Approved by the Government of Nepal, Curriculum Development Centre

(CDC), Sanothimi, Bhaktapur as an additional material for school

NEW
COURSE

NEW CREATIVE

SCIENCE

Rajani Maharjan
Yuwaraj Guragain
Surendra Karki
Sangharsh Raj Khanal
 Book NEW CREATIVE
SCIENCE
Class - 10

Publisher JBD Publication Pvt. Ltd.

Bhotahity, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: 4252371

Edition 1st, 2065 B.S.

2nd, 2068 B.S.
3rd Revised, 2073 B.S.
4th, 2074 B.S. (Completely Revised)
Reprint 2075 B.S.

Authors Rajani Maharjan

Yuwaraj Guragain
Surendra Karki
Sangharsh Raj Khanal

Layout Deltrox IT Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

#9851004706

ISBN 978-9937-544-51-1
Printed at Mahabir Offset Press, 025-521634
 Preface

As this is the age of science and technology, science is a very important subject
to the students of the present days. Scientific inventions and discoveries have
brought great changes in the world. The study of science and technology for
the students of developing countries like Nepal has great importance to make
many achievements. For this, the students should have good knowledge of
science through systematic as well as properly designed textbooks, instructional
materials and good teaching methods. In schools, textbooks are the most
important educational materials. So, the books designed according to the need
and interests of the students are very useful and appropriate.
Keeping these facts in mind this series of textbooks for the students of
classes 1-10 has been prepared with fresh and fascinating approach to the
study of science at school level. During teaching learning process both teachers
and students have to face problems of what is to be taught and learnt, what
should be focused for the examination, how to learn and write to the point, how
to start and how to end.
This series for the first time itself is the best attempt and presentation to
solve these problems. After facing all these problems during teaching, we have
designed and prepared this series as a solution with these salient features.
Each book of this series includes– objectives of the unit in the very beginning,
important questions, clues and memory tips as important things, definitions
in separate colour, answer writing skills as model questions and their answer,
glossary of difficult words, lots of activities as creative activities, summary of the
unit as revision, etc.
Further this series has been designed according to the syllabus prescribed by
CDC of Nepal. Cognitive and practical student-friendly, colourful presentation and
use of lucid and easy language, both knowledge and exam-oriented matters in
sequential order are the main attractions of this series.
We are grateful to Deltrox IT Solutions for computer work and JBD Publication
for publishing this series.
We are highly indebted to those who provide their positive support, suggestions
and comments for the improvement of the series in further editions.
Authors
 CONTENTS

Unit 1. Force 1
Unit 2. Pressure 21
Unit 3. Energy 43
Unit 4. Heat 56
Unit 5. Light 70
Unit 6. Electricity and Magnetism 89
Unit 7. Classification of Elements 110
Unit 8. Chemical Reaction 127
Unit 9. Acid, Base and Salt 140
Unit 10. Some Gases 154
Unit 11. Metals 164
Unit 12. Hydrocarbons and their Compounds 176
Unit 13. Materials Used in Daily Life 190
Unit 14. Invertebrates 215
Unit 15. Human Nervous and Glandular System 224
Unit 16. Blood Circulatory System in Human Body 244
Unit 17. Chromosomes and Sex Determination 262
Unit 18. Reproduction in Animals and Plants 270
Unit 19. Heredity 290
Unit 20. Environmental Pollution and Management 303
Unit 21. History of the Earth 314
Unit 22. Climate Change and Atmosphere 327
Unit 23. The Earth in the Universe 343
Specification Grid 362
A sample set of model question 363
 UNIT

1 Force
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
We are familiar with the fact that a force is needed to change
shape, size and state of a body and to change speed and
direction of a moving body. Thus,
Force is an external factor which changes or tends to change the
state (rest or motion) of the body. More simply, we can say that,
pulling or pushing factor is called force.
The force is measured by a spring balance in Newton or
dyne. Newton is the S.I. unit of force, and 1N = 105 dynes
Isaac Newton (dyne is the C.G.S. unit of force).
(1642-1727)
Isaac Newton was born in Wools
There are different types of forces such as mechanical,
Thorpe near Grantham, England. muscular, centripetal, frictional, centrifugal, magnetic,
He is generally regarded as the most
original and influential theorist
gravitational etc.
in the history of science. He was
born in a poor farming family and Gravitation (Gravitational force)
was sent to study at Cambridge
University in 1661. In 1665, a Before 16th century, astrologists believed that at the center
plague broke out in Cambridge and
so Newton took a year off. It was
of the universe there is the earth and other heavenly bodies
during this year that the incident like the sun, moon and other planets revolve around the
of the apple falling on him is said
to have occurred. This incident earth. It is called geocentric theory. But, this theory had
prompted Newton to explore the been modified and heliocentric theory was put forward.
possibility of connecting gravity
with the force that kept the moon According to heliocentric theory, the sun is at the center of
in its orbit. This led him to the the universe and all other planets and satellites revolve the
universal law of gravitation. He
also formulated the well-known sun in their own elliptical orbit. Do you know why are the
laws of motion. He worked on
the theories of light and colour.
planets and satellites revolving the sun? Newton found its
He also designed an astronomical answer in 1687. He said that there is a force of attraction
telescope to carry out astronomical
observations. He was also a great
between these heavenly bodies and the sun. So, they are
mathematician and invented a revolving around the sun in their own orbit. This force is
new branch of mathematics, called
Calculus. Newton transformed the called gravitational force.
structure of physical science with
his three laws of motion and the We always observe that an object dropped from a height
universal law of gravitation. falls towards the earth. Planets go around the sun, and the
Though the gravitational theory
could not be verified at that time, moon goes around the earth. In all these cases, there must be
there was hardly any doubt about some force acting on the objects. Isaac Newton could grasp
its correctness because Newton
based his theory on sound scientific that the same force is responsible for all these. This force is
reasoning and backed it with
mathematics.
called the gravitational force.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 1

The motion of the moon around the earth is due to the centripetal force. This centripetal
force is provided by the force of attraction of the earth.
It is seen that a falling apple is attracted towards the earth; the apple also attracts the
earth. As the mass of an apple is negligibly small compared to that of earth, we do not
see the earth moving towards the apple.
From the above facts, Newton concluded that not only does the earth attract an apple
and the moon but also all objects in the universe attract each other with a force called
the gravitational force.
Thus, t he force of attraction between any two objects of the universe due to their masses is
called gravitation.

MEMORY TIPS
● The force of gravitation is always the force of attraction. It is never repulsive.
● The gravitational force between the earth and the apple is very weak due to less mass
of the apple. Due to less mass of the apple it cannot produce noticeable acceleration
in the earth but the earth having more mass produces noticeable acceleration in the
apple. Thus, we see apple falling towards the earth. But we cannot see earth moving
towards the apple.
● The effect of gravitational force is more is liquid than solid. Because the molecules
of the liquid are loosely packed with less intermolecular force of attraction. So, tides
occur in the sea and ocean due to force of attraction of the sun and the earth.

QUESTIONS
# Define gravitational force.
# When the apple falls, does the apple also attract the earth?
# If so, we do not see the earth moving towards an apple, why?

Teachers are highly requested to create similar types of many questions in each
NOTE
topic and sub-topic.

NEWTON’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

According to Newton's universal law of gravitation every object in the universe attracts
every other object with a force which is called gravitational force. This gravitational force is (i)
directly proportional to the product of their masses and (ii) inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between their centres.
Suppose two objects A and B of masses m1 and m2 respectively are separated by
the distance ‘d’ between their centres. If F is the gravitational force between them then
according to the Newton’s law of gravitation:

2 | Force
 F ∝ m1m2 ........................... (1) A B

and F ∝ 12 ........................... (2)

d
Combining eqn (1) and (2), we get, d

mm m1 m2
F ∝ 12 2 ........................... (3)
d
mm
∴ F = G 1 2 2 ........................... (4)
d
Where, G is a proportionality constant known as universal gravitational constant.
Eqn (4) is the mathematical expression of Newton’s law of gravitation. This formula
shows that, when m1, m2 are large, F is large and when ‘d’ is large F is less.
Newton’s law of gravitation is called the universal law because it is applicable to all the bodies
either terrestrial or celestial having any shape, size, mass or at any distance apart with any
medium between them, at any time (past, present or future).

Newton’s law can be illustrated by the following examples:

1. When the bodies A and B have the A B

masses m1 and m2 respectively.

F
Here, the mass of A and B are m1 and m2 and d
distance between their centres be r then, from
m1 m2
Newton’s law:
mm
F = G 12 2 .......... (A)
d
2. When the mass of ‘A’ is increased by 2 times keeping mass of ‘B’ and distance
between them constant.
Here, mass of A (m1) = 2m
Mass of B (m2) = m2
Distance between them = d
Then,
(2m1).m2
F1 = G [where, F1 is the new gravitational force]
d2
m1.m2
F1 = 2G
d2
∴ F1 = 2F (from equation A)

Hence, the gravitational force increases by two times when the mass of only one body
(A) is doubled.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 3

3. When the mass of both bodies is doubled keeping distance constant.
Here, mass of A (m1) = 2m1
Mass of B (m2) = 2m2 F
2m1 2m2
Distance between them = d d

Then,
(2m1).(2m2)
F1 = G [where, F1 is the new gravitational force]
d2
m m
F1 = 4G 1. 2 2
d
∴ F1 = 4F (from equation A)
Hence, when the mass of both the objects is doubled keeping the distance constant
then the gravitational force will be increased by four times than the initial value.
This proves that the gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of masses when
the distance between them is kept constant.
4. When the distance between their centres is halved keeping the masses of the
objects constant.
Here, mass of A (m1) = m1
Mass of B (m2) = m2
1
Distance between them = d F
2 m1 m2
Gm1.m2 1
d
2
Then, F1 = 1 2
( )
2
d

m1.m2
F1 = 4G
d2
∴ F1 = 4F (from equation A)
Hence, it proves that, the gravitational force is inversely proportional to the distance between
their centres when the masses of both objects are kept constant.

UNIVERSAL GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT (G)

From Newton’s universal law of gravitation,
We have,
m1.m2
F=G
d2 F
1 kg 1 kg
Fr2 1m
∴G=
m1 m2
4 | Force
 When, m1 = m2 = 1kg, d = 1 m then, G = F
Thus, universal gravitational constant (G) is equal to the force of gravitation between any two
unit masses (i.e. of 1 kg each) separated by a unit distance (i.e. 1m).
Its value is 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2.
To find the S.I. unit of ‘G’
We have, from above equation,
Fd2 Nm2
G= = [S.I. unit of F is Newton, d is ‘m’ and that of m1 & m2 is kg]
m1 m2 [Link]
G = Nm2/kg2
G is called the universal constant because its value does not depend upon the time, masses and
distances of the bodies as well as shape, size and nature of bodies and the medium separating them.

MEMORY TIPS
● Escape velocity is the velocity required for a body to go to the infinite distance away
from the surface of the earth, so that the body does not come back to the earth's
surface. Its value is 11.2 km/s.
● Orbital velocity is the velocity required to put a satellite in its orbit. Its value is 7.2
kms–1.

QUESTIONS
m1.m2
# Derive F = where the symbols have their usual meanings.
d2
# State Newton’s universal law of gravitation. Why is this law called the universal law?
# Define G. Why is it called the universal constant?
Properties of G
a. The value of G is independent to the nature of the masses of the body.
b. It is not affected by the time, temperature and pressure.
c. It is independent to the directions of the gravitational forces between the
masses.
d. The value of G is independent to the chemical composition of the masses
and the medium between them.
Consequences of the gravitational force
Newton has explained successfully several phenomena on the basis of gravitational
forces, e.g.
a. Due to the gravitational force of the earth, all terrestrial objects are bounded
on it and the objects thrown upwards return to the earth’s surface.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 5

 b. The earth holds the atmosphere around it due to its gravitational force.
c. The gravitational force of the earth is responsible for rainfall, snowfall and
flowing of water in rivers.
d. The moon revolves round the earth due to the earth’s gravitational force
and the planets revolve around the sun due to the gravitational pull of the
sun on the planets.
e. The tides formed in the seas and oceans are due to the mutual gravitational
force of attraction between the earth, the sun and the moon.

MEMORY TIPS
● Tide occurs on every new moon day and full moon day when the sun, the moon and
the earth lie on same plane, because of which mutual attraction of the sun and the
moon easily effects the flexible water of seas and oceans.

SOLVEDNumerical
1. Calculate the gravitational force between two bodies of mass 1 kg each
separated by 1m distance apart.
Solution:
Given, mass of one body (m1) = 1 kg
Mass of another body (m2) = 1kg
Distance between their centres (d) = 1m
Gravitational force (F) = ?
Universal gravitational constant (G) = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2
We have,
From Newton’s universal law of gravitation,
m m
F = G 1. 2 2
d
6.67 × 10–11 × 1 × 1
F=
(1)2
∴ F = 6.67 × 10–11 N
Hence, the gravitational force is 6.67 × 10–11N
2. Calculate the gravitational force between the earth and an object of mass 1 kg
held on the surface of the earth. Take G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2, radius of the
earth = 6400 km. (mass of earth = 6 × 1024 kg)
Solution:
Given, Mass of the earth (m1) = 6 × 1024 kg

6 | Force
 Mass of the object (m2) = 1 kg
Distance between them (d) = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106m
Gravitational force (F) = ?
We have,
From Newton’s universal law of gravitation,
m1.m2
F =G
d2
6.67 × 1024 × 6 × 1024 × 1
= = 9.8 N
(6.4 × 106)2
Therefore, the gravitational force between the earth and the object is 9.8 N.
3. Calculate the gravitational force between the earth and the moon. Given, mass
of the earth = 6 × 1024 kg, mass of the moon = 7.4 × 1022 kg, distance between
the earth and the moon = 3.84 × 105 km.
Solution:

Given, mass of the earth (m1) = 6 × 1024 kg

Mass of the moon (m2) = 7.4 × 1022 kg
Distance between the earth and the moon (d) = 3.84 × 105 km
= 3.84 × 108 m
Force of gravitation (F) = ?
We have,
From Newton’s universal law of gravitation,
m1.m2
F =G
d2
6.67 × 1024 × 6 × 1024 × 7.4 × 1022
=
(3.84 × 108)2
= 2.01 × 1020 N
Hence, the gravitational force between the earth and the moon is 2.01×1020 N.

MEMORY TIPS
Kepler started the laws of planetary motion which governs the motion of planets around
the sun. But it was Newton who established the real cause of the planetary motion that is
due to gravitational force between planets and the sun.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 7

 QUESTIONS
# What are the consequences of the gravitational force?
# What will happen to the gravitational force between two bodies if their masses are
doubled and distance between them is tripled?

ACTIVITY
Throw a stone to a height and observe.
 The stone falls after reaching a certain height? Why?
 As the stone falls on the earth's surface does the earth also move upwards to meet the
stone. Explain the phenomenon.

GRAVITY OR WEIGHT
As we have discussed, the phenomenon of attraction between any two bodies of the
universe is the gravitation. Gravity is one particular case of gravitation, when one of
the two attracting bodies is the earth or any massive (very large and heavy) object like
stars, planets, satellites, etc.
Thus, the force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body is called force of gravity or weight
of the body.
Each heavenly body has its own force of gravity with the help of which it attracts the
body near on its surface. For example, the gravitational force between the earth and a
body near to its surface is called earth’s gravity and the attracting force between the
moon and a body near to its surface is called the moon’s gravity.
Let, a body of mass ‘m’ is placed on the earth’s surface having the mass (M). The
distance between their centres can be considered to be equal to the radius of the earth.
If ‘F’ be the force of attraction between the object and the earth,
From Newton’s law of gravitation, m
m m
F = G 1. 2 2 R
d
M
from the given condition, O
Mm
or, F = G
R2
Mm
or, W = G (where F = W = weight of the body)
R2
The S.I. unit of gravity is also Newton (N).
This relation shows that greater the mass of the heavenly body greater will be the force
of gravity given by it and greater will be the weight of the body in that heavenly body.

8 | Force
Similarly, more will be the radius of that heavenly body less will be its force of gravity
and less will be the weight of the object on its surface.
It is found that the moon’s gravity is just 1/6th of the gravity of our earth. Thus, a person
who can lift 10 kg on the earth can lift 60 kg on the moon’s surface and the person who
can jump 1m high on the earth’s surface can jump 6m high on the moon’s surface.

QUESTIONS
# The mass of Jupiter is 319 times greater than that of the earth but its gravity is just 2.5
1
times that of the earth. Why? (Hint: F ∝ m also, F ∝ 2 and R of Jupiter is 11 times that of the earth.)
R
# Why is it difficult to lift a bigger stone than a smaller one?

MASS
Mass is the total amount of matter contained in a body. It is measured by a beam balance
in kg. It is constant all over the universe. It is a scalar quantity. The amount of mass
never gets changed whenever we go.

WEIGHT
The force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body toward its center is called weight of the
body. It is measured by a spring balance. Its S.I. unit is Newton (N). Its value changes
from place to place according to the acceleration due to gravity. It is a vector quantity.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, weight is the product of mass and
acceleration due to gravity at that place.
Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity
W=m×g
From this equation it is clear that weight of a body at the polar region of the earth is
more and weight of the same body at the equator is less. This is because acceleration
due to gravity (g) at the polar region of the earth is more and at the equatorial region
is less. Similarly, weight of the object at terai region is more than at hilly region.
Differences between mass and weight.
Mass Weight
1. It is the total amount of matter contained 1. It is the force of gravity acting on a body
in a body. of certain mass.
2. It is measured by a beam balance. 2. It is measured by a spring balance.
3. Its S.I. unit is kilogram (kg). 3. Its S.I. unit is Newton (N).
4. Its value changes from place to place
4. Its value is constant all over the universe.
according to the acceleration due to gravity.
5. It is a scalar quantity. 5. It is a vector quantity.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 9

SOLVEDNumerical
4. The mass of the moon is 7.2 × 1022 kg and its radius is 1.7 × 106m. Find the
weight of 1kg mass on the moon.
Solution:
Given, Mass of the moon (M) = 7.2 × 1022 kg
Radius of the moon (R) = 1.7 × 106 m
Mass of a body on the surface of the moon (m) = 1 kg
Weight of the body on the moon (W) = ?
We know that,
Mm
W =G
R2
6.67 × 10 –11 × 7.2 × 1022 × 1
=
(1.7 × 106)2
= 1.67 N
∴ Weight of the body having mass 1 kg on the moon is 1.67 N.
Effects of gravity
a. We can stand, walk, play and perform other activities freely on the earth due to its
gravity.
b. The rivers flow up to down due to the gravity.
c. The earth is covered by the atmosphere.
d. Construction of roads, bridges, building is also possible because of the gravity of
the earth.
e. All types of small and big objects thrown upwards return to the earth’s surface.
f. Acceleration is produced on a body when it falls towards the earth's surface freely
without any resistance.

MEMORY TIPS
The weight of an object on the earth is 6 times more than the weight of the same object
on the moon. However its mass remains the same on the both.

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (g)

Everybody on the earth is attracted by the earth towards its centre. So, when the body
is released from a height, it falls towards the earth with an acceleration that is called
the acceleration due to gravity (g).
Thus, acceleration due to gravity is defined as the acceleration produced in a freely falling body
due to the earth’s gravity.
Its S.I. unit is m/s2 and its average value on the earth’s surface is 9.8 m/s2.

10 | Force
Relation between radius and acceleration due to gravity of the earth
Let M be the mass of the earth with its radius R. If a body of mass ‘m’ m
is on the surface of the earth. Then, R

According to the Newton’s law of gravitation, O M

the force of R attraction between them is given by,

Mm
F=G 2 .......... (a)
R
Here, F represents the force by which the body is attracted towards the earth. So, F
represents the weight (W) of the object. Then, eqn (a) becomes
Mm
W=G 2 .......... (b)
R
But we have, from the second law of motion,
W = mg .......... (c)
Hence, from (b) and (c) we get,
Mm
mg = G 2
R
GM
∴g= 2
R
This is the expression for the acceleration due to gravity. This relation shows that, the
value of acceleration due to gravity is,
a. directly proportional to the mass of the earth i.e. g ∝ M
1
b. inversely proportional to the square of radius of the earth i.e. g ∝ 2 and
R
c. independent to the mass of the object lying on the earth’s surface.

MEMORY TIPS
As an object falls on the ground its velocity goes on increasing per second to produce
more or less uniform acceleration due to gravity.

QUESTIONS
# Show by equation that acceleration due to gravity is independent to the mass of the
object.

ACTIVITY
Take two stones of different masses having almost the same density. Drop these stones from a
height at the same time and observe. Do these stones reach the ground at the same time? Why?
What can you conclude from this experiment?

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 11

Falling bodies and acceleration due to gravity
Before Galileo it was thought that the bodies of higher mass fall on the ground earlier
than the bodies having less mass. Galileo Galilee in 1650 released two iron balls
of different mass at the same time from the top of leaning tower of Pisa. These balls
reached the ground at the same time proving that the acceleration due to gravity is
independent to the masses of the objects.
If a stone and a feather are allowed to fall from the height, the stone falls to the ground
much quicker than the feather. It is due to the large air resistance on the large surface
area of the feather. This leads to the conclusion that the acceleration due to gravity is the
same for all the masses only if the air resistance is neglected.
This was Galileo’s view and it was further proved by Robert Boyle by doing an
experiment on Guinea and feather.
Guinea and feather experiment
In this process a guinea (a coin of England) and a feather
are kept into a long and wide glass tube. Initially both the
F eather
guinea and the feather must be at the bottom of the tube
V acu um
and the tube should be inverted. It is observed that the
coin falls faster than the feather as shown in the figure Guinea
A. But when the air from the tube is evacuated by using
a vacuum pump and the same process is repeated then
it is observed that both the coin and the feather reach
A B
the bottom at the same time. This leads to the conclusion Guinea and feather experiment
that:
The acceleration due to gravity is the same for all kinds of objects. It does not depend upon mass
of the object if air resistance is neglected.

MEMORY TIPS
The value of g does not depend upon the mass of the body. But the gravitational pull of
the earth F = mg, depends on the mass of the body. Heavier the body, greater is the
gravitational pull of the earth on it and vice-versa.

QUESTIONS
# What happens to the acceleration due to gravity when a person jumps with a parachute?
# A parachutist does not get hurt when he jumps from a certain height. Why?

12 | Force
SOLVEDNumerical
5. If the mass of the earth is 6 × 1024 kg and its radius is 6380 km, find the
acceleration due to gravity of the earth.
Solution:

Given, Mass of the earth (M) = 6 × 1024 kg

Radius of the earth (R) = 6380 km = 6.38 × 106 m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = ?
We have, from the relation
GM
g =
R2
6.67 × 10 –11 × 6 × 1024
= = 9.78 m/s2
(6.38 × 106)2
Hence, the value of acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface is 9.78 m/s2.
Variation in the value of acceleration due to gravity (g)
The relation between g and R is,
GM
g= 2
R
It shows that the value of g depends on the gravitational constant G, mass of the
earth M and radius of the earth R. It is not constant as earth is not a perfect sphere.
Therefore, the value of g changes from place to place on the surface of the earth. The
variation of ‘g’ according to the various factors is as assumed below.
1. Variation of ‘g’ due to the shape of the earth
N pole
As we know, our earth is not a perfect sphere. It has like the Re > Rp
shape of an orange. It is flat at poles and bulges out at the Rp
equatorial region. Thus, the equatorial radius is longer than
the polar radius and we know that, O Re
equator
GM
g= 2
R S pole
1
or, g α 2 [G and M are constants]
R
Thus, the value of g is more at the poles than at the equatorial region.
Since weight = mg, the weight of a person is more at poles than at the equatorial
region.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 13

 MEMORY TIPS
The value of ‘g’ at poles is 9.83 m/s2 and that in the equatorial region is 9.78 m/s2. Hence
the average value of ‘g’ on the earth’s surface is 9.8 m/s2.

QUESTIONS
# Why the weight of a body is more at poles than at the equatorial region?
# Where the value of g is more, at poles or at the equator? Why?
2. Variation of g with the height from the surface of the earth
As we move up from the surface of the earth, the distance between the centre of the
earth to that height (h) becomes (R + h). Hence, from Newton’s universal law,
GMm
F= and F = mg
(R+h)2
Where, g’ is the acceleration due to gravity at the height ‘h’ from the earth’s
surface
GMm
∴ mg' =
(R+h)2
GM
∴ g' =
(R+h)2
Since, with the increase in h, (R + h)2 increases and which in turn decreases the value
of ’g’. So, the value of g at the top of Mt. Everest is less than that in the Terai region.
3. Variation of g with the depth from the earth’s surface
We may have a misconcept that, as the depth increases from the earth’s surface, the
radius of the earth decreases and this must increase the value d
of g. But, it is not true. The value of acceleration due to gravity
(g) at the depth ‘d’ from earth’s surface is given by. m

( Rd) .g M R
g' = 1 –
Where, g = value of acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s
surface. Earth

From this relation, it is clear that as depth (d) increases the value of g' also decreases.

MEMORY TIPS
The value of g at the centre of the earth is zero.

14 | Force
Acceleration due to gravity and weight of a body on planets/satellites
As we have already known that GM
GM
g=
R2
So, the value of ‘g’ changes according to the mass and radius of the heavenly bodies.
Different heavenly bodies have different mass and radius. So, the value of ‘g’ in these
bodies changes accordingly.
Similarly, the weight of body = mass of body × g
Mass is a constant quantity but ‘g’ is a variable. The weight of a body is directly
proportional to the acceleration due to gravity of that planet.

SOLVEDNumerical
6. The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 × 1027 kg and its radius is 71 × 106 m. What is the
acceleration due to gravity on the Jupiter? Also calculate the weight of a
person having mass 60kg on the Jupiter.
Solution:

Given, Mass of the Jupiter (M) = 1.9 × 1027 kg

Radius of the Jupiter (R) = 71 × 106 m
Acceleration due to gravity of the Jupiter (g) = ?
We have, from the relation,
GM
g =
R2
6.67 × 10 –11 × 1.9 × 1027
=
(71 × 106)2

= 25 m/s2
Again, mass of the person (m) = 60 kg
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 25 m/s2
From the formula,
W = mg = 60 × 25 = 1500 N
Hence, the acceleration due to gravity of the Jupiter is 25 m/s2 and the weight of
a person on it is 1500 N.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 15

7. If a person can lift 100kg on the surface of the earth, what is the amount of the
mass he can lift on the surface of the moon?
Solution:
Given, weight of an object on the earth = m × g = 100 × 9.8 = 980 N
Now, on the moon,
Mass of the object that the person can lift (M ) = ?
Weight of the object that the person can lift (W) = 980 N
Acceleration due to gravity of the moon (g ) = 1.67 m/s2
From formula,
W = Mm . gm
or, 980 = Mm × 1.67
980
Mm = = 586.6 kg
1.67
Hence, the person can lift 586.6 kg mass on the moon.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND GRAVITATIONAL FIELD INTENSITY

The area around a heavenly body up to which its gravitational force can be felt is called
gravitational field of that body.
Gravitational field intensity at any point is the amount of force experienced by a unit
mass kept at that point in the gravitational field of the heavenly body.
Gravitational field intensity is numerically equal to the acceleration due to gravity.
The SI unit of gravitational field intensity is N/kg.

FREE FALL
When a body falls freely under the effect of gravity only neglecting the air resistance, then the
body is said to be in free fall.
0 m/s
During the time of free fall; 1 sec
Acceleration produced in the falling body = acceleration due to gravity
9.8 m/s
a=g
1 sec
A body falling in vacuum and falling on the moon are some examples
19.6 m/s
of free fall. Acceleration produced on the falling body is equal to the
acceleration due to gravity of that place. In the moon there is no air. 1 sec

So, always there is free fall. Similarly, in the revolving satellite, the 29.4 m/s
astronauts fell free fall.

16 | Force
WEIGHTLESSNESS
Weightless is a condition in which the effective weight of a body becomes zero. It is due to the
zero reaction force of the earth or other heavenly bodies.
For example, when a person falls freely in a lift, he feels weightless.
As the person falls freely, his acceleration (a) will be equal to (g) i.e. a = g and the
reaction force given by the earth to the person also becomes zero. Due to this, the
person feels that he is not being attracted by any force and thus feels zero weight or
weightlessness.
Conditions for weightlessness
a. When a body falls freely.
b. When a body is in the satellite orbiting round the earth or a heavenly body.
c. When a body is at null point outside the gravitational field of a heavenly body.
d. When a body is taken to the centre of the earth.

MEMORY TIPS
Null point is the point in the space where the gravitational forces due to different bodies
cancel out and a body at the null point feels weightlessness.

ACTIVITY
Take the weight of a stone using a spring balance and note its weight. Now release the spring
balance with stone and note the weight of the stone during the fall.
The value of the weight at the time of fall will be zero. Can you explain it?

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Differentiate between g and G.
G g
1. It is the force of attraction 1. It is the acceleration produced on a
between two bodies of unit masses freely falling body under the effect
kept at unit distance. of gravity.
2. Its value is a universal constant. 2. Its value changes from place to place.
3. Its value is 6.67 × 10 –11 Nm2/kg2 3. Its average value on the earth’s
surface is 9.8 m/s2.
4. Its S.I. unit is Nm2/kg2. 4. Its S.I. unit is m/s2.
5. It is a scalar quantity. 5. It is a vector quantity.
2. The weight of the body is more in the Terai than in the Himalayan region.
Why?
Ü The weight of the body is directly proportional to 'g' as,
Weight = mass × g

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 17

 Similarly, 'g' is inversely proportional to the square of distance from the centre
of the earth.
GM
i.e. g =
(R+h)2
As the Terai region has less distance from the centre of the earth, there is more
value of 'g' and consequently more weight of the body.
3. The value of ‘g’ at the centre of earth is zero. Why?
Ü The value of 'g' at the centre of the earth is zero because at the centre, depth from
the surface of the earth is equal to the radius of the earth and from the relation,g'

( )
d
= 1 – R .g , the ‘g’ becomes zero as, d = R.
4. What is the difference between the falling of parachute on the earth and on
the moon?
Ü When the parachute falls on the earth, it is affected by the resistance of the
air. So, it falls down slowly and constantly. On the other hand, moon has no
atmosphere and no resistance of the air. So, falling of parachute is free fall on the
moon, which accelerates every time until it reaches to the moon's surface.
5. A person falling freely in a lift feels weightlessness. Why?
Ü From the Newton's third law of motion, our weight is balanced by the reactional
force of the earth.
i.e. Weight = reactional force
mg = R
When, the body is falling with an acceleration 'a',
Then, net weight = R
i.e. mg – ma = R
When the person is falling freely, a = g
Thus, R = mg – mg = 0
The person feels weightlessness due to the zero reactional force.
6. Can weightlessness be called as masslessness? Give reason.
Ü No, weightlessness can't be said as masslessness because mass is constant all
over the universe. The body feels weightlessness only due to the zero reactional
force, which may be due to the zero gravity and freefall.
7. Parachutist does not get hurt. Why?
Ü When a person falls with a parachute, it falls with slow and a constant velocity
known as terminal velocity. It is due to the resistance of the air. So, he lands
safely and does not get hurt.

18 | Force
8. The value of ‘g’ is more at poles than in equator. Why?
GM .
Ü The value of 'g' is given as, g =
(R)2
From this relation, it is clear that as the radius increases the value of g decreases.
As we know the earth is not a perfect sphere. It is like an orange. it is flat at poles
and bulges out at the equator. So, polar radius is shorter than equatorial radius.
Hence, the value of g is more at poles than in equator.

SUMMARY
 Newton's universal law of gravitation states that, every object in the universe attracts every
other object with a force which is (i) directly proportional to the product of their masses and
(ii) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.
 The total amount of matter contained in a body is called its mass.
 The force of gravity acting on a body is called its weight.
 G is called the universal gravitational constant. Its value is 6.67×10 –11 Nm2/kg2 all over the world.
 Acceleration produced on a freely falling body is called acceleration due to gravity.
 The acceleration due to gravity is directly proportional to the mass of the heavenly body and
GM
inversely proportional to the square of the radius.g =
(R)2
 The space around a heavenly body up to which its gravitational force can be felt is called
gravitational field.
 The gravitational force experienced by a unit mass kept at a point in the gravitational field of a
heavenly body is called gravitational field intensity.
 When a body falls freely under the effect of gravity only, then the body is said to be in free fall.
 Weightlessness is the condition in which the effective weight of a body becomes zero due to
the zero reactional force of the earth or other heavenly bodies.

E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. State the Newton’s universal law of gravitation. Why is it called the universal law?
Gm1m2
2. Prove F = where the symbols have their usual meaning.
d2
3. Differentiate between g and G.
4. Write down any three effects of gravity.
5. Differentiate between:
(a) Gravity and gravitational force
(b) Mass and weight
(c) Gravitational field and gravitational field intensity
(d) Gravity and acceleration due to gravity
(e) Free fall and weightlessness

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 19

 GM
6. Prove, g = . The weight of the body is more in the Terai than in the Himalayan
R2
region. Why?
7. The weight of the body is more at poles than in equator. Why?
8. Explain the coin (Guinea) and feather experiment. What conclusion can be drawn
from the experiment?
9. Prove that the acceleration due to gravity is independent to the mass of the object.
10. It is difficult to lift a big stone than a small stone. Why?
11. G is called universal gravitational constant. Why?
12. The value of g varies from place to place. Why?
13. Why does a person feel weightlessness in a spacecraft orbiting around a heavenly body?
14. Why does a person feel weightlessness during free-fall?
15. What happens to the force of gravitation if:
(a) Masses of the bodies are doubled keeping the distance between them constant.
(b) Distances between the bodies are halved keeping masses constant.
(c) Masses are doubled and distance between them is halved?
(d) Moon has no atmosphere. Why?

Numerical problems
16. The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 × 1027 kg and that of the sun is 2 × 1030 kg. If the distance
between them is 78 × 107 km, find the gravitational force between them.(Ans: 4.166 × 1023 N)
17. Calculate the gravitational force between two bodies of masses 750 kg and 1500
kg if they are placed at 500 m distance? (Ans: 3.0 × 10–10 N)

18. A heavenly body has mass one third of the earth and its radius is half as that of
the earth. If a stone weights 200N on the earth’s surface, find its weight on that
heavenly body. (Ans: 266.67 N)

19. The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 × 10 kg and its radius is 71 × 10 m. Find the gravitational
27 6

field intensity at its surface and at a distance of 142 × 106 m. What is the weight of
the body of mass 80 kg at its surface? (Ans: 25.14 N/kg, 2011.2N)

20. How much would a 70 kg man weigh on the moon? What would be his mass on
the earth and on the moon? (Ans: 114.33N, 70 kg)

21. The masses of the sun and the earth are 2 × 10 kg and 6 × 10 kg respectively.
30 24

Find the gravitational force between them if the distance between their centres is
1.5 × 1011 m. (Ans: 3.56 × 1022N)
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Acceleration : rate of change of velocity
Equator : an imaginary line that divides the earth into two hemispheres
Guinea : a coin of England


20 | Force
 UNIT

2 Pressure
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
Have you ever wondered why a camel can run in a desert
while a girl with high-heeled sandals feels it difficult? Why
an army tank weighing more than a thousand tonne rests
upon a continuous chain? Why a tractor has much wider
tyres? Why cutting tools have sharp edges? Why food cooks
faster in a pressure cooker? In order to find the answers of
these questions, we should introduce the term pressure.
The relation of force, pressure and area will be clear from
Archimedes
the following activity.
Archimedes was a Greek scientist.
He discovered the principle
subsequently named after him,
ACTIVITY
when he noticed that the water Take a piece of foam and a brick. Keep the brick as shown in the
in a bathtub overflowed when he
steeped into it. He ran through figure (a) with its larger surface area over the foam and observe the
the streets shouting ‘Eureka’, depression on the foam. Now, keep the brick as shown in the figure
which means ‘I have got it’.
This knowledge helped him to
(b) with its smaller surface area over the foam and again observe
determine the purity of the gold the depression. Now, add one similar brick over the foam in the
in the crown made for the king. figure (a) and observe the depression as shown in the figure (c).

Brick
A
B Foam
C

(a) (b) (c)

QUESTIONS
A # Why the foam gets depressed in the condition (b) than in (a)?
# Why the depression in the foam increases with the increase
in the number of bricks?
D B
# What can you conclude from this activity?
From this activity, it is clear that pressure increases if the
C force (weight of the bricks) increases and it decreases if the
surface area increases.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 21

PRESSURE
The perpendicular force acting on per unit area of the surface is called pressure.
Force (F)
i.e. Pressure (P) =
Area (A)
F
∴P=
A
Its S.I. unit is Nm–2 or Pascal (Pa).
From the above relation it is clear that, pressure (P) ∝ F when area is kept constant and
1
(P) ∝ A when force is kept constant.
If 1N force is applied on the surface area of 1m2 then the pressure exerted on that
surface is known as one pascal pressure.

MEMORY TIPS
In honour of scientist Blaise Pascal, the S.I. unit of pressure is called Pascal (Pa).

QUESTIONS
# All the cutting and piercing tools such as scissors, needles, knives, etc. have sharp edges.
Why?
# It is difficult to walk on sand. Why?

SOLVEDNumerical
1. Calculate the pressure exerted by a girl of 30kg if she is standing on only one
leg. (Area of her sole is 100 cm2).
Solution:
150
Given, Area (A) = 150 cm2 = = 1.5 × 10–2 m2
10000
Mass (m) = 30 kg
Weight/force (F) = m × g = 30 × 9.8 = 294 N
Pressure (P) = ?
We have,
From formula of pressure,
F 294
P =A= = 1.96 × 104 Pa
15 × 10–2
∴ She exerts the pressure of 1.96 × 104 Pa. on the ground while standing with only
one leg.

22 | Pressure
LIQUID PRESSURE
Liquids do not have fixed shape but they have their weights and can occupy space. So,
the liquids can also exert pressure on the bottom and the walls of the container in which
they are kept.
The force exerted by liquid on per unit area of the wall of the container is called liquid pressure.
Consider a liquid of density (d) is kept in a container having the base area (A) up to
the depth (h) from the free surface of the liquid as shown in the figure.
We know that,
Force (F) mg
Pressure (P) = =
Area (A) A
Where, F = mg, m = mass of liquid, g = acceleration due to gravity.
d×v×g
= [m = d × v, where v is the volume of liquid]
A
d×A×h×g
= [where, v = A × h]
A

∴ Pressure (P) = dgh

This is the expression for the pressure exerted by liquid. From this, it is clear that
liquid pressure depends on three factors:
a. Depth of the liquid from its free surface (h)
b. Density of liquid (d)
c. Acceleration due to gravity (g)

MEMORY TIPS
● For a liquid at a given place, its density and acceleration due to gravity is constant.
So, liquid pressure (P) ∝ depth of the liquid from the free surface (h).

Laws of liquid pressure

a. Liquid pressure is directly proportional to the depth of liquid from its free surface.
b. Liquid finds its own level.
c. Pressure applied on an enclosed liquid transmits equally in all directions.
d. The pressure of liquid doesn’t depend upon the shape and volume of the container
in which it is kept.
e. Liquid pressure depends on its density.
Liquid pressure and its depth
From the relation p = hdg, it is clear that liquid pressure increases with depth.
For its experimental verification, take a can with side holes A, B and C at its different
heights as shown in the figure.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 23

Fill the can with water by closing all three holes. A
Can with holes
When the can is full of water, release the holes B
Water
C
simultaneously. Observe the speed of water in all
three holes.
Stand
Water comes out with more speed from the hole C
than the others because it is the deepest from the free
surface of the water level.
It proves that liquid pressure increases with depth. Due to this reason, dams are
made wider at the base to withstand the greater pressure of water. Similarly, the
blood pressure in human body is greater at the feet than at the brain and to prevent
the enormous pressure, deep sea-divers wear diving suits etc.

QUESTIONS
# Why dams are made wider at the base?
# A bucket can be filled faster at the bottom floor than at the top floor of a building, though
the size of the taps are the same. Why?
# Deep sea divers wear diving suit. Why?

ACTIVITY
Pour some water into a communicating tube in which the vessels of different shapes are
connected with a tube. Observe the water level in each vessel. Is the water level the same? What
can you conclude from this?

PASCAL’S LAW
It is a famous law in hydrostatics that states, “when the pressure is changed in any part of
the enclosed fluid then this change of pressure is transmitted equally and perpendicularly to
all the other parts of the fluid.”

MEMORY TIPS
● Pascal’s law was formulated by a French scientist, Blaise Pascal in 1647 A.D.
● Hydrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with the properties of fluids (liquids and
gases).
Experimental Verification of Pascal’s law A
For this, take a vessel full of water with four openings provided
each with the pistons A, B, C and D as shown in the figure.
D B
The area of pistons may or may not be equal. If one of the
Pistons say ‘A’ is pushed inward, this pressure is transmitted
equally to all parts of the vessel which causes the piston B, C
and D move outwards equally. C

24 | Pressure
The given above water displacement experiment proves that the enclosed liquid transmits
pressure equally to all directions or the Pascal’s law. This law is also known as the principle
of transmission of fluid pressure.

ACTIVITY
Take a balloon and make small holes at its different parts. Fill it with water. Now,
press the balloon by covering its mouth. Observe the speed of water from each
hole. What can you conclude from this experiment?

Application of Pascal’s law

On the basis of the principle of Pascal’s law many hydraulic machines are constructed.
They are:
a. hydraulic lift b. hydraulic press
c. hydraulic brake d. hydraulic cranes etc.
a. Hydraulic lift
It is a machine based on the Pascal’s law. It is used to lift the vehicles in automobile
servicing stations during their service. It is also used to carry people from one floor to
another in tall buildings by multiplying the force.

