes through the point (1, 2).

⌅
 56 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2.3 Estimating Derivatives of a Function at a Point

Exercise 2.5 Calculator. Let f be the function given by f (x) = e x + cos x 1. What is the
value of f 0 (2)?

(A) 1.281

(B) 1.140

(C) 1.045

(D) 1

Exercise 2.6 Calculator. Let f be the function given by f (x) = x4 + x3 3x2 x cos(x2 ). Of
the following values of x, at which does the line tangent to the graph of f have the greatest slope?

(A) x = 2

(B) x = 1

(C) x = 0

(D) x = 1

⌅
2.3 Estimating Derivatives of a Function at a Point 57

1 0.5
f 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Exercise 2.7 The graph of the function f is shown above or 1  x  2.5. The derivative of f
exists for all x in the interval. For how many values of c, for 1 < c < 2.5, does

f (x) f (c) f (2.5) f ( 1)

lim = ?
x!c x c 2.5 ( 1)

(A) Zero

(B) One

O(C) Two

(D) Three

⌅
 58 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2.4 Determining When Derivatives Do and Do Not Exist

⌅ Example 2.7 The function f (x) = |x 2| is continuous at x = 2. Compute f 0 (2), that is,

f (x) f (2)
f 0 (2) = lim
x!2 x 2

1
cusp

1 1 2 3 |x
4 2| 5

differ Conti
p
⌅ Example 2.8 The function f (x) = 3
x is continuous at x = 0, what can you say about its differen-
tiability at that point?

NO slopes
2 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

p
1 3
x

(
x, x 6= 1
⌅ Example 2.9 What can you say about the differentiability of g(x) = around x = 1.
2, x=1
2.4 Determining When Derivatives Do and Do Not Exist 59

Insat Ica
Exercise 2.8 What does limit statement

ln(x + 4) ln 6
lim
x!2 x 2
represent?

(A) 0

g
(B) f 0 (2), if f (x) = ln(x + 4)

d
(C) [ln(x + 4)]
dx
(D) The limit is nonexistent
⌅

Exercise 2.9 The graph of a piecewise function g is shown. The graph has a vertical tangent
line x = 0. What are the value(s) of x on the interval ( 2, 6) for which g is continuous but not
differentiable?

2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 g(x)

(A) 0

(B) 1, 4

(C) 0, 1, 4

O
(D) 0, 4
⌅
60 Chapter 2. Differentiation

Exercise 2.10 Which function corresponds the graph of f 0 ?

1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

2

4
f 0 (x)
6

(A) f (x) = x2 4

O
(B) f (x) = x3 2x + 1

(C) f (x) = x2 + 4x + 1

(D) f (x) = x2 4x + 1
⌅

Exercise 2.11 Let f be defined below.

(
2, x<5
f (x) =
2x 4, x 5

Which of the following statements is true?

(A) f is not differentiable at x = 5 because f is not continuous at x = 5.

(B) f is not differentiable at x = 5 because the graph of f has a sharp corner at x = 5.

(C) f is not differentiable at x = 5 because the graph of f has a vertical tangent at x = 5.

(D) f is not differentiable at x = 5 because f is not defined at x = 5.

⌅
2.4 Determining When Derivatives Do and Do Not Exist 61

Exercise 2.12 Which of the following statements, if true, cannot be used to conclude that f (0)
exists?

(A) lim f (x) exists.

x!0

(B) f is continuous at x = 0.

(C) f is differentiable at x = 0.

(D) The graph of f has a y-intercept.

3 2 1 1 2
1
f
2

Exercise 2.13 The figure above shows the graph of a function f , which has a horizontal tangent
at x = 0. Which of the following statements is false?

(A) f is not differentiable at x = 1 because the graph of f has a jump discontinuity at x = 1.

(B) f is not differentiable at x = 1 because the graph of f has a sharp corner at x = 1.

(C) f is not differentiable at x = 0 because the graph of f has a horizontal tangent at x = 0.

(D) f 0 (0) = 0.
⌅
 62 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2.5 Applying the Power Rule

In order to find the slope of the tangent line (derivative) we do not always have to apply the limit in
its full form. There are times when patterns arise

d d
Function: f (x) Derivative: [ f (x)] Function: f (x) Derivative: [ f (x)]
dx dx

2 0

k 10x7

x x2

p
3
x x5

20x + 1 p2

1
mx + b
x2

x2 ex

x3 cos x

x99 sin x

How are the following functions different?

er expowertial
f (x) = x2 x
g(x) = 2

Theorem 2.5.1 — Power Rule. If f (x) is a power function, that is, f (x) = xn then

d d
[ f (x)] = (xn ) =
dx dx
2.5 Applying the Power Rule 63

⌅ Example 2.10 Find the derivative of the functions given below.