Valve 1 Valve 2

b. Hydraulic press
It is a simple machine which is used to magnify the applied force. It is also based on
the Pascal’s law which is used to squeeze cotton bundles by magnifying our force.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 25

c. Hydraulic brakes
By the use of hydraulic brakes, we can easily stop the heavy moving vehicles like
trucks, buses, aeroplanes etc. applying a little force. It is also based on Pascal’s law.
Foot pedal

Pipeline Liquid Piston

To other wheel

Master cylinder

Break shoes Wheel cylinder

Break shoes

Return spring

Working Principle of Hydraulic machines

Hydraulic machines are the devices which work on the principle of Pascal’s law
by converting a little force into a larger force, e.g. hydraulic lift, hydraulic brake, etc.
It consists of two cylindrical tubes of different cross sectional areas A1 and A2
connected together with a horizontal tube. The apparatus is filled with water. The tubes
are provided with the water and airtight pistons. The general principle of a hydraulic
machine is given below:
When force ‘F ’ is applied at piston A , the
pressure exerted on the liquid is given by, A B

F
P1 = 1 ..................... (i)
A1
This pressure is transmitted to another piston
B and pressure exerted on the piston B by the
water is
F2
P2 = ..................... (ii)
A2
From Pascal’s law, we have,
P1 = P2
F 1 F2
or, =
A1 A2
F1 × A2
∴ F2 = (when the machine is in frictionless condition)
A1
Since A2 > A1 , F2 will be greater than F1 . This proves that the hydraulic machine is a
force multiplier.

26 | Pressure
SOLVEDNumerical
1. Calculate weight that can be lifted in piston A2 when 50 N force is applied on
piston A1.
Solution: = 50 N

Given,
Force in piston A1 (F1) = 50 N 10 cm2 50 cm2

Area in piston A1 = 10 cm2

Force in piston A2 (F2) = ?
Area in piston A2 = 50 cm2
We know that,
F1 F 2
=
A1 A2
F1 × A2 50 × 50
F2 = = = 250 N
A1 10
∴ The weight that can be lifted in piston A2 is 250 N.

MEMORY TIPS
Teeth scaling and high-pressure water jet cutting are also the application of Pascal’s law.
On teeth scaling, teeth are hit by fine jet of water at high pressure, and in high pressure
water jet cutting, stones, slates, rubbers, foams, asbestos, etc. are cut by high pressure
of water jet.

QUESTIONS
# State Pascal’s law. Give its two applications.
# How can you show that a hydraulic machine is a force multiplier?

DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY

The density of the substance is defined as the mass of the substance in per unit volume.
Mass (M)
i.e. Density (D) =
Volume (v)
M
∴D= v

Its SI unit is kg/m3 and CGS. unit is gm/cm3.

The density of water in SI unit is 1000 kg/m3 and in CGS unit 1 g/cm3
Relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of density of any substance to the density
of water at 4°C.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 27

 Density of substance
i.e. Relative Density =
Density of water at 4ºC
Since, relative density is the ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit.
Density of substance
Further, relative density =
Density of water at 4ºC
mass of substance/volume of substance
=
mass of water/volume of water at 4ºC
If the volume of the given substance is equal to the volume of water at 4°C then,
mass of substance
Relative density =
mass of equal volume of water at 4ºC
Hence, relative density can also be defined as the ratio of mass of the substance and the mass of
an equal volume of water at 4°C. Relative density is also known as specific gravity.
Density
S.N. Substances Relative density
kg/m 3
g/cm3
1. Water 1000 1.0 1
2. Milk 1030 1.03 1.03
3. Mercury 13600 13.6 13.6
4. Ice 920 0.92 0.92
5. Gold 19300 19.3 19.3

UPTHRUST
The resultant upward force exerted by a fluid on an object which is completely or partially
immersed into the fluid is called the upthrust or buoyancy.
Because of the upthrust, we can easily lift up a heavy object in
water.

Measurement of upthrust
Take the weight of a stone in the air using a spring balance.
Let, its weight be w1 . Now, take its weight by completely
immersing it into water. Let its weight in water be w2 .
The weight of the stone in water (w2) is less than its weight
in the air (w1). It is because of the upthrust given by water.
Thus,
Upthrust given by water = wt. of stone in air – wt. of stone in water.
i.e. upthrust (U) = w1 – w2

28 | Pressure
 QUESTIONS
# It is easier to pull a bucket of water from the well until it is inside water. Why?
Density of liquid and upthrust
From the relation of liquid pressure, we have, P = hdg
If depth of liquid column is constant at any place then, p ∝ d.
Similarly, from the relation U = vdg, upthrust is directly proportional to the density
of the liquid. Liquid with more density applies more upthrust. So, egg floats in salt
solution and sinks in pure water.
Hence, pressure increases as the density of the liquid increases. Similarly the upthrust
is also affected by the density of the liquid.

ACTIVITY
1. Take a beaker with fresh tap water.
2. Now put an egg in the above fresh water and observe.
3. The egg sinks in water. Why?
4. Now, take out the egg and make saturated salt solution in above water. Put the egg in it and
observe.
5. Why does the egg float on the solution?

MEMORY TIPS
● In Dead Sea, which contains about 270 gram of salt per litre of water, a person does
not sink due to the greater upthrust.
● Upthrust does not depend upon the weight of the body immersed in a fluid.

QUESTIONS
# Why does an egg float on the salt solution but it sinks in pure water?

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
This principle was formulated by Archimedes. It states, “When a body is wholly or
partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced.”

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 29

Theoretical proof of Archimedes’s principles
Suppose we have a cylinder of height (h) and cross-sectional area (A) be completely
immersed in liquid of density (d) as shown in the figure. Let
the top face of the cylinder is at depth (h ) and bottom face be
at the depth (h ) below the free surface of liquid.
1

The force acting on the upper face of the cylinder due to

liquid (F1) is,
F1 = Pressure × Area
i.e. F1 = P1 × A
or, F1 = dgh1 × A ..........(i) [p = dgh]
Similarly,
Force acting on lower surface of the cylinder due to liquid (F2) is,
F2 = P2 × A
or, F2 = dgh2 × A ............................ (ii)
Hence, the net upward force on the cylinder (F) is,
F = F2 – F1
= dgh2A – dgh1A
= dgA(h2 – h1)
= dgAh (h = h1 – h2)
F = dgv (v = A – h)
Since, the net upward force is the upthrust.
Thus,
Upthrust (U) = v × d × g ............................. (iii)
Hence, from this relation it is clear that, upthrust due to the liquid is:
a. directly proportional to the volume of the body immersed or volume of water
displaced
b. directly proportional to the density of liquid
c. directly proportional to the acceleration due to gravity of that place

MEMORY TIPS
When a floating body on water in a beaker falls freely under the gravity with its whole
system then it experience zero upthrust and the body sinks during the free fall.
Experimental verification of Archimedes’s principle
Materials required: Eureka can, top pan balance, stone, thread, spring balance
a. Find out the weight of a stone in the air. Let its weight in the air be w1.

30 | Pressure
b. Fill the Eureka can with water
up to the spout.
c. Keep a beaker over pan balance w3
just below the spout of the can
as shown in the figure.
d. Take the weight of the empty
beaker, let it be w2.
e. Immerse the stone wholly into
the water of Eureka can and
note the weight of the stone
inside the water. Let it be w3.
f. The water overflows when stone
is immersed into it and gets
collected in the beaker. The weight of the beaker with water is taken. Let it be w4.
∴ Loss in weight of the stone = w1 – w3 and
weight of displaced water = w4 – w2
It is observed that w1 – w3 = w4 – w2
Thus, loss in weight of a body (upthrust) in liquid is equal to the weight of liquid displaced.
Hence, Archimedes’s principle is verified experimentally.

QUESTIONS
# An iron nail sinks in water but a ship made of the same material floats on it. Why?

LAW OF FLOATATION
It states that, “the weight of a floating body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.”
i.e. weight of floating body = weight of displaced liquid
Experimental verification of principle of floatation
Materials required: A block of wood, spring
balance, Eureka can, beaker, top pan balance
a. Take the weight of the block of wood.
Let it be w1 .
b. Fill the Eureka can with water up to
the spout and place a beaker below its
spout. Take the weight of the empty
beaker. Let it be w2.
c. Now put the block of wood into the
Eureka can. It will float on the water
and displace the water.
New Creative Science, Class 10 | 31
d. The water is collected in the empty beaker. Let the weight of beaker with
water be w3.
∴ Weight of displaced water = w3 – w2
It is observed that, w1 = w3 – w2
i.e. Weight of floating body = weight of liquid displaced
Hence, the principle of floatation is verified experimentally.
Conditions for different solids kept in a liquid
Condition-I
When the weight of the body is greater than the upthrust acting in it, then the
resultant force will be vertically downwards and the body sinks in the liquid.
In this case, density of the object > density of the liquid Hence, an iron
piece sinks in water.
Condition-II
When the weight of the body is equal to the upthrust acting on it then the
resultant force acting on the body will be zero and the body floats on the
liquid below its surface at any depth and remains suspending.
In this case, density of the object = density of the liquid.
Condition-III
When the density of the body is less than density of liquid, the body floats on
the surface of that liquid. Similar to the case-II, in this case, upthrust is also
equal to the weight the body.
In this case, density of the body < density of liquid

MEMORY TIPS
Though the density of materials used in ships is greater than the density of water, the
structure of the ship is made such that it displaces more volume of water and therefore
experiences more upthrust which becomes equal to its weight and it floats.

QUESTIONS
# A piece of solid iron sinks, but a ship made of the same material floats on water. Why?
# Loaded ship sinks more than the empty one. Why?

ACTIVITY
Place a cork and an iron nail on the surface of water inside the beaker.
Observe what happens and give reason for it.

32 | Pressure
Applications of principle of floatation
Different types of hydrometers, ships, boats, etc. are made on the principle of floatation.
Hydrometer
It is a device used to measure the density or the relative density of liquids. It is based
on the principle of floatation.
When the hydrometer is placed in a liquid, it sinks until it displaces the
liquid equal to its own weight. The hydrometer sinks less in the liquids having
more density and sinks more in the liquids having less density. So, graduation in
stem is done in such a way that the numbers (showing density) are bigger
at the bottom, decreasing upwards. The stem is graduated in kg/m3. Hence, it
measures density of liquids directly.
A specially designed constant weight hydrometer which is used to measure the purity of milk
is called lactometer.

MEMORY TIPS
The density of pure milk is 1030 kg/m3, density for milk with water is less than that and
for the milk with powder, density is greater than 1030 kg/m3.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The earth has its force of attraction called gravity. Due to this force of gravity it binds
the mixture of air around the earth. The mixture of air contains nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, water vapour, dust, smoke, etc. Thus, the envelop of air which surrounds
the earth is called atmosphere. The atmosphere extends upto about 9600 km above the
earth’s surface. Air has weight. Due to its weight, it applies pressure on the surface of
the earth called atmospheric pressure.
The pressure exerted by the mixture of different gases on the surface of the earth is called
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at the sea level is called normal
atmospheric pressure or standard atmospheric pressure.
Normal atmospheric pressure = 760 mm of Hg or one atmosphere is equal to 105
Pascal. As the amount of air decreases at the heights, the atmospheric pressure also
decreases subsequently. So, the atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.
The atmosphere also exerts pressure on the human body. The force exerted by the
atmosphere on the human body of area 2m2 is about 2 × 105N as:
F = P × A = 105 × 2 = 2 × 105 N
But, we do not feel it or crushed by it. This is because our internal pressure balances
this pressure. But as we go to the higher altitude, our internal pressure becomes more.
So, bleeding from nose and ear may occur.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 33

 MEMORY TIPS
Jet planes fly at about an altitude of 2000m. At this height, there is less atmospheric
pressure. So, air pressure is controlled inside the planes. This is why, passengers inside
the plane could breathe normally.

Uses of the atmospheric pressure

a. Atmospheric pressure is used to fill ink in the pen.
b. It is used to make syringe.
c. It is used to make air filling pump.
d. It is used to make tubewell.

QUESTIONS
# We feel uneasy at higher altitudes. Why?
# The atmosphere exerts enormous pressure to us but we do not feel it. Why?

ACTIVITY
To show atmospheric pressure
Take a tin can with a little of water in it. Boil it for few minutes
as shown in the figure (a). Close the lid of the can immediately
and cut off the flame. Now, cool the can under a tap as shown
in the figure (b).
At first, the pressure of the air inside the can and outside it was
equal. When it was heated, the air inside the can escaped out
and the space was occupied with the steam. On cooling the
can, the steam condensed creating partial vacuum inside the
(a) (b)
can. Hence, the atmospheric pressure becomes more than
the internal pressure and the tin can got crushed inwards.
This proves that atmosphere exerts pressure.

ACTIVITY
To show atmospheric pressure
Take a glass filled with water and cover its mouth with a
cardboard. Invert the glass supporting the cardboard with your
palm. Hold the glass in your hand and remove the other hand
slowly which was supporting the cardboard.
The atmosphere exerts pressure upwards on the cardboard
and the cardboard and the water do not fall. This again proves
that atmosphere exerts pressure from all directions.

34 | Pressure
 ACTIVITY
To show air exerts pressure
Take some water in a bottle. Suck it by using a straw pipe. When the
air from the pipe is sucked up, the water enters the mouth through the
straw pipe. It is because when the air from the pipe is sucked out, the
air pressure inside the pipe becomes less than the outside pressure.
Hence, the water enters the straw and comes into the mouth due to the
more atmospheric pressure at the surface of the liquid. This also proves
that atmosphere exerts pressure. We fill ink in the pen on the basis of
the same principle.

BAROMETER
It is an instrument used to measure the atmospheric pressure of the certain place. It is also
used to measure altitudes as the atmospheric pressure changes with altitude. There
are two types of barometers. They are:
a. Mercury barometer
b. Aneroid barometer

a) Mercury barometer
It consists of mercury as the barometric substance. For
its construction, a one meter long calibrated glass tube
is completely filled with mercury and it is inverted
carefully over a disc of mercury by pressing its mouth
with our thumb.
Now, it will be observed that the mercury level inside the tube falls slowly at first
and becomes constant at any point. The reading of this point gives the atmospheric
pressure of that place. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 760 mm of Hg. As
the altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases. So, the level of mercury in
the barometer also falls. Similarly, as the altitude decreases, the atmospheric pressure
increases. So, the level of mercury in the barometer also rises up.

Advantages of mercury as the barometric substance

i) The density of mercury is very high i.e. 13600 kg/m3 so, only one meter long
glass tube is sufficient.
ii) It doesn’t stick inside the glass tube. So, the reading will be correct.
iii) It is silvery in colour. So, it can be seen easily from outside.
iv) It doesn’t vapourize easily.
But in contrast, water is transparent so it sticks on the wall of the tube, and its
density is also less. So, a tube of about eleven meters is required. Hence, it is not
used as the barometric substance.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 35

 MEMORY TIPS
● Mercury barometer was invented by an Italian scientist E. Torricellie.
● The empty space above the surface of mercury (Hg) in the barometric glass-tube is
called torricellian vacuum.
● Sphygmomanometer is the instrument used to measure the blood pressure of human
body.

QUESTIONS
# The mercury level decreases in barometer as the altitude increases, why?
# We cannot use water as a barometric substance, why?

b) Aneroid barometer
It doesn’t contain any liquid as the barometric substance and is
easy to carry from place to place. It is used as altimeter in aircrafts
and for the mountaineers.

PRESSURE GAUGE
It is an instrument which is used to measure the air pressure inside the
tyres of the vehicles.
More air pressure inside the tyre causes the tyre to burst and less
pressure inside it doesn’t allow the vehicles to run smoothly. So,
the appropriate amount of air should be filled in the tubes of the
tyres. And pressure gauge helps us for this.

SYRINGE
Syringe is a medical device which is used in the hospital and clinic
to inject medicine inside the body and to take out blood from the
body of the patients. Mainly, it has three parts. They are needle,
storage cylinder and piston. During the injection of the liquid
medicine, first of all the needle of the syringe is inserted inside
the medicine bottle. The piston of the syringe is pulled slowly. As we pull the piston,
there occurs vacuum in the storage cylinder. We know that liquid always flows from
the region of the high pressure to the region of the low pressure. So, medicine moves
toward the storage cylinder as there is less pressure. Now, the needle is taken out
from the bottle and inserted in the blood vessel of the patient. As we push the piston,
the medicine moves into the body through blood vessel. Same phenomenon happens
while taking out blood from the body of the patients.

36 | Pressure
AIR FILLING PUMP
To fill air inside the tubes of tyres, tubes of volleyball,
football, etc. we use a pump called air filling pump
or simply pump. It has a cylinder, piston and nozzle.
To fill air inside the tube, the piston must be moved
up and down continuously. While pulling the piston
up, there creates a vacuum inside the cylinder. In
this vacuum air is filled from the atmosphere. As we
push the piston down, air enters into the tube through the nozzle of the cylinder.
Similarly, when we pull the piston up, air from the tube cannot come out as there is a
valve in the tube, which gets closed automatically. This process is continued to fill the
tube completely.

TUBEWELL OR HAND PUMP

Different kinds of tubewells or water pulling pumps
are used to pull the underground water from the
dip well. All these tubewells are constructed on the
principle of atmospheric pressure. It contains two
parts. They are barrel and piston. Both of these parts
are connected with valves. The movable valve (V1)
is connected to the piston. This valve moves up and
down along with the piston. At the bottom of the
barrel there is another valve (V2). Now, the barrel and
the pipe are connected together and send at the dip
well.

UP STROKE
As we push the handle, the piston comes up. At the same time, there occurs vacuum
in between these two valves. Due to low pressure created between these valves, the
valve (V1) gets closed and water rises up in the barrel through valve (V2). Thus, the
pushing down of the handle to rise up the piston is called up stroke.

DOWN STROKE
As we pull up the handle, the piston moves down. As a result the valve (V1) which
is present in the piston and the valve (V2) which is present in the barrel come closer.
Due to high pressure in the valve (V2) it gets closed but the valve (V1) remains open.
Through the valve (V1), water comes up. Thus, the pulling up of the handle to push down
the piston is called down stroke.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 37

SOLVEDNumerical
1. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the container if the depth of the water
in the container is 5m.
Solution:
Given, depth of water (h) = 5m
Density of water (d) = 1000 kg/m3
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 m/s2
Liquid pressure (p) = ?
We have, from the relation
P =hdg
= 5 × 1000 × 10
= 5 × 104 Pascal
Hence, the pressure of the water is 5 × 104 Pa.
2. Calculate the density and relative density of the liquid having mass 4000 kg
and volume 4m3.
Solution:
Given, mass of liquid (m) = 4000 kg
Volume of liquid (V) = 4 m3
Density of liquid (D) = ?
Relative density of liquid (R.D.) = ?
We have,from the relation,
M 4000
D = = = 1000 kg/m3
V 4
Again,
Density of liquid 1000
R.D. = = =1
Density of water at 4ºC 1000
Hence, the density of liquid is 1000 kg/m3 and its relative density is 1.
3. The density of a brick is 2.5 gm/cm3 and its mass is 1 kg. Find the weight of
water displaced when this brick is immersed in water.
Solution:
Given, density of brick (d) = 2.5 gm/cm3
Mass of brick (m) = 1 kg = 1000 gm
Volume of brick (V) = ?
Wt. of water displaced = ?

38 | Pressure
 We have,
m 1000
Volume of brick = = = 400 cm3
d 2.5
Volume of brick = volume of water displaced = 400 cm3
Now, mass of water displaced = volume of water displaced × density of water
= 400 × 1 = 400 gm
Hence, the mass of displaced water is 400 gm.
MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. All cutting instruments have sharp edges. Why?

Ü The sharp edges make the cross-sectional area of cutting instruments small and
as we know,
F
P=
A
So, our force will get distributed over small area thereby increasing pressure.
This makes cutting easier. So, cutting instruments are provided with sharp
edges.
2. Deep sea-divers wear special diving suits. Why?
Ü We know that, liquid pressure = h × d × g
Which shows that the liquid pressure increases with depth from its free surface.
So, to withstand the enormous pressure applied by water, the deep sea-divers
wear special diving suits.
3. It is easier to pull a bucket of water from the well until it is inside the water
but difficult when it comes out of water. Why?
Ü The upthrust given by water is more than that given by the air, as water is denser
than the air. Due to this, it is easier to pull a bucket of water until it is inside the
water.
4. An iron nail sinks but a ship made up of iron floats. Why?
Ü A ship is so designed that it displaces water equal to its own weight. Hence it
experiences equal upthrust and floats but the iron nail cannot displace the water
equal to its own weight and thus sinks into the water.
5. A helium filled balloon rises to a certain height and then halts. Why?
Ü Since, the density of helium is lower than that of air. So, due to the upthrust of
air, the balloon rises to a certain height where the density of air is equal to the
density of helium and then it halts there.
6. Why a man will be found lighter when weighted in the air than in vacuum?
Ü Air also gives upthrust due to which the resultant weight of a person in air is
less than in vacuum.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 39

7. An ice cube floats in water. Will the water level rise if the ice melts completely?
Explain.
Ü No, the water level will not rise if the ice melts completely because the volume of
water obtained from the melted ice is equal to the volume of the ice inside water
level and the water level remains the same.
8. Loaded ship sinks more than the empty one. Why?
Ü The loaded ship has to displace more water (equal to its weight) than the empty
ship to be floated. So, the loaded ship sinks more than the empty one.
9. The weights of a piece of stone on weighing
Medium Weight
in three different mediums- air, water and salt
solution are shown in the table below. A 15N
i. Which one is water and which one is the B 18N
salt solution out of these three mediums? C 16N
Ü C is water and A is the salt solution.
ii. If the weight of 1 kg mass in air is 10N, find out the mass of the piece of
stone.
Ü Given, 10N weight = 1 kg mass
1
∴ 18N weight = × 18 = 1.8 kg
10
Hence, mass of the stone in air = 1.8 kg
iii. Find out the mass of water displaced by the piece of stone.
Ü Given, weight lost = weight in air – weight in water = 18 – 16 = 2N
∴ Weight lost = weight of water displaced = 2N
∴ Mass of water displaced × g = 2N (since g = 10 m/s2)
2
∴ Mass of water displaced = = 0.2 kg
10

SUMMARY
 Pressure is defined as the force acting normally on per unit area. It is given by,
Force
pressure = .
Area
 The pressure exerted by liquid column is given by hdg. The liquid pressure increases with the
depth of liquid column from its surface level.
 Pascal’s law states that ‘when the pressure is changed in any part of the enclosed liquid, then
this change in pressure is transmitted equally to all the other parts of the fluid.
 Hydraulic brake, hydraulic lift, hydraulic press etc. are constructed on the basis of Pascal’s law.
 The resultant upward force exerted by a fluid on an object which is completely or partially
immersed into the fluid is called upthrust.

40 | Pressure
  Archimedes’ principle states that, ‘when a body is wholly or partially immersed into a
liquid, it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid.
i.e. upthrust = weight of liquid displaced.
 Law of floatation states that when the weight of the body is equal to the weight of displaced
liquid then the body floats on it. It is the special case of Archimedes’ principle.
 Hydrometer is used to measure the density or relative density of liquid. It is based on principle
of floatation.
 Lactometer is used to measure the purity of milk.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define pressure. Write its formula and S.I. unit.

2. Prove P = hdg. What are the factors which affect the liquid pressure?
3. State Archimedes’ principle. Verify it experimentally.
4. State Pascal’s law of liquid pressure. Give its two applications.
5. How can hydraulic machines magnify our force?
6. State the law of floatation. Why is it called the special condition of Archimedes’
principle?
7. What do you mean by hydrometer? Write down its uses.
8. What is atmosphere and atmospheric pressure? Write down the value of standard
atmospheric pressure.
9. Describe the structure and working of the syringe with the help of diagram.
10. What is barometer? Describe the structure of the mercury barometer with the help
of diagram.
11. Describe the structure and working of the air filling pump.
12. What is tubewell? Describe its structure and working.
13. Give reasons:
(a) A girl with the pointed heel shoes makes more depression in sand than an
elephant.
(b) Dams are made wider at the bottom.
(c) The bags are provided with broad handles.
(d) Water is filled faster in a bucket in a downstairs tap than in the upstairs tap.
(e) Wooden sleepers are used below the rails.
(f) A steel ball sinks in water but floats on mercury.
(g) Ice floats on water.
(h) Deep sea-divers wear diving suits.
14. Write the difference between:
(a) Force and pressure (b) Density and relative density
(c) Archimedes’s principle and principle of floatation

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 41

15. The weight of a stone in air is 10N and that inside water is 7N. Answer the
following questions.
(a) Find the upthrust due to water and weight of displaced liquid.
(b) Which principle does it verify?
(c) State the principle.
16. Two tanks A and B of different cross-sectional areas
are shown in the figure containing the water upto the
same level.
(a) Which one exerts more pressure at the bottom?
(b) If both contain the equal amount of water, which
one exerts more pressure at the bottom? A B

17. A body ABCD is completely immersed into water as shown in the

figure. Study it and answer the following questions.
(a) What is the resultant pressure exerted on the surfaces BC and AD?
(b) Out of the surfaces AB and CD which one will experience more
pressure? Why?
Numerical problems
18. Find the pressure exerted on the bottom of the pond having depth 1.5m. (Given
g = 9.8 m/s2) [Ans: 14.7 × 103 Pa]
19. Calculate the pressure exerted by a mercury column of 76 cm high at its bottom.
Given that the density of mercury is 13600 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2.[Ans: 1.01 × 105 Pa]
20. If your mass is 45 kg, what weight of water is to be displaced by you to float on
water? Why? [Ans: 450N]
21. The density of ice is 0.92 gm/cm3. A piece of ice has length 50cm, breadth 30cm
and height 20cm. Find out the mass of water displaced by the ice when it is kept
in water. (density of water = 1 gm/cm3) [Ans: 27.6 kg]
22. The weight of a piece of stone when immersed on water is 18N and it displaces
4N of water, what is its weight in air? [Ans: 22N]
23. A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of 3000
kg. The area of cross-section of the piston carrying the load is 425 cm2. What
maximum pressure would the smaller piston have to bear? [Ans: 6.92 × 105 Pa]
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Hydrostatics : a branch of physics which deals with the properties of fluids
Graduated : divided into levels in a scale
Fluid : that can flow freely (liquids and gases)
Thrust : force
Forge : to shape metal by heating and hammering


42 | Pressure
 UNIT

3 Energy
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
We need energy to do work and make all the movements.
When we eat, our bodies transform the food into energy,
which we use when we run or walk or do some physical
activities. Vehicles like cars, planes, trains also use diesel
or kerosene are the source of energy. Similarly, to run
industries, agricultural, physical or biological sectors, we
need various forms of energy. Thus, energy is defined as the
ability or capacity to do work. Its SI unit is joule (J).

Albert Einstein SOURCES OF ENERGY

(1879-1955)
A source of energy is that which is capable of providing
Albert Einstein is a very famous
scientist who led to hundreds enough useful energy at a steady rate over a long period of
of new discoveries and added time. A good source of energy should be,
milestones in different branches
a. safe and convenient to use,
of science. The theory of relativity
propounded by him (in 1905) is b. easy to transport and
one of the most famous inventions. c. easy to store
The theory is governed by a simple
equation, The sources of energy which can be used in the same form,
E = ∆mc2 in which they occur in nature, are called primary energy
∆m is the difference in mass sources like coal, wood, crude oil, natural gas, dung-cake,
between the original nucleus and solar energy, wind energy, etc.
product nuclei in nuclear fission
reaction. C is the velocity of light Similarly, the sources of energy which are derived from the
in vacuum and E is the energy primary energy sources are called secondary sources like wood-
produced.
In 1774 Lavoises had stated that
gas, coke, petrol-diesel, bio-gas, hydroelectricity, wind
matter can neither be created nor energy, nuclear energy, etc.
be destroyed. This law was called
as the law of conservation of mass. CLASSIFICATION OF THE SOURCES OF ENERGY
But according to Einstein, mass
can be converted into energy and The energy sources are classified as,
vice versa. Einstein has written, a. Non-renewable sources of energy
“Pre-relativity physics contains
b. Renewable sources of energy
two conservation of mass and
the law of conservation of
energy, these two appear there
a. Non-renewable sources of energy
as completely independent of The sources of energy which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced
each other. Through relativity
theory, they melt together into one
once they have been used are called non-renewable sources of
principle.” energy.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 43

These sources have been accumulated in nature over a very long period of time, e.g.
coal, mineral oil, natural gas and all the other fossil fuels.
Due to the extensive use, these sources are depleting fast and it is difficult to explore
new deposits to these sources.

b. Renewable sources of energy

The sources of energy which are inexhaustible and can be replaced as they have been used are
called renewable sources of energy. They can be used again and again.
These sources are available in an unlimited amount in nature and develop within
a relatively short period of time, e.g. solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy,
geothermal energy, tidal energy, biomass energy, etc.
Renewable sources will last as long as the earth receives light from the sun. They are
freely available in nature.
Differences between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.
Renewable sources of energy Non-renewable sources of energy
1. These are inexhaustible and can be 1. These are exhaustible and cannot be re-
replaced once they have been used up. placed once they have been used.
2. They can be regained within a short pe- 2. They cannot be regained quickly and take
riod of time. a million of years to form only under very
Example: solar energy, wind energy, suitable condition.
hydro energy, etc. Example: fossil fuels like natural gas,
petroleum, coal, etc

MEMORY TIPS
Wood is a renewable source of energy only if we plant trees in a planned manner to ensure
its continuous supply.

QUESTIONS
# Why is wood called as the renewable but petrol is called the non-renewable sources of
energy?

SOME NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are the remaining parts of prehistoric plants and animals, which got buried
deep inside the earth millions of years ago due to some natural processes and are used
as the sources of energy in the present days.
Coal, petroleum (Mineral oil) and natural gas are the major fossil fuels.

44 | Energy
a. Coal
It is the most abundant fossil fuel on the earth found in deep mines beneath the surface
of the earth. It constitutes mainly carbon and is used as fuel, which provides 27% of
the world’s energy.
When the dead plants and animals were buried inside the earth’s crust, they did not
decompose in a normal way and were protected from oxidizing effect of the air. The
action of certain bacteria released oxygen and hydrogen making the residue richer
and richer in carbon. Pressure and temperature further compressed this residue and it
slowly changed into coal over a period of millions of years. In this way, coal is formed.
According to the amount of carbon content, coal is classified into the following types:
i. Peat: 27% of carbon
ii. Lignite: 28%-30% of carbon
iii. Bituminous: 78%-87% carbon
iv. Anthracite: 94%-98% carbon

MEMORY TIPS
● In Nepal, low quality of coalmine (lignite) is found in Dang district.
● Anthracite is the superior quality of coal.

QUESTIONS
# How is coal formed?

b. Petroleum (Petra-rock oleum-oil)

It is a complex mixture of different types of hydrocarbons. It may also consist of other
elements like oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur in trace amounts.
Petroleum (also called crude oil) is a thick black liquid found trapped beneath
impermeable rocks in the earth’s crust. It is extracted from such reserves through wells
driven in them by cutting through the impervious rocks. The crude oil is then refined
to obtain a number of useful components like petrol (gasoline), diesel, kerosene,
asphalt, lubricating oil, paraffin wax etc.
The refining of crude oil is done in distillation or fractionating companies by the
process of fractional distillation.
i. Petrol is used to run small vehicles and diesel is used to run big and heavy
vehicles.
ii. Kerosene is used as fuel for domestic purposes and pure kerosene is used as
fuel in aeroplanes.
iii. Asphalt is used in road construction.
iv. Paraffin is used for manufacturing candles, books, polish, wax, vaseline, etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 45

 v. Lubricating oil is used as a lubricant in moving parts of the machines.
vi. They are also used in fertilizer industries.

MEMORY TIPS
On liquefaction, petroleum gas changes into a liquid, which is called liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG). It is also called cooking gas. The main constituent of LPG is butane.

QUESTIONS
# Why are petroleum products used more than other sources of energies?

c. Natural Gas
It is an important fossil fuel that is found underground near the oil source. It is a
mixture of methane (95%), ethane, propane and butane. It is used as a domestic and
industrial fuel. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is in the liquid form, which is used as
a fuel in vehicles. Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel.
Advantages of fossil fuel
Fossil fuels are used more than other sources of energy due to the following reasons:
a. It is cheaper for short term use and easy to transport.
b. Many machines and engines which are conducted by petroleum are
constructed.
c. It can be used to produce electricity.

SOME RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Hydropower
The kinetic energy of water has been used for a
long time to run watermills. The electricity produced
from the kinetic energy of flowing water is called
hydroelectricity. It is the most versatile source of
energy.
The total hydropower capacity of Nepal is
estimated to be 83,000 mw, out of which 600 mw
of electricity has been produced till today.
Advantages of hydropower
i. It is used to operate different electrical goods like the radio, T.V., computer, heater,
cooker, etc.
ii. It is also used to run vehicles.
iii. Since the initial construction cost is high, it becomes cheaper in the long-term.
iv. It is a pollution-free source of energy.

46 | Energy
v. It is a renewable source of energy and will never get exhausted.
vi. This form of energy can easily be converted into other forms of energy.
vii. Hydroelectric power projects are multi-purpose projects as they enable us to use
their water for irrigation, industrial and domestic purposes.

QUESTIONS
# Use of hydroelectricity should be increased than the fossil fuels. Why?

Biomass and Bio-energy

Biomass is defined as the dry organic matter and its residue. It is a renewable source of
energy. The biomass includes all the plants, agricultural and forest residues like bark,
sawdust, roots, animal droppings, etc. The energy obtained from biomass is called bio-
energy.
Similarly, cow dung and other wastes of plant materials are decomposed in the
absence of oxygen to produce bio-gas. It is also known as gobar gas.

Uses of bio-gas
a. Bio-gas is used for cooking, heating and lighting purposes.
b. It is used to generate electricity.
c. The dung which is obtained after generating electricity is used as manure in the
agricultural field.
d. It does not produce smoke. So, it used as a clean source of energy.

MEMORY TIPS
Instead of burning the loose biomass fuel directly, it is more practical to compress it into
briquettes and to improve its utilities and convenience of use, too.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 47

Wind energy
Moving air is called the wind. It possesses the kinetic
energy and is a renewable source of energy. This can be
utilized to generate electricity. Traditionally, it has been
used to drive windmills, propel sailboats, separating husk
from grains, etc. It is a renewable source of energy and can
be developed as the alternative sources of energy in the
Mahabharat region in Nepal, which is a continuous wind
blowing region in Nepal. Thus, the energy which is obtained
from the continuous blowing wind is called the wind energy.
Tidal energy
The energy derived from rising and falling ocean tides is called the tidal energy. Tides are
formed due to the gravitational pull of the moon on the water in the ocean. For using
the tidal energy, it is necessary to build a dam across the tidal region. The gates allow
water to flow in it at high tide and as the tide falls, the gates are shut and the water is
allowed to run back through turbines to generate electricity. It is an inexhaustible and
renewable pollution-free energy source.

MEMORY TIPS
High tides occur on every new moon day and full moon day and can raise the level of water
by few metres.
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is the heat of the earth and is the naturally occurring thermal
energy found within the earth. The temperature inside the earth’s crust is as high as
500°C near the junction between crust and mantle and further more around magmal-
zones. Water is pumped down through an injecting well where it passes through
joints and fractures in hot rocks and this water is converted into steam. This steam is
used to rotate the turbines of generators to produce electricity. It is also a renewable,
pollution-free source of energy. Thus, the energy which is obtained from the heat of the
earth is called the geothermal energy.
Nuclear energy
The energy released when the nucleus of one atom converts to another in course of nuclear
reaction is called the nuclear energy. There are two distinct ways of obtaining the nuclear
energy. They are:
a. Nuclear fission reaction
b. Nuclear fusion reaction
a. Nuclear fission reactions
In this process, an unstable nucleus of a heavy atom like uranium, polonium, thorium
etc. splits into lighter nuclei with the liberation of enormous amount of energy when

48 | Energy
it is bombarded with slow moving neutrons. Thus, the process in which an unstable
heavy nucleus of a radioactive element is broken down into two or more light nuclei is called
the nuclear fission. Nuclear fission of U-235 can be represented as,

A chain reaction showing the splitting of uranium atoms

This enormous amount of energy is used for producing steam, which rotates the
blades of turbine to generate electricity.

MEMORY TIPS
One kilogram of U-235, on fission produces as much energy as 2500 tonne of coal
produces on burning.
b. Nuclear fusion reaction
It is a process of combining two or more lighter nuclei to form a more stable heavy nucleus with
the liberation of tremendous amount of energy. The process of nuclear fusion reaction of
hydrogen to form helium nuclei is shown from the given reaction,
high temperature
2 11 H + 2 11 H high pressure
4
2 He + 2 01 e + Q (energy)
Lighter nuclei Heavier nucleus
Hydrogen bomb is based on the nuclear fusion reaction and the energy generated
from this fusion reaction cannot be converted into useful energy, as the energy cannot
be controlled.
Advantages of nuclear energy
i. A small amount of uranium (U-235) like nucleus fuel can produce a large amount
of energy.
ii. It can be used as the alternative source of energy.
iii. Once the nuclear fuel is fed into the nuclear power plant, it keeps on producing
electricity for two to three years.
Disadvantages of nuclear energy
i. The initial cost of production is very high and high technology is required for it,
which cannot be afforded by developing and under-developed countries.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 49

ii. The pollution caused by nuclear fuel is much more dangerous.
iii. The nuclear waste radiates harmful rays like α, β, γ and δ rays. When an organism
is exposed to such radiations, his biological and genetic system is disrupted.

MEMORY TIPS
Both the nuclear reactions (fusion and fission) are based on Einstein’s theory of relativity
E = ∆mc2

QUESTIONS
# In what aspects is the nuclear energy advantageous and in what aspect it is harmful?

ACTIVITY
List out the forms of energy that you use from the morning when you wake up till you reach the school. From
where do we get these different forms of energy? Can we say these are the sources of energy? Why?

Solar energy
The sun has been radiating an enormous amount of energy in the form of heat and
light at the present rate for nearly 5 billion years and will continue for about 5 billion
years more. The heat and light energy obtained from the sun is called the solar energy.
The sun is radiating energy at the rate of 4.5 × 1023 kJ/s in all directions in space. The
energy received by 1m2 of the earth’s surface is about 4 kw/h daily.
Uses of solar energy
a. The solar energy has been used for drying clothes, preserving fruits, vegetables, meat,
fish, etc.
b. It is used to dry food grains after harvesting them.
c. It is used to heat water.
d. Plants use solar energy for photosynthesis.
e. With the help of solar cookers, food is cooked by using the solar energy.
f. A solar battery converts the solar energy into an electrical energy, which is used
for various purposes. A group of solar cells connected in a particular way is called a
solar panel.
Limitations of solar energy
a. It is not available uniformly all the time in all places.
b. The solar energy which reaches our earth is in very various forms so, it cannot be
used directly.
c. A lot of costly equipment and infrastructure are required to put solar energy in use.

MEMORY TIPS
The amount of solar radiation incident is normally per second on 1m2 area of a perfectly
black surface at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Its approximate value is 1.4
KJ per second per square metre.

50 | Energy
 ACTIVITY
1. Take two conical flasks and paint one white and the other black. Fill both of them with water.
2. Place the conical flasks in direct sunlight for one hour with thermometers in their mouth.
3. Observe the temperature of the water in both the flasks. Which one is hotter? Can you think
of the ways in which this finding could be used in your daily life?

SUN: THE ULTIMATE SOURCE OF ENERGY

The sun is called the ultimate source of energy because all the other sources of energy
we have used so far are the direct or indirect consequences of the solar energy. It will
be clear from the following discussions.

Hydroelectricity as the outcome of solar energy

Water from seas, oceans and rivers evaporates due to the sun’s heat and rises up
where it condenses and forms clouds. This water returns to the earth in the form of
rain or snow which causes the water to flow in the rivers. The K.E. of the water is used
to rotate turbines and generate hydroelectricity.

Fossil fuel as the consequence of solar energy

Fossils are the remaining of dead plants and animals. The plants had used solar energy
for photosynthesis when they were alive and animals depend upon plants directly or
indirectly for their food. Therefore, fossil fuels are also the outcome of the solar energy.

Wind energy as the consequence of solar energy

Due to the heating of air above the surface of the earth, it rises being lighter. So,
these create a partial vacuum and the air pressure becomes low. Then, the air from
as the higher-pressure region blows towards the lower pressure region to balance the
pressure difference. This moving air is called the wind which can be converted into
useful work.
Similarly, biomass is the organic matter and its residue, which uses the solar energy
directly or indirectly. Due to the above reasons, the solar energy or the sun is the
ultimate source of energy and the main energy source.

About the Sun

Mass = 2 × 1030 kg (3.33 × 105 times bigger than the earth)
Diameter : 1.4 × 106 km (10 times bigger than the earth)
Surface Temperature : 5700 °C
Core Temperature : 1.5 × 107 °C
Energy Radiation : About 4 × 1026 J/S
Average Solar Energy on the Earth : 1.4 kW per square meter.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 51

 QUESTIONS
# Why is the sun called an ultimate source of energy?

MECHANISM OF ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE SUN

The solar energy is produced due to the thermo-nuclear fusion reaction in which
hydrogen atom is continuously changing into helium nuclei liberating tremendous
amount of energy.
The sun is rich in hydrogen gas. It consists of about 75% of hydrogen and 25% of
helium. At very high temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms split into protons
and electrons. The two protons combine due to high pressure to form a deuteron ( 21 H)
+
and a positron (e 01 ). Now, a proton ( 11 H) and a deuteron ( 21 H) unite to form the isotope
of helium ( 32 He). Then the two helium nuclei unite to form the stable helium nucleus (
4
2 He). In each step of the reaction, tremendous amount of energy is released. It can be

summarized in the following reactions

high temperature
i) 1
1 H+ 1
1 H high pressure
2
1 H + 0
1 e + Q1
(deuterium) (positron) (energy)
high temperature
ii) 2
1 H+ 1
1 H high pressure
3
2 He + Q2 (energy)
high temperature
iii) 3
2 He + 3
2 He high pressure
4
2 He + 1
1 H + 1
1 H + Q3 (energy)
In short,
high temperature
2 11 H + 2 11 H high pressure
4
2 He + 2 01 e + Q (energy) where, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

MEMORY TIP
Positron ( 01 e) is known as the antiparticle of electron as it has mass equal to electron but
bears the opposite charge as that of electron.

QUESTION
# How is an enormous amount of energy released from the sun?

Conditions and evidences of nuclear fusion reaction in the sun

a. The sun has a large amount of hydrogen which undergoes fusion reaction to form
helium.
b. There is a very high temperature that can split hydrogen atoms into its protons
and electrons.
c. The extreme pressure on the sun helps to unite the similar charged protons.
d. The presence of helium in the sun is the product of the nuclear fusion reaction.

52 | Energy
Present status of energy use
The type and amount of energy sources used change according to the places, living
standard of people and degree of civilization and industrialization.
About 37% of the demand of energy is fulfilled from petroleum, 25% from coal, 13%
from biomass and bio-gas, 8% from hydroelectric power, 4% from nuclear energy
(fission) and the rest are fulfilled other sources like solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, geo-thermal energy, etc. The demand for energy is increasing at the rate of
2.3% annually. If the sources of energy are not properly used and are not conserved
then we are likely to face energy crisis in the near future.

ENERGY CRISIS
About eighty percentage of the present demand of energy has been fulfilled by fossil
fuels, which are the non-renewable sources of energy. If these sources are exploited at
this rate then it is sure that they will be finished by 2076 A.D. But as the need of energy
is increasing by 2.3% per annum, the reserve of these sources will not last after 2037
A.D. So the world is likely to face energy problem which is called energy crisis.
The scarcity of energy sources on the earth due to the excessive use of non-renewable sources of
energy is called energy crisis.

ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY

Those energy sources which are used in place of non-renewable source of energy are called
alternative sources of energy. They are used to maintain the stock of the non-renewable
source of energy. They can be renewed time and again. To avoid the energy crisis, we
should develop the sources of alternative sources of energy. Some common examples
of alternative sources of energy are solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, bio-gas,
biomass, geothermal energy, etc.

ENERGY CONSERVATION
The energy crisis may bring hazards to the existence of human beings. So, we must try
to save energy as far as possible. We must be careful to save energy.
a. The renewable sources of energy must be used as far as possible and the non-
renewable sources of energy must be used in a limited amount.
b. Alternative sources of energy should be developed which will preserve the non-
renewable sources of energy for the future.
c. Unnecessary use of energy at any place at any time must be avoided.

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. What do you mean by energy crisis?
Ü The scarcity of energy sources on the earth due to the excessive use of non-
renewable sources of energy is called energy crisis.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 53

2. Why are we likely to face energy crisis in the near future?
Ü In the present days, non-renewable sources (fossil fuels) are used an in excessive
amount i.e. they meet about 80% of the energy demand on the earth. The demand
for these sources is increasing 2.3% annually but their reservoir is present only
in the limited amount. So we are likely to face energy crisis in the near future.
3. Differentiate between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission reaction.
Nuclear fusion reaction Nuclear fission reaction
i. In this process, two or more i. In this process, an unstable heavy
lighter nuclei combine to form a nucleus splits into two or more lighter
stable heavy nucleus. nuclei.
ii. Hydrogen bomb is based on ii. Atom bomb is based on this principle.
this principle.
iii. The energy released by this process is more iii. The energy released by this process is
than that produced by fission reaction. less compare to fusion reaction.
iv. This energy cannot be converted iv. This energy can be converted into
into useful energy easily. useful energy.
4. Scientists are busy designing solar equipments. Why?
Ü It is because the solar energy is the perpetual means and the ultimate source of
energy. It is a pollution-free energy source. It can push the energy crisis further.
5. Coal is called the fossil fuel. Why?
Ü The coal is formed from the dead bodies of plants and animals (i.e. fossils) and
it is used to get energy. So, it is called the fossil fuel.

SUMMARY
 Energy is the capacity of doing work. Its SI unit is joule.
 A source of energy is that which is capable of providing enough useful energy.
 There are two types of sources of energy i.e. Renewable and Non-renewable sources
 The sources of energy which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced once they have been
used are called the non-renewable sources of energy.
 Coal, natural gas and petroleum are the non-renewable sources of energy.
 The sources of energy which are inexhaustible and can be replaced once they have been used
are called the renewable sources of energy.
 The solar energy, wind energy, biomass etc. are the renewable sources of energy.
 The sun is the ultimate source of energy.
 An enormous amount of energy is released from the sun due to the thermonuclear fusion
reaction.
 The heat energy of the earth is called the geothermal energy.
 The future problem of major energy sources is called energy crisis.
 Energy should be saved to push the energy crisis further.
 We should use the alternative sources of energy like hydropower, solar energy, etc. to prevent
the energy crisis.

54 | Energy
 E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Define the primary and secondary sources of energy.

2. Differentiate between the renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.
3. How is coal formed? Why is it called the fossil fuel?
4. Why is petroleum called the non-renewable source of energy?
5. Name three devices run by the solar energy.
6. Why is the sun called the ultimate source of energy?
7. What is the main source of the solar energy? How much energy is released from
the sun?
8. What are the conditions of the thermonuclear fusion reaction in the sun?
9. Give reasons:
(a) Hydropower is called the renewable source of energy.
(b) Energy crisis may create a big problem in the near future.
(c) Hydropower is the consequence of the solar energy.
(d) The use of fossil fuel is more than other fuels.
10. What do you think is the best alternative source of energy in Nepal? Why?
11. Define energy crisis. How can we push the energy crisis further?
12. Write the methods to save energy.

A
B
C GLOSSARY
Perpetual : continuation for a long period of time without interruption
Ultimate : happening at the end of a long process
Briquettes : small hard blocks made from coal, dust, sawdust used as fuel
Propel : to move, drive or push something forward
Impervious : not affected by something (hard & non-porous)


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 55

 UNIT

4 Heat
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
If we touch a hot cup of tea, energy enters our hand and
we feel hot. Similarly, when we touch a piece of ice, energy
transfers from our hand to the ice so we feel cold. Similarly,
if we place a beaker of water over a heater, the water first
becomes warm and finally begins to boil being hot. This
shows energy transfers from the heater to the water and
causes the water to become warm. This energy is called heat.
Thus, heat is a form of energy which gives us the sensation of
warmth.
James Prescott Joule Heat always flows from a hotter body to a colder body.
(1818-1889) When the heat flows towards us, we feel hot and when the
James Prescott Joule was an heat flows away from our body then we feel cold. Thus,
outstanding British Physicist. He when we touch a hot iron rod, we feel hot and we feel cold
is best known for his research in when we touch a piece of ice.
electricity and thermodynamics.
Amongst other things, he The substance which gives heat is known as the source of
formulated a law for the heating heat, e.g. burning fuel, friction, nuclear reaction, chemical
effect of electric current. He reaction, the sun, etc.
also verified experimentally the
law of conservation of energy Heat as energy
and discovered the value of the
All the matters are made up of molecules and these molecules
mechanical equivalent of heat.
The unit of energy and work keep on vibrating. Due to the vibration, the molecules pass
called joule, is named after him. the kinetic energy. The sum of this kinetic energy is called the
internal energy of the substance. So, all the substances possess
internal energy. When the body is in contact with another
having different internal energy then this energy flows
either toward or away from that body. This internal energy
flow in the body is called heat. It is the total kinetic energy of
the molecules.
The amount of heat content in a body depends upon the
following two factors:
a. Number of molecules of the body (mass of the body)
b. Average kinetic energy of the molecules i.e.
Amount of heat ∝ mass of the body × Average K.E. of the
molecules
Different substances have different properties. So even if the
equal heat is given to the equal mass of different substances,
their average K.E. will not be the same.

56 | Heat
Unit of heat
Heat is measured by caloriemeter in Joule or Calorie. Joule is the S.I. unit of heat energy
whereas calorie is its CGS unit. The relation between Joule and calorie is,
4.2 J = 1 calorie
i.e. 4200 J = 1000 calorie
1 calorie heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
pure water by 1°C or 1°k.

Effect of heat
Heat increases the vibration of the molecules. We cannot see the vibration but if the
molecules vibrate more, then it brings changes to the physical and chemical properties of
the substances which we call the effects of heat. The effects of heat can be summarised as,
a. change in temperature of the body
b. change in the state of the body
c. change in the size or the volume of the body
d. change in the solubility of the body
e. change in the chemical properties of the body

MEMORY TIPS
When a hot body is kept in thermal contact with the cold body then heat flows from a
hotter body to a colder body until they have the same temperature. This is called the zeroth
law of thermodynamics.

QUESTIONS
# We feel cold when we touch ice. Why?
# Why do we feel hot on a sunny day?

ACTIVITY
Take two beakers of the same size. Pour 50 gm water into one of the beakers and 100 gm water
into another. Measure the temperature of both the beakers. Now, by using the same size of the
spirit lamp, heat these two beakers. Note their temperature in every two minutes.
Which beaker’s temperature increases faster? Explain the phenomenon.
Thermometer

Water

Spirit lamp

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 57

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the measure or degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
A body having a high temperature is hot and the body with a low temperature is cold.
When these bodies are kept in contact, heat flows from the hotter body to the colder
one. So, we can say temperature is the factor which determines the flow of heat. A
hotter body is said to possess a higher temperature than a colder one. It is the average
rate of vibration of molecules due to heat.
Measurement of Temperature
Temperature is measured by thermometers in centigrade, kelvin or Fahrenheit scale.
Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.
A thermometer is constructed on the principle that, “the substance expands on heating
and contracts on cooling.”
Liquid thermometers are more commonly used in which the liquid like mercury or
alcohol is used as the thermometric substance.

THERMOMETERS
A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature of
a body. It is based on a principle that, ‘a substance expands
on heating and contracts on cooling and increase in volume
of the substance is directly proportional to the rise in
temperature.’
Different substances are used in a thermometer, which show
the temperature. They are known as thermometric substances. Generally, liquids like
alcohol and mercury are used as the thermometric substance.
Mercury is used as the thermometric liquid because of the following properties.
i) It is a good conductor of heat.
ii) It expands and contracts uniformly.
iii) It doesn’t wet the glass capillary. So, the reading is correct.
iv) It has high density. So, a small bulb or a short glass tube is sufficient to
contain much mercury.
v) Its temperature changes faster due to its low specific heat capacity.
vi) It can measure a wide range of temperature as its freezing point is -39°C and
boiling point is 357°C.
vii) It has silvery colour. Thus, it can be read easily inside the glass capillary.
However, despite these advantages, mercury has some disadvantages also. As we have
noticed its freezing point is –39°C. So, it is not suitable to measure the temperatures in
cold regions when the temperature is far below –39°C. Another disadvantage is that
the mercury is highly toxic. So, it should be handled with great care.

58 | Heat
 QUESTIONS
# Why is mercury used as the thermometric liquid?
# Why is mercury thermometer not suitable to measure the temperature of very cold
regions?

Alcohol as the thermometric substance

Another commonly used thermometric substance is
alcohol. It is used in thermometers due to the following
properties.
i) Its freezing point is very low i.e. – 117°C. So,
it is suitable to measure the temperature of
very cold places.
ii) It expands seven times more than that of
the mercury. So, the reading is more correct.
But it has also many disadvantages like:
i) It is a colourless liquid and is a bad conductor of heat.
ii) It sticks on the wall of the capillary tube.
iii) It doesn’t expand uniformly.
iv) It has a very low boiling point i.e. 78°C. So, it is not suitable even to measure
the boiling point of water.
v) It has low density.

QUESTIONS
# Why do we use alcohol thermometers in a very cold regions?

Water as the thermometric liquid

Water is not suitable to use as a thermometric liquid because of the following reasons:
i) The pure water is the bad conductor of heat.
ii) It sticks on the wall of the capillary.
iii) It has low density.
iv) Its expansion rate is not uniform.
v) Its specific heat capacity is very high. So, the rise in its temperature is very low.

MEMORY TIPS
The more the specific heat capacity of a substance, the less will be its rate of change in
temperature. Water (sp. heat capacity 4200 J kg–1°C–1) gets heated or cooled slower
than the mercury (sp. heat capacity 138 J Kg–1°C–1).

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 59

 QUESTIONS
# Why can't water be used as the thermometric liquid?

Types of thermometers
Thermometers are classified according to their thermometric substances like i) liquid
thermometer ii) gas thermometer, iii) radiation thermometer, iv) thermoelectric
thermometer, v) resistance thermometer, etc. Similarly, according to their purposes,
thermometers are classified into:
i) Laboratory thermometer
ii) Clinical thermometer
iii) Maximum and minimum thermometer
i) Laboratory thermometer
It is used to measure the temperature of the air, water and other
various substances in the laboratory. It is mainly round and
long. The mercury rises and falls automatically in this
thermometer after being hot and cold respectively. The
wall of the bulb is made thin and the capillary is made
narrow for the quick response to the temperature change.
The stem is graduated from –10°C to 110°C. For measuring the temperature, the bulb
is kept in contact with the substance whose temperature is going to measure. Now,
the change in mercury level is noticed. There is a vacuum above the mercury surface
in the capillary tube which makes it easier for the mercury to rise.

QUESTIONS
# Why is the bulb of a laboratory thermometer made thin?

ii) Clinical thermometer

The thermometer which is used to measure the body temperature is called a clinical thermometer
or doctor’s thermometer. It is comparatively shorter than the laboratory thermometer
and is prismatic in shape. So that we can get the magnified and clear view of the
mercury level inside the capillary. There is a constriction above the bulb of mercury
in the capillary. This helps to increase the mercury level when heated but doesn’t
allow the mercury level to fall even when the temperature falls. So, it helps to take the
correct temperature of the body sometime after taking it out from the human body.

60 | Heat
The stem is graduated from 35°C to 42°C or, 94°F to 108°F. There is a mark at 37°C or
98.6°F, which is the normal human body temperature. For measuring temperature, the
bulb is kept in contact with the human body by keeping it in the armpit or below the
tongue and it should be taken out after about 2 minutes to read the body temperature.
It should be jerked before using again to put the mercury level in the initial position
because the constriction does not allow it to fall automatically.

QUESTIONS
# Why must a clinical thermometer be jerked before using it?

Differences between clinical and laboratory thermometre.

Clinical thermometer Lab thermometer
1. It is used to measure the body 1. It is used to measure the temperature
temperature. of various substances in the lab.
2. It has constriction in its stem. 2. It doesn’t have construction in its
stem.
3. The stem is graduated from 35°C to 3. The stem is graduated from –10°C to
42°C. 110°C.
4. It is prismatic in shape. 4. It is round and cylindrical in shape.
iii) Maximum and minimum thermometer
It is used to measure the maximum and minimum temperature in a certain place within 24 hrs.
It consists of a U-shaped tube partly filled with mercury and partly filled with alcohol.
One arm of this thermometer is connected to a large bulb filled with mercury and the
other arm is connected to a small bulb, which is also filled with alcohol. One arm shows
the maximum temperature and the other arm shows the minimum temperature. Each
arm has an index to show the temperature.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 61

When the temperature increases, the alcohol in the large bulb expands. Due to this,
the mercury level along with the pointer moves upward in the other arm to show
the maximum temperature. When the temperature falls, the alcohol contracts and
the mercury level along with pointer moves upward in the same arm and shows the
minimum temperature. As the pointers do not fall themselves once, they are set to the
maximum and minimum temperatures so, to reset the thermometer, both the indexes
have to be pulled down with the help of a magnet. So, that they are just above the
mercury surface.

MEMORY TIPS
The normal body temperature of human body is 37°C or 98.6°F.

Relation between the temperature scales

If C, F and K are the temperature in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales then the
relation between these temperature scales is given as,
given temperature – lower fixed point in the particular scale
number of divisions between upper fixed points and lower fixed point

C – O F – 32 K – 273
i.e. = =
100 180 100

MEMORY TIPS
The upper fixed point and lower fixed points in Celsius scale are 100°C and 0°C, that in
Fahrenheit scale is 212°F and 32°F and that in kelvin scale is 373K and 273K respectively.

Relation between heat and temperature

Heat is a cause and temperature is the result of the heat content in the body. The
higher the heat content in a body the more will be the temperature and vice-versa.
The more the heat on a body, the more will be the average kinetic energy of the molecules
and hence will have more temperature. Thus, we can say that the temperature is
directly proportional to the amount of heat contained in a body.
For example, if we pour a cup of water from a kettle containing warm water then both
the water in the cup and in the kettle will have the same temperature. However, the
amount of heat contained in the water of the kettle will be more. Since, it contains
more water and thus, the total kinetic energy of water molecules is more in the kettle
than in the cup.

62 | Heat
Differences between heat and temperature.

Heat Temperature
1. It is a form of energy which gives us 1. It is the measure of degree of hotness
the sensation of warmth. and coldness of the body.
2. It is the total kinetic energy of all 2. It is the average K.E. of the molecules
molecules of a body. of the body.
3. It is the cause of temperature. 3. It is an effect of heat.
4. It is measured by a calorimeter. 4. It is measured by a thermometer.
5. Its SI unit is joule. 5. Its SI unit is kelvin.

QUESTIONS
# In the winter season, we feel cold when we get out of bed. But as we return to the same
room after staying outside for some time, we feel warm in the same room. Why?

HEAT EQUATION
It is an equation which shows the relation between the amount of heat gained or lost
by a body having a mass and change in temperature.
Let, the initial temperature of the body of mass ‘m’ is t1 and Q amount of heat is
supplied or taken out from the body. So, that its final temperature reaches t2, then it
is found that,
amount of heat gained or lost (Q) ∝ mass of the body (m)
amount of heat gained or lost (Q) ∝ change in temperature (t2 – t1) or dt
i.e. Q∝m .................... (i)
Q ∝ dt .................... (ii)
Combining equation (i) and (ii), we get,
Q ∝ mdt
∴ Q = msdt .................... (iii)
Where, S is a proportionality constant known as the specific heat capacity of the
substance. The relation given by eqn (iii) is called the heat equation.
Thus, the amount of heat gained or lost by a body is equal to the product of mass, specific heat
capacity and change in temperature. It is called heat equation.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 63

 ACTIVITY
Take two identical beakers of the same size. Pour equal masses of water and oil in these
beakers separately. Observe their initial temperature by using a thermometer. Now heat
the beakers gently by using the similar spirit lamp. Note the temperature of both the oil
and the water in every 2 minutes.
You will find the temperature of oil raised faster than water though mass and amount of
heat given to them are the same.
It is because of the specific heat capacity. The specific heat capacity of oil is less than
that of water. So, it gets heated faster.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

From the heat equation, we have,
Q = msdt
Q
∴s =
mdt
When m = 1 kg and change in temperature (dt) = 1°C or 1°k,
then,
s=Q
Thus, specific heat capacity can be defined as the amount of heat gained or lost by a substance
of mass 1 kg to change its temperature by 1°C or 1°k.
Its S.I. unit is J/kg°C.
Specific heat capacity of some substances

Specific heat Specific heat

S.N. Materials S.N. Materials
capacity in J/kg°C capacity in J/kg°C
1. Lead 130 11. Aluminium 900
2. Gold 134 12. Air 1010
3. Mercury 138 13. Petrol 1670
4. Silver 234 14. Water vapour 1974
5. Brass 380 15. Olive oil 2000
6. Copper 400 16. Ice 2100
7. Steel 447 17. Paraffin 2200
8. Iron 460 18. Alcohol 2400
9. Glass 670 19. Water 4200
10. Sand 800

64 | Heat
From the table, it is clear that different substances have different specific heat capacities.
So, some substances get heated or cooled faster and some take a longer time. The
substances with low specific heat capacity get heated and cooled faster and vice-versa.
Water has the specific heat capacity of the highest value i.e. 4200 J/kg°C. It means
4200 J heat is absorbed or evolved by 1 kg water to change its temperature by 1°C.
Due to this, water is used as a cooling or heating agent.

MEMORY TIPS
Latent heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to convert 1kg of a
substance of one state to another state (solid, liquid or gas) without the rise in temperature.

QUESTIONS
# The specific heat capacity of water is 4200J/kg°C. What do you mean by it?
# Why is water used to cool the engines of vehicles?

Principle of calorimeter
It states that, ‘The amount of heat lost by a hotter body is equal to the amount of heat
gained by a colder body when they are kept in thermal contact.
i.e. heat lost = heat gained by a colder body from a hotter body
If m2, s2, dt2 be those of colder body, Mix both
then according to this principle, water
m ,s ,t
1 1 1
m2,s2,t2
then,
Hot Cold
Q 1 = Q2 water water

where, Q1 and Q2 are the heat lost

and heat gained respectively.
i.e. m1s1dt1 = m2s2dt2
or , m1s1(t – t1) = m2s2(t – t1) t

SOLVEDNumerical
1. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 0.1kg water from 10°C
to 95°C?
Solution:
Given, mass of water (m) = 0.1 kg
Initial temperature of water (t1) = 10°C

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 65

 Final temperature of water (t2) = 95°C
Specific heat capacity (S) = 4200 J kg–1°C–1
Amount of heat supplied (Q) = ?
We have, from heat equation,
Q = msdt
= 0.1 × 4200 × (95 – 10)
= 0.1 × 4200 × 85
= 35700 J
∴ The amount of heat supplied is 35700 J.
2. For taking a bath, water at 40°C is required. Calculate the mass of cold water
at 15°C, which is to be added in 60kg water at 100°C for bathing purpose.
Solution:
Given, mass of hot water (m1) = 60 kg
Temperature of hot water (t1) = 100°C
Final temperature (t) = 40°C
Temperature of cold water (t2) = 15°C
Mass of cold water (m2) = ?
We have, from principle of calorimeter,
Heat lost by hot water = Heat gained by cold water
m1s1dt1 = m2s2dt2
or, 60 × (t – t1) = m × (t – t2) [ s1 = s2]
or, 60 × (100 – 40) = m2 × (40 – 15)
3600
or, m2 =
25
∴ m2 = 144 kg
Hence, 144 kg of cold water should be added.

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. When we get out of the bed in the winter season, we feel cold but when we come
back to the same room after staying outside for sometime, we feel warm. Why?
Ü When we get out of the bed, our body is hot and the heat flows from our body to
the surrounding in the air. So we feel cold. But after staying in the air for some
time, our body acts as a colder body and heat from the air of the room flows
towards us. So, we feel warm.

66 | Heat
2. The glass filled with water at 4°C overflows whether it is cooled or heated.
Why?
Ü As we know that water has the least volume at 4°C. So, if it is heated then it
expands normally and if cooled also, it expands due to its anomalous expansion.
So, it overflows whether it is heated or cooled.
3. Honey and ghee solidify from the bottom but water freezes from top to
bottom. Why?
Ü It is due to the anomalous expansion of water as water of 4°C remains at the
bottom and that of 0°C remains at the top. So, it freezes from top to bottom. But
the layers of ghee and honey having the lowest temperature lie at the bottom of
the vessel. So, they solidify from bottom to top.
4. Water is used to cool the engines of vehicles. Why?
Ü Water has the highest value of specific heat capacity. So, it absorbs a large
quantity of heat i.e. 4200J per degree rise in temperature. So, it absorbs a large
amount of heat from the hot engines without the appreciable increase in its own
temperature which helps to cool the engines.
5. Which one will heat faster, 1 kg of mercury or 1 kg of water if a equal amount
of heat is supplied to them?
Ü Since, the specific heat capacity of mercury is less (i.e. 138 J kg–1 °C–1) than that of
water (i.e. 4200 J kg–1 °C–1), mercury will get heated faster than water.
6. A thick glass tumbler cracks when hot tea is suddenly poured into it. Why?
Ü When hot tea is suddenly poured into a thick glass tumbler, its inner surface
expands more quickly than the outer surface. Due to this non-uniform expansion,
the inner surface exerts pressure on the outer surface and the glass cracks.

SUMMARY
 Heat is a form of energy which gives us the sensation of warmth.
 Heat always flows from a hotter body to a colder body.
 Temperature is the degree of the measure of the hotness or coldness of a body.
 Heat is the total kinetic energy and temperature is the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
 Heat is measured by a calorimeter and temperature is measured by a thermometer.
 Water at 4°C has a maximum density and a minimum volume.
 Water expands on cooling from 4°C to 0°C and contracts on heating from 0°C to 4°C. This
type of peculiar behaviour of water is known as the anomalous behaviour of water.
 The amount of heat gained or lost by a 1kg mass to change its temperature by 1°C is called
its specific heat capacity.
 The principle of the calorimeter states that, ‘the amount of heat lost by a hotter body is equal
to the amount of heat gained by a colder body.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 67

 E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Define heat. Write its SI unit.

2. Write the effects of heat.
3. Differentiate between heat and temperature.
4. Define heat and temperature on the basis of their molecular motion.
5. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of the mercury thermometer.
6. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of the alcohol thermometer.
7. Write down any two differences between the clinical thermometer and the
laboratory thermometer.
8. Write down any two differences between heat and temperature.
9. Describe the structure and function of the maximum-minimum thermometer.
10. Define:
(a) One calorie heat (b) Specific heat capacity
(c) Thermometer (d) Thermometric substances
11. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg–1°C–1. What do you mean by it?
12. Give reasons:
(a) Water is used to cool the engines of vehicles.
(b) Fishes can live inside a frozen pond.
(c) The days in the desert are very hot while the nights are very cold.
(d) Mercury gets heated faster than water.
(e) Water is used in hot water bags.
(f) Honey solidifies from the bottom but water freezes from the top.
(g) Water pipes burst in cold countries.
(h) A mercury thermometer is suitable to measure a high temperature.
(i) An alcohol thermometer is suitable to measure a very cold temperature.
13. Answer the following questions on the basis of the given table.
A 2100J/Kg°C
B 910J/Kg°C
C 138J/Kg°C

(a) If equal masses of all these substances are heated with an equal amount of
heat, which one will get heated faster?

68 | Heat
 (b) If all of them are heated at the same temperature, which one will have more
amount of heat?
(c) Which of them is used as a cooling agent and which of them is used as a
thermometric liquid?

Numerical problems

14. Calculate the amount of heat required to change the temperature of an iron ball
of mass 3 kg from 30°C to 200°C. (Specific heat capacity of iron is 460 J/kg°C)
[Ans: 234600 J]
15. Calculate the final temperature when 2400 joules of heat is given to an iron of
mass 2kg at 20°C. (Specific heat capacity = 460 J/kg°C) [Ans: 22.6°C]
16. If 50 kj of heat is supplied to 10kg of water, what is the rise in temperature?
(Given specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg–1 °C–1) [Ans: 1.19°C]
17. Hot water at 100°C is added to 300 g of water at 0°C until the final temperature is
40°C. Find the mass of hot water added. [Ans: 0.2 kg]
18. The temperature of water is 2°C in winter. If 25 litres of water is to be heated to
35°C. Calculate the amount of heat required for it. (Given specific heat capacity of
water = 4200 J kg–1 °C–1). Mass of 1 litre water = 1 kg [Ans: 3465000J]
19. What is the specific heat capacity of water if 2.1 × 105 joule heat is required for
2kg of water to raise its temperature from 40°C to 65°C? [Ans: 4200 J kg–1 °C–1]
20. Calculate the temperature of a pressure cooker if its mass is 3 kg and its initial
temperature is 25°C supplied with the heat of 85000J. (sp. heat capacity of pressure
cooker = 1000 J/ kg°C). [Ans: 53.9°C]
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Kinetic energy : energy due to the motion of the body
Peculiar : strange or unusual
Density : mass per unit volume
Volume : total space occupied by a body


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 69

 UNIT

5 Light
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
Light is a form of energy which gives us the sensation of vision.
Due to this, we are able to see around and enjoy the beauty
of nature. During the day we are able to see due to the sun’s
light and at night, we need other sources of light to see
around such as glowing bulbs, tube light, burning candles,
etc. Things that produce light are called its sources. The sun
is the main source of light on the Earth. Light always travels
in a straight line in one medium. In this chapter, we shall
study the phenomena of refraction of light by lenses and
Galileo Galilee their application in real life situation.
(1564-1642)

Galileo Galilee was born on 15 LENS

February 1564 AD in Pisa, Italy. Lens is a piece of a transparent refracting medium (usually glass),
He was a remarkable craftsman.
which is bound by two unparalleled surfaces.
He developed a series of telescopes
whose optical performance was Some of us wear spectacles. We often see watchmakers and
much better than that of other jewelers using a magnifying glass to see the small parts.
telescopes available during those The spectacles and magnifying glasses are the examples
days. Around 1640, he designed of lenses. They are also used in a cameras, microscopes,
the first pendulum clock. In his
telescopes, light fibres/optic fibres etc. The lenses are of two
book “starry messenger” on his
types.
astronomical discoveries, Galileo
claimed to have seen mountains
i) Convex lens or converging lens
on the moon, the Milky Way ii) Concave lens or diverging lens
made up of tiny stars, and four
i) Convex lens
small bodies orbiting Jupiter.
In his books ‘Discourse on The lens which is thick at the centre and thin at the sides is
Floating Bodies’ and ‘Letters called the convex lens. It is also known as the converging
on the Sunspots’ he disclosed his lens as it converges the beam of light falling to it to a point,
observations of sunspots using e.g. lens used in magnifying glass, human eye lens, etc.
his own telescopes and through
his observations on Saturn and
Venus. Galileo argued that all
planets must orbit the sun and
not the earth, contrary to what
was believed at that time.

Convex lens

70 | Light
ii) Concave lens
The lens which is thinner at the centre and thicker at the sides is called the concave
lens. It is also known as the diverging lens as it diverges the light falling to it.

Concave lens

MEMORY TIPS
There are 3 types of convex lens:
i) Biconvex or double convex
ii) Plano convex
iii) Concavo convex lens
Similarly, biconcave or double concave, plano-concave and convexo concave are the
three types of concave lens.

QUESTIONS
# Define lens.
# Define convex and concave lens.

ACTIVITY
1. Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct it towards the sun. Focus the light from the sun on a sheet
of paper. Obtain a sharp bright image of the sun.
2. Hold the paper and the lens in the same position for a while. Keep observing the paper.
3. Will it burn? Do the same process with a concave lens to find out if the paper burns.

Lens is a combined form of Prisms

A lens is formed by the combination of many
prisms. The upper and lower part of a convex
lens is made up of prism whereas the middle
part of the lens is made up of thin a glass slab.
In a convex lens, the base of the upper prism
is facing downwards and the base of the lower
prism is facing upwards. In a prism, the rays Convex lens

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 71

of the light always bend towards the base, but the light rays passing through the glass
slab finally become straight. This is a reason why a convex lens converses the rays of
light after refraction.
A concave lens is also formed by the
combination of many prisms. The upper
and the lower part of a concave lens is made
up of a prism whereas the middle part of
the lens is made up of a thin glass slab. In a
concave lens, the base of the upper prism is
facing upwards and the base of lower prism Concave lens
is facing downwards. In prism, the rays of
light always bend towards the base, but the light rays passing through the glass slab
finally become straight. This is a reason why a concave lens diverges the rays of light
after refraction.

Some terms related to lens

(1) Centre of curvature: (c or 2F)
A lens (whether convex or concave) has two spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces
forms a part of a sphere.
The centre of these spheres from which a lens is made is called the centre of curvature. It is
represented by c or 2F.

Centre of Centre of Centre of Centre of

Principal axis curvature curvature Principal axis curvature curvature
2F 2F 2F 2F

(2) Optical centre

The central point of the lens is called the optical centre. If a ray passes through an optical
centre, it does not deviate at all.

Convex lens Concave lens

72 | Light
(3) Principal axis
The straight line which passes through two centres of the curvature and the optic centre is
called the principal axis. In the figures, XY and X’Y’ are the principal axis of the convex
and the concave lens respectively.

O ptica l plane Princi pal axis Princi pal axis

Convex lens Concave lens

(4) Focus (or, Principal Focus)

It is a point on the principal axis at which the parallel beam of the incident light meet or appear.

Convex lens Concave lens

In a convex lens, the refracted rays meet actually at a point. So, the focus of the convex
lens is real. But in a concave lens, the refracted rays don’t actually meet but only appear
to meet at the focus, so the focus is virtual.

MEMORY TIPS
There are two focuses on either side of the lens at an equal distance from the optical
centre.
(5) Focal length (f)
The distance between the focus (F) and the optical centre (O) of a lens is called the
focal length.
(6) Radius of curvature (R) or (2f)
The distance between the optical centre (O) and the centre of the curvature of the lens is called
the radius of the curvature.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 73

The relation between the radius of the curvature and the focal length is,
Radius of curvature = 2 × focal length
i.e. R = 2f

MEMORY TIPS
The focal length of the convex lens is regarded as positive (+) and that of concave lens is
regarded as negative (–).

Finding the focal length of a convex lens

When the parallel rays from a distant object incident on a convex lens then its image is
formed at the focus of the lens after the refraction through it. This is used to determine
the rough focal length of the lens. For this, put a convex lens in a holder and keep it
in front of a distant object like a window or a tree. Then put a paper screen behind the
convex lens.
Move the paper screen towards or away from the convex lens till a clear inverted
image of the distant object is obtained on the screen. Calculate rough focal length of
this lens between lens and paper.

MEMORY TIPS
The process of making a sharp image on a screen with a convex lens by changing the
distance between lens and its screen is called focusing.

Formation of an image by a lens

To find the position and nature of the image of an object, the following things should
be considered.
i) A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus
in the case of a convex lens or appears to proceed from the focus in case of a
concave lens. As in figure (a).
ii) A ray passing through the optical centre goes straight without deviation as
in figure (b).
iii) A ray passing through the focus of a convex lens or appearing to pass
through the focus in case of a concave lens after refraction becomes parallel
to the principal axis as in figure (c).

O F O F O

(a) (b) (c)

74 | Light
 (v) If the two refracted rays actually meet at a point, it forms a real image and
if they appear to proceed from a point, it forms a virtual image.

MEMORY TIPS
The real image is inverted and virtual image is erected.

Formation of images by a convex lens

Para
llel
(1) When the object is at infinity rays

When the object is at infinity, the image is formed at F F

O B'
the focus on the other side of the lens. Image
A'
It is real, inverted and diminished.
(2) When the object is beyond 2F
A
Image
Object Position: Between F and
F B' 2F 2F
B 2F F O Image Size: Diminished
A' Nature: Real and
inverted

(3) When the object is at 2F

A
Image
Object Position: At 2F
2F F 2F Size: Same size as the
B F O B' object
Image Nature: Real and
inverted
A'
(4) When the object is between F and 2F

A
Object Image
F 2F B'
Position: Beyond 2F
2F B F O
Size: Enlarged
Image Nature: Real and
inverted

A'

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 75

(5) When the object is at F
A

Object
Image
F F Position: At infinite
B O Size: Highly enlarged
X Nature: Real and
inverted
Y

(6) When the object is between F and O

A'

Image
Position: Beyond object
Image A Size: Enlarged
Object B
Nature: Virtual and
F erect
B' 2F F O

Formation of images by a concave lens

(1) Object in between infinity and focus
Image position – between focus and optical centre on the same side of the object
Nature – virtual, erect and diminished

Image
Object Position: Between focus and
optical center
2F F Image O F Size: Diminished
Nature: Virtual and erect

(2) Object at infinity

Image
Position: At focus (F)
F O F Size: Highly diminished
Nature: Virtual and erect

76 | Light
 MEMORY TIPS
A lens kept on any page of a book can be distinguished as a convex or a concave, without
touching it. If the letters appear enlarged through the lens then the lens is a convex and if
they appear shrunk then it is a concave.
Differences between convex and concave lens.
Convex lens Concave lens
1. It is thick in the middle but thin at the 1. It is thin in the middle but thicker at
edges. the edges.
2. It has a real focus. 2. It has a virtual focus.
3. It converges the parallel beams of 3. It diverges the parallel beams of light
light falling on it. falling on it.
4. It forms both real and virtual images. 4. It always forms virtual images.
5. Its power is considered to be positive. 5. Its power is considered to be negative.
6. The images may be magnified or 6. The images are always diminished.
diminished.

Power of a lens
The ability of a convex lens to converge and that of a concave lens to diverge the rays falling on
it is called its power.
Mathematically,
it is the reciprocal of focal length of a lens expressed in metres.
1
Power (P) =
focal length (f)
1
∴P=
f
Its SI unit is dioptre (D).
Since the focal length of a convex lens is taken positive, its power is also considered
to be positive and the focal length of a concave lens is taken negative. So, its power is
also considered to be negative.

SOLVEDNumerical
1. Sophia wears a pair spectacles of power –1.5D. Calculate the focal length and
the type of lens she wears.
Solution:

Given, power of lens (P) = – 1.5D

Focal length (f) = ?

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 77

 We have,
1
P=
f
1
or, – 1.5 =
f
1
f=
– 1.5
∴ f = – 0.66 m
Hence, the focal length is – 0.66m and since the focal length is –ve, the lens is
concave.
2. Find the power of the lens having the focal length 20cm.
Solution:

Given, focal length (f) = 20 cm = 100 m = 0.2 m

Power of lens (P) = ?
We have,
1
P=
f
1
or, P=
0.2
∴ P=5D
Hence, the power of the lens is 5 Dioptre.

MEMORY TIPS
When a number of thin lenses are placed in contact with one another, the power of the
combination is equal to the algebraic sum of the powers of individual lenses.

Magnification (m)
The magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the image (I) as formed
by the refraction through the lens to the size of object (O).
Size of image (I)
Thus, magnification (m) =
Size of object (O)
It is a unitless quantity.
If the magnification (m) < 1, then the size of the image is smaller than the size of the
object. If m = 1, then the size of the image and the size of the object is equal. Similarly
if m > 1, then the image is larger than the object.

78 | Light
 A

Object
B'
B 2F F O F Image 2F

A'

In the above figure, AB is the object and A’B’ is its real image. Let the distance of the
object from its centre OA be (u) and the distance of its image from its centre OB is (v).
Then from the figure, it is clear that,
i) OAB = OA’B’ [both are 90°]
ii) AOB = A’OB’ [vertically opposite angles]
iii) ABO = A’B’O [remaining angles of each triangle]
∴ ABO ~ A’B’O Thus, we can write,
Then, we can write,
A'B' OA'
=
AB OA

size of image (I) image distance (v)

i.e. =
size of object (O) object distance (u)
I v
∴ magnification (m) = O =
u

MEMORY TIPS
● Magnification of the concave lens is always less than one and that of the convex lens
may be less or more or equal to one.
● The formula 1 = 1 + 1 is called the lens formula.
f u v
where, f = focal length of lens, u = object distance and v = image distance from the
optical centre of lens.

QUESTIONS
# Define the magnification of a lens. Why is the magnification of the concave lens always less
than one?

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 79

Differences between real image and virtual image.
Real image Virtual image
1. It is formed when the rays intersect at 1. It is formed when the rays of the light
a point after refraction or reflection. appear to meet at a point.
2. It can be obtained on a screen. 2. It cannot be obtained on a screen
but can be seen through the optical
instruments.
3. It is always inverted. 3. It is always erect.

Uses of lenses
1. Our eye consists of a convex lens. It helps to form image of an object on the
retina and we are able to see the object.
2. They are used in the spectacles for the correction of vision defects.
3. They are used in optical instruments like telescope, microscope, camera,
projector, etc.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
The instruments which can produce the image of an object with the help of lenses, prisms and
mirrors are called optical instruments. The optical instruments may form a real or virtual
image.
A camera and a human eye can form a real image whereas a microscope, telescope
and binoculars form a virtual image.

Camera
It is an optical instrument which uses a convex lens to take the photographs of the
objects and people in a photographic film.

Human eye
Human eyes are the natural optical instruments that consist of a convex lens. An eye
consists of three layers: i) Sclera ii) Choroid iii) Retina
The sclera is the outermost layer which provides fixed shapes to the eyeball. It also
forms a layer which is transparent. The choroid is the middle layer. It helps to form
a clear image by absorbing light. It consists of the iris which regulates the size of the
pupil. The pupil on the other hand controls the passage of light in the eye.
The human eye lens is a convex lens made up of proteins. It is supported and adjusted
by ciliary muscles. The image of an object is formed in the retina which is made up
of two types of cells, rods and cones. These are the light sensitive cells which are
connected with the brain through the optic nerves.

80 | Light
 Struct ure of an eye
Working
When the light reflected by an object enters the eye, it gets refracted through the lens.
Due to this ,a real inverted and diminished image of the object is formed on the retina
where the optic nerves carry the impulse to the brain. The brain interprets these signals
so that the object is seen erect.

MEMORY TIPS
● The blind spot is the region in the retina where the image is not seen as it doesn’t consist
of an optic nerve.
● An image formed in the yellow spot is seen more clear than in other places.
● The two eyes on the opposite sides of the head in some animals give the widest
possible field of a view.

QUESTIONS
# What are the similarities and differences between an eye and a camera?

Power of Accommodation
The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like material. Its curvature can be modified
to some extent by the ciliary muscles. The change in the curvature of the eye lens can
thus change its focal length.
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation.
However, the focal length of the eye cannot be decreased below a certain minimum
limit. To see an object comfortably and distinctly, you must hold an object at about
25cm from the eyes.
The minimum distance at which the object can be seen must distinctly without strain, is called
the least distance of distinct vision (LDDV). It is also called the near point of the eye. For a
young adult with normal vision, the near point is about 25cm.

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The farthest point upto which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far point of the eye. It
is infinity for a normal eye. Thus, we can see the objects clearly that are between 25cm
and infinity.
Near point
25 cm
Retina
it ar i t
Retina

MEMORY TIPS
The impression of an image lasts on the retina for about 0.1 second even after the removal
of the object. It is called the persistence of vision.

Defects of vision
Sometimes, the eye may gradually lose its power of accommodation. In such condition,
the person cannot see the objects distinctly and comfortably. It is called the defect of
vision.
There are mainly two most common defects of vision. They are:
i) Myopia or near sightedness or short sightedness
ii) Hypermetropia or long sightedness or far sightedness
(i) Myopia or near sightedness or short sightedness
It is a defect of vision in which a person can not see the distant objects clearly but can see the
objects near to the eye. A person with the defect has the far point nearer than infinity. In
a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina but not at
the retina itself as shown in the figure.