2
a. y =
x
2
b. f (t) = p3 5
5 t
4x5
c. g(x) =
15
2
d. y = p
x
e. f (r) = r3 3r2 + 2r

4x23x + 1
f. y =
x
p 1 2 3/2
g. f (x) = x + 3 x
x 3
x4 x3 2x7
hlx
E x5
h. h(x) =
x8 x 25 h x
⌅ Example 2.11 A ball is dropped from a height of 100 feet. The ball’s height s at time t is the
position function
st Ps = 16t 2 + 100
where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.
a. Find the average velocity over the following interval: [1,2].

b. Interpret the result above.

The otfheballfallingbetween1andaseconds
velocity
average
is 48ftsee
c. Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 1.2.

v112 32112 38.4ftsee

R There are two words that are used quite frequently.
• Velocity is the derivative of the position function with respect to time. It can be positive,
negative or zero.
d
[s(t)] = v(t)
dt
• Speed is the absolute value of velocity.
Speed = |v(t)|
64 Chapter 2. Differentiation
f x
(2 + h)3 + 2(2 + h) (2)3 2(2)
Exercise 2.14 Evaluate lim
h!0 h

(A) 6

(B) 12

O
(C) 14

(D) nonexistent
⌅

⌅ Example 2.12 At time t = 0 a diver jumps off a platform 32 feet above the water. The initial
velocity of the diver is 16 feet per second, the position of the diver is given by

s(t) = 16t 2 + 16t + 32

where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.

a. When does the driver hit the water?

b. What is the diver’s velocity at impact?

5p
Exercise 2.15 Let f (x) = x. The rate of change of f at x = c is twice its rate of change at
2
x = 3. What is the value of c?

1
(A)
2
p
5 3
(B)
12
3

0
(C)
4
p
5 3
(D)
6
⌅
2.5 Applying the Power Rule 65
(
3 x, x<3
Exercise 2.16 Consider the function g(x) = , then g0 (3) is
4x 12, x 3
(A) 1

(B) 0

(C) 4

O
(D) nonexistent
⌅

p p
3
x
3
8
Exercise 2.17 What does the following expression lim represent?
x!8 x 8
(A) 0

(B) 1

(C) nonexistent
p
O
(D) The derivative of f (x) = x evaluated at x = 8.
3

( cusp
Exercise 2.18 Is g(x) =qthere's
3x3
2x2
184,
6x,
x<4
x 4
differentiable at x = 4? ⌅
 66 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2.6 Derivative Rules: Constant, Sum, Difference and Constant Multiple

Theorem 2.6.1 — Combination Rules. The derivative works well among a few operations
already familiar to us.
i. Constant Rule. The derivative of a constant value c.
d
[c] =
dx
ii. Constant Multiple Rule. If f is differentiable and c is a real number,
d
[c f (x)] =
dx
iii. Sum and Difference Rule. Suppose f and g are differentiable, it follows that

d d
[ f (x) + g(x)] = [ f (x) g(x)] =
dx dx

2.7 Derivatives of cos x, sin x, ex , and ln x

Consider the following

1
0.5

1 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.5
sin x
1

p 3p
The red lines depicted above are tangent lines to the graph of sin x at the points x = 0, , p, .
2 2

1
0.5

1 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.5
derivative
1

Theorem 2.7.1 The derivative of sin x and cos x,

d d
[sin x] = [cos x] =
dx dx
2.7 Derivatives of cos x, sin x, ex , and ln x 67

The derivative of exponential functions is a little different as well. Let us use our calculators to
find the following derivatives.

Let f (x) = ex Let f (x) = ln(x)

x f 0 (x) x f 0 (x)

d x d
1 (e ) = 1 (ln x) =
dx x=1 dx x=1

2 2

3 3

1 e

x x

Theorem 2.7.2 The derivative of ex and ln x,

d x d
[e ] = [ln x] =
dx dx

0
Example 2.13 Find the equation of the line normal to the point (2, e2 ) in the graph of y = ex .

⌅ Example 2.14 Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = ln x at the point
(1, 0).
68 Chapter 2. Differentiation

ln(x) ln(2)
Exercise 2.19 Find the limit lim
x!2 x 2

(A) ln(2)

1
(B)
2
1
O
(C)
2
(D) ln(2)

We can offer a generalization to the rules above. However, before that let us review a little again.
Do you remember the change of base formula?

ln( )
loga (x) =
ln( )

Theorem 2.7.3 Let a > 0 then the derivatives of the exponential function and logarithmic functions
are as follows, one 1 in1 0
d x d
dx
[a ] =
dx chatx
[loga x] =

⌅ Example 2.15 Find the derivative of y = 2x + 5 log3 (x).

2x 1
Exercise 2.20 Find lim derivative
x!0 x
x o
(A) 0

(B) ln 2

(C) 1

1
(D)
ln(2)
⌅
 2.8 The Product Rule 69

2.8 The Product Rule

2.8.1 Product Rule
⌅ Example 2.16 Suppose that f (x) = x2 (x3 + x5 ) is it true that f 0 (x) = 2x(3x2 + 5x4 )? Explain.

Theorem 2.8.1 — Product Rule. Suppose f and g are both differentiable functions, then the
derivative of its product is
d
[ f (x) · g(x)] =
dx

⌅ Example 2.17 Find the derivative of f (x) = (x2 + 3x) sin x.