Conca ve lens

A n eye suf f ering f rom myopia Correct ion of myopia

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Causes
This defect may arise due to,
i) Excessive curvature of the eye lens or shortening of the focal length of the lens.
ii) Elongation of the eyeball.
Remedy
A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back onto the retina and thus
the defect is corrected as shown in the figure.
(ii) Hypermetropia or long sightedness or far sightedness
It is a defect of vision in which a person can see distant objects clearly but cannot see the nearby
objects distinctly. A person with this defect has the near point further away from the
normal near point (25cm). Such a person has to keep a reading material much beyond
25cm from the eye for comfortable reading. In a hypermetropic eye, the light rays
from a closer object are focused at a point behind the retina as shown in the figure.

Convex lens

e e s fferi r h er etr ia Correct ion of hypermetropia

Causes
This defect is caused due to:
i) Elongation of focal length.
ii) Shortening of eyeball.
Remedy
Eyeglasses with convex lenses provide the additional focusing power required for
forming the image on the retina as shown in the figure.

MEMORY TIPS
Our eyes can live even after our death. By donating our eyes after we die, we can give light
to the life of a blind person.

QUESTIONS
# A student has difficulty reading the writing on the board while sitting in the last row.
What could be the defect the child is suffering from? How can it be corrected?
# An old person reads a newspaper by holding it far from his eyes. Why?

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Microscope
It is an optical instrument which is used to see the magnified image of a small object.
There are two types of microscopes i.e. (i) simple microscope and ii) compound
microscope.
i) Simple microscope
It is also known as a hand lens or eye lens or magnifying glass. It is actually a convex lens.
Uses
a) It is used in laboratories to see the different parts of plants, small insects, etc.
b) It is used by watchmakers to observe the small parts of a watch clearly.
ii) Compound microscope
It is a combination of two convex lenses, objective and an eyepiece. The lens, which is
closer to our eye is known an eyepiece. It has a larger focal length. On the other hand,
the objective lens is the one which lies closer to the object. It has a smaller focal length.
Uses
a) It is used to see the minute unicellular and multicellular organisms and plants.
b) It is used in clinics to examine stool, blood, urine, etc.
c) It is used to observe different types of protozoa.
Differences between simple and compound microscopes.
Simple microscope Compound microscope
1. It consist of only one convex lens. 1. It consists of two convex lenses.
2. Its final image is virtual and erect. 2. Its final image is virtual and inverted.
3. Its magnification power is less. 3. It has high magnification power.
4. Its magnification power is only due to 4. Its magnification power is the product
one lens. of both lenses.

Telescope
It is an optical instrument used to see the distant objects clearly. There are two types of
telescopes; i) Astronomical telescope and ii) Terrestrial telescope.
i) Astronomical telescope
It is used to see the heavenly bodies of the sky. It also consists of two lenses eyepiece
and objective. The objective lens has larger focal length than the eyepiece.

MEMORY TIPS
The large focal length of the objective lens collects a maximum amount of light coming
from a far off object.

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Difference between a microscope and a telescope.
Microscope Telescope
1. It is used to see tiny objects. 1. It is used to see distant objects.
2. The focal length of the objective is 2. The focal length of the objective is
shorter than that of the eyepiece. longer than that of the eyepiece.
3. The final image is formed beyond the 3. The final image is formed at infinity.
objective lens.

MEMORY TIPS
A terrestrial telescope is used to view distant objects on the earth’s surface. The image
formed by which a telescope is virtual, erect and magnified.

QUESTIONS
# Why is the focal length of the objective lens of a microscope is small whereas that of a
telescope is larger?

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Why is a convex lens called a converging lens whereas concave lens is called
a diverging lens?
Ü A convex lens is called a converging lens because it converges the parallel beam
of light falling to it to a fixed point but a concave lens diverges the beam of light
from a fixed point. So, it is also called a diverging lens.
2. Differentiate between the camera and the human eye.
Eye Camera
1. The eye lens has a variable focal 1. It has a fixed focal length
length.
2. The distance between the eye lens 2. The distance between the lens and
and the retina is fixed. the photographic film is varied.
3. It is a natural optical instrument. 3. It is an artificial optical instrument.
4. An image is formed on the retina. 4. An image is formed on a photographic
film.
3. The objective lens of a microscope has small aperture. Why?
Ü A microscope is used to see very tiny objects. So, the objective lens should collect
the light reflected from these objects only. Hence, it should have a small aperture
to see tiny objects clearly.
4. The objective lens of the telescope has a large aperture. Why?
Ü A telescope is used to see distant objects and it should therefore collect more
light from those objects. Hence, its objective should have a large aperture to see
distant objects clearly.

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5. Sanjay sees distant objects comfortably but he wears spectacles while reading
a book.
a) What defect of vision does he have?
Ü Since, he can’t see the nearer objects, he must be suffering of farsightedness
or hypermetropia.
b) Which type of spectacles should he use?
Ü He should use a convex lens with a suitable focal length.

SUMMARY
 There are two types of lenses namely the convex lens and the concave lens.
 The lens which is thick on the middle and thin the edges is called a convex lens. It is also known
as converging lens.
 The lens which is thin in the middle and thick at the edges is called a concave lens. It is also
known as a diverging lens.
 The reciprocal of the focal length expressed in metre is called the power of the lens.
 The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
 The power of a convex lens is expressed as positive and that of a concave lens is expressed
as negative.
 The ratio of the size of the image to the size of object is called a magnification. It is also the
ratio of image distance to the object distance.
 A camera is an optical instrument which uses a convex lens. It gives the real and inverted
image of an object.
 A human eye is a natural optical instrument.
 The two most common defects of vision are myopia and hypermetropia.
 Myopia or short sightedness is caused by the shortening of the focal length and elongation of
the eyeball.
 Hypermetropia or long sightedness is caused by the elongation of the focal length and
shortening of the eyeball.
 Myopia is corrected by using a concave lens and hypermetropia is corrected by wearing a
convex lens of a suitable focal length.
 A microscope is an optical instrument used to see tiny objects and a telescope is an optical
instrument used to see distant objects clearly.

E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Define a lens. Write its types.

2. What are the different types of lens?
3. Why is a convex lens called a converging lens and a concave lens is called a
diverging lens?

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4. Define:
(a) power of the lens with SI unit (b) near point of eye
(c) focus (d) far point of eye
(e) real image (f) accommodation of eye
(g) virtual image (h) optical centre
5. Differentiate between:
(a) Convex lens and concave lens (b) Camera and eye
(c) Real image and virtual image (d) Telescope and microscope
(e) Far point and near point of eye
6. Draw a ray diagram for a convex lens and give the nature and position of the
image when the object is,
(a) beyond 2F (b) between 2F and F (c) at F
(d) between F and O (e) at 2F
7. Draw a diagram to show a convex lens forming a magnified and erect image.
Give one application of this condition.
8. Write the function of the following parts:
(a) Pupil (b) Ciliary muscle (c) Iris
(d) Optic nerve (e) Shutter in camera
9. What is the defect of vision of the eye in the given figure? What is to be done
to correct this defect of vision? And why?

10. Write the causes and remedy of:

(a) Myopia (b) Hypermetropia
11. What is the defect of the vision of the eye in the given figure? What is to be done
to correct this defect of vision? And why?

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12. A student sitting in the back row of the class is not able to see the writing on the
board. What type of defect is he suffering from?
13. Sabin wears a lens of power + 1.5 D. Answer the following questions on the
basis of this fact.
(a) What is the defect of the vision called?
(b) How is it removed? Explain with a suitable diagram.
(c) Name the lens used.
(d) How should he hold a newspaper while reading without using this lens?

Numerical problems

14. A convex lens has a focal length 0.2m. What is the power of the lens? [Ans: 5 D]
15. Determine the size of the real image of an object of 2cm high placed 40cm away from
a convex lens. The real image is formed 80 cm away from the lens. [Ans: 4 cm]
16. Prem wears spectacles of power + 1.5 D, calculate the focal length and find the
nature of the lens used. [Ans: 0.66 m, convex]
17. An object is placed at a distance of 20m from a convex lens of focal length 15
cm.
(a) Find the image distance.
(b) Is the image real or virtual?
(c) Is the image erect or inverted?
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Incident : something that happens unusual or unpleasant
Converge : to move towards and meet at the same place or point
Diverge : to move away from a same point or place
Magnification : the degree to which something is magnified
Accommodation : the process of adopting, adjustment


88 | Light
UNIT

6 Electricity and Magnetism

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
The discovery and utility of electricity have revolutionized
the homes and industries of the civilized world. Life today
cannot be thought without it. Several devices like lights,
television, radio, motors, various machines of industries, etc.
of this modern life are operated on the basis of electricity.
Electricity is a form of energy produced due to the change in the
number of electrons in a body or the flow of electrons through a
conductor.
Michael Faraday
(1791-1867) There are two kinds of electricity: i) static electricity and ii)
Michael Faraday was an current electricity. Electricity produced due to the change in
experimental physicist. He had
number of electrons in a body which cannot be transferred
no formal education. He worked
in a bookbinding shop during from one place to another is the static electricity and the
his early years. He used to read
electricity produced due to the flow of electrons through a
books that come for binding. In
this way Faraday developed his conductor is the current electricity.
interest in science. He got an
opportunity to listen to some Mathematically,
public lectures by Humphrey total charge (Q)
Davy of Royal Institute. He Current (I) = time taken (t)
made careful notes of Davys

i.e. I = Q
lectures and sent them to Davy.
Soon he was made an assistant
in Davy’s laboratory at the
t
Royal Institute. Faraday made
several path-breaking discoveries
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
that include electromagnetic The devices like lamps, heaters, motors, etc. which operate
induction and the laws of
electrolysis. Several universities with the help of electricity or by consuming electricity are
conferred on him the honorary called the electric loads. In order to work, these loads should
degree but he turned down
such honours. Faraday loved be connected to a source of electricity through a conducting
his science work more than any wire.
honour.
The conducting path of electricity consisting of loads, switches,
sources of electricity etc. is called the electric circuit.
There are two types of electric circuits:
i) Open electric circuit
ii) Closed electric circuit

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Open electric circuit Source
– +
It is the electric circuit in which electric current is not
flowing. It may be due to the breaking of wire or off state Switch
of the switch. So, the electric loads are not working.

Closed electric circuit Bulb

It is the electric circuit, in which the electric current is flowing through it. Here, the
switch is in the on state and the electric loads are working.
Source
– +

Switch

Bulb

MEMORY TIPS
It is wrong to think that electrons are consumed in an electric circuit when current flows
through it. In fact, we provide energy to set these electrons into motion through the electric
circuit and we pay for it to the electricity board.

QUESTIONS
# Differentiate between an open circuit and a closed circuit.

CONNECTION OF ELECTRIC LOADS

It is often necessary for us to connect more than one loads in a circuit. There are two
ways to connect the loads in a circuit i.e.
a) Series combination
b) Parallel combination

Series combination of resistance – +

In this combination, two or more loads are connected in
such a way that the positive terminal of one is joined with
the negative terminal of another. The value of the electric
current is the same in each load but the value of potential
difference (pd) is different in them. The rest loads do not work continuously, if any
one of them fails to work. If the loads used are the lamps then the brightness of the
lamps increases with the reduction in the number of lamps.
The total resistance (R) = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

90 | Electricity and Magnetism

Parallel combination of resistance – +
In this combination, two or more loads are connected in
such a way that all their positive terminals are joined at
one point and all their negative terminals are joined at
another point. The value of the electric current in each
load is different but the value of pd remains constant. The
rest of the loads also work even if any one of them fails to work. The change in the
number of lamps doesn’t alter the brightness of the bulb.

()
1 1 1 1
The total resistance R = R + R + R + ...
1 2 3

COMBINATION OF CELLS
A cell is a source of electric current which converts chemical energy to electric energy.
A single cell produces about 1.5V of electric current which becomes insufficient for
many cases. So, for those situations, the grouping of cells be done. The grouping or
combination of cells is done in the following two ways.
a) Series combination of cells
b) Parallel combination of cells

Series combination of cells

If the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of another,
then the combination is known as series combination.
v1 v2 v3
– + – + – +

Features of series combination

i. In this combination, the total pd across the external resistance is equal to the sum
of the pd of all the resistances i.e.V = V1 + V2 + V3
ii. The current flowing through the circuit increases with the increase in the number
of cells. However, the life of the cells remains constant. So, the bulb glows more
brightly when the number of cell increases.

Parallel combination of cells

If the cells are connected parallel to each other then such a combination of cells is
called the parallel combination.

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 v3
– +
– +
v2
– +
v1
Features of parallel combination
i. In this combination, the total voltage is equal to the individual voltage of each cell.
i.e. V = V1 = V2 = V3
ii. The current flowing through the circuit doesn’t increase with the increase in the
number of cells but the lifetime of the cell increases. That’s why the bulb glows for
a longer time with the same brightness.

MEMORY TIPS
In the parallel combination of loads of electrical devices, the rest of the appliances continue
to work, even one of them fails to work. So, in our home, a parallel combination of loads is
done.

ACTIVITY
1. Connect three bulbs in series with a cell and observe its brightness. Now, remove one of the
bulbs and again observe its brightness. What change do you observe and why?
2. Again connect these bulbs parallel to the cell. Observe the brightness. Now, again remove
one of the bulbs. How does the brightness of the bulb change? Explain it.

QUESTIONS
# The brightness of the bulb increases with the decrease in the number of bulbs in the
series combination. Why?
# In the parallel combination of cells, the brightness doesn’t get affected by the number of
cells used, then why is it used?

ELECTRIC POWER
Electricity is the most versatile and flexible energy which can be easily converted into
another forms. The rate at which the electric device converts electrical energy into other forms
of energy is called its electric power.
transformation of energy (E)
i.e. electric power (P) = time taken (t)
electric energy supplied (E)  transformation of energy
or, electric power (P) = time taken (t) = electric energy supplied
Its SI unit is Js–1 or watt (W)

92 | Electricity and Magnetism

We see the bulb marked 60W, 100W etc. It means that the bulb can convert 60J of
electrical energy into heat and light energy in one second (for 60W bulb). The electric
power (P) of a device is the product of potential difference (V) across its ends and
current (I) supplied in it.
i.e. P = I × V

SOLVEDNumerical
1. In a room a bulb of 100 watt is connected to 220 V supply. Find the current
passing in it.
Solution:
Given,
Power of bulb (P) = 100 W
Voltage (V) = 220 V
Current (I) = ?
We have,
P=I×V
or, 100 = I × 220
100
or, I = = 0.45 A
220
Hence, the current passing in the bulb is 0.45 A.

DC AND AC
If the polarity of electricity doesn’t change with time, it is called the direct current (DC).
Batteries, DC generators are the main sources of direct current. This current cannot be
used in transformers.
If the polarity of electricity changes periodically and its magnitude changes continuously then
it is called alternating current (AC). The sources of AC are the AC generators or dynamo.
R R current
current

+ + + + Time
Time – – – –
(a) D.C. circuit (b) Graph of direct current (c) A.C. circuit (d) Graph of alternating current

MEMORY TIPS
In Nepal, the AC of frequency 50 Hz is supplied. It means that the polarity of the AC changes
50 times in one second.

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Differences between AC and DC.
AC DC
a. Its magnitude changes continuously a. Its magnitude as well as direction
and direction changes periodically. remain constant with time.
b. It can be altered by transformers. b. It cannot be altered by transformers.
c. Its main sources are dynamo and AC c. Its main sources are battery and DC
generators. generators.

QUESTIONS
# Why can't DC be changed by transformers?

HOUSE WIRING SYSTEM (DOMESTIC ELECTRIFICATION)

In the domestic electrification, we use AC. The electric circuit used in houses and
industries is called domestic electrification.
All the appliances are connected in parallel in the house wiring system. So, if any one
device fails, other devices may not be affected.
The current is transferred in high voltage from the power stations to the houses and
it is stepped down to decrease its voltage before distributing to the house. Now the
electricity is fed into the house by a heavy cable containing two wires i.e. live wire (L)
and neutral wire (N). These two wires that are well insulated enter the meter box that
contains the main fuse in live wire and a meter. The wires from the meter box now let
to enter the main switch box. The main switch box is earthed. The earthing prevents us
from electric shock by sending the excess current to the ground through a conductor.
and that in the meter box
The fuse used in the main switch box is called co nsumer’ s f use
is called authority’s main fuse. Now, the wires are connected to the distribution board
from where current is distributed to all parts of the house. The systematic diagram of
domestic electrification is shown in the following figure.

94 | Electricity and Magnetism

 MEMORY TIPS
There are two circuits i.e. the lighting circuit and power circuit. The lighting circuit uses the
fuse of 5A whereas power circuit uses the fuse of 15A.

QUESTIONS
# Why are fuses and switches connected to the live wire of the electric circuit?

Points to be remembered in household wiring

The following points should be remembered in household wiring:
i) Colour code of the wires, brown/red coloured insulation is for live wires, blue/
black insulation for neutral wire and green or yellow stripped insulation for
earth wire.
ii) Switches and fuses are connected in the live wire, so that if they are switched off
or blown up, the current may not flow through the load.
iii) The fuses should be of appropriate rating i.e. slightly excess than the current
consumed.
iv) Separate fuses should be used for each room or floor.
v) Wiring should not be done is damp places.
vi) Earthing should be done for heavy electrical appliances.
vii) There should be separate power circuit and light circuit.
EFFECTS OF CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electricity can be easily converted into other energy forms and can bring the following
changes in a substance.
i) Heating effect ii) Lighting effect
iii) Magnetic effect iv) Chemical effect
i. Heating effect of current
No material is 100% resistance-free. So, if current passes through a resistance, it gets
heated up, which is called the heating effect of current. This principle is used to construct
electric heater, irons, toasters, rice cookers, electric kettles, etc. The heating element
used in these devices must have high resistance and melting points.

Heating devices

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Nichrome is commonly used as a heating element. It is an alloy of 60% nickel and 40%
chromium. It has high resistance (resistivity) and high melting point of about 900°C
and it does not corrode either. But it may get destroyed by water.

QUESTIONS
# Why is the nichrome wire in an electric heater covered with a metallic sheet?

ii. Lighting effect

When the current is used to produce light it is called the lighting effect of the current.
When the current is passed through a load of high resistance power and high m.p, it
first gets heated and glows to emit light. This is called the lighting effect of the current.
It is used to construct electric bulbs, lamps, and fluorescent lamps.

Electric bulb (filament lamp)

The main lighting element in the bulb is the coiled
tungsten wire known as the filament. The filament F ilament
Supporting wire
is very thin and highly coiled to increase its
resistance. The m.p. of the filament is about 3400°C. Nitrogen gas

The filament bulb is filled with inert gases like Glass stem

nitrogen, neon, argon etc. to prevent the oxidation Thick wire

of the filament. Its average life is of about 1000 A luminium co vering

Pin
hours and it converts only 10% of electrical energy Terminals
into light and other 90% of energy is wasted in the E lect ric b ulb

form of heat.

Fluorescent lamp (tube light)

It consists of a long discharge tube having two
Starter
electrodes at its ends. It is filled with mercury
F luoresce nt power
vapour and coated with fluorescent powder. A
choke provides the high voltage to the circuit. It Tub e light
produces light by producing the ultra violet rays
Mercu ry
and changing it into visible light by the fluorescent E lect rode vapour
powder. Its average life is about 3000 hours and Choke co il A .C. 220v

it converts 30% of electrical energy into light and F luoresce nt lamp

70% of it is wasted in the form of heat.

96 | Electricity and Magnetism

 MEMORY TIPS
Although the initial cost of a fluorescent lamp is more than filament bulb its long-term use
becomes cheaper than the filament lamp.

QUESTIONS
# Give two reasons why should we use a fluorescent lamp instead of a filament bulb?

Differences between a filament lamp and a fluorescent lamp.

Filament lamp Fluorescent lamp
a. It uses tungsten filament to emit a. It uses fluorescent powder to emit
light. light.
b. It is filled with inert gas. b. It is filled with mercury vapour.
c. It converts 10% of electrical energy c. It converts 30% of electrical energy
into light energy. into light energy.
d. Its average life span is about 1000 d. Its average life span is about 3000
hours. hours.

iii. Chemical effects of current

Current brings about the chemical reaction in a substance through which it passes is
called the chemical effect of current. Water undergoes decomposition to its components
when current is passed through the acidulated water (as pure water is the bad
conductor of electricity). It is called the electrolysis of water.

ACTIVITY
1. Take a potato and insert the copper wires connected to the opposite terminals
of the battery as shown in the figure.
2. Observe the potato after one hour. You will see a greenish blue spot on the potato
around the wire connected to the positive terminal of the battery. Can you explain
this phenomenon?

iv) Magnetic effect

When an electric current is passed through a conductor, it shows the magnetism. It is
called the magnetic effect of current.

ELECTROMAGNET
An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet which is prepared for the application of
electricity.

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 E lect romagnet
The strength of an electromagnet depends upon,
i. The number of turn: the greater is the number of turns per unit length of the
soft iron core, the stronger will be the strength of electromagnet.
ii. The amount of current: as the amount of current through the solenoid
increases, it will increase the strength of the electromagnet.
iii. Increasing the purity of soft iron core also increases the strength of an
electromagnet.

Uses of Electromagnet
a. Electromagnets are used in electrical devices such as an electric bell, an electric
fan, telegraph, an electric train, electric motor, generators, etc.
b. For lifting and transporting large masses of iron in the form of girdles.
c. In medical practice for removing pieces of iron from wounds.

ELECTRIC BELL
It is a device which converts the electric energy to the sound energy.
It consists of a U-shaped soft iron core around which an insulated wire (electromagnet)
is wound. A soft iron plate is adjusted Contact
in front of the electromagnet. A gong is H ammer

kept in such a way that, the hammer can

Iron strip
hit the gong.
Switch
When the switch is on, the electromagnet
Battery

attracts the plate, due to which the Gong

hammer hits the gong and the bell rings. Coil of elect romagnet

As the plate is attached to the magnet,

the circuit breaks, so, the magnetic

98 | Electricity and Magnetism

property of an electromagnet is lost and the plate returns to the original position, and
again the circuit is closed and the process repeats. In this way, we hear the bell ringing.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The phenomenon of generating an electric
current in a circuit by changing the magnetic
flux linked with it is called electromagnetic
induction.

Electric generator or dynamo Conduct or

A generator or dynamo is a machine used

for generating electric current by converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy. Galvanometer
Both of them produce electricity on the
basis of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic E lect romagnetic induct ion
induction.
Generally, a dynamo produces less amount of electricity than a generator.
ACTIVITY
Wound a matchbox to make about 50 turns by using an
insulated copper wire around it. Connect the galvanometer
and move the bar magnet in and out of the box. Observe the
deflection. Is the direction of deflection in both conditions
of moving inward and outward of the magnet the same?
What happens when the magnet is inserted into the coil
and kept stationary? Now increase the speed of magnet
and observe, what happens?

Bicycle dynamo
It is used in a bicycle to light the bulb. It
produces electricity on the basis of Faraday’s
laws of electromagnetic induction. It consists
of a permanent magnet and a coil of insulated
Magnet
copper wire. The coil is kept in the magnetic
field of the magnet
Iron co re
When the wheel of a bicycle rotates, the with co il
magnetic flux passing through the coil
changes and an e.m.f. is induced in it. Cycl e dynamo

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 99

 QUESTIONS
# The bulb glows more brightly in the bicycle when its speed in increased. Why?

ACTIVITY
Take a cycle with a dynamo. Keep the cap of the dynamo in contact with the tyre of the
bicycle. Make the wheel of the bicycle rotate first slowly and then increase the speed.
What change will you observe in the brightness of the a bulb? How can you explain this
phenomenon?

Generator
A generator is also a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
In it, an electromagnet is used instead of a permanent magnet. When the coil of the
generator is rotated in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux passing through the coil
changes and the current is induced in it. The energy required for the rotation of the
coil is obtained from the wind, power of fuels, water or steam, etc. We can increase the
current in the following ways.
i) By increasing the number of turns of the coil.
ii) By increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
iii) By using a soft iron core.
iv) By increasing the speed of the rotation of the coil.
v) By reducing the space between the magnet and the coil.

MOTOR EFFECT AND ELECTRIC MOTOR

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, it experiences a
force, except when it is placed parallel to the magnetic field. Therefore the conductor
moves. This is called the motor effect. This effect is used to construct electric motors,
refrigerators, water pumps, electric fans, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, etc.
Magnetic lines
S of f orce
Current

N
Motion

Conduct ing wire

When a current carrying conductor is kept in the magnetic field, it starts to move, which is

100 | Electricity and Magnetism

called the motor effect.
The machines which are constructed on the basis of the motor effect and convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy are called electric motors. They work on the opposite of the
dynamo and generators.

MEMORY TIPS
An electric generator can be run ‘backwards’ to become a motor by passing current into it.

INVERTER
The electric device which converts alternating
current into direct current and reserves in a battery
and similarly, converts direct current of the battery
into alternating current and runs the electrical
devices is called an inverter. It is a very useful
device for the countries which have a shortage
of hydroelectricity with load shedding. It is
used in offices and houses to run electrical devices when there is no supply of the
electricity. When alternating current comes from the supply, the inverter converts this
AC into DC and stores it in the battery. Similarly, when alternating current does not
come from the supply, the inverter converts the DC of the battery into AC and runs
the electrical devices like bulbs, tubelights, computers, etc.

CHARGER
The electrical device which is used to charge the battery and the
device which contains a battery is called a charger. One end
of the charger is connected to the battery or the device
which contains the battery and another end is connected
to the supply of the current. As electric current is passed
into the device, the battery gets charged. The device has
its own turn off system. Due to this turn off system, the

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 101

charging of the battery stops itself when the battery is fully charged. It is used to
charge mobiles, radios, etc.

TRANSFORMER
It is a device which changes a low AC voltage to a high AC
voltage or vice-versa. It works on the principle of mutual
induction. It states that, when an alternating emf is
applied to a coil, it produces an alternating magnetic
flux in it. This causes to change the magnetic flux
linked with another coil kept near to it. Due to this, an
alternating emf is induced in the second coil. The coil
in which the AC current is fed is known as the primary
coil and the other is known as the secondary coil.
In a transformer, there is a rectangular soft iron core. It is made up of laminated sheets.
Two separate coils wound to the core. One of them which is connected to the AC
source is known as the primary coil and the other from which AC voltage is taken is
called the secondary coil.
Similarly, the input voltage of a transformer is called the primary voltage and the
output voltage is called the secondary voltage.
Secondary Voltage (Vs) No. of turns in secondary coils (Ns)
=
Primary Voltage (Vp) No. of turns in primary coils (Np)
Vs Ns
i.e. =
Vp Np
Types of transformer
There are two types of transformers. They are i) step up transformer ii) step down
transformer.
Step up transformer
The transformer which converts low AC voltage to high AC voltage i.e. (Vp < Vs) is called
the step up transformer. It has more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary
coil. It means, Np < Ns. It is used at the power station from 23000 to 400000 volts for
transmission to long distances without the loss of energy.

A C source O utput

Step up transf ormer

102 | Electricity and Magnetism

Step down transformer
The transformer which converts high AC voltage to low AC voltage i.e. (Vp > Vs) is called the
step down transformer. It has less turns in the secondary coil than in the the primary.
It that means Np > Ns. It is used in the houses to step down the high voltage current
to low voltage up to 240 or 220V. It is also used in electric appliances to get further
smaller voltage.

MEMORY TIPS
● The iron core is made from E-shaped laminators so that the magnetic flux does not
pass through air at all and the greatest flux may be obtained for a given current.
● In every transformer, there should be at least 1000 turnings in the primary coil to be
connected to 220 v mains otherwise it gets heated due to insufficient resistance.

QUESTIONS
# Why are the cores of transformers laminated?
# When are step up and step down transformers used?
# Why are stripes of iron plates joined instead of using a single block of an iron core in a
transformer?

ACTIVITY
Go to a workshop of electrical machines and observe the structure of an electric motor
and a transformer.
Differences between step up and step down transformer.
Step up transformer Step down transformer
a. It changes low AC voltage to high AC a. It changes high AC voltage to low AC
voltage. voltage.
b. The number of turns in the secondary coil b. The number of turns of the primary coil
is more than that in a primary coil. is more than that of the secondary coil.
c. It is used in power stations to transmit c. It is used in household devices.
current to long distances.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 103

SOLVEDNumerical
1. Calculate the number of turns in the secondary coil if a transformer is
connected to the AC main of 220 V to produce 30V. The number of turns in
the primary coil is 1000.
Solution:
Given, primary voltage (Vp) = 220V
Secondary voltage (Vs) = 30 V
No. of turns in primary coil (Np) = 1000
No. of turns in secondary coil (Ns) = ?
We have, from formula,
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
30 Ns
or, =
220 1000
or, Ns = 136.5 = 137
∴ The no. of turns in secondary coil is 137.

SAFETY MEASURES IN USING ELECTRICITY

Electricity is an important part of our life. It is used in our house, office, factory and
industry as the main source of energy. It is used for heating and lighting purposes. It
is comfortable to use. We just have to turn on and then off switches to use electricity.
Although, we hear various accidents related to the electricity, it is due to carelessness
and lack of knowledge about the structure and function of the different kinds of
electrical devices. Therefore, the following points must be considered while using
electricity and electrical devices.
a. We must use an electric wire of high quality, appropriate amperage and it
should be insulated from its outer surface.
b. Naked wires and jointed wires must be covered with insulated materials.
c. Electric plugs, switches, fuses, sockets, etc. must be connected strongly.
d. Fault electric plugs, switches, fuses, sockets, etc. must be replaced timely.
e. Plastic shoes and globes must be worn while doing work with electricity.
f. We must use a fuse of an appropriate capacity in each house, floor and room.
g. We should not touch a naked wire with our naked hands.
h. Earthing must be done for all the heavy electrical equipments.
i. Switches and fuses must be connected with a live wire.
j. If short circuiting occurs, the main switch must be immediately switched off.
k. There should be a separate power circuit and a light circuit.

104 | Electricity and Magnetism

 l. Wiring should not be done is damp places.
m. We must ensure colour code of the wires, brown/red coloured insulation is for
live wires, blue/black insulation for neutral wire and green or yellow stripped
insulation for the earth wire.

ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION

It is important to know the methods to calculate the electric power consumption. The
electric power consumption in our home is measured by an electric meter. The electric
meter measures the electricity in kilowatt hour (kWh). For convenience, 1 kWh is the
energy consumed by an electrical device of power 1kw for one hour.
Energy = Power × time
∴ 1 kWh = 1 kw × 1h = 1000 w × 3600 s
∴ 1 kWh =3.6 × 106 J
The electricity consumed is calculated as,
Consumption of electricity (E) = Electric power (P) × no. of devices (N) × time taken (t)
∴E=P×N×t
To calculate the total cost of electricity consumed due to the use of electrical appliances,
We use,
Cost = Electricity consumed × rate in kWh
i.e., Cost = E.C × rate

SOLVEDNumerical
1. In a house, 12 tube lights of 40W for 4 hours, 3 televisions of 40W for 4 hours
and 2 bulbs of 100W for 2 hrs in a day and 2 electric irons for 2 hrs are used
in a week. Now calculate the cost of electricity in that house in a month if the
rate of electricity is Rs 7.
Solution:
Here, if 40 W tube lights glow for 4 hours
40
P= = 0.04 W
1000
N = 12
t = 4 hrs
Electricity consumed (E.C.) = ?
From formula,
Electricity consumed in one day = P × N × t = 0.04 × 12 × 4 = 1.92 kWh
∴ E.C. in one month by the tube light = 1.92 × 30 = 57.6 kWh

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 105

 If 3 televisions of 40W are used for 4 hours
Then,
P = 40, W = 0.04 kw, N = 3, t = 4 hrs, E.C. = ?
From formula,
E.C. (consumed) in one day = P × N × t = 0.04 × 3 × 4 = 0.48 kWh
∴ E.C (consumed) in one month = 0.48 × 30 = 14.4 kWh
If two bulbs of 100W are used for 2 hrs,
P = 100W = 0.1 kw, N = 2, t = 2hrs, E.C = ?
We have,
E.C. (consumed) in one day = P × N × t = 0.1 × 2 × 2 = 0.4 kWh
∴ E.C. (consumed) in one month = 0.4 × 30 = 12 kWh
If two irons of 750W each are used for 2 hours,
P = 750W = 0.75 W, N = 2, t = 2 hrs per week
We have,
E.C. in one week = P × N × t = 0.75 × 2 × 2 = 3 kWh
∴ E.C. in one month = 3 × 4 = 12 kWh
Thus, total E.C. consumed in that house in one month
= (57.6 + 14.4 + 12 + 12) kWh
= 96 kWh
= 96 unit
∴ Total cost = 96 × Rs. 7 = Rs 672

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Why are electrical appliances connected parallel in domestic circuit?

Ü Electrical appliances are connected parallel in domestic circuits so that the rests
of the electrical devices would work if any one of them gets damaged.
2. Switches and fuses should be kept in the phase wire or live wire in the
electrical circuit. Why?
Ü Fuses and switches should be kept in the phase wire so that when they blow or
kept in off state then the current may not flow through and prevents us from the
probable accidents.
3. Soft iron cores are used in electromagnets and transformers. Why?
Ü Soft iron cores are used in electromagnets because soft iron can be easily
magnetized or demagnetized. So, they can be used as good electromagnets or
temporary magnets. In transformers, it increases the magnitude of the induced
emf in the secondary coil.

106 | Electricity and Magnetism

4. Why is the iron core of a transformer laminated?
Ü If the iron core of a transformer is not laminated then as we know iron is a
conductor, so current would be induced and dissipate the power as heat. Such
current is known as eddy current. So, to reduce the eddy current and to prevent
the loss of input voltage, the iron core of a transformer is laminated by varnish.
5. Coloured wires should be used in domestic electrification. Why?
Ü Colour codes help us to identify the type of the wire i.e. whether it is live, neutral
or earth wire. Hence, we would be able to connect the appliances properly, and
it saves us from the electrical hazards. Similarly, it also helps us during the
maintenance or repairing of electrical goods and house wiring.
6. Nichrome is used as a heating element. Why?
Ü Nichrome is an alloy of 60% nickel and 40% chromium. It has high resistance
and high m.p. (at 900°C). It can produce heating effect without getting damaged.
So, it is used as a heating element.
7. An electric bulb is filled with inert gases. Why?
Ü The electric bulb is filled with inert gases to prevent the damaging of tungsten
filament due to its oxidation.
8. Earthing should be done for heavy electrical appliances. Why?
Ü Earthing should be done for heavy electrical appliances for our own safety.
When current leaks in the appliance, the current would go in the earth and we
do not get an electric shock if we touch such appliances.
9. DC cannot be used in transformers. Why?
Ü The transformer works in the principle of mutual induction in which the
magnetic flux must continuously change in the primary coil to produce current
in the secondary coil. But the magnitude and polarity of DC remains constant
which would not produce magnetic flux in primary coils. Thus, DC cannot be
used in transformers.
10. A insulated wire must be used in electromagnets. Why?
Ü Insulated wires are used in electromagnets to prevent the short-circuiting.

SUMMARY
 The devices which consume electricity to convert it into other forms are called electrical
devices or loads.
 The load may be connected in series or in parallel with each other according to the requirement.
 The increase in the number of cells in their series combination increases the brightness of the
bulb, but the brightness does not increase in case of their parallel combination.
 There are two types of circuits i) open and ii) closed.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 107

  The current having a fixed magnitude and direction is called the Direct current (DC). It is
produced by battery, DC dynamo, DC generators, etc.
 The current whose magnitude changes continuously and whose direction changes
periodically is called the Alternating current (AC). It is produced by AC generators.
 Electricity may bring i) heating effect, ii) chemical effect, iii) lighting effect and iv) magnetic effect.
 Switches and fuses should be connected to live or phase wires.
 Fluorescent lamps are more efficient than filament lamps.
 A conductor which behaves as a magnet only when electricity is passed through it is called
electromagnet.
 Whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with a closed coil, an emf is induced in the
wire of the coil; the phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.
 A generator and dynamo work on the principle of electromagnetic induction and is based on
Faraday’s laws.
 When an electric current is passed through a conductor in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences the thrust and it moves. This effect is called the motor effect.
 The devices which convert high AC voltage to low AC voltage and vice-versa are called
transformers.
 The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.
 There are two types of transformers i.e. step up transformer and step down transformer.

E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. What do you mean by

(a) Series and parallel combination of cells?
(b) Series and parallel combination of loads?
2. A combination of bulbs is so done that when one of the bulbs is decreased, the
brightness of other bulbs increases. What type of combination is it? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of this type of combination of bulbs?
3. What are the advantages of
(a) parallel combination of loads? (b) parallel combination of cells?
4. Differentiate between:
(a) AC and DC
(b) Step up transformer and step down transformer
(c) filament lamp and fluorescent lamp
(d) electric motor and generator
(e) inverter and charger
5. Give reason.
(a) Electrical appliances are connected in parallel for domestic electrification.
(b) Colour coding of wires is very beneficial to us.
(c) The switch should be kept in the phase wire.
(d) An MCB is better than a fuse.
(e) The heavy electrical appliances should be connected to the earth wire.

108 | Electricity and Magnetism

 (f) The fluorescent lamp is more efficient than a filament lamp.
(g) A nichrome wire is used in a heater.
(h) A tungsten filament is used inside a filament bulb.
(i) The core of the transformer should be laminated.
(j) Soft iron cores should be used in electromagnets.
(k) Birds sit safely on high voltage transmission lines.
(l) The wires in solenoid should be insulated.
6. What is an electromagnet? How can you increase its strength?
7. Write down any five points of safety measures while using electricity.
8. What do you mean by electromagnetic induction?
9. Write down the structure and function of the inverter and charger.
10. How can we increase the current produced in a generator?
11. Write three uses of an electromagnet.
12. Describe the structure and function of the bicycle dynamo.
13. Why is a step up transformer used in power stations? And write the use of step
down transformers.
14. Describe the structure and types of the transformer.
Numerical problems
15. Calculate the capacity of a fuse needed to be put in a heater of 880 W and 220 V?
16. Find the amount of the electric bill of a hostel for 30 days, if 20 bulbs of 100W and
6 fans of 75 w were used for 5 hours a day at the rate of Rs 7 per unit.
17. In a hostel, an electric bulb of 100W for 12 hours and an electric heater of 750W
are used for 4 hours everyday. Calculate the cost of using the bulb and the heater
for 30 days if the cost of one unit of electrical energy is Rs 7.
18. A step down transformer has 440V primary voltage and 1000 turns of the primary
coil. How many turns of the secondary coil will be needed to produce 220 volts
from that transformer?
19. A step down transformer has 800 primary turns and 200 secondary turns. If the
operating voltage for the load connected to the secondary is measured to be 100
V, what is the voltage supplied to the primary cell?
20. In a step down transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is 2 times
less. Calculate the magnitude of the output voltage for the input 440V.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Resistance : the property that resists the flow of electricity through a conductor
Dissipate : to waste time or money or power
Conferred : to give somebody an award
Interleaved : to put thin layers of something between things
Girdle : a long strong steel or iron beam used for building bridges and houses
Momentary : lasting for a very short time
Laminated : made by sticking several thin layers together
Accommodation : the process of adopting, adjustment


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 109

 UNIT

7 Classification of Elements
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
Elements are the building blocks of all the living and
non-living matters. As the human civilization developed,
more and more elements were discovered and finally till
this date we have 117 elements discovered so far. As the
number of elements known became larger, it was felt
necessary to have some way to organize these elements.
Similarly, some elements showed similar properties while
others were completely different from each other. So, the
scientists frequently put their efforts on the classification
Dmitri Mendeleev of elements. Therefore, they had discovered several ways.
(1834)
Among them, the periodic table is one of the greatest
Dmitri Mendeleev was born milestones in the systematic classification of elements. This
in 8 February 1834 in Verhnie
Aremzyani village, near Tobolsk,
periodic classification has greatly simplified the study of
to Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev and elements and their compounds. Although not only a single
Maria Dmitrievna Mendeleeva. scientist could be given credit for it, Russian scientist Dmitri
Mendeleev's contribution in this field is the greatest among
In 1905, Mendeleev was elected a
member of the Royal Swedish
them. He had classified 63 elements discovered at that time
Academy of sciences. The by making a scientific periodic table.
following year Nobel committee
for Chemistry recommended MEMORY TIPS
to Swedish Academy to award
the Nobel Prize in chemistry
The process of putting different elements together into different
for 1906 to Mendeleev for his groups or classes according to their characteristics is known
discovery of the Periodic system. as the classification of elements. Antony Lavoisier was the first
The chemistry section of the scientist to classify elements into metals and non-metals.
Swedish Academy supported this
recommendation. The Academy HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CLASSIFICATION OF
was then supposed to approve the
committee choice as it has done ELEMENTS
in almost every case. It was John Dalton in who proposed the 'Atomic Theory'
in 1908 AD. In this theory, he postulated that the atoms of
the same elements are alike in all aspects but the atoms of
different elements are different at least in the case of their
atomic weights. Since then, atomic weight was considered
as the important property of the atom and scientists
continually tried to relate the atomic weight with the
chemical properties of the elements.

110 | Classification of Elements

Thus in 1815, Joseph Proust suggested that all elements are built up of hydrogen atoms,
and the atomic weight of elements are the multiple of atomic weight of hydrogen.
However, this hypothesis is discarded as many elements have atomic weight in
fractional numbers.

DOBEREINER’S TRIADS
German scientist Dobereiner made a group of three elements in such a way that the
atomic weight of the central element is the arithmetic mean of the other two. This
group of three elements is called triad and they have similar properties. For example,

Element Atomic mass Characteristics

Lithium 7
* All of them are monovalent metals
Sodium 23
*They form hydroxide when dissolved in water.
Potassium 39
Here, atomic mass of sodium is arithmetic mean of Lithium and Potassium.

NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES

John Newland grouped the elements in the increasing order of their atomic weight.
In this arrangement, every 8th element showed the same properties of the starting
element like eighth notes of music. So, it is also called law of octaves.
For example,
Li Be B C N O F
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
K Ca

In the above table, Na has the same characteristics of Li and Ca has the same
characteristics of Mg.

LOTHER MEYER’S ATOMIC VOLUME CURVE

Lothar Meyer plotted a graph between
atomic volume against atomic weight. Cs

After plotting the graph he concluded

A tomic volume

Rb

that the elements occupying the same

K
positions showed similar properties.
Na
For example: Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs
occupied the peaks of the curve and they Li

showed similar properties.

A tomic mass

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 111

 MEMORY TIPS
John Newland was awarded 'Davy Award' by the Royal society of London for his law of octaves.

QUESTIONS
# Give a brief account of the history of the classification of elements.

MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

Although several attempts had been made for the classification of elements as
described above, Dmitri Mendeleev was the one who started classifying the elements
on the basis of the periodic law. His periodic law states that 'the physical and chemical
properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic weight'.
Thus, Mendeleev again considered the atomic weight of elements as their fundamental
property and on this basis, he had classified 63 elements discovered so far at that time.
This table is called Mendeleev's Periodic table.
Dmitri Mendeleev classified elements on the basis of their increasing atomic weight.
As a result, he found a table which is called Mendeleev's periodic table.
A part of Mendeleev’s periodic table is given below:
Group Group Group Group Group Group
Group I Group V
II III IV VI VII VIII
Period H
1
Period Li Be B C N O F
2
Period Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3
Period K Ca 1* Ti V Cr Mn Fe
4 Cu Zn 2* 3* As Se Br Co
Ni
Period Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo 4* Ru Rh
5 Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te l Pd
Period Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os lr
6 Au Hg Th Pb Bi Po At Pt
Name given by Mendeleev: 1* Eka - Aluminium,
2* Eka - Boron, 3* Eka - Silicon, 4* Eka - Manganese

Characteristics of Mendeleev’s periodic table

a. In this table elements were arranged in increasing order of their atomic weight.
b. This table consists of seven horizontal rows called periods and eight vertical
columns called groups.

112 | Classification of Elements

c. Some gaps were left for the undiscovered elements like scandium, gallium,
germanium, etc. which should be similar to Boron, Aluminium and Silicon,
respectively. So, he had suggested the names of those undiscovered elements as
Eka-Baron, Eka-Aluminium and Eka-Silicon
d. In this table, he had not included noble or inert gases, as they were still not
discovered at that time.
e. The groups of the Mendeleev's periodic table were further divided into sub
groups.
Advantages or merits of Mendeleev's periodic table
a. In the history of the classification of elements, Mendeleev's periodic table was
the first scientific as well as the systematic table of elements.
b. This table made the study of elements easy, fast, systematic and more convenient.
c. In this table, there were some gaps for undiscovered elements, which showed a
pathway for other scientists to discover them.
d. It helped to correct the doubtful atomic mass of some elements like gold,
platinum, uranium, etc.
Disadvantages or demerits of Mendeleev's periodic table
a. In Mendeleev's Periodic table, hydrogen was placed along with the metals like
Li, Na, K, etc. which was not properly explained.
b. He himself had dishonoured his own law by not giving separate positions for
isotopes.
c. He could not give the correct place for lanthanides and actinides.
d. He had disobeyed his own law in some cases such as Argon (having atomic mass
39.9) was placed before potassium (having atomic mass 39.1) and Co (atomic
mass=58.9) before Ni (atomic mass 58.6)
e. Highly reactive alkali metals were grouped together with less reactive coinage
metals.
f. Similar elements like Cu and Hg were placed at different groups whereas
dissimilar elements like manganese and halogens were placed at the same
group.
g. His periodic table was unable to explain the atomic properties like valency,
reactivity, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Isotopes have the same atomic number but they have different atomic mass. For example,
Protium, Deuterium and Tritium are the three isotopes of hydrogen.
Protium 11 H is the common form of hydrogen.
Duterium 12 H is also known as heavy hydrogen.
Tritium 13 H is the radioactive isotope of hydrogen.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 113

 QUESTIONS
# State Mendeleev's periodic law.
# List out the advantages and disadvantages of Mendeleev's periodic table.

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Although Mendeleev's periodic table made history on the classification of elements.
His work also had been criticized more due to the drawbacks described before. So, in
the course of finding the solution, Henry Moseley and his friends in 1913 AD proposed
another periodic law after the continuous study on the properties of elements. This
law is known as Modern Periodic law. It states that, the physical and chemical properties
of elements are the periodic function of their atomic number.
In this way, Moseley and his friends regarded atomic numbers as the fundamental
property of elements. On the basis of this periodic law, they made a scientific table
which is known as the modern periodic table. It is also known as the long form of the
periodic table.

Properties or characteristics of modern periodic table

i) In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in the increasing order of
their atomic number.
ii) In this periodic table there are seven horizontal rows called periods and eighteen
vertical columns called groups. The first period contains only two elements, so it
is called very a short period. The second and third periods contain eight elements
each and thus called short periods. The fourth and fifth periods contain eighteen
elements each. Hence, it is called a long periods. The sixth period contains thirty
two elements. So, it is called a very long period. The seventh period contains
twenty six elements and is not completed yet. So, it is known as the long and
incomplete period.
Similarly, groups I to VII are divided into sub-groups A and B. Group VIII has
three vertical columns. There is a vertical column for zero (0) group for noble
gases. In this way, there are eighteen vertical columns in the modern periodic
table which are called groups.
iii) The 14 rare earth elements i.e., Lanthanides (atomic number 58-71) and 14
Transuranium elements i.e., actinides (atomic number 90-103) have been placed
in separate rows at the bottom of the periodic table.
iv) Metals are kept on the left hand side and non-metals are kept on the right hand
side of the table.
v) Inert gases like He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are kept in zero group at extreme right
side of the table.

114 | Classification of Elements

 T hePeriodic T ableof the E lements
s-Block elements p-Block elements
1 ( I A) 1 8 ( 0 - G roup)
1 2
H H e
Hydrogen Helium
1.00794
2 ( I I A) A lk alai metals P o rs- transitio n metals 1 3 ( I I I A) 1 4 ( I V A) 1 5 ( V A) ( V I A) 1 7 ( V I I
1 6 4.003
3 4 25 Atomic number A lak alline earth metals M etallo ids 5 6 7 8 9 10
L anthanides Other no n- metals
L i Be Mn Element symbol B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Manganese Element name A c tinides H alo g ens Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.941 9.012182 54.938049 Atomic weight Transitio n metals No b le g ases 10.811 12.0107 14.00674 15.9994 18.9984032 20.1797
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg d-Block elements (Transitional elements)
Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.989770 24.3050 3 ( I I I B) 4 ( I V B) 5 ( V B) 6 (V
8 (I VB) I I97 I (B)V I I IB)B) 1 0 ( V I I I B) 1 1 26.981538 2 ( I I B)
( I B) 1 28.0855 30.973761 32.066 35.4527 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc T i V Cr Mn
F e Co Ni Cu Z n G a G e As Se Br K r
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.0983 40.078 44.955910 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938049 55.845 58.933200 58.6934 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.92160 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Z r Nb Mo T c Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb T e I X e
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba L a H f T a W Re Os Ir Pt Au H g T l Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.90545 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.96655 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98038 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
F r Ra Ac Rf D b Sg Bh H s MtD s Rg Cn Nh F l Mc L v T s Og
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) (269) (272) (277) (286) (289) (290) (293) (294) (294)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm E u G d T b D y H o E r T m Y b L
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
140.116 140.90765 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.26 168.93421 173.04 174.967
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
T h Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf E s F m Md No L r
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
232.0381 231.03588 238.0289 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
f-Block elements (Inner transitional elements)

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 115

Advantages or merits of modern periodic table over Mendeleev's periodic table
i) Hydrogen has atomic number one with only one electron in its k-shell. Thus,
they kept hydrogen in the first period and IA group along with Li, Na and K.
ii) The anomalies related to isotopes have automatically been solved since all
isotopes of one element have the same atomic number.
iii) When elements are arranged based on the increasing atomic number, the wrong
position of Ar and K or Ni and Co has been corrected automatically.
iv) More reactive alkali metals are kept under IA group and less reactive coinage
metals are kept under IB group of the modern periodic table.
v) Lanthanides and actinides are placed in a separate box below the main table to
avoid the undue side wise expansion of the periodic table.
vi) The representative, transitional, inner transitional and noble elements have been
separated.
vii) The elements have also been classified into s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block
according to the orbital, in which the last electron enters. Thus, the study of
elements has become more specific.

MEMORY TIPS
The metals from which coins are made are called coinage metals such as Cu, Ag and Au.
They occupy group IB of the modern periodic table.

QUESTIONS
# List out any four advantages of the modern periodic table over Mendeleev's Periodic
table.
# State the modern periodic law.
# Define the modern periodic table.
Differences between modern periodic table and Mendeleev's periodic table
Modern Periodic table Mendeleev’s periodic table
a. In this table, elements are arranged on the a. In this table, elements are arranged on the
basis of the increasing atomic number. basis of the increasing atomic weight.

b. It has seven periods and eighteen groups. b. It has seven periods and eight groups.
c. Hydrogen, isotopes, lanthanides and c. Proper position for hydrogen, lanthanides
actinides are given proper position in this and actinides was not given.
table with a suitable reason.
d. Highly reactive alkali metals and less d. Highly reactive alkali metals and less
reactive coinage metals are kept in reactive coinage metals are kept in one
separate groups. group.

116 | Classification of Elements

Position of elements in modern periodic table
i) Position of hydrogen: Hydrogen has only one electron and one proton. Sometimes
it loses its electron to make hydrogen ion (H+) similar to the alkali metals of IA
groups and sometimes it gains one electron to make hydride ion (H–) similar to
the halogens of VII A group. So, it shows both the characters of alkali metal of IA
group and halogens of VII A group. Due to this reason, it is very difficult to keep
it at particular place. But due to one atomic number, it is kept under IA group of
the modern periodic table.
ii) Position of metals, non-metals and metalloids: In the modern periodic table,
alkali metal (IA), alkaline earth metals (II A), and IIIA groups are kept on the left
hand side. Elements of (IA) group are called reactive metals. They react with
water to give strong alkali. So, they are also called alkali metals. Elements which
are present in IIA group of the modern periodic table are called alkaline earth
metals. They occur on the earth's crust and react with water to give hydroxide. For
example, Mg, Ca, etc. They are less reactive than alkali metals. Elements of IIIA
group are also metals except boron. They are less reactive than alkali metals and
alkaline earth metals. Elements which are present in the d-block of the modern
periodic table are called transitional elements. These elements are present between
s and p blocks or between reactive metals and non-metals. Hence, they are named
transitional elements. For example; Fe, Cu, Ni, etc.
iii) Non-metals of groups VA, VIA and VIIA are kept on the right side of the modern
periodic table. The elements of VIIA group of the modern periodic table are called
reactive non-metals or halogens. They are present in sea water in the form of salt.
They need only one electron to complete octate. So, they are reactive non-metals.
iv) Position of metalloids: The elements which show partial characteristics of metals
and non-metals are called metalloids. They are present between metals and non-
metals. For example, silicon, germanium, bismuth, etc.
v) Position of inert gases: Inert gases (zero group elements) are kept on the extreme
right hand side of the periodic table along with non-metals.
vi) Position of lanthanides and actinides: The 14 elements starting from cerium (Ce58)
to lutetium (Lu71) are called lanthanides because they show similar characteristics
of lanthanum (La57). Similarly 14 elements starting from thorium (Th90) to
lawrencium (Lr103) are called actinides because they show similar characteristics
of actinium (Ac89). These 28 elements (lanthanides and actinides) are kept below
the main table in a separate box as they have different characteristics than other
elements of the main periodic table.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 117

PERIODS AND GROUPS
Periods
The horizontal rows of the periodic table where elements having gradual change in atomic number
and characteristics are kept are called periods. In the modern periodic table there are a total
of seven periods. They have different atomic numbers and a different atomic mass.
S.N. Period Number of elements Types of period
1. First 2 Very short period
2. Second 8 Short period
3. Third 8 Short period
4. Fourth 18 Long period
5. Fifth 18 Long period
6. Sixth 32 Very long period
7. Seventh 26 Very long but incomplete period

Characteristics of Periods
i) They are horizontal rows of the periodic table.
ii) These elements have gradual change in the atomic number as we move in a
particular period.
iii) These elements have gradual change in characteristics as we move in a particular
period.
iv) In a period, the atomic size decreases as we move from left to right in a particular
period.
v) In a period, valency first increases up to 4 and then decreases up to 0 as we move
from left to right in a particular period.

Groups
Vertical columns of the periodic table where elements having almost similar characteristics
are kept are called groups. There are a total of nine groups (recently 18 groups) in the
modern periodic table but each group is further divided into two sub-groups A and B
except the zero group. In the eighth group, there are three vertical columns but they
are not denoted by A, B and C. Nowadays, all these total 18 vertical columns are also
known as 18 groups.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB VIIIB VIIIB IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIAVIIIA/0

Characteristics of Groups
i) They are the vertical column of the periodic table.
ii) All the elements in a particular group have almost the same characteristics.

118 | Classification of Elements

iii) All the elements in a particular group have the same valence electrons.
iv) The atomic size increases as we move from top to bottom in a particular group.
v) The valency remains the same for all elements in a particular group.

SUB-SHELL OR ORBITALS
According to Bohr and Burry, electrons are distributed by 2n2 formula where ‘n’ is
the number of shells. On the basis of this formula, duplet means two electrons in the
K-shell (for example helium) and octet means eight electrons in the outermost shell (for
example Ne, Ar). But the electronic configuration of all elements cannot be explained
by this formula. So, the concept of sub- shells or orbitals is assumed. According to this
concept, within the main shell, there are one or more sub-shells which are symbolized
by s, p, d and f. The shells with their sub-shells are given below.
Shell Sub shells or orbitals
K (1) s
L (2) s and p
M (3) s, p and d
N (4) s, p, d and f

The "s" sub-shell may contain a maximum two electrons, the "p" sub-shell may contain
maximum six electrons, the "d" sub-shell may contain maximum ten electrons and the
"f" sub- shell may contain a maximum fourteen electrons.

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE AND ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

We have already discussed that every shell contains
1s
further smaller shells which, are called sub-shells.
These sub-shells are represented by the symbols s, 2s 2p
p, d and f. These sub-shells have different energy.
Electrons always try to enter those sub-shells which, 3s 3p 3d
have less energy. So, according to Aufbau principle,
4s 4p 4d 4f
the sub-shell which has the lowest energy will be filled
first with electrons. The sequence of energy levels of 5s 5p 5d 5f
sub-shells is shown in the diagram below.
6s 6p 6d
According to the above diagram, the sequence of
energy level is given below. 7s 7p
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
8s
< 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s ………………….

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 119

 K (n = 1) 1s 2
L (n = 2) 2s, 2p 2+6=8
M (n = 3) 3s, 3p, 3d 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
N (n = 4) 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32

Table: Electronic configuration based on shells and sub-shells

Electronic Electronic
Atomic
S.N. Element configuration based configuration based Valency
no.
on shells (K, L, M, N) on sub-shells (s, p,d,f)

1 Hydrogen 1 1 1s1 1
2 Helium 2 2 1s2 0
3 Lithium 3 2, 1 1s , 2s
2 1
1
4 Beryllium 4 2, 2 1s2, 2s2 2
5 Boron 5 2, 3 1s , 2s 2p
2 2 1
3
6 Carbon 6 2, 4 1s , 2s 2p
2 2 2
4
7 Nitrogen 7 2, 5 1s2, 2s2 2p3 3
8 Oxygen 8 2, 6 1s , 2s 2p
2 2 4
2
9 Fluorine 9 2, 7 1s , 2s 2p
2 2 5
1
10 Neon 10 2, 8 1s2, 2s2 2p6 0
11 Sodium 11 2, 8, 1 1s , 2s 2p , 3s
2 2 6 1
1
12 Magnesium 12 2, 8, 2 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 2
13 Aluminium 13 2, 8, 3 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2, 3p1 3
14 Silicon 14 2, 8, 4 1s ,2s 2p , 3s , 3p
2 2 6 2 2
4
15 Phosphorus 15 2, 8, 5 1s2,2s2 2p6, 3s2, 3p3 3, 5
16 Sulphur 16 2, 8, 6 1s2,2s2 2p6, 3s2, 3p4 2, 6
17 Chlorine 17 2, 8, 7 1s ,2s 2p , 3s , 3p
2 2 6 2 5
1
18 Argon 18 2, 8, 8 1s2,2s2 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 0
19 Potassium 19 2, 8, 8, 1 1s ,2s 2p , 3s , 3p , 4s
2 2 6 2 6 1
1
20 Calcium 20 2, 8, 8, 2 1s ,2s 2p , 3s , 3p , 4s
2 2 6 2 6 2
2

Classification of elements in modern periodic table

In the modern periodic table elements are classified on the basis of two principles.
i) Classification based on sub-shells in which the last electron enters
ii) Classification based on the number of incomplete shells in an atom.

120 | Classification of Elements

i. Classification based on sub-shells in which the last electron enters
Each shell of an atom is divided into sub-shells or orbitals, which are called s, p, d
and f. The four orbitals can accommodate 2, 6, 10 and 14 electrons respectively. On
the basis of the orbital, in which the last electron enters, the elements are classified as,
s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block.
a) s-block elements: The elements whose last electron enters into "s" sub-shell
are called s-block elements. In the modern periodic table, the elements of
groups IA and IIA are the s-block elements. For example, the electronic
configuration of Na is 1s2 , 2s2 2p6 , 3s1. So, it belongs in s-block.
b) p-block elements: The elements whose last electron enters into "p" sub-
shell are called p-block elements. In the modern periodic table, the elements
of groups IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and zero are the p-block elements. For
example, the electronic configuration of Cl is 1s2, 2s2 2p6 , 3s2 3p5 . So, it
belongs in p-block.
c) d-block elements: The elements whose last electron enters into "d" sub-
shell are called d-block elements. The elements of groups IB, IIB, IIIB,
IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB and VIII belong to d-block. For example, the electronic
configuration of Sc is 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6, 4s2, 3d1. So, it belongs in d-block.
The d-block elements are also called transitional elements.
d) f-block elements: The elements whose last electron enters into "f" sub-shell
are called f-block elements. It consists of two series of 14 elements known as
lanthanides and actinides. These elements have been placed at the bottom
of the periodic table. They are also known as inner transitional elements.
ii. Classification based on the number of incomplete shells in an atom
The elements can also be classified into four types depending upon the number of
incomplete shells in an atom. They are:
a. Representative elements b. Inner transition elements
c. Transition elements d. Noble gas
a. Representative elements: The elements having only one incompletely filled
outer-most shell are called representative elements. This includes both "s"
and "p" block elements except the inert gases.
b. Transitional elements: The elements having two incompletely filled (outer
most and second outer most) shells are called transitional elements. They
are d-block elements.
c. Inner transitional elements: The elements having three incompletely
filled (outermost, second outermost and third outermost) shells are called
inner transitional elements. They are f-block elements. They constitute
lanthanides and actinides. They have very much similar physical and
chemical properties.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 121

 The group of 14 elements from cerium (58) to lutetium (71) starting after
lanthanum (57) is called lanthanide series and the group of 14 elements
from Thorium (90) to lawrencium (103) starting after actinium (89) is called
actinide series.
d. Noble gas: It consists of 6 elements He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn. They
have completely or filled valence shell with octet state except Helium (it
has completely filled K-shell with duplet state). They do not take part in
chemical reactions. So, they are known as inert or noble gas. They occupy
the group zero in the modern periodic table.

MEMORY TIPS
The elements after uranium which are synthetically prepared and belong to inner transition
elements are called trans uranium elements.

QUESTIONS
# Define the following terms with examples.
i) Transitional elements
ii) Inner transitional elements
iii) Sub-shells

General characteristics of groups and periods

1. Atomic radii
The size of atoms goes on increasing on moving from top to bottom in a group as the
number of shells goes on increasing. While going from left to right in a period, the
atomic size decreases because the number of shells remains constant but the inter
nuclear forces of attraction between nucleus and the valence electron increases. It is
due to increasing in the number of protons in the nucleus.
Atomic size increases top to

Li
Na

K Li
bottom in the group

Be B
Rb Atomic size decreases left to right in the period

Cs

QUESTIONS
# Which one has bigger atomic size between Na and K. Give its suitable reason.

122 | Classification of Elements

2. Valence electrons and valency
The total number of electrons in the valence shell is called valence electrons. It remains
constant is the particular group but increases along in the period as we move left
to right. Similarly, valency also remains the same for the particular group but first
increases up to four and decreases up to zero along in the period.
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
3. Chemical reactivity
In case of metals, while going from top to bottom in a group, the reactivity goes on
increasing. It is because, in case of metals, the number of shells or atomic radii goes
on increasing. Due to this, the inter nuclear force of attraction between nucleus and
valence electron decreases. As a result, the loss of electron becomes easy and reactivity
increases.
Reactivity of metals increases

Li
top to bottom in the group

Na

K 19p
20n 11p
Rb 12n

Cs

Potassium atom Sodium atom

But in case of non-metals, as we go down in a group, the reactivity goes on decreasing.

It is because, the atomic radii goes on increasing and inter nuclear force of attraction
between nucleus and valence electron decreases. Hence, it will be difficult to gain
electron. Therefore, the reactivity decreases.
Reactivity of non-metals
decreases top to bottom in

Cl
17p
Br 18n 9p
9n
the group

Chlorine atom Fluorine atom

In case of metals, as we go from left to right in a period, the reactivity decreases. This
is because, the atomic size decreases and it is difficult to lose electron.

Li Be B

Reactivity of metals decreases left to right in the period

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 123

In case of non-metals, as we go from left to right in a period, the reactivity increases.
This is because, the atomic size decreases and it is easier to gain electron.

N O F

Reactivity increases left to right in the period

MEMORY TIPS
Na is less reactive than K and F is more reactive than Cl.
Special names for some elements
Group IA - Alkali metals Group IIA - Alkaline earth metals
Group O - Nobel/inert gas Group VIIA - Halogens

QUESTIONS
# Which one is more reactive between Na and K? Why?
# Which is more reactive between Cl and F? Why?

Uses of periodic table

i. It makes the study of elements easy, fast, clear, systematic and scientific.
ii. It gives the correct position of elements.
iii. It helps to study the properties of elements.

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Define alkaline earth metals and transitional elements with examples.
Ü Alkaline earth metals: Elements which are present in IIA group of the modern
periodic table are called alkaline earth metals. They occur on the earth's crust
and react with water to give hydroxide. For example; Mg, Ca, etc.
Mg+2H2O → Mg(OH)2+H2
Ca+2H2O → Ca(OH)2+H2
Ü Transitional elements: Elements which are present in the d-block of the modern
periodic table are called transitional elements. These elements are present
between s and p blocks. Hence, they are named transitional elements. For
example; Fe, Cu, Ni, etc.
2. On the basis of the given electronic configuration, answer the following
questions.
A=1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s1 B= 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2, 3p5
(i) Predict the position of A and B in the modern periodic table.
(ii) Which compound is formed between A and B.

124 | Classification of Elements

 Ü (i) Position of A in modern periodic table (ii) Position of B in modern periodic
table Period=Number of shells =3 Period = Number of shells = 3
Group = Number of valence electrons = 1A
Group = Number of valence electrons =VIIA
Block = s-block Block = p-block
Ü (ii) The compound formed between A and B in NaCl (Sodium chloride)
3. Which one is more reactive between Na and K? Why?
Ü The electronic configuration of Na is 2,8,1 while that of K is 2,8,8,1. So, the atomic
radius of K is more than Na. There is less attraction force between the valence
electron of K and its nucleus. Hence, it is easier for K to loses electron. Hence, it
is more reactive than Na.
4. Which one is more reactive between F and C? Why?
Ü Bothe fluorine and chlorine are non-metals and the size of fluorine is smaller
than that of chlorine. They gain foreign electron. To gain electron, the small size
of non-metal is more suitable. So, fluorine gains electron easily than chlorine.
Thus, fluorine is more reactive than chlorine.

SUMMARY
 There have been several attempts for the classification of elements. Among them Mendeleev's
work can be regarded as the milestone in the classification of elements.
 Mendeleev's periodic law states that, the physical and chemical properties of elements are
the periodic function of their atomic weight.
 Mendeleev's periodic table had seven periods and eight groups.
 The modern periodic law states that, the physical and chemical properties of elements are the
periodic function of their atomic number.
 Modern periodic table has less defects than Mendeleev's periodic table.
 There are seven periods and eighteen groups in the modern periodic table.
 In the modern periodic table, group IA are alkali metals, II are alkaline earth metals, VIIA are
halogen, zero are inert gases and IB are coinage metals.
 Every shell is divided into sub-shells: s, p, d and f. They can accommodate 2, 6, 10 and 14
electrons respectively.
 Reactivity increases down the group for metals and decreases down the group for non-metals.
 Metals are electron losers and non-metals are electron gainers.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define the following terms:

(a) Alkali metals (b) Actinides
(c) Alkaline earth metals (d) Halogens

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 125

 (e) Transitional elements (f) s-block elements
(g) Inner-transitional elements (h) Lanthanides
(i) Modern periodic table (j) Mendeleev's periodic table
2. Write two differences between:
(a) Modern and Mendeleev's periodic table
(b) Periods and groups
(c) s-block and p-block elements
3. Write electronic configuration of the given elements on the basis of the sub-
shells.
(a) Na (b) Cl (c) Ca (d) K
4. Give reason:
(a) F is more reactive than Cl.
(b) K is more reactive than Na.
(c) Inert gases are kept in the zero group.
(d) Lanthanides and actinides are kept below the main block of the periodic table.
(e) Elements of group IA are called alkali metals.
(f) Lanthanides and actinides are also called inner-transitional elements.
5. Write the modern periodic law and Mendeleev's periodic law.
6. Answer the following questions based on the given electronic configuration.
A=1s2 ,2s2 2p6, 3s1 B=1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2
C=1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p5 D=1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p6
(a) Identify the elements.
(b) Predict their positions in the periodic table.
(c) What are their valency?
(d) Which one is more reactive between A and B?
(e) Which one of them is inert?

A
B
C GLOSSARY
Triad : a group of three
Penultimate : second last
Fundamental : basic or primary
Periodic table : the scientific table for the classification of elements


126 | Classification of Elements

 UNIT

8 Chemical Reaction
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
It is said that change is the rule of nature and nobody can
forecast the ultimate result of change because in every
moment change is going on in our nature. No scientist, no
latest and advanced spiritual or scientific invention has
become able to stop this change or reaction.
The changes occurring in our surroundings can be divided
into mainly two types i.e.
(i) Physical change and (ii) Chemical change
Amedeo Avogadro
(1776) Physical change is a temporary change in which only the
physical properties of substances such as colour, odour,
Amedeo Avogadro was born
in August 9, 1776 and died on taste, smell are changed. In this change, no new substances
July 9, 1856 in Turin Italy. are formed. While chemical change is a permanent change
Amedeo Avogadro was born into
in which both the physical and chemical properties of
a family of distinguished lawyers
(Piedmont family). Following substances change with the formation of new substances.
in his family's footsteps, he Furthermore, physical changes can easily be reversed back
graduated in ecclesiastical law while chemical changes are hard or impossible to reverse
(age 20) and began to practice
law. However, Avogadro was
back. The melting of ice, dissolving of sugar in water, etc. are
also interested in the natural some physical changes whereas, the burning wood, forming
science and in 1800 he began of water from hydrogen and oxygen are the examples of
private studies in physics and
mathematics.
chemical change. All these chemical changes occurring are
called chemical reactions.
Avogadro's law states that
equal volume of gases at the
same temperature and pressure,
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
contain the same number of The chemical changes occurring due to addition or
molecules. Avogadro's hypothesis
decomposition or displacement or exchange of atoms or
wasn't generally accepted until
after 1858 (after his death), molecules of the substances are called chemical reactions.
when the Italian Chemist Similarly, some reactions may produce heat while some
Stanislao Cannizzaro was able
may need heat for the reaction to proceed.
to explain why there were some
organic chemical exceptions to A chemical reaction can be written in the form of an
Avogadro's hypothesis.
equation called the chemical equation. Chemical equations
are the convenient ways of representing the actual chemical
reaction and they can give more information than the
sentence description of the chemical reaction.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 127

For example: when zinc reacts with sulphuric acid, it gives zinc sulphate and hydrogen
gas as,
Zn+H2SO4 ZnSO4+H2

Terms related with chemical equations

(i) Reactants and Products
The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants. They are
written on the left hand side of an arrow. Similarly, the chemical substances which are
produced from a chemical reaction are called products. They are written on the right
hand side of the equation. For example;
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
Reactants Products

(ii) Word Equation

The chemical equation which is expressed by writing full names of reactants and
products is called a word equation. For example;
Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride + Water
(iii) Formula Equation
The chemical equation which is expressed by using the symbols and molecular formula
of reactants and products is called formula equation.
For example;
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2O

Symbols in Chemical Equation

i. (s) stands for solid
ii. (l) stands for liquid
iii. (g) stands for gase
iv. (aq) stands for aqueous solution
v. (↑) (upward arrow) stands for gas
vi. (↓) (downward arrow) stands for precipitation
vii. ( ) shows for reversible reactions
viii. (D) stands for heat

128 | Chemical Reaction

For example:
∆
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq.) + H2 (g)

MEMORY TIPS
According to the law of conservation of mass, "mass can neither be created nor be
destroyed but it remains constant before and after the reaction".

QUESTIONS
# Define the word equation with an example.
# Define the chemical equation with an example.

Classification of Chemical Equations

Chemical equations can be classified as:
Chemical equations

Exothermic Balanced Addition

Endothermic Unbalanced Decomposition

On the basis of the absorption or production of heat, chemical equations are classified
as endothermic and exothermic reactions.
1. Exothermic reaction: The chemical reactions which produce heat during their
processing are called exothermic reactions.
For example;
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
2. Endothermic reaction: Those chemical reactions which require heat for their
processing are called endothermic reactions.
For example;
∆
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
∆
CaCO3 CaO+CO2

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 129

 MEMORY TIPS
Exothermic reactions may occur spontaneously but for endothermic reactions they require
external energy.
On the basis of the number of atoms on reactants and products, chemical equations
may be classified as balanced equations and unbalanced equations.
1. Unbalanced (skeletal) chemical equations: The chemical equations in which
the total number of atoms of each element in reactants and products are not
equal are called unbalanced chemical equations. They do not obey the law of
conservation of mass.
For example,
N2+H2 NH3
KClO3 KCl + O2
H2O2 H2 O + O 2
2. Balanced Chemical Equations: The chemical equations in which the total
number of atoms of each element in reactants and products are equal are called
balanced chemical equations. They obey the law of conservation of mass.
For example;
N2+3H2 2NH3
Ca(OH)2+CO2 CaCO3+H2O
2H2O2 2H2O + O2

Ways of writing balanced chemical equations

To balance a chemical equation the following steps should be followed:
1) Write the word equation to express the chemical change
For example
Potassium hydroxide + Sulphuric acid Potassium sulphate + Water
2) Translate the given word equation into correct formula equation
KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O
3) Now, count the total number of atoms of each element and give the suitable
coefficient to balance the equation by hit and trial method.
2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2O

Examples of balanced chemical equations

1) Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia (word equation)
N2 + H2 NH3 (skeletal equation)

130 | Chemical Reaction

 N2 + 3H2 2NH3 (balanced equation)
2) Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride (word equation)
Na+ Cl2 NaCl (skeletal equation)
2Na+ Cl2 2NaCl (balanced equation)
3) Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride+ Hydrogen (word equation)
Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2 (skeletal equation)
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 (balanced equation)

Information obtained from a balanced chemical equation

We can obtain various information from a balanced chemical equation.
1) It shows the total number of atoms and molecules of each reactant and
product.
2) It indicates the ratio of the molecular weight of reactants and products.
3) It gives an idea about the name and symbols of reactant and product
molecules.
4) It gives information about the type of chemical reaction.
The following examples provide information about the formation of water molecule
from hydrogen and oxygen.
Word equation: Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
Skeletal equation: H2 + O2 H2O
Balanced equation: 2H2 + O2 2H2O
Molecular weight: 4 + 32 36
Ratio of hydrogen to water : 1:9
Ratio of oxygen to water : 8:9
Type of chemical equation: Addition or combination reaction.

Limitations of Chemical Equations

1) The chemical equation does not provide information about the physical state of
reactants and products.
2) It does not tell about the conditions that are required for the reaction to occur.
3) It does not tell about the concentration of reactants and products.
4) It does not provide information about the reaction path.
5) It does not tell about the speed of reaction.
6) It does not say whether the reaction is reversible or irreversible.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 131

 QUESTIONS
# Write the information obtained from a chemical equation.
# Write the limitations of the chemical equation.
# Write the chemical equation for the following word equations and balance them by hit
and trial method.
a) Calcium carbonate + Nitric acid Calcium nitrate + Carbon dioxide + Water
b) Zinc + Sodium hydroxide Sodium zincate + Hydrogen

Classification based on Reaction Mechanism

There are mainly four types of chemical reactions. They are:
a) Addition reactions
b) Decomposition reactions
c) Displacement reactions
d) Acid-base reactions
a. Addition or combination or synthesis reaction
The chemical reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product
is called addition reaction. It is also termed as the combination or condensation or
synthesis reaction. For examples;
2H2 + O2 2H2O
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
C + O2 CO2
2P2 + 5O2 2P2O5
b. Decomposition or dissociation or analysis reaction
The chemical reaction in which a single reactant is decomposed into two or more
products is called decomposition reaction. For examples;
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
2H2O 2H2 + O2
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
c. Displacement Reaction
The chemical reaction in which the atom or radical of one reactant is displaced by
another is called displacement reaction. It can again be divided into two types:

132 | Chemical Reaction

 i) Single Displacement Reaction In a chemical reaction, if one atom or
radical displaces another from its compound, it is called displacement
reaction. For examples;
Zn+H2SO4 ZnSO4+H2
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
ii) Double Displacement reaction: In this type of chemical reaction, both the
reactant molecules are decomposed into opposite ions and give the new
products after exchanging the corresponding opposite ions. Such type of
reactions usually occur in solution and give precipitate as the products.
So, this reaction is also known as precipitation reaction. For examples;
CaCl2 + 2AgNO3 Ca(NO3)2 +2AgCl
NaCl + AgNO3 NaNO3 + AgCl
Na2CO3 + MgCl2 2NaCl + MgCO3
d) Acid-base or Neutralization Reaction
In this type of chemical reaction, an acid reacts with a base to give salt and water. Here,
acid and base both lose their own properties to give neural products. The resultant
products do not resemble any of the reactants. Hence, acid-base reaction is also known
as neutralization reaction.
Acid + Base Salt + Water
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
H2SO4 + 2NH4OH (NH4)2SO4 + H2O

MEMORY TIPS
The solid and insoluble substance produced during a double displacement reaction is
called precipitate.
NaCl + AgNO3 NaNO3 + AgCl ↓
Here, AgCl is the precipitate and is indicated by '↓' in a chemical reaction.

QUESTIONS
# Define: i) Addition reaction, ii) Decomposition reaction
# Why is acid-base reaction called the neutralization reaction?

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 133

Rate of Chemical Reaction
In nature, some reactions occur violently while some take a long time to complete.
The factors like heat, temperature, pressure, catalyst, electricity also affect the rate of
chemical reaction.
Rate of reaction refers to the amount of a reactant which is converted into a product in per
unit time.
Conditions for chemical reaction and factors affecting the rate of reactions
i) Contact: For any reaction to occur, there must be a contact between the
substances.
ii) Heat: Some reactions need heat to occur. They are known as endothermic
reaction. For example: when calcium carbonate is heated then only calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide is formed.
∆
CaCO3 CaO+CO2
Heat also plays an important role in the rate of reaction. Generally, the rate
of reaction increases with the increase in temperature. With the increase in
temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases hereby increasing the
chance of collision of molecules. So, the rate of the reaction increases with the
increase in temperature.
iii) Light: There are some reactions which occur in the presence of light only. For
example;
Sunlight
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Sunlight
2AgBr 2Ag + Br2
Sunlight
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
iv) Pressure: By the application of pressure, the volume of reactant molecules
decreases. Thus, by creating more chance of collision between the reactant
molecules the rate of reaction increases.
Example: During the manufacturing of ammonia gas by Haber's process, the
atmospheric pressure of about 200-500 is necessary.
Fe/MnO2
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
200-500 atm
v) Catalyst: The substances which alter the rate of reaction without taking part
in the reaction themselves are called catalysts. Their concentration remains
unchanged till the end of reaction. There are two types of catalysts:
a) positive catalyst b) negative catalyst
a. Positive Catalyst: They increase the rate of reaction. For example; MnO2
helps in decomposition of KClO3 and H2O2.

134 | Chemical Reaction

 MnO2
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
MnO2
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
Iron helps in the manufacturing of ammonia gas
Fe/MnO2
3H2 + N2 2NH3
200-500 atm
b. Negative Catalyst: They decrease the rate of reaction. For example; Glycerin
decreases the rate of decomposition of H2O2.
Glycerine
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
Characteristics of catalyst
i. The amount and chemical nature of the catalyst remain the same at the end
of the chemical reaction.
ii Catalysts do not initiate the chemical reaction but they change the rate of the
chemical reaction after initiation.
vi) Electricity: Some reactions need electricity to proceed. For example;
2H2O 2H2 + O2
N2 + 2O2 2NO2
vii) Solution: The reactions which do not occur in solid forms may take place when
the reactants are used in the solution form. For example;
NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3
viii) Concentration: Generally, the concentrated reactants react at a higher speed due
to more density of reactant molecules, thereby increasing the chance of collision.
It is experimentally found that the reaction between sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)
and HCl takes place quickly as the concentration of Na2S2O3 goes on increasing.

MEMORY TIPS
a) In the manufacturing of vegetable ghee, Nickel (Ni) is used as a catalyst.
b) Similarly, other catalysts are Platinum (Pt), Rhodium, etc.

QUESTIONS
# Define a catalyst. How does it affect the rate of reaction.
# Explain how the concentration and temperature affects the rate of reaction.

MOLE CONCEPT
Since the reaction takes place in the atomic or molecular level, they cannot be seen
through naked eyes, and they cannot be isolated either. There is a new concept to deal
with them, known as mole concept.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 135

Mole is defined as the collection of atoms or molecules or ions or any sub-atomic particles equal
in number of 6.023×1023. It is also known as Avogadro's number.
One mole of any substance contains 22.5 litres of substance at the normal temperature
and pressure (NTP).
One mole substance also contains one gram atomic weight or one gram molecular weight.

MEMORY TIPS
a) Normal Temperature and pressure refer to 25ºC and 1 atmospheric pressure (1 atm)
b) If the molecular weight or atomic weight of substance is expressed in terms of gram,
then it is known as gram molecular weight or gram atomic weight respectively.
i.e. Molecular weight of NaCl is 58 amu. So, gram molecular weight of NaCl is 58gm.

SOLVEDNumerical
1. How much gram of H2O is present in 2 moles of water?
Solution:
Molecular weight of H2O = 2×1+16 = 18
∴ Gram molecular weight of H2O = 18gm
Thus, 1 mole H2O contains 18 gm of H2O.
∴ 2 moles H2O contains (2×18) = 32 gm of H2O
2. How many grams of potassium chloride and oxygen is obtained when 10 gram
KClO3 is heated with MnO2?
Solution:
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
2(39+35+3×16) 2(39+35) 3(2×16)
244 148 96
 244 grams of KClO3 produces 148 gm of KCl
148
∴ 10 grams of KClO3 produces × 10 gm of KCl = 6.06 gm of KCl
244
Similarly, 244 grams of KClO3 gives 96 gm of O2
∴ 10 grams of KClO3 gives 3.94gm of O2

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1) Define chemical reaction with example.
Ü The chemical change in which there is addition, dissociation or exchange of
atoms or molecules of the substance is called chemical reaction. As a result of
chemical reaction, new products are formed. For example,
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
Hydrochloric acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride Water

136 | Chemical Reaction

2) Write down the differences between single decomposition and double
decomposition reaction with examples.
Ü In single displacement reaction, one molecule is decomposed into two or more
products whereas in double decomposition reaction, both the reactant molecules
are decomposed into opposite ions and give new products after exchanging the
corresponding opposite ions.
Single decomposition reaction,
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
Here one molecule of potassium chlorate is decomposed into potassium chloride
and oxygen.
Double decomposition reaction,
NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3
Here, both the reactants are decomposed into opposite ions and they give new
products after exchanging the opposite ions; as shown below:
Na+ + Cl ¯ + Ag+ + NO3 ¯ AgCl + NaNO3
3) How much gram of calcium oxide (CaO) is obtained when 10g of calcium
carbonate or limestone is decomposed completely after heating?
Ü Solution:
∆
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
40+12+48 40+16 12+32
100 56 44
Here, 100 gm of CaCO3 gives 56 gm of CaO
56
1 gm of CaCO3 gives gm of CaO
100
56
10 gm of CaCO3 gives × 10 gm of CaO =5.6 gm CaO
100
4) What is the function of the catalyst in chemical reaction? Write down their
types with examples.
Ü Catalysts are those chemical substances which are used to increase or decrease
the rate of chemical reaction. After changing the rate of reaction, they remain
unchanged at the end of reaction. On the basis of their action, they are of two
types:
a) Positive catalyst: They increase the rate of chemical reaction. For example,
manganese dioxide (MnO2), Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), etc.
b) Negative catalyst: They decrease the rate of chemical reaction. For
example: Glycerine, gypsum, etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 137

5) What happens when magnesium ribbon is burnt in air?
Ü When magnesium ribbon is burnt in air, it gives magnesium oxide.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
6) What is the rate of reaction? What are the factors that affect the rate of reaction?
Ü The amount of a reactant that is converted into a product in per unit time is
called the rate of reaction. The different factors like temperature, pressure,
catalyst, contact, solution, etc. affect the rate of reaction.