⌅ Example 2.18 Find the derivative of h(x) = (ln x) sin x.

⌅ Example 2.19 Find the derivative of h(x) = 5ex sin x.

Exercise 2.21 Let f be a differentiable function such that f (2) = 2 and f 0 (2) = 5. If g(x) =
x3 f (x), what is the value of g0 (2)?

(A) 17

(B) 24

(C) 60

(D) 64

⌅
 70 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2.9 The Quotient Rule

2.9.1 Quotient Rule
Theorem 2.9.1 — Quotient Rule. Suppose f and g are both differentiable functions, then the
derivative of its product is

d f (x)
= , g(x) 6= 0
dx g(x)

5x cos x + 7 sin x
⌅ Example 2.20 Find the derivative of y = .
3ex

Exercise 2.22 Let f be a differentiable function such that f (9) = 18 and f 0 (9) = 7. If g is the
f (x)
function defined by g(x) = p , what is the value of g0 (9)?
x

(A) 2

7
(B)
3
8
(C)
3
(D) 42.
⌅
 2.10 More Derivatives 71

Exercise 2.23 Consider the table below for the differentiable functions f and g and their
6 f (x)
derivatives at x = 0. If h(x) = , then h0 (0) =
g(x) 1

x f (x) f 0 (x) g(x) g0 (x)

1 3
0 4 2
2 2

(A) 15

(B) 3

(C) 2

(D) 5

⌅ Example 2.21 Find the derivative of f (x) = tan x

2.10 More Derivatives

sec20­sec2x
Theorem 2.10.1 — Other Trigonometric Derivatives. Using quotient rule on sin x and cos x, we
can obtain the following derivative rules.

d d
(a) [tan x] = (c) [cot x] =
dx dx
d d
(b) [sec x] = (d) [csc x] =
dx dx

⌅ Example 2.22 Find the derivative of y = (x5 + 5ex ) sec x

 72 Chapter 2. Differentiation

2.10.1 Higher-Order Derivatives

It is often the case that we seek to find derivatives multiple times for any one function.

dy d
First Derivative: y0 f 0 (x) [ f (x)] Dx [y]
dx dx

d2y d2
Second Derivative: y00 f 00 (x) [ f (x)] D2x [y]
dx2 dx2

d3y d3
Third Derivative: y000 f 000 (x) [ f (x)] D3x [y]
dx3 dx3

Fourth Derivative:

..
.
n-th Derivative:

⌅ Example 2.23 Find the second derivative of the position function s(t) = 120 10t 2 .
ds
(a) Find =
dt
d2s
(b) Find 2 =
dt

R
1. The first derivative of a position function is Ef ult velocity .

2. The second derivative of a position function is

1 act acceleration
.

Exercise 2.24 If f is differentiable at x = c, which of the following could be false?

(A) f is continuous at x = c.

(B) lim f (x) exists.

x!c

(C) f 0 (c) is defined.

(D) f 00 (c) is defined.

⌅
2.10 More Derivatives 73

dy
Exercise 2.25 If y = 4ex cot x, then =
dx

(A) 4xex 1
cot x 4ex csc2 x

(B) 4ex (csc2 x + cot x)

(C) 4ex (cot x csc2 x)

(D) 4ex (csc2 x cot x)

⌅

Exercise 2.26 What is the second derivative of

x2 x
h(x) = ?
x+5

60
(A) h00 (x) =
(x + 5)3
60
(B) h00 (x) =
x+5
x2 + 10x 5
(C) h00 (x) =
(x + 5)2
x2 + 10x 5
(D) h00 (x) =
(x + 5)4
⌅

Exercise 2.27 Let f (x) = sin x cos x and f (n) represent the n-th derivative of f (x). What is the
least positive integer n for which f (n) (x) = f (x)?

(A) 3

(B) 4

(C) 5

(D) 8
⌅
74 Chapter 2. Differentiation

p dy
Exercise 2.28 If y = 6ex sin x, =
4 dx
p
(A) 6xex 1
cos x
4
(B) 6ex cos x
p
(C) 6ex + cos x
4
p
(D) 6ex cos x
4
⌅

t
Exercise 2.29 The position of a particle is given by s(t) = 2 cost + sint + + 4, where s is
p
measured in meters and t is measured in seconds. The average velocity, in meters per second, of
the particle over [0, 2p] is

(A) 0

1
(B)
p
3
(C)
2p
p +1
(D)
p
⌅

Exercise 2.30 Free Response. The number of gallons of water in a swimming pool t minutes
after it has started to drain is f (t) = 20(40 t)2 .

(a) How fast is the water draining at the end of 5 minutes? at the end of 10 minutes?

(b) What is the average flow rate during the first 10 minutes?