SUMMARY
 All the chemical changes occurring in a substance is called chemical reaction.
 Chemical reactions can be expressed in terms of equations called chemical equation.
 Chemical reaction may be exothermic or endothermic.
 There are mainly four types of chemical reaction. They are
a) Addition reaction b) Decomposition reaction
c) Displacement reaction d) Acid-base reaction
 Catalysts are the substances which do not take part in chemical reaction but alter the rate
of reaction.
 The factors affecting the chemical reaction are heat, light, pressure, catalyst, concentration
of reactants, etc.
 The amount of reactant which is converted into a product in per unit time is called the rate of
chemical reaction.
 One mole = 6.023×1023 atoms/ molecules/particles.
 One mole = gram molecular weight = gram atomic weight.
 Generally the rate of reaction increases with the increase in temperature.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define the following terms with example:

(a) Physical change (b) Displacement reaction
(c) Chemical change (d) Decomposition reaction
(e) Chemical reaction (f) Acid-base reaction
(g) Balanced chemical equation (h) Rate of reaction
(i) Exothermic reaction (j) Atomic mass unit (amu)
(k) Endothermic reaction (l) Gram molecular weight
(m) Addition reaction (n) Reactant and product
2. Write two differences between:
(a) reactants and products.
(b) exothermic and endothermic reaction.
(c) word equation and symbolic equation.
(d) reversible and irreversible reaction.

138 | Chemical Reaction

3. Give reasons:
(a) Addition reaction is also known as synthesis reaction.
(b) Acid-base reaction is also known as neutralization reaction.
(c) It is necessary to balance the chemical equation.
(d) Rusting of iron is a chemical change.
4. Define catalysts and mention their types with examples.
5. What is balanced chemical equation? What information do you get from it?
6. What is the rate of chemical reaction? Describe the factors that affect the rate of
reaction.
7. What are the limitations of chemical equation?
8. Write down the modifications which have been made in the chemical equation.
9. What is Avogadro number? Write its value.
10. Define mole and gram molecular weight.
11. Translate the following word equations into balanced formula equations.
(a) Calcium chloride + Silver nitrate Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate.
heat
(b) Potassium chlorate Potassium chloride + Oxygen
(c) Sulphuric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium sulphate + Water
(d) Ammonium chloride + Calcium hydroxide Calcium chloride + Ammonia + Water
(e) Iron + Oxygen Iron oxide
(f) Lead nitrate Lead oxide + Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen
(g) Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide
(h) Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide Calcium carbonate + Water
(i) Lead oxide + Carbon Carbon monoxide + Lead
(j) Iron + Sulphur Iron sulphide
12. Calculate the molecular weight of the following compounds.
(a) H2SO4 (b) KClO3 (c) CaCO3 (d) H2O
(e) K2SO4 (f) KOH (g) HNO3 (h) CaO
13. Solve the given numerical problems:
(a) How many grams of MgO is obtained when 5 grams of magnesium oxide is
strongly heated?
(b) 10g NaOH is treated with HCl to get NaCl. Find the weight of NaCl.
(c) How many moles of water is present in 1.8g of water.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Collision : crash into each other
Kinetic energy : energy produced due to the motion of particles
Polymer : long or large molecule


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 139

 UNIT

9 Acid, Base and Salt

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
Although there are millions of compounds (both organic
and inorganic) in the world, they all can be grouped into
three classes i.e., acids, bases and salts. These substances
have some more common distinguishable properties than
other substances. In this chapter, we will be able to define
these compounds with their common characteristics, their
common methods of preparation, their properties and their
uses.
Svante August Arrhenius
(1859)
ACID
Svante August Arrhenius was
born on February 19, 1859, the Robert Boyle in 1663 named a class of compounds as
son of Svante Gustaf Arrhenius
and Carolina Christina acids, which have a sour taste, reacts with metals to evolve
Thunberg. His ancestors were hydrogen and changes blue litmus paper into red.
farmers; his uncle became
Professor of Botany and Rector Thus, acids are the compounds that give hydrogen ions (H+)
of the Agricultural High school
at Ultuno near Uppsala and when dissolved into water, which neutralize base, turn blue
later secretary of the Swedish
litmus into red and have a sour taste.
Academy of Agriculture. His
father was a land surveyor For example; Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid
employed by the University of
Uppsala and in charge of its (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3), Acetic acid (CH3COOH),
estates at Vik, where Svante
was born. The family moved
Formic acid (HCOOH), etc.
to Uppsala in 1860. The boy
was educated at the Cathedral Types of Acids
school where the rector was a
good physics teacher. From an Acids may be organic or inorganic according to their source.
early age, Svante had shown
And, they may be weak or strong according to their strength.
an aptitude for arithmetical
calculates, and at school he was
greatly interested in mathematics
i) Organic Acids
and physics. In 1876, he entered
the University of Uppsala, The acids which are present in animals' or plants' bodies or their
studying mathematics, chemistry products are called organic acids. They are the compounds of
and physics. The practical
instruction in physics was not carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are also called carboxylic
of the best, and in 1881 he
went to Stockholm to work
acids. All organic acids are weak acids and they are a bad
under Professor [Link] at the conductor of electricity. Some organic acids with their sources
Academy of Sciences.
are enlisted below.

140 | Acid, Base and Salt

 Organic Acids Sources
Citric acid Grapes, orange, lemon
Malic acid Apple
Oxalic acid Tomatoes
Lactic acid Milk
Tannic acid Tea
Acetic acid Vinegar/pickle
Amino acid Protein
Carbonic acid Aerated drinks
ii) Inorganic Acid (Mineral acids)
The acids which are obtained from minerals present in the earth's crust are called mineral
acids. They contain elements other than carbon. They may be strong as well as weak.
They may be good or bad conductors of electricity. For example; Hydrochloric acid
(HCl), Nitric acid (HNO3), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Ants inject formic acid into the body of organisms when they bite. So their biting produces
burning sensation.
i) Strong Acids : The acids which are ionized completely into their opposite ions
when dissolved in water are called strong acids. For example; HCl, H2SO4, HNO3,
H2CO3, etc.
ii) Weak Acids : The acids which do not ionize completely into their ions when
dissolved in water are called weak acids. For example; Formic acid, acetic acid,
oxalic acid, etc.

Differences between organic and mineral acids

Organic acids Mineral acids
1. They are obtained from living 1. They are obtained from minerals
organisms (plant and animal). present on the earth’s crust.
2. They are weak acids. 2. They are strong as well as weak acids.
3. They are poor conductors of 3. They are poor as well good conductors
electricity due to less production of of electricity.
hydrogen ions.
Classification of acids on the basis of strength
On the basis of strength, acids are classified into two groups.

i. Strong acids
Those acids which undergo almost complete ionization in an aqueous solution to give hydrogen
ions are called strong acids. They are good donors of hydrogen ions and good conductors

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 141

of electricity. Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, etc. are the examples of
strong acid.
Strong
HCl (in water)
H+ + Cl–
Strong
H2SO4 (in water)
2H+ + SO4– –
Strong
HNO3 (in water)
H+ + NO3–

ii. Weak acids

Those acids which do not undergo almost complete ionization in an aqueous solution to give
hydrogen ions are called weak acids. Citric acid, acetic acid, carbonic acid, tartaric acid,
etc. are weak acids. They are poor hydrogen donor as well as poor conductors of
electricity.
Weak
CH3COOH (in water)
CH3COO– + H+

MEMORY TIPS
(i) Double headed arrow ( ) indicates the reversible reaction.
(ii) All organic acids are weak acids.
(iii) HCl is also present in the stomach of animals but it is an inorganic acid because it
does not have carbon atom.
(iv) H2CO3 contains carbon atom but it is obtained from mineral hence it is an inorganic acid.

Difference between strong and weak acids

Strong acids Weak acids
1. They undergo almost complete 1. They do not undergo complete
ionization to give the hydrogen ions. ionization to give the hydrogen ions.
2. They are corrosive in nature. 2. They are less corrosive in nature.
3. They are good conductors of 3. They are poor conductors of
electricity. electricity.

QUESTIONS
# What are acids? Why are organic acids poor conductors of electricity?
# Strong acids are corrosive in nature. Justify this statement.
# Acids undergo ionization to give hydrogen ions. Show it with some examples.

Characteristics of acids
Acids have the following characteristics:
1. They have a sour taste and are corrosive in nature. Strong acids are more
corrosive and burn our skin, tongue, etc.

142 | Acid, Base and Salt

2. They contain hydrogen and when they are dissolved in water, they furnish it in
the solution.
HCl H+ + Cl–
H2SO4 2H+ + SO4– –
3. They turn blue litmus paper to red, methyl orange to red and phenolphthalein
to colourless.
4. Acid solution can conduct the electricity.
5. They neutralize the base to give salt and water.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
6. They react with metals to give hydrogen gas.
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
7. They react with carbonates and bicarbonates to give carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
8. They react with sulphates and bisulphates to give sulphur dioxide.
CaSO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + SO2
NaHSO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + SO2
9. They react with sulphides to give hydrogen sulphide gas.
ZnS + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2S
Uses of Acids
1. Nitric acid (HNO3) is used to make fertilizers like ammonium nitrate, calcium
ammonium nitrate, etc.
2. Nitric acid is used to make explosives like TNT, nitroglycerine, etc.
3. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used to make fertilizers like ammonium sulphate,
superphosphate, etc.
4. Sulphuric acid is used in the batteries of cars.
5. Sulphuric acid is used as a dehydrating agent in chemical reactions.
6. Hydrochloric acid is used in tanning and printing industries.
7. Carbonic acid is used in soft drinks.
8. Boric acid is used as eyewash.
9. Acetic acid is used in flavouring food.
10. Citric acid is used in medicines as a source of vitamin – C.

MEMORY TIPS
TNT (Trinitrotoluene) is an explosive substance.

QUESTIONS
# Write down any five uses of acids.
# Mention any four characteristics of acids.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 143

BASE
Antacid is used to cure excessive acidity in the stomach. The antacid contains a base
magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2. It is also known as the milk of magnesium. Similarly,
a common household glass cleaner contains a base (ammonia). Calcium oxide is used
to neutralize the acidic nature of soil. Sodium hydroxide is used in making soap,
paper, pulp, medicine, rayon, etc. All the above bases are either metallic oxides or
hydroxides.
Metallic oxides and hydroxides are called bases.

MEMORY TIPS
All bases are not bitter, only the hydroxide of alkali metals are bitter.
Some example of bases are sodium oxide (Na2O), magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium oxide
(CaO), potassium oxide (K2O), copper oxide (CuO), etc.
Alkalis
There are many bases but only some bases which are soluble in water to give
hydroxides are called alkalis. These metallic oxides or hydroxides when dissolve in
water give hydroxyl ions.
Those metallic oxides which are soluble in water to give hydroxides are called alkalis.

MEMORY TIPS
Only 13 types of hydroxides are soluble to be known as alkali. They are: 6 hydroxides of alkali
metals (metals of group IA viz. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs & Fr), 6 hydroxides of alkaline earth metals
(metals of group IIA viz. Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba & Ra) and ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH).
Some example of alkalis are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH),
calcium hydroxide {Ca(OH)2}, aluminium hydroxide {Al(OH)3}, etc.
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH
K2O + H2O 2KOH
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
The above alkalis undergo ionization to give opposite ions.
NaOH Na+ + OH–
KOH K+ + OH–
Ca(OH)2 Ca++ + 2OH–

MEMORY TIPS
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is a single alkali which has no metal.
Most of the metals react with oxygen to give metallic oxides, which are called the
base but most of the bases are insoluble in water and only few bases that are soluble

144 | Acid, Base and Salt

in water to give hydroxide are called alkalis. Hence, all bases are not alkalis but all
alkalis are bases.

MEMORY TIPS
All metallic oxides are bases but only some metallic oxides which are soluble in water to
give hydroxides are called alkalis. So all bases are not alkalis but all alkalis are bases.

Differences between base and alkalis

Bases Alkalis
1. Metallic oxides are called bases. 1. Water soluble metallic oxides or
metallic hydroxides are called alkalis.
2. They may be water soluble or 2. They are water-soluble.
insoluble. Example: Na2O, K2O, CaO, Examples: NaOH, KOH, Mg(OH)2,
MgO, Al2O3, CuO, etc. etc.
Types of bases
On the basis of strength, there are two types of bases. They are:
(a) Strong base : Those bases, which undergo almost complete ionization to give
a high concentration of hydroxyl ions in an aqueous solution, are called strong
bases.
Some examples of strong bases are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
hydroxide (KOH), calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, etc.
(b) Weak bases : Those bases which do not undergo almost complete ionization
in an aqueous solution and give very a low concentration of hydroxyl ions are
called weak bases.
Some examples of weak bases are copper hydroxide, ferric hydroxide,
ammonium hydroxide, etc.
Preparation of bases
1. By direct combination of metals with oxygen
Metals + Oxygen Metallic oxide
2Na + O2 Na2O
2K + O2 K2O
2Ca + O2 2CaO
2. By heating metallic carbonates
heat
Metallic carbonates Metal oxide + carbon dioxide
∆
CaCO3 CaO + CO2

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 145

3. By heating metallic nitrates
heat
Metallic nitrates Metal oxide + Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen
∆
2Cu(NO3)2 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2
4. By the reaction of alkali metals with water
Metal + Water Metallic hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2 ↑
2K + 2H2O 2KOH + H2 ↑

Properties of Bases
1. Some of the bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch.
2. They change red litmus paper to blue, methyl orange to yellow and phenolphthalein
to pink.
3. Alkalis absorb carbon dioxide from air and form the carbonates.
Alkalis + Carbon dioxide Carbonate + Water
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
4. Bases react with acid to form salt and water (i.e. neutralization reaction)
Base + Acid Salt + Water
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O
5. Alkalis react with ammonium salts to give ammonia gas.
Alkalis + Ammonium salts Salt + Water + Ammonium
NaOH + NH4Cl NaCl + H2O + NH3
6. Heavy metal salts react with alkalis to produce insoluble metal hydroxides.
Heavy metal salt + Alkalis Hydroxide + Salt
CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4

Uses of Bases
1. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in the manufacturing of soap, detergents, paper,
rayon, etc.
2. Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] is used in the manufacturing of bleaching powder,
to decrease hardness of water, to neutralize the acidity of soil, washing walls, etc.
3. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used in batteries, to precipitate soap, in the
manufacturing of soap, etc.
4. Lime water (Ca(OH)2) is used as a laboratory reagent.

146 | Acid, Base and Salt

5. Aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH)3], magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], etc. are used
to reduce hyper-acidity of the stomach.
6. Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is used as a laboratory reagent.

SALT
Let us observe the following chemical reactions.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + NaOH NaHSO4 + H2O
In the first reaction, hydrogen of acid is replaced by metal whereas in the second
reaction only one hydrogen of sulphuric acid is replaced by metal. In both the above
reactions, the product is salt.
Salts are those chemical substances which are formed by the replacement of hydrogen of acid by
metal or ammonium radicals.
Generally salts are neutral substances but some may be acidic and some may be basic
in nature. The process by which salts are prepared by the reaction of acid with base is
called neutralization reaction.
Acid + Base Salt + Water
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + 2KOH K2SO4 + 2H2O
Classification of salts
We have studied that salts are the products of neutralization of acids and bases.
Therefore, we expect salts to have neutral (pH = 7). In fact, solutions of salts may be
neutral or basic or acidic depending upon the nature of the acid and base used. Some
examples of different types of salts are given below.
Salts Parent acid Parent base Nature
NaCl, K2SO4 Strong Strong Neutral
NH4Cl Strong Weak Acidic
CH3COONa, Na2CO3 Weak Strong Basic
CH3COONH4 Weak Weak Neutral
Thus, salts can be classified into neutral, acidic or basic salts depending upon their pH
value and nature of their parent acids and bases.
i) Neutral salts
Salts that are formed when a strong acid is neutralized by a strong base or weak acid by weak
base are called neutral salts. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium sulphate
(Na2SO4), potassium chloride (KCl), etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 147

ii) Acidic salts
Salts that are formed when a strong acid is neutralized by a weak base are called acidic salts. For
example, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), aluminium sulphate [Al2(SO4)3], ammonium
nitrate NH4NO3, etc.
iii) Basic salts
Salts that are formed when a weak acid is neutralized by strong base are called basic salts. For
example, sodium acetate (CH3COONa), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), etc.
Properties of salts
1. Salts are mostly solids.
2. Salts are usually soluble in water but there are certain salts which are not soluble
in water. For example, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate,
silver chloride, lead chloride, etc.
3. Solution of salts conduct electricity.
4. Solutions of salts may be neutral, acidic or alkaline.
5. Some salts are amorphous whereas some are crystalline.
6. Some salts are white in colour or colourless whereas some are colourful.
Preparation of salts
Salts can be prepared in the following ways:
1. By direct combination of metals and non-metals
Metal + Non-metal Salt
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3
2. By the reaction of metal with acid
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
3. By the reaction of acid with base
Acid + Base Salt + Water
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
HCl + KOH KCl + H2O
4. By the reaction of acid with carbonates
Acid + Carbonates Salt + water + carbon dioxide
HCl + 2CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Uses of salts
1. Common salt (NaCl) is used in our food and also as preservatives.
2. Washing soda (Na2CO3 . 10H2O) is used to make glasses and chemicals for food
and drink industries.

148 | Acid, Base and Salt

3. Baking soda (NaHCO3) is used as baking powder.
4. Potash alum (phitkiri) (K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O) is used for purifying water.
5. Calcium sulphate (gypsum) (CaSO4 . 2H2O) is used in cement and to manufacture
plaster of paris.
6. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) is used for the treatment of sores and infections.
7. Iron sulphate (FeSO4 . 7H2O) is an important constituent of blue–black ink.
8. Copper sulphate (CuSO4 . 5H2O) is used as a fungicide.
9. Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is used to manufacture fertilizers and explosive.

QUESTIONS
# Describe different methods of salt preparation with examples.
# Write down any five uses of salts.
# Define neutral salts, acidic salts and basic salts with examples.

NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
The chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react together to give salt and water is called
neutralization reaction. In neutralization reaction, acid loses its acidic property and
base loses its basic property. Therefore, this reaction is also called acid base rection.

Application of the neutralization reaction

i. Farmers use lime in the soil to neutralize the acidic nature of the soil.
ii. We use antacid (magnesium hydroxide) to reduce the acidity of the stomach.
iii. Formic acid enters into our body when honey bees and ants bite us. To neutralize
the effect of formic acid, we use soap.
iv. Alkalis enters into our body when some insects bite us. To neutralize the effect of
this alkalis, we use acetic acid around the wound.

INDICATORS (Note: In new curriculum of CDC, indicator is not in syllabus.)

Indicators are those chemical substances which help to indicate whether the given substance is
acid or base or neutral by changing its own colour.
Indicators indicate the nature of substances by changing their own colour when they
come in contact with those substances. Indicators do not take part in the chemical
reaction but they show the end point by changing colour. The common indicators are
litmus paper, methyl orange, phenolphthalein etc. The change of colours of common
indicators in acid, base and salt is given below:

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 Colour in acid Colour in basic Colour in salt
S.N. Indicators
solution solution solution
1. Red litmus paper No change in Changes into blue No change in
colour colour colour
2. Blue litmus paper Changes into red No change in No change in
colour colour colour
3. Methyl orange Changes into red Changes into yellow No change in
colour colour colour
4. Phenolphthalein No change in Changes into pink No change in
colour colour colour
Ordinary Indicators
Those indicators which indicate only whether the given substance is acid or base or salt are
called ordinary indicators.
Litmus paper, methyl orange, phenolphthalein are some examples of ordinary
indicators. They are obtained from the parts of plants like flowers, roots, leaves, etc.

Universal Indicators
Those indicators which indicate whether the given substance is acid or base or salt with their
strength are called universal indicators.
They are obtained by mixing two or more ordinary indicators. Universal indicators
change their colour and it is matched with the colour in pH chart to determine the
strength of solution.
Differences between ordinary and universal indicators.
Ordinary indicators Universal indicators
1. They only indicate whether the given 1. They indicate whether the given
substance is acid, base or salt. substance is acid, base or salt with
their strength.
2. They are obtained from the parts of 2. They are obtained by mixing many
plants like leaves, flowers and roots, ordinary indicators, e.g. pH paper.
e.g. litmus paper, methyl orange,
phenolphthalein.

pH
The measure of hydrogen ions concentration in the given solution is called pH.
The solution which has more hydrogen ions concentration will have low a pH value
whereas the solution which has less hydrogen ions concentration will have more pH
value. More hydrogen ions concentration indicates acid solution and low hydrogen
ions concentration indicates base solution.

150 | Acid, Base and Salt

pH scale
The standard scale which is used to measure the hydrogen ions concentration in the solution
is called pH scale.
It ranges from one to fourteen. The middle point of this scale (i.e. 7) indicates the
neutral solution. The points below 7 indicate acid solution and the points above 7
indicate basic solution. One is the strongest acid and fourteen is the strongest base.
In different pH values, there is a different colour. Green colour indicates neutral, red
colour indicates acid and blue colour indicates base.
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red colour Pink Yellow Green Greenish Light Blue Deep blue
for (Strong colour colour colour Blue colour Blue colour colour Colour for
Acid) for (Strong base)
Neutral

pH meter
The man-made scientific instrument which is used to measure the pH value of the given
solution directly in the number is called pH meter.
In the pH meter, there is a box, rod and wire. In the box, there are different readings.
This box is connected to the rod with the help of a wire. The rod is dipped into the
solution whose pH value is to be measured.
pH
rod

solution

pH value of some substances

S.N. Compounds pH
1. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 1
2. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 1.2
3. Lemon juice 2.5
4. Juice of apple, vinegar and carbonic acid 3
5. Butter 6
6. Ethanol, water, salt and, sugar solution, 7
7. Blood of human body 7.3
8. Baking soda 8.5
9. Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) 10
10. Sodium carbonate or washing soda (Na2CO3) 11.5
11. Caustic soda or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 13

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 151

 MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. How do you measure the pH value of the soil? Describe it in brief.
Ü To measure the pH value of the soil, take an amount of soil as a sample and keep
it into the test-tube containing water. Then shake it well for some time and allow
it for sedimentation. Filter the solution by using a filter paper. Now add a few
drops of universal indicator in the filtrate. The colour obtained is matched with
the colour of pH paper and thus I find out the pH value of the given sample.
2. How do you know that the given acid is weak or strong?
Ü Strong acid undergoes almost complete ionization and gives more concentration
of hydrogen ions. Hence, it is more corrosive and is a good conductor of electricity
in comparison to the weak acid.
3. Organic acids are weak acids. Justify this statement.
Ü Generally organic acids are obtained from living organisms and they undergo
much less ionization in the aqueous solution to give hydrogen ions. Hence, they
are weak acids and a poor conductor of electricity.
4. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is secreted from the stomach of the animals even it is
inorganic acid. Why?
Ü Hydrochloric acid is also obtained from living organisms but it has no carbon
atom. Hence, it is an inorganic acid.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define the following terms with examples:

(a) Acid (b) Base (c) Salt (d) Alkalis
(e) pH (f) pH scale (g) Indicators
2. Write two differences between:
(a) acid and base
(b) organic and inorganic acids
(c) ordinary and universal indicators
(d) Bases and alkalis
(e) Strong and weak acids
3. Give reason.
(a) All alkalis are base but all bases are not alkalis.
(b) Ammonium chloride is an acidic salt.
(c) Sodium hydroxide is a strong base.
4. Define acids. Write down any four examples of acids.
5. Write any four characteristics of acids.
6. Write down any four uses of acids.

152 | Acid, Base and Salt

7. Define base with some examples.
8. Write down any three methods of base preparation with a chemical equation.
9. What are alkalis? Why is it said that all alkalis are base?
10. What do you understand by neutralization reaction? Describe it with examples.
11. Write down any five uses of base.
12. Define salt. Describe in brief the acidic and basic salts with examples.
13. Write any five uses of salts.
14. What are indicators? How are ordinary indicators prepared? Describe them in
short.
15. What is the main difference between ordinary and universal indicators?
16. What are pH, pH scale and pH meter?
17. How do you measure the pH value of soil? Describe it in brief.
18. Complete the given equations and balance them.
(a) HCl + NaOH
(b) NH4OH + HCl
(c) Al2O3 + H2O
(d) NaOH + H2SO4
(e) CuO + H2SO4
19. Complete the table.
Colour Change
Indicators
Acid Base Salt
Red litmus paper
Blue litmus paper
Methyl orange
Phenolphthalein

A
B
C GLOSSARY
Various : several different
Aqueous : containing water
Corrosive : tending to destroy sth by chemical action
Concentration : a lot of something in one place (no. of molecules present per unit volume of solution)


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 153

 UNIT

10 Some Gases
Ammonia
p=1
n=0
About the Scientist
Molecular formula : NH3
Molecular weight : 17
p=7
n=7
p=1
Nature: Basic n=0

p=1

INTRODUCTION n=0

Ammonia is a compound gas which has one nitrogen atom

and three hydrogen atoms. They are bonded together by
covalent bonding. Lavoisier first prepared ammonia gas by
heating ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide and its
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
(1743 – 1794) chemical composition was studied by Barthecol and Davy.
Born to a wealthy family in Ammonia is a lighter gas. Amount of this gas is present in
Paris, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier air, soil and rainwater. Since it is highly soluble in water,
inherited a large fortune at the atmospheric ammonia is converted into ammonium
age of five with the passing of his
hydroxide when it comes in contact with water. In
mother. He attended the College
Mazarin in 1754 to 1761, combined state, it is present in different types of nitrogenous
studying chemistry, botany, compounds like ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate,
astronomy, and mathematics. ammonium phosphate, etc.
His education was filled with the
ideals of the French. General methods of preparation of ammonia gas
Lavoisier also demonstrated the 1. By heating ammonium salts
role of oxygen in the rusting of
metal, as well as oxygen’s role
Ammonium salts like ammonium chloride, ammonium
in animal and plant respiration. sulphate, ammonium carbonate, etc. give ammonia gas
Working with Pierre-Simon after heating.
Laplace, Lavoisier conducted ∆
experiments that showed that
(NH4)2 CO3 2NH3 ↑ + CO2 + H2O
respiration was essentially a slow (Ammonium carbonate) (Ammonia)
combustion of organic material ∆
using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier’s
(NH4)2 SO4 2NH3 + H2SO4
explanation of combustion (Ammonium sulphate)
disproved the phlogiston theory,
2. By heating ammonium salts with strong base
which postulated that materials
released a substance called When ammonium salts like ammonium chloride, ammonium
phlogiston when they burned. sulphate, ammonium carbonate, etc. react with strong base
like sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, etc then they
give ammonia gas.

154 | Some Gases

 ∆
NH4Cl + KOH KCl + H2O + NH3 ↑
(NH4)2 SO4 + 2KOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2NH3↑
Laboratory preparation of ammonia gas
Principle
In the laboratory, ammonia gas can be prepared by heating a mixture of ammonium
chloride and calcium hydroxide in the ratio of 2 : 1.
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3 ↑
Apparatus required
i) Hard glass test tube ii) Delivery tube iii) Gas Jar
iv) Bunsen burner v) Stand vi) Red litmus paper
Chemicals required
i) Ammonium chloride – NH4Cl
ii) Calcium hydroxide – Ca (OH)2

Ammonia gas

Gas jar

Burner
Delivery tube Red litmus paper

Laboratory preparation of Ammonia Gas

Procedure
The mixture of ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide is prepared in the ratio
of 2: 1 and kept within a hard glass test tube. All the apparatus as are arranged
according to the given figure. Heat is supplied with the help of Bunsen burner. When
both chemicals react together, they produce ammonia gas which is passed through the
delivery tube and collected in the gas jar by downward displacement of the air.
Precautions
1. The apparatus should be made airtight.
2. The hard glass test tube should be slightly inclined towards its mouth.
3. Ammonia gas is collected by the downward displacement of air.
4. Uniform heat should be supplied.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 155

Test of ammonia gas
1. Ammonia is a basic gas so it turns moist red litmus paper into blue colour.
2. It forms white fumes of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) when the glass rod
dipped in hydrochloric acid (HCl) is brought in contact with this gas.
3. We can identify ammonia gas due to its pungent smell.
Manufacture of ammonia gas
For commercial use, ammonia gas is manufactured in a large scale by using Heber’s
process. In this process, 3 : 1 ratio of hydrogen and nitrogen is heated strongly at about
500°C temperature and under 200 to 600 atmospheric pressure in the presence of iron
catalyst and molybdenum promoter.
Fe (catalyst), Mo(Promoter)
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
500°C, 200-600 atm
Conditions required for Heber’s process
1. 500°C temperature and 200-600 atmospheric pressure should be maintained.
2. Powdered iron as a catalyst and molybdenum as a promoter should be used.
3. High concentration of nitrogen and hydrogen should be used.
Properties of ammonia gas
A) Physical properties
1. It is a colourless gas with a pungent smell.
2. It is basic in nature so it turns red litmus paper into blue.
3. It is lighter than air.
4. It is highly soluble in water to give ammonium hydroxide.
B) Chemical properties
1. Reaction with water: Ammonia is highly soluble in water to give ammonium
hydroxide. The resultant solution of ammonium hydroxide is basic in nature.
NH3 + H2O NH4OH (Ammonium hydroxide)
Ammonium hydroxide reacts with acid to give salt and water. For example,
ammonium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to give ammonium chloride
and water.
NH4OH + HCl NH4Cl + H2O
2. Reaction with acids: Since, ammonia is a basic gas so it reacts with acids to give
salt. For example, ammonia gives ammonium chloride with hydrochloric acid
and ammonium sulphate with sulphuric acid.
NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
3. Reaction with carbon dioxide (CO2): ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to
give urea.
1500°C
2NH3 + CO2 NH2CONH2 + H2O
Urea

156 | Some Gases

4. Combustibility: Ammonia is a non-combustible gas and it does not support in
combustion but it burns in oxygen to give nitrogen and water.
4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2O

Uses of ammonia gas

1. Ammonia is used in the manufacturing of nitrogenous fertilizers like urea,
ammonium phosphate, ammonium sulphate, etc.
2. Liquid ammonia is used as a cooling agent in the refrigerator.
3. It is used in manufacturing nitric acid, washing soda, plastics, etc.
4. It is used as a cleaning agent to remove oil, grease, fat, etc.
5. It is used to develop blue prints of a map.

ACTIVITY
Objective: To show that ammonia is highly soluble in water and Ammonia with
basic in nature. water
Materials required: round bottom flask, water trough, stand,
phenolphthalein, etc.
Procedure: We take a round bottom flask
containing ammonia gas and fit it with a delivery
tube. The lower end of the delivery tube is within the Stand
water trough with a few drops of phenolphthalein. Water
The delivery tube carries a jet inside the round
bottom flask. Now, ammonia gas cools down inside Fountain Experiment
the round bottom flask creating low pressure.
Due to difference in the pressure of the round bottom flask and water trough, the water rises in the flask
and forms ammonium hydroxide that is basic in nature. At this time, more vacuum is created inside the
round bottom flask. Hence, water rushes up with high pressure to fill the vacuum, which appears like a
fountain. Now the whole flask becomes pink.
Conclusion: The above activity proves that ammonia is highly soluble in water and basic in nature.

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Why do you take moist red litmus paper near the mouth of the gas jar during
the preparation of ammonia?
Ü We take moist red litmus paper near the mouth of the gas jar to test whether the
gas jar is filled with ammonia gas or not. We know that ammonia is a basic gas.
When it comes in contact with water, it gives ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
so it turns the red colour of litmus paper into blue.
2. Why do we collect the ammonia gas in the inverted gas jar?
Ü Ammonia is lighter than air, so it is collected in the inverted gas jar displacing
the air downward.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 157

3. Sometimes, we use a lime tower (CaO) during the preparation of ammonia gas.
Why?
Ü Lime or calcium oxide (CaO) absorbs the moisture of ammonia gas. As a result,
we get pure ammonia gas.
4. We should make the hard glass test tube slightly inclined during laboratory
preparation of ammonia gas. Why?
Ü When ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide react together, they give
water as one of the products. This water is liquefied and collected at the bottom
of the test tube and may cause the cracking. So, to protect it from the cracking of
hard glass test tube it should be slanted.
5. What will happen when kerosene is kept in place of water during the fountain
experiment?
Ü Because kerosene does not form the ammonium hydroxide with ammonia and
so it does not give the pink coloured fountain.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Write down the principle of the laboratory preparation of ammonia gas with a
balanced chemical equation and draw a well-labeled diagram of the apparatus
arrangement.
2. Write any three physical and three chemical properties of ammonia gas.
3. What is Heber’s process of the industrial preparation of ammonia gas? Describe
it in brief.
4. What are the uses of ammonia gas? Write down any four.
5. What happens when? Give balanced chemical equation:
(a) Ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide.
(b) Ammonia reacts with water.
(c) Ammonia reacts with sulphuric acid.
(d) Ammonia reacts with nitric acid.
6. Give reasons.
(a) Moist and red litmus paper is taken near the mouth of the gas jar.
(b) Ammonia gas does not pass through water.
(c) Ammonia gas is collected in the inverted gas jar.
(d) Ammonia is a compound gas.

158 | Some Gases

Carbon dioxide
Molecular formula: CO2
p=8 p=6 p=8
Molecular weight: 44 n=8 n=6 n=8

Nature: Acidic

INTRODUCTION
Carbon dioxide is a compound gas which has one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms
bonded together by covalent bond. It is present free as well as in combined state in
the nature. 0.03 percentages of carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere. It comes
in the atmosphere due to burning of fuel, respiration by organisms, volcanic eruption,
etc. In combined state, it is present in carbonates, bicarbonates, etc. Carbon dioxide is
an important gas for photosynthesis.

General methods of preparation of carbon dioxide

1. By the combustion of carbon containing compounds
Carbon dioxide is obtained by the combustion of carbonic compounds like methane,
ethane, carbohydrates, etc.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
2. By the reaction of acid with carbonates and bicarbonates
Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonate of different types of metals to give carbon
dioxide.
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2CO2

Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide gas

Principle
In the laboratory, carbon dioxide gas can be prepared by the reaction of dilute
hydrochloric acid with calcium carbonate (or marble or limestone).
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Apparatus required
i. Woulfe’s bottle ii. Thistle funnel iii. Gas Jar iv. Delivery tube
Chemicals required
i. Calcium carbonate or limestone or marble (CaCO3)
ii. Dilute hydrochloric acid (dil. HCl)

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 159

 Thistle funnel
Dilute Hydrochloric acid

Delivery tube

Woulfe’s bottle
Gas jar

Carbon dioxide

Calcium carbonate (marble chips)

Laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide gas
Procedure
Take a Woulfe’s bottle and keep some pieces of marble in it and arrange all the
apparatuses as shown in the diagram. Pour dilute hydrochloric acid with the help of
a thistle funnel until it covers the marble pieces and lower end of the thistle funnel.
Now, the chemical reaction occurs between the marble and acid producing carbon
dioxide gas. This gas is collected in the gas jar by the upward displacement of air,
passing through the delivery tube.
Test of Carbon dioxide gas
1. We take a burning matchstick near the mouth of the gas jar. If the burning matchstick
extinguishes, it conforms that the gas jar contains the carbon dioxide gas.
2. Carbon dioxide is an acidic gas, so it turns blue colour of litmus paper into red.
3. Carbon dioxide turns lime-water into milky white colour when it is passed
through it. The milky white colour is due to the formation of insoluble calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 ↓+ H2O
(Calcium carbonate)
When carbon dioxide is allowed to pass for a long time then it produces soluble
calcium bicarbonate. As a result of this, milky white colour disappears.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2 (Calcium bicarbonate)
Precautions
1. Woulfe’s bottle should be airtight.
2. Carbon dioxide should be collected by the upward displacement of air.
3. The end of the thistle funnel should be dipped in the solution.
4. The end of the delivery tube should not touched the solution.
Manufacture of carbon dioxide gas
Carbon dioxide is manufactured by heating calcium carbonate (or limestone or
marble). As a result, quick lime (or calcium oxide) is also produced.
CaCO3 ∆ CaO + CO2

160 | Some Gases

Properties of carbon dioxide gas
A) Physical properties
1. Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
2. It is soluble in water to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3).
3. It is acidic in nature. So, it turns blue litmus paper into red.
4. It is a heavier gas.
5. It is a non-combustible gas and also does not support in the combustion.
Dry ice
When carbon dioxide is cooled down below –78°C, it converts into solid form which is known
as dry ice. Dry ice melts without wetting the papers, cloths, etc. It is used in the
refrigerators as a cooling agent.
B) Chemical properties
1. Reaction with water: Carbon dioxide gives carbonic acid (H2CO3) when it is
dissolved in water.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
2. Reaction with ammonia: Carbon dioxide reacts with ammonia to give urea,
which is used as a fertilizer.
CO2 + 2NH3 1500°C NH2 – CO – NH2 + H2O
3. Reaction with magnesium: Carbon dioxide reacts with magnesium to produce
magnesium oxide and carbon.
CO2 + 2Mg ∆ 2MgO + C↓
(Magnesium oxide) (Carbon)
4. Reaction with alkali: Carbon dioxide reacts with alkali solution of sodium
hydroxide to give sodium carbonate and water.
CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O
5. Reaction with limewater: Carbon dioxide reacts with limewater to produce
insoluble calcium carbonate.
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 ↓+ H2O
If more amount of carbon dioxide is passed through this solution, soluble calcium
bicarbonate is obtained.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2
Calcium bicarbonate
6. By photochemical reaction: Green plants use carbon dioxide gas in the presence
of sunlight and water to produce carbohydrate (glucose).
light
6CO2 + 6H2O Chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
(Glucose)
Uses
1. It is used as a fire extinguisher.
2. Solid form of carbon dioxide (i.e. dry ice) is used as a cooling agent in the
refrigerator.
3. It is used in aerated drinks like soda water, coca cola, beer, etc.
4. It is used to manufacture urea.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 161

5. Green plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis process.
6. It is used to purify sugarcane juice.

FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Knob
A fire extinguisher has a metallic cylinder which
contains two sections. The inner most section is Nozzle for gas
made up of a glass bottle containing concentrated Wire gauze
sulphuric acid and the outer section is made by Concentrated H SO2 4

a metallic cover. Outside the glass vessel, there

is saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate. At
the top of the glass vessel, there is a knob. When
Saturated sodium
this knob is pressed inside, the vessel breaks and bicarbonate
sulphuric acid comes out. Now, this acid reacts Metallic cylinder
with sodium bicarbonate producing carbon
dioxide gas. This produced carbon dioxide is sprayed over fire.
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Why do we collect carbon dioxide gas by the upward displacement of air?
Ü Carbon dioxide is a heavier gas. So, it is collected down to the gas jar by the
upward displacement of air.
2. Why does carbon dioxide extinguish fire?
Ü Carbon dioxide covers the burning flame making itself just like a blanket. As a
result of this, it does not allow oxygen gas to enter and finally puts out the fire.
3. We do not use dilute sulphuric acid in place of dilute hydrochloric acid during
the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide. Why?
Ü Dilute sulphuric acid forms calcium sulphate when it reacts with calcium
carbonate. This calcium sulphate is insoluble and remains as an outer layer over
the marble chips which covers the remaining part of marble and does not allow
further reaction. Hence, we do not use dilute sulphuric acid in place of dilute
hydrochloric acid.
4. Carbon dioxide is not collected in the gas jar passing it through water. Why?
Ü Carbon dioxide is slightly soluble in water to give carbonic acid. So, we do not
collect it by passing it through water.
5. Give a suitable reason why bubbles come out when we open a soda water
bottle.
Ü During the manufacturing of soda water, CO2 is dissolved at a high pressure. As
we open the lid of the bottle, pressure decreases and excess CO2 comes out in the
form of bubbles.

162 | Some Gases

 E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Write the principle of the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxide gas with a
balanced chemical equation and draw a well-labeled diagram.
2. Write any two physical properties, two chemical properties and two uses of
carbon dioxide gas.
3. How do you test the carbon dioxide gas? Explain any two methods in brief.
4. Describe the working mechanism of the fire extinguisher in brief.
5. How is carbon dioxide manufactured in a commercial scale? Explain briefly.
6. Write any four chemical properties of CO2 with a balanced chemical equation.
7. Write any four uses of carbon dioxide gas.
8. Write the precautions needed during the laboratory preparation of CO2.
9. Draw the molecular structure of CO2.
10. Give reason.
(a) Lime water becomes milky white when CO2 is passed through it.
(b) Generally CO2 occurs in the lower places like caves, mine, deep well, etc.
(c) CO2 is collected by the upward displacement of air.
(d) We do not use dilute sulphuric acid in place of dilute hydrochloric acid.
(e) A glass vessel is used to keep sulphuric acid inside the fire extinguisher.
(f) A burning matchstick is extinguished when CO2 is passed over it.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Uniform : not varying, the same all times
Fume : smoke, gas, etc. smelling strong
Pungent : having a strong taste or smell
Combustion : a chemical process in which substances combine with the oxygen releasing flame of fire



New Creative Science, Class 10 | 163

 UNIT

11 Metals
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
The smallest particle of a substance is called an element and
there are only one hundred twelve elements known till now.
These elements have their own specific characteristics. On
the basis of their common features, they have been classified
into three groups, metals, non-metals and metalloids. Out of
these three groups, metals are more in numbers than non-
metals and metalloids. More than 80 elements are metals
out of 112 elements. Metals are solid mineral substances
Joseph John Thomson that are usually hard and electro-positive elements, which
(1856) are good conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals are
Joseph John Thomson was born those electronegative elements which are bad conductors
in Cheetham Hill, a suburb of of heat and electricity while the metalloid elements consist
Manchester on December 18,
1856. He enrolled at Owens both the features of metals and non-metals.
College, Manchester, in 1870,
We will discuss in detail about these elements, three groups
and in 1876 entered Trinity
College, Cambridge as a minor of elements and their features.
scholar. Thomson’s early interest
in atomic structure was reflected MEMORY TIPS
in his Treatise on the Motion of
Vortex Rings which won him All the 112 known elements have been put in three groups
the Adams Prize in 1884. His according to their common characteristics i.e. electro-positive
Application of Dynamics to elements-metals, electronegative elements- non-metals and
Physics and Chemistry appeared
in 1886, and in 1892 he had his
having both features of metals and non-metals- metalloids.
Notes.
METALS
Metals are those elements which are electro-positive in nature,
malleable, ductile and a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium
(Ca), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Mercury (Hg), Nickel (Ni), Iron
(Fe), Copper (Cu), etc. are some examples of metals.

NON-METALS
Those elements which are electronegative in nature, do not possess
lustre, which are not good conductors of heat and electricity, which
are not malleable and ductile are called non-metals.

164 | Metals
Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Sulphur (S),
Phosphorus (P), Carbon (C) etc. are some examples of non-metals.

METALLOID
Besides metals and non-metals, there is a third category of elements, which show the
properties of both metals and non-metals. These elements are called metalloids. Boron
(B), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and tellurium (Te) are
the examples of metalloid.

MINERALS
In nature, there are many chemical substances which contain metals along with other
elements. These substances are called minerals. In minerals, there may be high or low
quantity of metals. Hence, all minerals are not suitable to extract metals.
Minerals are those chemical substances which contain metals more or less in amount.

ORES
On the earth’s crust, there are many types of minerals but only some minerals are
suitable to extract metals for commercial purposes. These minerals are called ores. A
metal, may have many ores but only some ores are used in the metallurgical process
to extract the metal.
Ores are those minerals which are used to extract metals for commercial purposes.

METALLURGY
Metallurgy is the entire process to separate pure metals from their respective ores.
The metallurgical process employed for the extraction of metal, depends upon its
physical and chemical properties and also up the impure elements mixed with it. This
process takes the following steps.

CRUSHING AND GRINDING

In this step, the big lumps of ores are crushed and ground into small pieces and then
into powdered form.
Concentration
In this step, unwanted earthly impurities mixed with the powdered ore are removed
through gravity separation, froth floatation, magnetic separation as well as chemical
separation process, etc.
a. Froth Floatation: This method is mainly applicable to sulphide ores. The
powdered ore is mixed in water with little pine oil in a tank. Then compressed
air is passed to agitate mixture. The impurities remain at the bottom and ore
comes to the surface. The froth is skimmed off and washed with water. Thus, the
pure ore in obtained.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 165

b. Gravity separation: This method is applicable when there are lighter impurities
and heavier ores. The powdered ore is washed with current of water. Impure
lighter particles are washed away and heavier ore particles are left behind.
c. Magnetic separation : If the ore is magnetic by nature, this method is applied.
The crushed and ground powdered ore is dropped on the moving belt of the
magnetic roller. As a result, magnet pulls magnetic elements and makes a
separate heap and non-magnetic elements from another heap.
d. Chemical separation : If there are different chemical properties, this method is
applied.

EXTRACTION OF METALS
Separation of metal in a free state is called extraction. The metal is separated from
the concentrated ore. Free metal is obtained through the reduction of oxides. If the
compound is not an oxide, it is changed into oxide form first with high heating. It can
be done by passing excess or limited air. But it should be sufficient to melt the ore.

Calcination
In calcination, the compound is heated excessively with a limited supply of air at a high
temperature to melt it.

Roasting
In roasting process, sulphide ores are converted into oxides by excessive heating with
excess air.

Reduction of Metal Oxides

In this process, combined metals are converted into separate free metals. To convert
reduced oxides into free metals, coke, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, etc. are used. If the
reduction process is done only by using coke, the process is called smelting.

Refining
The last stage of separation is called refining. The crude metal which may contain
impurities is subject to various refining methods to get pure metal is called refining. Generally,
purification is done by an electrolytic process.
In this process, an impure metal is used as anode, a piece of pure metal as cathode and
a solution of soluble salt as electrolyte. Now, a pure metal is collected at the cathode
when an electric current is supplied to it.

166 | Metals
IRON
Symbol: Fe Atomic number: 26 Atomic weight: 55.84 Valency: 2 and 3
Electronic Configuration
Shell K L M N
No. of electrons 2 8 14 2
Orbitals 1s 2
2s 2p
2 6
3s 3p 3d
2 6 6
4s2

Occurrence
Iron is an element. It is a hard and strong metal that is used to make steel. It is also
found in small quantities in blood and food.
Position of iron in periodic table
Iron is a transitional element. It has two outer shells which are incomplete. In its last
shell, there are two electrons. So, its position in periodic table should be in the second
group. But, its position in periodic table is the fourth period and eighth group. It does
not show similarities with the elements of the second group. It shows two valency.
After losing two electrons, it becomes ferrous ion (Fe++) and after losing three electrons
it becomes ferric ion (Fe+++).
Extraction
Iron is hardly found in a free state. It is found as a compound state because of its high
reactive features. It takes reaction with other elements. The main ores in which iron is
found are listed below:
Ores of aluminium
i. Magnetite Fe3O4 ii. Red haematite Fe2O3
iii. Siderite or iron carbonate FeCO3 iv. Iron pyrite Fe2S3
v. Limonite Fe2O3 3H2O
As extraction is a process to obtain something from something. Iron is not found freely
and it is found in different ores. Its main ore is haematite and it contains 72.5% iron.
The following process is done to obtain iron.
a. Crushing and grinding: Haematite ore is crushed and powdered.
b. Concentration: After crushing and making powder, the impurities such as clay,
sand and other dirts are removed by washing it with water.
c. Magnetic process: After concentration, it is separated from non-magnetic
elements through the magnetic separation process.
d. Roasting: The obtained ore is mixed with coal and roasted strongly by passing
hot air. The excess heat helps to change iron carbonate, (FeCO3) into its oxide
form and to drive away moisture, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, etc.
e. Smelting: In this process, the ore is mixed with limestone and coke in the ratio
8 : 1 : 4 and smelted in a blast furnace. As a result, probably 93 to 95% pure iron
is obtained.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 167

f. Purification: The last stage is to purify the crude iron by oxidation method.
The remaining parts like carbon, sulphur, and silicon impurities get oxidised to
their oxides and are removed from crude iron, and the purified iron is ready for
different purposes.

Physical properties of iron

1. Pure iron looks Grey white with shining.
2. It possesses 7.8 specific gravity.
3. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
4. It melts at 1535°C and boils at 2450°C.
5. Pure iron is malleable and ductile.
6. It becomes a strong magnet.

Classification of Iron
On the basis of impurity found in iron, it can be classified into three groups.
1. Pig Iron: It contains 2 to 3% of carbon and 2 to 5% other impure elements such
as sulphur, silicon, phosphorus manganese, etc. It is the most impure iron. It is
melted at 1200°C and can be cast in any shape, so it is called cast iron as well.
2. Wrought iron: It is the purest iron containing only 0.12 to 0.25% of carbon.
3. Steel: It contains 0.5 to 1.6% of carbon. It is hard iron. It melts at 1300°C.

Uses of Iron
1. It is used for different purposes in life such as to make household utensils, roads,
wire, means of transport, building bridge, weapons, tools, etc
2. It is called black gold.
3. It is the foundation of modern development and civilization.
4. It is called the father of steel.
5. All the construction activities depend on iron.

ALUMINIUM
Symbol: Al Atomic number: 13 Atomic weight: 27 Valency: 3
Electronic configuration
Shell K L M
No. of electrons 2 8 3
Orbitals 1s 2
2s 2p6
2
3s 3p1
2

Occurrence
Aluminium is found in a combined state in Bauxite, Felspar, Cyolite and Alum stone.
It looks bluish white and is found most abundantly on the earth’s crust. Among these
ores, Bauxite is the chief one, which contains a large amount of aluminium.

168 | Metals
Position of aluminium in periodic table
Aluminium has three electrons in its last shell. So, its position in the periodic table is
the third period and the third group. It shows similarities with third group elements.
After losing three electrons, it becomes aluminium ion (Al+++).
Ores of aluminium
i. Bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O) ii. Cryolite (Na3AlF6)
iii. Felspar (K(AlSIO3.O8))

Extraction
Aluminium is mainly found in the bauxite ore that contains silica (SiO2) and ferric
oxide (Fe2O3) as its impurities. The pure aluminium is obtained through the following
process.
a. Grinding: The big lumps of bauxite ore are crushed into small pieces and ground
into powdered form.
b. Concentration: The powdered ore of impure aluminium is mixed with sodium
carbonate and heated in the presence of carbon dioxide gas to get aluminium
hydroxide [Al (OH)3]. After this, the solution is diluted with water, and some
hydrochloric acid is added, which gives precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.
Now, it is strongly heated to get pure alumina (Al2O3).
c. Refining: At last through electrolytic process, almost 99% of pure aluminium is
obtained.

Physical properties of Aluminium

1. Its colour is bluish white.
2. In its pure form it shines.
3. It is a light metal.
4. Its specific gravity is 2.7.
5. It is a good conductor of heat.
6. It is also a good conductor of electricity.
7. Its melting point is 600°C.
8. Its boiling point is 1800°C.
9. It is malleable and ductile.

Uses of Aluminium
Aluminium is a very important metal for modern development activities as well as for
other different purposes. Some of them are given below:
1. As it is a good conductor of electricity, it is used to make electric transmission
wires.
2. It is used to make different types of household utensils, picture frames, etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 169

3. It is used for making aluminium foils.
4. Different parts of aircrafts, ships, cars, buses, etc. are made from aluminium.
5. It is used to make alloys and paints.
6. It is also used to make coins.
7. Aluminium foil is used for wrapping foods, pharmaceutical products, biscuits,
chocolates, cigarettes, etc.
8. It is used in metallurgical operations as a reducing agent.

COPPER
Symbol : Cu Atomic number: 29 Atomic height: 63.57 Valency: 1 and 2
Electronic configuration
Shell K L M N
No. of electrons 2 8 18 1
Orbitals 1s 2
2s 2p 3s 3p6 3d10
2 6 2
4s1

Occurrence and Ores

Copper can be found both in a free state as well as a combined state. In a combined
state, it is found in copper glance, copper pyrite, (chalcopyrite) Cuprite and malachite.

Position of copper in periodic table

Copper is a transitional element. In its last shell, there is one electron. So, its position in
the periodic table should be one. But, its position in the periodic table is fourth period
and eleventh group (IB). It shows two valency. After losing one electron, it becomes
cuprous ion (Cu+) and after losing two electrons, it becomes cupric ion (Cu++).
Ores of copper
i. Cuprite (Cu 2O)
ii. Copper pyrite or chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
iii. Chalcocite or copper glance (Cu2S)
iv. Malachite (Cu (OH) 2.CuCO3)

Extraction of Copper
The main source of copper is chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) ore. To extract copper from this
ore, the following steps are taken.
a. Crushing and grinding: The chalcopyrite ore is crushed into small pieces and it
is further ground into powdered form.
b. Concentration of ore: In this process, the impurities of copper are removed
through the froth floatation process.

170 | Metals
c. Roasting: To obtain copper oxide, the concentrated powdered ore is heated
strongly with sufficient air in the blast furnace to change it into sulphide. After
that, copper oxide is obtained.
d. Molten state: To obtain copper oxide, further heat is supplied in the same
furnace in the absence of air and then copper metal is formed. This form of
copper is called blister copper, which is 99.4% pure. The remaining impurities
such as Ag, Au, Ni, Zn, Pb, etc. are removed at the last stage.
e. Refining: The 99.4% pure blister copper is further purified by electrolytic
process. Now, the pure copper is ready for different purposes.

MEMORY TIPS
All metallic oxides are base but only some metallic oxides are soluble in water to give
hydroxides The molten mass of copper, which is obtaind after releasing different types of
gasses during the process of its extraction is called blister copper. It is about 99% pure.

Physical properties of Copper

1. It is a reddish brown metal.
2. It is a good conductor of electricity.
3. It is a good conductor of heat.
4. It is malleable and ductile.
5. Its specific gravity is 8.95.
6. It melts at 1083°C.
7. It boils at 2350°C.
Uses of copper
1. It is used for making electrical cables and other electrical appliances.
2. It is used to make coins, utensils, containers, etc.
3. Copper salts are used as germicides, insecticides, (fungicides) and colouring
materials.
4. It is also used for making alloys.
Some alloys of copper
Alloys Composition Uses
For making nut bolts, condenser tubes and
1. Brass Cu and Zn
medals
2. German silver Cu, Zn and Ni For making utensils and bells
3. Bronze Cu, Zn and Sn For making household utensils and coins
Cu, Sn, Zn and For making ball bearings and parts of
4. Gun metal
Pb machines
5. Bell metal Cu and Sn For making bells and decorative items.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 171

SILVER
Symbol: Ag Atomic number: 47 Atomic weight: 107.88 Valency: 1
Electronic Configuration
Shell K L M N O
No. of electrons 2 8 18 18 1
Orbitals 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s1
Occurrence and Ores
Silver is a d-block element. It belongs to group 1B of the periodic table. It is a white
metal. It is found both in free and combined states.
Position of silver in periodic table
Silver is a transitional element. In its last the shell, there is one electron. So, its position
in the periodic table should be one. But, its position in periodic table is fifth period and
eleventh group (IB). It shows one valency. After losing one electron it becomes silver
ion (Ag+).
Ores of silver
i. Argentite (Silver glance): Ag2S ii. Silver copper glance: ([Link])2S
iii. Ruby silver (pyrolite): 3 Ag2S. Sb2S3 iv. Horn silver: AgCl
Extraction of silver
Argentite ore is the main ore of silver. The steps of extraction are as given below.
a. Crushing and grinding: First, the big lumps of argentite ores are crushed into
small pieces and then they are ground into powdered ore.
b. Concentration: With the help of the froth floatation process, it is concentrated.
c. Reaction with sodium cyanide: The powdered ore is treated with sodium
cyanide solution and heated in a furnace in the presence of air. It forms argento
cyanide solution.
d. Action with zinc: To get clear solution of sodium argento cyanide, zinc is added
and silver is precipitated through filtration.
e. Refining: The obtained silver is further purified by electrolysis process.
Physical properties of Silver
1. It is highly malleable and ductile.
2. Its specific gravity is 10.52.
3. It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
4. Its melting point is 956°C.
5. Its boiling point is 1955°C.
6. It is a shining white metal.

172 | Metals
 MEMORY TIPS
Silver does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid.

Uses of Silver
1. Different types of ornaments are made.
2. Coins and utensils are made.
3. It is used for silver plating.
4. It is used for filling teeth.
5. It is used for silvering mirrors.
6. It is used in photography.
7. Silver leaf is used in medicines and sweet metals for decoration as well as
medical values.

GOLD
Symbol : Au Atomic number: 79 Atomic weight: 197.2 Valency: 1 or 3
Electronic configuration
Shell K L M N O P
No. of electrons 2 8 18 32 18 1
Orbitals 1s 2s 2p
2 2 6
3s 3p 3d
2 6 10
4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p6 5d10
2 6 10 14 2
6s1
Gold is the most prestigious and precious metal. It is a d-block element, which belongs
to 1B group of the periodic table.
Occurrence and Ores
Gold is an inert metal. It is non-reactive. So, it is found in a free state either mixed
with quartz or alluvial soil. It is also found in a combined state as sulphide. It is also
found inside the rock. Its main sources are alluvial soil or alluvial sand or quartz veins and
calverite.
Position of gold in periodic table
Gold is a transitional element. In its last shell, there is one electron. So, its position in
the periodic table should be one. But, its position in the periodic table is sixth period
and eleventh group (IB). It shows two valency. After losing one electron, it becomes
aurous ion (Au+) and after losing three electrons, it becomes auric ion (Au+++).

Process of extraction
Gold is extracted mainly from alluvial soil, which is rich in gold. First of all, the alluvial
soil containing gold is stirred in a current of water on a zinc or iron pan by giving a
rotatory motion. In this process, sands, gravels and unwanted particles are removed.
Other impure lighter particles are washed away over the edge whereas gold particles

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 173

are left behind. In this way, gold is extracted from the alluvial soil.
Physical properties of Gold
1. It is yellow in colour.
2. It is a highly shining metal.
3. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
4. Its specific gravity is 19.3.
5. It is highly malleable and ductile.
6. It is the least reactive metal.
Uses of Gold
1. Gold is used the mainly for making ornaments.
2. It is used in manufacture of gold leaf electroscope.
3. It is used for gold plating over other metals.
4. Its compounds are used in photography and medicines.
5. Golden coins and other valuable articles are also made.
Occurrence of metals in Nepal
Metal Ores Districts
Haematite, magnetite, limonite, Lalitpur, Chitwan, Ramechhap, Tanahau,
Iron
etc. Pyuthan, Bhojpur, etc.
Copper Chalcopyrite, Copper glance, etc. Udaipur, Dhading, Solu, Makawanpur, etc.
Gold Alluvial soil Kathmandu, Mustang, etc.
Cobalt Cobaltite Gulmi, Palpa, etc.
Lead or Zinc Deposit of lead or zinc Lalitpur, Ganesh himal, etc.
Bismuth Bismuth Makawanpur
Magnesium Magnetite Dolakha, Udaipur

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Why does aluminium not react with dilute as well as concentrated nitric acid?
Ü Aluminium reacts with oxygen to form aluminium oxide (Al2O3). This oxide
layer of aluminium adhers to the outer surface of the aluminium objects and
protects the aluminium from the corrosion.
2. How does aquaregia react with gold?
Ü Aquaregia is a mixture of 3 : 1 ratio of concentrated hydrochloric acid and
concentrated nitric acid. This mixture furnishes nascent chlorine when it is
heated. Hence, this nascent chlorine reacts with gold to give gold chlorine.
{3HCl + HNO3 ∆ NOCl + 2H2O + 2Cl} × 3
(Aquaregia)
2Au + 6Cl 2AuCl3 Auric chloride

174 | Metals
 2Au + 3HNO3 + 9HCl 2AuCl3 + 3NOCl + 6H2O
3. An iron rod becomes reddish brown colour when it is kept in the moist place.
Why?
Ü When an iron rod comes in contact with moist air, it slowly forms hydrated
ferric oxide ([Link]). Hence, it turns reddish brown over its surface.

4Fe + 3O2 + nH2O 2 Fe2O3.nH2O rust

4. What is blister copper?

Ü During the extraction of copper, when cuprous sulphide reacts with cuprous
oxide, it forms copper and sulphur dioxide. This sulphur dioxide tries to escape
out from the molten copper in the form of bubbles. The copper of this stage is
called blister copper.

E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Write two important ores of the given metals.

Iron, Aluminium, Copper, Silver
2. Write any two differences between ores and minerals.
3. Define metallurgy and explain the extraction of aluminium in brief.
4. Write any three physical properties of iron, aluminium, copper, silver and gold.
5. Write the name of metals which are obtained from the given ores.
(a) Bauxite (b) Cuprite (c) Argentile (d) Alluvial soil (e) Malachite
6. Which metal do you get from quartz veins?
7. Define coinage metals. Which metals are kept within this group?
8. Give reason:
(a) Aluminium is used to make foils for food covering.
(b) Copper is used to make electric wires.
(c) Silver, gold and copper are called coinage metals.
(d) Gold occurs freely in the nature.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Malleable : that can be compressed or hit into different shapes
Metallurgy : scientific study of metals and their use
Commercial : connecting with the buying and selling
Lump : a piece of sth without particular shape
Alluvial : made of sand and earth



New Creative Science, Class 10 | 175

 UNIT

12 Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
The chemical compounds formed by the combination of
carbons and hydrogens are called hydrocarbons.
In hydrocarbon, the four valencies of carbon are satisfied by
other carbon and hydrogen atoms. For example, methane
(CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), ethene (C2H4), etc.
Petroleum materials and natural gases are the main sources
of hydrocarbons. They are classified into the following two
groups:
1) Saturated Hydrocarbon
Edmond
(1656) 2) Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
Edmond (or Edmund) Halley’s 1. Saturated hydrocarbons (or alkane)
father was also called Edmond
(or Edmund) Halley. He came Those hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are bonded
from a Derbyshire family and together by a single covalent bond are called saturated
was a wealthy soap-maker in hydrocarbons or alkane.
London at a time when the use of
soap was spreading throughout Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), etc. are the
Europe. There is some confusion examples of saturated hydrocarbons. The general formula of
over both the date and year of
alkane is CnH2n+2 where ‘n’ indicates the number of carbon
Halley’s birth. The confusion
over the date is simply due to the atoms. To write the name of alkane, we add the suffix “ane”.
change in calendar (29 October Some examples of alkane with their IUPAC name and
by the calendar of his time). The structure are given below:
confusion over the year is less
easy to decide, but we give 1656 No. of
Molecular IUPAC
which Halley himself claimed as S.N. carbon Structure
formula Name
the year of his birth. atoms

1. 1 (Meth) CH4 Methane

2. 2 (Eth) C2H6 Ethane

3. 3 (Prop) C3H8 Propane

176 | Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

4. 4 (But) C4H10 Butane

5. 5 (Pent) C5H12 Pentane

6. 6 (Hex) C6H14 Hexane

7. 7 (Hept) C7H16 Heptane

8. 8 (Oct) C8H18 Octane

9. 9 (Non) C9H20 Nonane

10. 10 (Dec) C10H22 Decane

MEMORY TIPS
The full name of IUPAC is the international union of pure applied chemists.

2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Those hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are bonded together by multiple (double or triple)
covalent bonds are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Some examples of unsaturated hydrocarbons are ethene (C2H4), propene (C3H6),
ethyne (C2H2), propyne (C3H4), etc. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are further divided
into two groups.
(i) Alkene
(ii) Alkyne

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 177

(i) Alkene
The unsaturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms are bonded together by double covalent
bonds is called alkene.
Examples of alkene are ethene, propene, butane, etc. The general formula of alkene is
CnH2n, where ‘n’ indicates the number of carbon atoms. While naming the alkene we
add ‘ene’ at the end of number of carbon atoms.
Some more examples of alken with their IUPAC name and structure are given below
S. No. of Molecular WPAC
Structure
N. carbon atoms formula Names

1. 2 (Eth) C 2H 4 Ethene

2. 3 (Prop) C3H6 Propene

3. 4 (But) C4H8 Butene

4. 5 (Pent) C5H10 Pentene

5. 6 (Hex) C6H12 Hexene

6. 7 (Hept) C7H14 Heptene

7. 8 (Oct) C8H16 Octene

178 | Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

 8. 9 (Non) C9H18 Nonene

9. 10 (Dec) C10H20 Decene

(ii) Alkyne
The unsaturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms are bonded together by triple covalent
bonds is called alkyne.
Examples of alkyne are ethyne, propyne, butyne, etc. The general formula of alkyne
is CnH2n – 2 where ‘n’ indicates the number of carbon atoms, while writing the name of
alkyne, we add ‘yne’ at the end of number of carbon atoms.
Some more examples of alkyne with their IUPAC name and structure are given
below:
No. of
Molecular IUPAC
S.N. carbon Structure
formula Name
atoms
1. 2(Eth) C2H2 H —C ≡ C—H Ethyne

2. 3(Prop) C3H4 Propyne

3. 4(But) C 4H 6 Butyne

4. 5(Pent) C5H8 Pentyne

5. 6(Hex) C6H10 Hexyne

6. 7(Hept) C7H12 Heptyne

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 179

 7. 8(Oct) C8H14 Octyne

8. 9(Non) C9H16 Nonyne

9. 10(Dec) C10H18 Decyne

MEMORY TIPS
In alkene and alkyne, the first member has two carbon atoms. There is no possibility of
methane and methyne.
Differences between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons
1. In these hydrocarbons, carbon 1. In these hydrocarbons, carbon atoms
atoms are bonded by a single are bonded by multiple bonds.
covalent bond.
2. Saturated hydrocarbon has only 2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons has two
one group which is alkane. groups, which are alkene and alkyne.
For example: methane ethane, For example: ethene, ethyne, propene,
propane, etc. propyne, etc.
Differences between alkene alkyne
Alkene Alkyne
1. In alkene, carbon atoms are bonded 1. In alkyne, carbon atoms are bonded
by double covalent bonds. by triple covalent bonds.
2. The general formula of alkene is 2. The general formula of alkyne is
CnH2n. CnH2n – 2.
For example: ethene propene, etc. For example: ethyne, propyne, etc.

ALKYL RADICALS
The radical which is obtained after removing one hydrogen atom of the alkane is called alkyl
radical. For example, methyl radical (CH3+) is obtained after removing one hydrogen
atom from methane(CH4), similarly ethyl radical (C2H5+) is obtained after removing
one hydrogen atom from ethane (C2H6) . Generally, alkyl radical are indicated by R. Its
general formula is CnH2n+1, where n indicates the number of carbon atoms.

180 | Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

FUNCTIONAL GROUP
In alcohol, chemical properties depend upon hydroxyl group and in amine, chemical
properties depend upon amine (–NH2) group. Here, in organic compounds, there are
some atoms or group of atoms in which chemical properties the whole compound
depend. They are called the functional group.
Atoms or group of atoms on which chemical properties of compounds depend are called
functional groups.
Some more examples of functional group with their symbol and structure are as
given below:

Organic
S.N. Name of functional group Symbol Structure
compounds

1. Hydroxyl - OH - OH alcohol

O
2. Carboxylic acid - COOH || acid
- C - OH

3. Ether -O- -O- ether

O
4. Aldehyde (formyl) - CHO || aldehyde
-C-H

O
5. Keto - CO - || ketone
-C-

H
6. Amino - NH2 | amine
-N-H

IUPAC SYSTEM
There are different systems of nomenclature of the organic compounds. Among
them, the IPUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of
nomenclature is widely accepted. To write the name of the organic compounds based
on IUPAC system, the following points should be remembered.

1. Word root
The longest chain with functional group is called the word root. On the basis of the
number of carbon atoms it is denoted as:

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 181

 Number of carbon atom Word root
C1 Meth
C2 Eth
C3 Prop
C4 But
C5 Pent
C6 Hex
C7 Hept
C8 Oct
C9 Non
C10 Dec

2. Suffix
Suffix is written along with the word root. For example; in pentane, pent is a word
root and ane is a suffix. For example, in root CH3 – CH3, the word root is eth because
it has two carbon atoms. Similarly, the suffix is ane. So, the name of this compound
is ethane. Some more examples of alkanes with their IUPAC names are given below.
Structure of hydrocarbon Word root IPUAC name
CH4 Meth Methane
CH3 – CH3 Eth Ethane
CH3 – CH2 – CH3 Prop Propane
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 But Butane
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 Pent Pentane
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 Hex Hexane
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 Hept Heptane
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
When organic compounds of the same group are arranged on the basis of the increasing
molecular weight then we get a series which is called homologous series. The members
of homologous series have the same functional group, structural formula and they
show the similar chemical properties.
The series of organic compounds which have the same functional group but two successive
members differ by CH2 group, are called homologous series.
For example: CH3 – OH methanol

CH3 – CH2 – OH ethanol

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – OH propanol

182 | Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

Characteristics of homologous series
1. All the members of the same series have the same functional group.
2. They have the same general formula.
3. Every two successive members of homologous series differ by CH2 group.
4. All the members of homologous series have the same general method of
preparation.
5. They have similar chemical properties.

Some hydrocarbons and their compounds

Methane (CH4)
It is the simplest and first member of saturated hydrocarbon. It is obtained by the
decomposition of organic matters in swamps or marshy places, so it is also known as
marsh gas. It is also present in coal mines, gobar gas and bio-gas.

CH4 `
Molecular formula of methane Structural formula of methane

Uses of methane
1. Methane is an important gaseous fuel because it produces a large amount of
heat energy on burning.
2. It is used in the form of LPG for domestic use.
3. It is used in the manufacturing of different types of industrial chemicals like
methyl chloride (CH3Cl), chloroform (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4),
methanol (CH3OH), etc.
4. It is used in the manufacturing of carbon, printing ink, water gas (CO + H2),
hydrogen gas, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
LPG = Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Ethane (C2H6)
It is the second member of saturated hydrocarbon which is slightly heavier than
methane but it also occurs with methane in natural gas, petroleum, coal, gas, etc.

CH3 – CH3 or
Structural formula of ethane

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 183

Uses of ethane
1. It is used as a gaseous fuel along with methane to produce a large amount of
heat energy on burning.
2. It is also used as a laboratory reagent to produce other different compounds.
Propane (C3H8)
It is the third member of saturated hydrocarbon. It occurs in natural gas, LPG, petroleum
mine, etc. It is used as a fuel, a refrigerant and to produce other compounds, etc.

CH3 – CH2 – CH3 or

Structural formula of propane
Butane (C4H10)
Butane is the fourth member of saturated hydrocarbon, which occurs in natural gas,
petroleum mines, etc. It is used in the manufacturing of synthetic rubber, gaseous fuel
and other compounds.

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 or

Structural formula of butane

MEMORY TIPS
In butane, there are two structures n- butane and iso-butane which are also called isomers.

n-Butane iso-Butane
Isomers of butane

ALCOHOLS
Hydroxyl derivatives of alkane are called alcohol.
In alcohol, hydroxyl group (–OH) is present attached to the alkane. It is obtained by
the substitution of hydrogen of alkane by hydroxyl group.

—H
+ OH

Methane Methanol

184 | Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

Some examples of alcohols
S.N. Molecular formula Structural formula Name

1 CH3 – OH Methanol

2 C2H5 – OH Ethanol

3 C3H7 – OH Propanol

4 C4H9 – OH Butanol

5 C5H11 – OH Pentanol

Types of alcohol
On the basis of the number of hydroxyl groups present, there are three types of alcohol.
(a) Monohydric alcohol: Those alcohols which have one hydroxyl group in their
structure are called monohydric alcohols.
They are obtained by the replacement of one hydrogen from alkane by hydroxyl
group.

—H
+ OH

Methane Methanol

(b) Dihydric alcohol: Those alcohols which have two hydroxyl groups in their
structure are called dihydric alcohols.
They are formed by the replacement of two hydrogen atoms from alkane by two
hydroxyl groups.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 185

 — 2H
+ 2OH

Ethane Ethyl glycol or glycol

(c) Trihydric alcohol: The alcohols which have three hydroxyl groups in their
structure are called trihydric alcohols.
They are obtained by replacing three hydrogen atoms of alkane by three
hydroxyl groups.

— 3H
+ 3OH

Propane Glycerol

SOME ALCOHOLS
Methyl alcohol or methanol (CH3 – OH)
It is the first member of monohydric alcohol, which is obtained by replacing one
hydrogen of methane by one hydroxyl group.

—H
+ OH

Methane Methanol

Uses of methanol
1. It is used as a fuel because it produces a large amount of heat without smoke.
2. It is used as an organic solvent for fats, oils, paints, etc.
3. It is used to manufacture perfume, dyes, medicine, synthetic fabrics, etc.
4. It is used for dry cleaning.
5. It is used as a moisturising agent in cosmetic items.
Ethyl alcohol or ethanol (C2H5 – OH)
It is the second member of monohydric alcohol, which is obtained by replacing one
hydrogen of ethane by one hydroxyl group. It is the earliest representative of the
monhydric alcohol.

— 2H
+ 2OH

Ethane Ethanol

186 | Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

Uses of ethyl alcohol
1. It is used for drinking as an alcoholic beverage.
2. It is used as a fuel in sprite lamps and stoves.
3. It is a thermometric liquid, which is used in an alcoholic thermometer.
4. It is used to dissolve fat, oil, paints, etc.
5. It is used in medicines.
6. It is used as a preservative liquid to preserve biological specimens.
Glycerol or Trihydric alcohol
It is the simplest trihydric alcohol. The word glycerol is derived from glyceros which
means a sweet taste. It is formed by replacing three hydrogens of propane by three
hydroxyl groups. It is present in animal and plant fats. It is also prepared by the
hydrolysis of fat or oil.

— 3H
+ 3OH

Propane Glycerol

Uses of glycerol
1. It is an important sweetening agent in confectionery, beverages and medicines.
2. It is used in the manufacturing of printing ink, stamp pad inks, soaps, cosmetics,
etc.
3. It is used as a preservative to preserve fruits, tobacco, etc.
4. It is used as a lubricant.
Ether
Ether is a group of organic compounds which has oxygen atom between two alkyl
groups. It is represented by R – O – R, where ‘R’ is the alkyl group like CH3, C2H5, etc.
Some examples of ether
i. Dimethyl ether or methoxy methane

CH3 — O — CH3 or

ii. Diethyl ether or ethoxy ethane

C2H5 — O — C2H5 or CH3 — CH2 — O — CH2 — CH3

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 187

iii. Ethyl methyl ether or methoxy ethane

CH3 — O — C2H5 or

MEMORY TIPS
Diethyl ether is simply known as ether.
Uses of ether
1. It is used as a general local anaesthetic agent during minor operation.
2. It is used to purify organic compounds by extraction.
3. It is used as an organic solvent.
4. It is used as a cooling agent.
Glucose
The word glucose was derived from the Greek word glukus means sweet. Its molecular
formula is C6H12O6. It is a white crystalline solid which is soluble in water. It is a
monomer of carbohydrate. So, it is also called monosaccharide sugar or dextrose. It
is the simplest sugar because it is one of the smallest units of carbohydrates, which
has the characteristics of the carbohydrates. It is present in honey, nectar, etc. It is
produced during photosynthesis in plants and is used to produce ATP in the body.
Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar. It is used in the cells as a
source of energy and also helps in the metabolism.
The normal concentration of sugar in the blood of a normal person is 0.1 percentage.
But its value may increase in some people suffering from diabetes. When glucose
combines with oxygen, it produces carbon dioxide and water. It is called oxidation of
sugar. In this process a large amount of energy is released, which is used to sustain
life. Some patients, who are suffering from low blood sugar are supplied glucose as a
primary energy source in the body. This is because it requires no digestion and is often
provided intravenously in the hospital.
MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. What is LPG? Which chemicals are present in it?
Ü LPG means liquefied petroleum gas. It is an important gaseous fuel which is the
mixture of mostly n- butane and iso-Butane.
2. Define isomers with examples.
Ü Those organic compounds which have the same molecular formula but are differ
in their structure are called isomers. For example; n-butane and iso-Butane.

n-Butane iso-Butane
Isomers of butane

188 | Hydrocarbons and their Compounds

3. Write two differences between alkene and alkyne
S.N. Alkene S.N. Alkyne
1. Those hydrocarbons in which 1. Those hydrocarbons in which
carbon atoms are bonded together carbon atoms are bonded together
by double covalent bonds are called by triple covalent bonds are called
alkene. alkyne.
2. The general formula of alkene is 2. The general formula of alkyne is
CnH2n where ‘n’ indicates number CnH2n – 2 where ‘n’ indicates number
of carbon atoms. of carbon atoms.
For example: ethene (C2H4), propene For example: ethyne (C2H2),
(C3H6), etc. propyne (C3H4), etc.
4. Why does carbon make covalent bond?
Ü Carbon has four electrons in its valence shell. So, it shares these four electrons
with other same or different atoms making four covalent bonds.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define the following terms with examples:

(a) Hydrocarbons (b) Saturated hydrocarbon
(c) Unsaturated hydrocarbon (d) Homologous series
2. Write two differences between the following:
(a) saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
(b) alkane and alkene
(c) alkene and alkyne
3. Write structure and two uses of each:
(a) Methane (b) Ethane (c) Propane (d) Ethene
(e) Ethyne (f) Methanol (g) Ethanol (h) Dimethyl ether
(i) Glycol (j) Glycerol (k) Glucose
4. What happens when three hydrogens of propane are replaced by three hydroxyl
groups? Write the structure of this resultant compound with its two uses.
5. What happens when two hydrogens of ethane are replaced by two hydroxyl
groups? Write the structure of this resultant compound with its two uses.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Swamp : very wet or covered land with water with plants
Marshy : always soft and wet land
Anaesthetic : a drug that makes a person or animal unable to feel


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 189

 UNIT

13 Materials Used in Daily Life

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
All living beings depend on different types of materials,
goods, things or substances for their survival. There is a
regular interaction between living beings and non-living
things. We human beings are also the important part of this
environment. We need to use different types of living as well
as non-living things and substances for our existence and
development. Our every essential things like food, shelter,
clothing, health, medicine, education, recreation, etc. are
supplied and fulfilled by natural and artificial substances.
Sir Humphry Davy In the earlier stage of human life and civilization, human
beings used to depend on natural things more and more
Sir Humphry Davy was a
but with the development of the human mind, science and
Cornish chemist and physicist,
well known for his contribution knowledge, they develop so many things for their daily
to the field of electro-chemistry. It use and survival. Gradually, the human being has become
is said that Davy discovered the and made its life much more artificial. Now, it is beyond
elements magnesium, calcium,
imagination to think human life can't be continued without
strontium, and barium through
the process of electrolysis. Davy man-made materials such as synthetic foods, medicines,
is also famous for having sniffed constructional substances such as cement, iron, steel, means
nitrous oxide (“laughing gas”) in of transport, educational materials, means of communication,
1800.
recreational materials, fertilizers, pesticides, dyes, fibres,
different types of liquids, means of immunization, drugs, etc.
All these things have made human life civilized, advanced,
speedy, easy and comfortable.
Here in this unit, we will study about different materials,
which are being used in our daily life.

CEMENT
Cement is an important construction material, which is used
to construct buildings, roads, bridges, dams, walls, etc. It is
very fine powder with grey colour. It becomes hard when it
is mixed with water and left out for some time.
The fine grey powder of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate
which becomes hard and strong when it is mixed with water and
left out for some time is called cement.

190 | Materials Used in Daily Life

The chemical reaction which involves during cement manufacturing is given below.
Calcium carbonate + Aluminium oxide+ Silica = Calcium silicate + Calcium aluminate
CaCO3 +Al2O3 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + CaAl2O3

Raw materials of cement

Cement is manufactured by using the following raw materials.
1. Limestone (or calcium carbonate) – CaCO3 (2/3 parts)
2. Special type of clay – Al2O3. SiO3 (1/3 parts)

MEMORY TIPS
About 2-3 percentage of gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) and some iron oxides are added to the
cement to improve the quality and to slow down the setting time of the cement.

Steps of cement manufacturing

1. Formation of cement slurry: The raw materials of cement i.e. limestone and
special type of red soil are crushed in a crusher and then ground into very fine
powder. The powder raw material is mixed together in the ratio of 2 : 1 and
then mixed with water to make paste like soapy mixture, which is called cement
slurry.
2. Formation of cement clinker: The mixture of above raw materials is fed
into a rotatory kiln (It is tall and slanted tower with about 1400°C to 1600°C
temperature). When the mixture goes up in the tower, it undergoes chemical
change. As a result of the chemical change, limestone decomposes into calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide. The calcium oxide combines with aluminium oxide
of special type of soil and silica to form calcium silicate and calcium aluminate.
This calcium silicate and calcium aluminate occurs in a pea-sized black ball-like
structure which is also called cement clinker.

MEMORY TIPS
Pea-sized balck ball-like structure of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate is called cement
clinker.

3. Formation of cement powder: About 2-3% of gypsum and cement clinker is

mixed and ground again to make fine powder. This powder is called cement.

MEMORY TIPS
Chemically cement is the complex mixture of 4 types of compounds i.e. dicalcium silicate,
tricalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium aluminoferrite.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 191

Uses of cement
1. To make cement mortar: The mixture of cement, sand and water which is used for
the plastering purpose of a wall, to join bricks and stones is called cement mortar.

MEMORY TIPS
Cement + Sand + Water Cement mortar
2. To make cement concrete: The mixture of cement, sand, water and gravel,
which is used for roofing, flooring and making pillars is called cement concrete.

MEMORY TIPS
Cement + Sand + Water + Gravel Cement concrete
3. To make reinforced cement concrete (RCC): The mixture of cement, sand,
water and gravel, which is present in the framework of iron rods during making
of pillar, roof and floor is called RCC.

MEMORY TIPS
Cement + Sand + Water + Gravel + Iron rods RCC
4. Cement is the most important construction material for present days. Hence, it
is used to make roads, buildings, bridges, dams, walls, monuments, etc.
Some important cement factories of Nepal
SN Name of the cement factory Location
1. Udayapur Cement Factory Udayapur
2. Hetauda Cement Factory Hetauda, Makawanpur
3. Bishawakarma Cement Factory Mukundapur, Nawalparasi
4. Triveni Cement Factory Bharatpur, Chitwan

QUESTIONS
# Define cement based on its chemical composition and write down its three uses.
# Define cement mortar, cement concrete, cement clinker, RCC and cement slurry.
GLASS
The homogeneous mixture of different types of metallic silicates which is hard transparent and
amorphous in nature is called glass.
Glass is one of the important man-made industrial materials which has been used in
houses, vehicles, factories, lens, mirror, laboratory, equipments, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Glass is not a solid but it is a super cooled liquid because their molecules move up to down
like the molecules of liquid with very slow speed.

192 | Materials Used in Daily Life

Characteristics of glass
i. Glass is a homogeneous mixture of different types of metallic silicates.
ii. It is hard, transparent and supercooled liquid.
iii. It is bad conductor of heat and electricity.
iv. It does not react with acid, base, salt and other chemicals.
v. The properties of glass like MP, BP, etc. depend upon its composition.
Types of glass
1. Quartz glass (or silica glass)
The glass which is obtained after heating pure silica up to 1600°C is called quartz glass.
1600°C
Pure silica Quartz glass
Characteristics
It is very hard and crystalline glass. It does not dissolve in water, acid, alkali and other
chemicals. It has more thermal resistant power.
Uses
It is used to make electrical appliances, laboratory equipments, gems, coloured quartz,
etc.
2. Water glass
The glass which is obtained after heating the mixture of sodium carbonate with silica or
potassium carbonate with silica at about 800°C is called water glass.
800°C
Na2CO3 + SiO2 Na2SiO3 + CO2
Sodium silicate
800°C
or K2CO3 + SiO2 K2SiO3 + CO2
Potassium silicate

Characteristics
This glass gets dissolved in water so it is also known as water glass.
Uses
It is used for making fireproof materials, silica garden, gums, glue, paste, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Chemically water glass is potassium silicate or sodium silicate.

3. Ordinary glass (or soft glass or soda glass)

The glass which is obtained after heating the mixture of sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate
and silica at high temperature is called ordinary glass.
1500°C
Na2CO3 + CaCO3 + 2SiO2 Na2SiO3 . CaSiO3 + 2CO2
Sodium silicate and calcium silicate

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 193

The actual composition of ordinary glass is 50% silica, 25% pieces of glass, 15% sodium
carbonate and 10% calcium carbonate.
Characteristics
It has very low thermal resistant power and it is insoluble in water.
Uses
It is used to make lens, prism, simple bottles, windowpanes, glass sheets, laboratory
equipment, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
i. Chemically ordinary glass is the homogenous mixture of sodium silicate and calcium
silicate.
ii. When lead monoxide is added to the mixture of ordinary glass, it becomes lead silicate
glass which has high refractive index and less transparency.
iii. Calcium carbonate makes the ordinary glass insoluble and pieces of glass decrease
the melting point of the mixture.
4. Hard glass (or potass lime glass)
The glass which is obtained after heating the mixture of potassium carbonate, calcium carbonate,
and silica at high temperature is called hard glass.
1500°C
K2CO3 + CaCO3 + 2SiO2 K2SiO3 . CaSiO3 + 2CO2
Potassium silicate and calcium silicate

Characteristics
It is hard with high thermal resistant power, insoluble in water, acid, alkali and other
chemicals.
Uses
It is used for making different types of laboratory equipment like beakers, hard glass
test-tube, electric bulb, tube light, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Chemically hard glass is the homogeneous mixture of potassium silicate and calcium
silicate.
5. Borosilicate glass (or Pyrex glass)
The glass which is obtained after heating the mixture of sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate,
boron oxide and silica at a high temperature is called borosilicate glass or Pyrex glass.
Na2CO3+CaCO3+B2O3+5SiO2 Na2SiO3.CaSiO3.B2(SiO3)3 + 2CO2
Sodium silicate, Calcium silicate and Boron silicate
Characteristics
It is hard and does not melt at an ordinary temperature.

194 | Materials Used in Daily Life

Uses
It is used to make the superior quality glass of laboratory equipment like beakers,
hard glass test tube, electric bulb, tube light, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
i. Chemically borosilicate glass is the homogeneous mixture of sodium silicate, calcium
silicate and boron silicate.
ii. Due to presence of boron silicate, it is strong and hard.
6. Lead crystal glass
The glass which is obtained after heating the mixture of potassium carbonate, lead monoxide
and silica at a high temperature is called lead crystal glass.
K2CO3 + PbO + 2SiO2 K2SiO3.PbaSiO3+ 2CO2
Potassium silicate and lead silicate
Characteristics
Due to the presence of lead silicate, it has high refractive index and less transparency.
Uses
Since it has high refractive index, so it is used to make lens, prism, electric bulb,
spectacles, radar tube, expensive drinking glasses, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
i. Chemically lead crystal glass is potassium silicate and lead silicate.
ii. It is also known as optical glass.
iii. It also cut off the ultra violet radiation.
7. Coloured glass
Coloured glasses are obtained by adding different metallic oxides of the respective
colours in the molten mass of raw materials of the glass. The different metallic oxides
with their respective colours are given in the table.
S.N. Metallic oxides Colour
1. Nickel oxide Black
2. Cobalt oxide Blue
3. Copper oxide Red
4. Chromium oxide Green
5. Iron oxide Yellow/Brown
6. Manganese oxide Purple
7. Tin oxide Milky white
Uses
They are used to make sunglasses, windowpanes, traffic signals, disco light, artificial
gems, etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 195

Different types of glasses and their composition.
Glass Composition
Silica glass Silica
Water glass Silica and sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate
Ordinary glass Silica(50%), broken glass (25%), sodium carbonate(15%), calcium
carbonate(10%)
Borosilicate glass Silica, sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate and boric oxide
Hard glass Silica, potassium carbonate and calcium carbonate
Lead crystal glass Lead monoxide, potassium carbonate and mixture of ordinary glass

SOAP AND DETERGENT

Soap and detergent are the man-made chemical substances, which are used to remove
the dirty things like oils, greases, ink, paint, etc. from the clothes, pots, body, etc.
Soap
Sodium salt of long chain of fatty acid which has cleansing property in water is called soap. For
example: sodium oleate (C17H33COONa), sodium palmitate (C15H31COONa), Sodium
laurate (C11H23COONa), Sodium stearate (C17H35COONa), etc.
Raw materials of soap
There are mainly two raw materials of soap. They are
1. Fat (animal or plant)
2. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
3. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
The soap prepared from the animal fat has a high quality whereas the soap prepared
from the plant fat i.e. oil of olive, coconut, cotton seeds, etc. has a low quality.
The process by which soap is prepared from fat and sodium hydroxide is called
saponification.
C17 H35 CO O — 2 CH
|
D
C17 H35 CO O —C H + 3 NaO H 3 C17 H35 CO O Na + 2 —
CH O H
| (Sodium stearate) |
C17 H35 CO O — 2 CH CH — O H
|
(Glyceryl stearate) CH2 — O H
[From animal fat] (Glycerol)

During soap preparation, the mixture of fat and sodium hydroxide is heated with
constant stirring. When mixture becomes semi-solid or paste-like structure, it is
allowed to cool down. Some amount of sodium chloride is added to the mixture to
bring the soap in precipitate form. Sometimes, a little amount of starch or sodium
carbonate is also added to make the soap hard. Different types of perfumes, colours,
antiseptic, and bleaching materials are also added to increase the quality of soap.

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 Soap produces insoluble scum with hard water. So, it is not suitable washing with hard water.
NOTE
Soap is biodegradable in nature. So, it does not cause chemical pollution.

Detergent
Detergents are the sodium salt of long chain benzene sulphonic acid or long chain alkyl benzene
sulphate which are mostly non-biodegradable with more cleaning property.
Detergents are also known as soapless soap because they have similar action with
soap but chemically they are different. Some examples of detergent are sodium lauryl
sulphate, alkyl benzene sulphonate, sodium pysrophosphate, etc.
Detergents have following characteristics so they are more popular than soap.
i. Detergent powder or washing powder has more cleansing power than the
soap.
ii. They are easily soluble in hard water so they can be used with hard water
but soap is less soluble in it.
iii. They are cheap in cost because they are manufactured from the petroleum
bi-products.
iv. Soap produces scum with hard water but detergents do not produce it.
Detergent does not produce insoluble scum with hard water. So, it is also suitable washing
NOTE
with hard water. Detergent is non-biodegradable in nature. So, it causes chemical pollution.

MEMORY TIPS
Detergent powder contains about 15-30% of synthetic detergent, sodium silicate, sodium
carbonate, sodium sulphate and some bleaching agents like sodium perborate. To make it
attractive and popular, colours and perfumes are also added.
Differences between soaps and detergents.
S.N. Soaps S.N. Detergents
1. They are sodium salts of long 1. They are sodium salts of long chain
chain fatty acid. benzene sulphonic acid or long
chain alkyl benzene sulphate.
2. They are insoluble or less soluble 2. They are easily soluble in hard
in hard water. water.
3. They are mostly biodegradable. 3. They are mostly non biodegradable.
4. They are prepared from fat, 4. They are prepared from petroleum
sodium hydroxide and sodium by-products, concentrated sulphuric
chloride. acid and sodium hydroxide.

PLASTICS
Plastics are man-made polymers which are used in our daily life and are found in different
shapes, sizes and colours.

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Plastics are solid at room temperature and become liquid or semi-solid on heating.
Hence, most of the plastics are recycled into desired shapes and sizes. The word plastic
was derived from the Greek word plastiko. It means plastic is a substance which can
change its shape. Plastics are made from many monomer molecules. When many
monomer molecules are heated, they join together and give polymer molecule. This
process is called polymerization.
Characteristics of plastics
1. They are cheap, light and easily available in different shapes and sizes.
2. They are bad conductors of heat and electricity.
3. They do not react with acid, base, salt and other chemicals.
4. They are resistant to corrosion.
5. They are coloured easily and can be made transparent.
Classification of plastics
There are two types of plastics. They are a. Thermoplastic and b. Thermosetting plastic
a. Thermoplastic
The plastic which becomes soft on heating and can be remoulded into a desired shape is called
thermoplastic. For example, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, etc. In thermoplastic, the
monomer molecules are joint together by linear bonding. So, they can be changed into
different shapes.
Polyethylene
It is a polymer of ethylene molecules which becomes soft on heating. It is a bad
conductor of heat and electricity and does not show any sign corrosion. Hence, it is
used to make insulating of electric wires, pipes, buckets, packaging materials, etc.
n (CH2 = CH2) Polymerization n (– CH2 – CH2 –)n
Ethylene Polyethylene

Polystyrene
It is a polymer of styrene molecules which becomes soft on heating. It is hard,
transparent and light in weight. It is used to make toys, ceiling tiles, pipes, thermocot,
insulators, etc.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
It is an example of thermoplastic. It is formed by the combination of many vinylchloride
molecules. It is used to make pipes, raincoats, sole of the shoes, hand bags, bottles, etc.
Polymeriza tion (– CH – CH nCl)
(CH2 = CH Cl)n 2

Cl
Vinyal chloride (Polyvinyl chloride)
PVC

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b. Thermosetting plastic
The plastic which does not become soft on heating and cannot be remoulded into a desired shape
is called thermosetting plastic. For example: Bakelite, Melamine, etc. In thermosetting
plastic, there occurs cross link bonding among the monomer molecules. So, it is not
possible to change thermosetting plastic into other shapes.
i. Bakelite: It is an example of thermosetting plastic which is formed from
formaldehyde and phenol. It does not become soft on heating and cannot be
remoulded into desired shapes. It is blackish brown, hard and brittle. Due to
its hard nature, it is used to make handles of pressure cookers, kettles, electric
plugs, switches, etc.
ii. Melamine: It is an example of thermosetting plastic which does not become
soft on heating and cannot be remoulded into desired shapes. It is used to make
cups, plates, bowls, saucers, etc.
Differences between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics
1. Those plastics which become soft on 1. Those plastics which do not become
heating are called thermoplastics. soft on heating are called thermosetting
plastics.
2. They can be remoulded into desired 2. They cannot be remoulded into desired
shapes. shapes.
3. They are soft, weak elastic and less 3. They are hard, strong, non-elastic and
brittle. more brittle.
For example: nylon, polyvinyl For example: bakelite, melamine, etc.
chloride (PVC) etc.
Common uses of plastics
1. They are used to make insulators of electric wires.
2. They are used to make parts of vehicles instead of metals.
3. They are used in place of natural fibres, leathers, stones, woods, metals, glasses, etc.
4. They are used to make surgical instruments.
5. They are used to make medicine covers, medicine bottles, etc.
6. They are used to make pipes, bags, seat-covers, water tanks, water bags, etc.
7. They are used to make packing materials, kitchenwares, laboratory equipments, etc.
Demerits of Plastics
Plastics are man-made non-biodegradable chemical substances which are making
human life easy and comfortable. But excess use of plastics causes different types of
problems related to the environment like air, water and soil pollution. The poisonous
fume of plastic causes air pollution.

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CERAMICS
We can see different types of clay pots, cups, dishes, etc. in the market. All these dishes
are made of a special clay called ceramics. Ceramics is a word derived from Greek
word ‘Keramos’ which means potter’s clay. So it is used to make potter’s pots. Ceramics
is a special type of clay that contains Carbon, Nitrogen, Silica and Oxygen. Its chief
compound is hydrated aluminium silicate (Al2O3. SiO2. 2H2O). Other substances also
are found in it such as limestone, magnesium, carbonate, oxides of manganese and
iron. Its pure white clay is called kaolin or china clay which is specially used to make
pots, cups, plates, dishes, etc.
Process for making ceramic products
The following steps are taken to make ceramic products. First, the soil is crushed and
ground into a powder form. Now, it is sieved from the soil to obtain fine clay. Then,
the clay is kneaded with water. When it is well kneaded, it is put in different keys or
made into different objects with the help of hands or potter's wheels. Different objects
are kept in the sunshine for some time or some days. After that, objects are fired in
a kiln (furnace) at a high temperature to make fully dry and hard. Due to different
chemical reactions, objects become porous. To shine, to make smooth and water proof
as well as attractive, objects of ceramics are coated with tin oxide or lead oxide and
heated again. This process of coating is called glazing. At last, colour and painting is
done.
Features of ceramics
1. Ceramic objects are hygienic to use because they are not affected by acids, bases,
gases, salts, and other chemicals.
2. It has high thermal resistant power.
3. It is poor conductor of heat and bad conductor of electricity.
4. Its objects are hard, brittle and attractive.
Uses
1. Ceramics is used to make clay pots, cups and different dishes.
2. It can be used in electrical appliances as it is a bad conductor of electricity.
3. It can be used to make bathroom tiles, commodes, etc.
4. It can be used to make household pottery.
5. It can be used to make containers that need strong heating. For example:
porcelain basin.

FIBRES
In our daily life, we see and use hair-like strands, threads, ropes, nets, clothes, blankets,
caps, sweaters, gloves, rugs, cotton, jute, etc. Such types of materials and things, plants,
fruits, foods or birds which have hair-like strands in them are called fibres.

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Fibres are hair-like strands of plants, animals or any substances whose length is extremely long
in comparison to its cross section area are called fibres.
Fibres are used for different purposes in our daily life. There are two types of fibres;
1. Nature fibres
2. Artificial fibres
1. Natural fibres
Natural fibres are those which are obtained from natural things like animals, insects,
plants or fruits. Natural fibres can be divided into two groups:
a. Animal fibres
b. Plant fibres
a. Animal fibres: Animal fibres are those fibres which are directly obtained from
animals and insects. Wool and silk are its example; yaks, goats, sheep, rabbits,
silkworms, etc. are the sources of animal fibres.
b. Plant fibres: Plant fibres are those materials which are obtained directly from
the plants. Jute, hemp, cotton, bombax, etc. are some examples of plant fibres.
2. Artificial fibres
Artificial fibres are those fibres which are made or prepared artificially or chemically.
Rayon, nylon, polyester, olefin, etc. are the examples of artificial fibres. Artificial fibres
are of two types:
a. Recycled or regenerated fibres
b. Synthetic fibres
a. Recycled or regenerated fibres: Recycled or regenerated fibres are those fibres
which are artificially prepared from natural materials. Rayon is one of them. It is
prepared from the cellulose present in cotton and pulp present in wood. Rayon
looks like silk, so it is also called artificial silk.
b. Synthetic fibres: Synthetic fibres are those fibres which are prepared through
chemical process. Nylon, polyester, acrylic, olefin etc. are the examples of
synthetic fibres.
Importance and uses of fibres
Different types of fibres have different uses and importance in our daily life.
i) Pillows and quilts are made from bombax fibres.
ii) Sacks are made from jute fibres.
iii) Comfortable garments are prepared from cotton fibres.

INSECTICIDES
There are different types of insects and pests in our surroundings. Sometimes, very
new types of insects are found in a large number. Some insects are harmful and
New Creative Science, Class 10 | 201
poisonous but some insects are beneficial for the environment i.e. soil, plants, animals
and human beings as well. Insecticides are used to kill, prevent or control these
harmful and poisonous insects and pests. Some insects die when they eat insecticides,
some of them die when they come in contact with insecticides and some of them can’t
reproduce and grow themselves.
So, insecticides are those artificial chemical substances which are used to kill, control or prevent
harmful and poisonous insects and pests.
Types of insecticides
i. Organic insecticides
Organic insecticides are prepared by the combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and other elements like chlorine, phosphorous, etc. These organic insecticides are of
three types according to their chemical combination.
a. Chlorinated organic insecticides: Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are the main
elements of all organic insecticides. But when the chemical called chlorine is
added as an additional element, it is called chlorinated organic insecticide.
BHC (Benzene hexa-chloride), DDT (Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane),
Aldrene, Dieldrene, Methoxychlor, etc. are the examples of chlorinated organic
insecticides. The main features of these insecticides are that they can resist for a
long time effectively.
b. Organophosphate insecticides: When phosphorus is added as an additional
element, it is called organophosphate insecticide. The main features of these
insecticides are, they are less stable, degradable and highly toxic to other
animals. Melathion, parathion, phosdrin, etc. are some of the examples of these
insecticides.
c. Carbamate insecticides: These organic insecticides contain amino group (–
NH2). They are less harmful. Begon, Termic, etc. are some examples.
ii. Inorganic insecticides
Inorganic insecticides are prepared from different minerals. Calcium arsenate, lead
arsenate, fluoride and lime sulphur, etc. are inorganic insecticides, which are used to
protect cotton, fruits, vegetables, etc. from insects.
Precautions in using insecticides
Insecticides are poisonous. They should be used properly, as careless and random use
of these insecticides creates different types of hygienic and environmental problems.
So, the following precautions should be taken while using these insecticides.
1. Before using insecticides, proper training should be taken on how to use
them.
2. Appropriate quantity according to soil and plants should be used.
3. If possible, only short-term insecticides should be used.

202 | Materials Used in Daily Life

 4. Masks and gloves should be used while using insecticides. The dress
should be changed and hands, legs, mouth should be washed properly
with soap after their use.
5. Insecticides should be stored and kept away from the reach of the children
and foods.
Features of good insecticides
1. They should not have side effects in the health of human beings as well as
animals.
2. They should be easily degradable and should have a short-term effect.
3. Useful insects should not be killed and disturbed by the use of these
insecticides.
4. Crops, fruits, vegetables should not lose their natural quality.
5. Environmental elements such as water, air, and soil should not be polluted
after their use.
Advantages of insecticides
1. Insecticides help to kill and control harmful insects.
2. Crops, fruits and vegetables are protected from different diseases.
3. Insecticides help farmers to get desired crops, vegetables and fruits.
Disadvantages of insecticides
There is no doubt that insecticides are helpful to protect from different harmful insects
but they are not free from side effects and disadvantages. Some of the disadvantages
of insecticides are as follows:
1. Most of the insecticides create air, water and soil pollution.
2. They are not easily degradable.
3. Some insecticides leave deposit in fruits, crops, vegetables, etc.
4. Some insecticides kill useful insects as well.
5. Different types of side effects are caused in the body of human beings,
animals, and birds by DDT.
Effects of DDT
1. DDT causes air, water and soil pollution.
2. DDT used foods create side effects in the kidneys, liver, lungs.
3. It causes lung diseases.
4. It has adverse effects on birds' egg.
5. Photosynthesis and transpiration are reduced due to the dusting of the
leaves of the plants.

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are those chemicals or organic substances which contain essential nutrients for
plants, fruits and vegetables for their healthy and good growth and production. Regular
production of different types of crops, fruits and vegetables decreases the fertility of

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soil. Different types of fertilizers help to maintain the fertility i.e. nutritive elements of
the soil. They are used in the soil for plants, vegetables, fruits, etc. There are two types
of fertilizers.
1. Chemical fertilizers
2. Organic fertilizers
1. Chemical fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers are those fertilizers which are prepared through chemical reactions and
processes which are also called inorganic fertilizers. These inorganic fertilizers contain
mainly nitrogen phosphorus and potassium elements. Plants need these elements for
their growth, development and seed production. We can divide chemical fertilizers
into three groups on the basis of the elements containing in them.
a. Nitrogenous fertilizers: In these fertilizers, nitrogen (N) is present as a chief
element. For example;
i) Calcium cyanide Ca(CN)2
ii) Urea NH2CONH2
iii) Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
iv) Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2 SO4
b. Potassium containing fertilizers: These fertilizers mainly supply potassium to
the plants. For example;
i) Potassium carbonate K2CO3
ii) Potassium chloride KCl
iii) Potassium sulphate K2SO4
iv) Potassium nitrate KNO3
c. Phosphorus fertilizers: These fertilizers contain mainly phosphorus elements.
For examples,
i. Bone meal
ii. Triple super phosphate 3Ca (H2PO4)2
iii. Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3 PO4
iv. Calcium super phosphate Ca (H2PO4)2 2CaSO4
2. Organic fertilizers
Organic fertilizers are called natural fertilizers or manure. Natural fertilizers are obtained
from natural processes. These organic fertilizers are obtained from the decomposition
of plants, dead animals or their waste products. Organic fertilizers are very suitable
for crops and plants because they supply all the essential nutritive elements naturally
and there are no side effects. There are two types of organic fertilizers.
i) Green manure: When green plants are grown, ploughed and mixed in the soil
to provide fertility to the plants and crops, this is called green manure.

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ii) Compost manure: Compost manures are also natural fertilizers, which are prepared
from dead, decayed and decomposed parts of animals and plants or their waste products.
To prepare compost manure, mixture of dead plants, animals or their waste
products are kept within the soil. Sometimes, lime is also added to it. After some
time, due to micro organisms, it is decomposed and manure is ready to use.
It increases the fertility of the soil but it has a low concentration of Nitrogen,
Phosphorus and Potassium.
Roles of compost manure
i. They contain organic substances, which help for the healthy growth and
development of plants.
ii. They do not cause chemical pollution as they are biodegradable.
iii. They do not change the acidic and basic nature of the soil.
iv. They maintain the water holding capacity of the soil.
v. They help in environmental conservation protecting them from the chemical
pollution.
vi. They help to reduce environmental pollution by decaying dead bodies of
animals and plants.
Differences between organic and chemical fertilizers.
Organic fertilizers Chemical fertilizers
1. Organic fertilizers are called natural 1. These fertilizers are called artificial
manure. fertilizers.
2. They don’t supply enough nitrogen, 2. They contain enough nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium to the phosphorus and potassium elements.
growing plants.
3. They are prepared from the plants, 3. They are prepared through chemical
animals or natural waste. processes.
4. They don’t pollute air, water and soil. 4. They pollute air, water and soil.
5. Plants absorb them very slowly. 5. Plants absorb them very quickly.
6. The products have no side effects in 6. The products create side effects in the
the human body and animals. body of human beings and animals.
Significance of Nitrogen (N), Potassium (P) and Phosphorous in fertilizers
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the most important and essential nutrients for plants and crops. It
fulfills the following needs of the plants.
i. It helps in fast growth of plants.
ii. It helps in the formation of protein, protoplasm and chlorophyll in plants.
iii. It helps to develop more flowers, fruits and seeds.
The deficiency of nitrogen in plants makes leaves yellow, and there is no fast growth
of plants and its size, enough production of flowers, fruits and seeds.

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Potassium
i) With the help of potassium fertilizers, plants make food through the
photosynthesis process.
ii) It also helps in the synthesis of protein, fat, sugar, cell division, growth of
leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. in plants.
iii) It helps to resist different types of diseases.
Phosphorus
i) The roots of plants are developed with the help of this fertilizer.
ii) With the help of phosphorus nutrients, ripening of fruits and healthy
development of seeds take place.
iii) Cell division and development of buds are take place in plants by the
phosphorus elements.
Three groups of fertilizer
Fertilizers can be divided into three groups according to the number of basic nutrients
supplied.
(a) Single fertilizers: When the fertilizers supply only one basic nutrient out of three
basic nutrients i.e. nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium are called single fertilizers.
Calcium nitrate, potassium sulphate, potassium chloride are its examples.
(b) Mixed fertilizers: These fertilizers supply more than one basic nutrient.
Examples: potassium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, etc.
(c) Complete fertilizers: Those fertilizers which supply all three basic nutrients i.e.
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are called complete fertilizers.
Disadvantages of using fertilizers
Nowadays due to the rapid population growth, fast and unorganized urbanization,
there is a shortage of natural things in the market. People are trying to earn money
within a short period. For this, they are using such types of fertilizers which help in
the fast growth and more production. Using excessive chemical fertilizers leads to air,
water and soil pollution. When nitrogenous fertilizers are mixed with water sources,
they help in the unusual and rapid growth of aquatic plants. These plants use-up
oxygen mixed in water and aquatic animals die due to the lack of oxygen. If small
children drink nitrogen containing water, their growth stops and they become dwarfs.
Precautions while using fertilizers
i) We should take training from the J.T.A about how to use fertilizers.
ii) Before using fertilizers, the soil must be tested.
iii) Fertilizers should not be used in an excessive amount and randomly.
iv) They should be used properly, in proper time as well as in an appropriate
quantity.

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v) Nitrogenous fertilizers should be used very carefully and should not be kept in
wooden dust, coal, dry leaves or fuel because they have easy burning feature.
vi) Overuse of fertilizers damages plants.
vii) We should use masks, gloves while using fertilizers.
viii) We should keep them away from the reach of children, animals, etc.
ix) We should not keep them near edible things, foods or water.
x) We should change the dress after using and hands, mouth and legs should be
washed with soap properly.

CHEMICAL POLLUTION
The process of degradation in the quality of air, water and land by mixing unwanted chemicals
is called chemical pollution.
When different types of foreign and unwanted chemicals are mixed in air, water and
land, these things become dirty and unhealthy or lose their original quality, This state
of air, water and land is called pollution. From everyday human activities such as use
of chemical fertilizers, insecticides pesticides, detergents, dyes, synthetic fibers, waste
water and pollutants from the factory, different gases emitted from the industry, etc.
degrade the health quality of the environment. The unwanted, imbalanced, excessive
and unlimited chemicals mixed in the environment degrade its quality, which is called
chemical pollution.
Causes of chemical pollution
Human activities are the responsible factors to cause chemical pollution in the
environment. How are these activities creating chemical pollution? It is discussed below.
1. Chemical fertilizers used by farmers in the fields: Due to the rapid development
of agricultural science, farmers use more and more chemical fertilizers to produce
more quantity of crops in place of organic compost. Such types of fertilizers
decay the quality of land and they dissolve in rainy water and reach different
water sources such as rivers, ponds, streams etc. Fertilizers that contain more
nitrogen elements, help in the excessive growth of aquatic plants. These plants
use-up all the oxygen dissolved in water. It creates lack of oxygen in water and
the aquatic animals die due to the lack of oxygen in the water. It is called a
biological oxygen demand (BOD) value.
2. Excessive use of insecticides and pesticides: Not only fertilizers, but farmers
also use more quantity of insecticides and pesticides to kill insects and pests in
the fields. These toxic insecticides and pesticides such as aldrene, dieldrene and
heavy metals like lead, cobalt, mercury, etc. also pollute the air, water and land.
3. Household plastics and wastes: Houses are also the great sources of chemical
pollution. Different types of solid wastes of food, vegetables, clothes, ceramics,
detergents, soaps, plastics, etc. create chemical pollution. Some of the non-
degradable wastes cause a long-lasting effect in the environment.

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4. Toxic gases, smoke, dust and other particles emitted from the industry:
Factories and industries are the great sources of chemical pollution from where
different types of gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur trioxide,
etc. are the pollutants for air. When rainwater and other different types of gases
are mixed, acids like sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc. are formed.
The excessive emitting of the poisonous gases from the industries in the air
causes acid rain fall and burns plants, animals, soil and important monuments.
Global warming is the result of the excessive outcome of the carbon dioxide,
methane, sulphur dioxide, etc. which create greenhouse effects.
5. Waste water, chemical, drugs, and other polluted liquid coming out from
the industries, hospitals, research centres etc: Industries, factories, hospitals,
research centres, laundry centres, bathing and washing centres, etc. throw out
different colourful water, mixtures, waste and dirty water which mix in water
sources and pollute the water. Such water decays the fertility of the land. Bad
smells come out and pollute the air.
6. Different food colours: The shopkeepers use different types of colours to attract
customers and users which are made of different chemicals that affect our health.
7. Different types of dyes and detergents: Different industries like leather,
textiles, carpet, etc. also cause chemical pollution by releasing different harmful
colours, dyes and detergents such as peroxide, hypochloride, sodium hydroxide
and other bleaching agents. These dyes and detergents degrade the quality of
water, land and air as well. Water sources are badly polluted due to the mixing
of detergents which are non-biodegradable cleansing compounds.
8. Metallic particles: Different types of metallic particles such as lead, chromium,
mercury, arsenic, etc. come out from different research centres, industries,
automobiles, hospitals, etc. and they mix in the water sources and land. When
human beings, animals, birds and aquatic animals use or take these chemicals in
different forms, it causes pollution.
9. Warfare: Different mini and major warfares have created air, water and land
pollution.
Controlling measures of chemical pollution
Chemical pollution is the greatest threat to the existence of all living beings. We human
beings are the prime factor of the chemical pollution. In return, we become its prey
and victims as well. The following measures can be recommended to control chemical
pollution.
i. Use of nuclear weapons, bombs and chemicals must be stopped.
ii. Unorganized urbanization should be changed into organized urbanization.
iii. Over population growth especially in developing counties must be controlled.
iv. Sustainable development must be done.

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v. Industries, factories, research centers, hospitals, etc. must be established far from
the residental areas and they must follow industrial code so as not to pollute the
environment.
vi. Farmers must be given training on the use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides,
pesticides in proper ways.
vii. Farmers must be incouraged to use bio-compost in the field.
viii. Manufacture of weapons, bombs and toxic chemicals must be stopped.
ix. Excessive production of non-degradable materials such as plastics should be
stopped and discouraged. Beside recycling, and reuse of the things must be
encouraged.
x. Waste water and liquid coming from the industry must be purified before
throwing it in the water sources and fields.
xi. Chimneys must be used in the industry.
xii. Toxic gases should not be allowed to be mixed in the air.
xiii. Solid waste gas such as plastics, clothes, glasses, carpet ceramics, etc. should be
managed property.
xiv. The most important measure is to create awareness among the people on the
effects of chemical pollution.

SOLID WASTE
Wastes are the materials which are discarded after use or the useless byproducts of
any processes. Solid or semisolid materials resulted from anthropogenic and even natural
activities that are useless, unwanted, or hazardous are called solid wastes. Solid wastes
include garbage, rubbish, ashes, construction and demolition debris, dead animals,
sewage solid, industrial waste, mining waste and agricultural waste. Among them,
wastes from garbage, rubbish, construction and demolition debris, sewage solid also
termed as municipal wastes, and hazardous wastes are of major concern as they
degrades the environment as well as the human health.
Based on the ability of their natural decomposition, solid wastes are categorized as
biodegradable waste and non-biodegradable waste. Wastes that are able to decompose
naturally due to the action of microbes are called biodegradable wastes. Some
examples are food waste, fruits and vegetable peels, dead animals, plants and their
parts, faeces of human and animals, natural fabrics, papers, etc. Wastes that are unable
to decompose naturally due to the action of microbes are called non-biodegradable
wastes. Examples are plastic materials, hardwood, rubber, glass, metal scraps etc.
Solid waste management
Solid wastes are responsible for the degradation of the environment in the form of
air, water and soil pollution. Environmental pollution finally affects the health and
well-being of people as causes various diseases like jaundice, typhoid, dysentery, eye
diseases, skin diseases, etc. Population is increasing and towns and cities are expanding
rapidly. Solid wastes are being generated in larger and larger amounts. Therefore
solid waste must be managed effectively and efficiently with special attention to the
safeguard environment and the human health. The steps provided below should be

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practiced to manage the municipal solid waste and the household should help it by
segregating waste at the source.
a. Segregation at source: Waste segregation at the source is the initial step of solid
waste management. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should be
separated and kept in separate bins. The recyclable wastes like glasses, cans,
metal scraps can also be kept in separate bins.
b. Collection and transportation: The waste should be collected by appropriate
vehicles and transported to the waste collection centers. Recyclable wastes are
collected separately and transported to recycling/processing centers. Door to
door collection or collection from a common site can also be practiced. The waste
should be covered properly while hauling.
c. Segregation and processing: Metallic waste, glass, metal scraps and any other
recyclable materials are segregated at collection centers. Magnetic separation
is used to separate the metallic waste from the refuse. Similarly, gravity
separation is used to separate heavy waste from lighter ones. Recyclable wastes
are transported to recycling centers. Degradable wastes are transported to
processing centers for manufacturing compost. Segregation and processing
reduce the amount of waste to be disposed.
d. Disposal: There are a number of waste disposal methods like sanitary landfilling,
composting, incineration, etc. Different kinds of wastes are disposed by different
methods.
i) Composting: Composting is the process of producing compost manure
through the natural decomposition of biodegradable wastes by using
natural or activated microorganism. Wastes are dumped in compost pits
by making layers separated by the layers of soil. The process may or may
not need a regular turnover depending upon the types of composting. It
takes about a month or more for the compost to be ready.
ii) Sanitary landfilling: Both biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes
can be disposed in sanitary landfill/dumping sites. Here, the waste is
disposed and compressed and compacted. The compacted waste is covered
by a layer of soil and the numbers of waste layers form a new landform in
the end life. Landfill sites can accommodate a large amount of waste and
can be operated for many years. Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)/
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA), etc. is necessary for the selection
of landfill sites to safeguard the environment and public health from the
consequences of using a landfill.
iii) Incineration: Incineration is the process of disposal of solid waste by
burning it in a furnace at a high temperature in chambers called incinerators.
This process is used to dispose hazardous waste like medical waste from
hospitals or combustible and corrosives solids. Ash is the end product of
incineration, which requires much less time and space for decomposition.
It is one of the widely used solid waste treatment/ disposal process.

210 | Materials Used in Daily Life

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. Why do we add gypsum to cement?
Ü Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) is added to the cement clinker to increase the quality of
cement as well as to regulate the setting of cement by increasing the settling time.
2. What is glazing and why is it done?
Ü Coating of ceramics by tin oxide or lead oxide during their manufacturing
is called glazing. Glazing makes the ceramic objects smooth, attractive and
waterproof.
3. Organic and chemical fertilizers are used together. Why?
Ü Organic fertilizers are poor in basic nutrients (i.e. N, P, and K). So it is fulfilled
by adding chemical fertilizers.
4. Environmentalists advise us not to use plastic. Why?
Ü Plastics are non-biodegradable chemical substances. They do not decay. Their
burning produces poisonous smoke. Hence, they cause air, water and soil
pollution. Due to the above reason, environmentalists advise us not to use plastic.
5. Define NPK fertilizer. Why is it called a complete fertilizer?
Ü The fertilizer which supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is called
NPK fertilizer. The basic nutrients required for growing plants are nitrogen,
phosphorus and potash that are supplied by NPK fertilizer. So, it is called a
complete fertilizer.
6. Define monomer, polymer and polymerization.
Ü Monomers: The simple organic compounds which are used to make polymer are
called monomers. For example: vinyl chloride, ethene, glucose, amino acid, etc.
Polymers: The complex organic compounds which are obtained by repeating
many monomer molecules are called polymers. For example: PVC, polyethene,
protein, etc.
Polymerization: The process by which polymer is obtained by repeating
monomer molecules is called polymerization.

SUMMARY
 The fine grey powder of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate which becomes hard and
strong when it is mixed with water and left for some time is called cement.
 The homogeneous mixture of different types of metallic silicates which is hard transparent
and amorphous in nature is called glass.
 Sodium salt of long chain of fatty acid which has cleansing property in water is called soap.
 Detergents are the sodium salt of long chain benzene sulphonic acid or long chain alkyl
benzene sulphate which are mostly non-biodegradable with more cleaning property.
 Plastics are man-made polymers which are used in our daily life and are found in different
shapes, sizes and colours.

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  The plastic which becomes soft on heating and can be remoulded into a desired shape is
called thermoplastic.
 The plastic which does not become soft on heating and cannot be remoulded into a desired
shape is called thermosetting plastic.
 Fibres are hair-like strands of plants, animals or any substances, whose lenth is extremely long
in comparison to its cross section area, are called fibres.
 Insecticides are those artificial chemical substances which are used to kill, control or prevent
harmful and poisonous insects and pests.
 Fertilizers are those chemical or organic substances which contain essential nutrients for
plants, fruits and vegetables for their healthy and good growth and production.
 Chemical fertilizers are those fertilizers which are prepared through chemical reactions and
processes. They are also called inorganic fertilizers.
 Organic fertilizers are called natural fertilizers or manure.
 Compost manures are also called natural fertilizers which are prepared from dead, decayed
and decomposed parts of animals and plants or their waste products.
 Degradation of components of the environment (air, water, soil, etc.) due to the presence of
chemical that are neither naturally present or are in higher amounts than their natural values
is called chemical pollution.
 Surface runoff from such agricultural fields carries a large amount of nutrients in the water
bodies and pollutes water bodies.
 Global environmental problems like global warming, climate change, ozone layer depletion, etc.
and local environmental problems like acid rain, reduction in visibility, extinction of flora and
fauna, etc. are primarily due to the chemicals from automobiles and industries.
 Pesticides like DDT, BHC, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Carbosulfan, Endosulfan, Malathion, etc. are well
known for their toxic effects in humans and the environment.
 Solid or semisolid materials resulted from anthropogenic and even natural activities that are
useless, unwanted, or hazardous are called solid wastes.
 Solid wastes are divided into biodegradable waste and non-biodegradable waste.
 Solid waste must be managed effectively and efficiently with special attention to safeguard the
environment and human health.
 Segregation at the source, collection and transportation, segregation and processing and
disposal are the steps taken for solid waste management.
 Sanitary landfilling and incineration are popular solid waste disposal methods.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define the given terms:

(a) Cement (b) Plastics (c) Ceramics
d) NPK fertilizer (e) Cement mortar (f) Cement clinker
(g) RCC (h) Cement (i) Concrete
(j) Chemical pollution (k) Solid waste (l) Sanitary landfilling
(m) Incineration (n) Composting

212 | Materials Used in Daily Life

2. Write differences between:
(a) organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer
(b) thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic
(c) soap and detergent
(d) soft glass and hard glass
(e) chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides
(f) biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid waste
(g) incineration and sanitary landfilling
3. Give reasons.
(a) PVC is not used to make the handle of a pressure cooker.
(b) Detergents are called soapless soap.
(c) We should avoid the use of plastic.
(d) RCC is stronger than cement concrete.
(e) NPK is called a complete fertilizer.
(f) Gypsum is added to the cement.
(g) Runoff from agricultural fields with intensive chemical fertilizers can cause
oxygen deficit in ponds.
(h) If pesticides kill all bees less food will be produced.
(i) Plastic is an important chemical of the environmental pollution.
4. Write full form of:
(a) PVC (b) DDT (c) BHC (d) RCC
5. Write raw materials of the given substances.
(a) Soap (b) Cement (c) Quartz glass
(d) Borosilicate glass (e) Detergent
6. Write any three uses of the given substances.
(a) Cement (b) Plastics (c) Ceramics (d) Glass (e) Fibres
7. Describe the process of manufacturing the given substances in brief.
(a) Cement (b) Ceramics (c) Soap (d) Borosilicate glass
8. Write any three characteristics of the given substances.
(a) Glass (b) Organic fertilizers (c) Chemical fertilizers
(d) Natural fibres (e) Plastics
9. Define borosilicate glass and write its uses.
10. Define quartz glass and write its uses.

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11. How are coloured glasses obtained?
12. What are fibres? Write different types of fibres with their examples.
13. Define chemical pollution and write its effect.
14. Describe the adverse effects of DDT.
15. Nitrogenous fertilizers help to grow aquatic plants and decrease the growth of
aquatic animals. Describe it in brief.
16. Write the importance of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for growing plants.
17. What is glazing? Write its use in ceramic objects.
18. What are insecticides? Write their characteristics and uses.
19. Making polythene is called polymerization. Justify this statement.
20. We use more number of plastics and ceramics. Give reasons.
21. List out the causes of chemical pollution.
22. How do cleansers pollute the environment?
23. What is the main property that makes plastic environment unfriendly?
24. Explain the global environmental problems caused by automobiles and industrial
emissions.
25. Name some pesticides that are toxic to humans and the environment.
26. Mention four ways to get rid of chemical pollution.
27. List the steps for solid waste management.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Ceramic : object made of clay and made hard with heat
Fertilizers : substances added to soil to make plants grow successfully
Adverse : negative and unpleasant
Glazing : fitting sheets of glass onto something


214 | Materials Used in Daily Life

 UNIT

14 Invertebrates
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
We see various animals around us. Among them some are
back boned and some do not have backbones. Those animals
which do not have a backbone in their body are called invertebrates.
For example, amoeba, paramecium, housefly, mosquito,
silkworm, honeybee, etc. Among the invertebrates, some
are beneficial and some are harmful to us. Silkworms and
honeybees are beneficial insects. In this unit, we will discuss
about the lifecycle of silkworms and honeybees.
Louis Pasteur
(1822) A. SILKWORM
Louis Pasteur was born on A silkworm is a useful insect as it produces a high quality
December 27, 1822 in Dole, in
the region of Jura, France. His
silk fibre. Silk fibre is used to produce silk clothes, shawls
discovery that most infectious and other attractive and expensive clothes. Silk is obtained
diseases are caused by germs,
known as the “germ theory from the cocoons of silkworms. There are two types of silk
of disease,” is one of the most moths commonly reared in Nepal. They are Eri and Seri.
important in medical history. His
work became the foundation for Bombyx mori or Seri feeds on mulberry leaves and Eri or
the science of microbiology, and a Attacus ricinii feeds on caster leaves. The cultivation of
cornerstone of modern medicine.
silkworms is known as sericulture. The systematic position
Pasteur’s phenomenal contributions
to microbiology and medicine of silkworms is as follows:
can be summarized as follows:
First, he championed changes
Kingdom- Animal
in hospital practices to minimize Sub-kingdom- Invertebrat
the spread of disease by microbes.
Second, he discovered that Phylum- Arthropoda
weakened forms of a microbe
could be used as an immunization Class- Insecta
against more virulent forms of the
microbe. Third, Pasteur found Type- Silkworm
that rabies was transmitted by
agents so small they could not Habit and habitat
be seen under a microscope, thus
revealing the world of viruses. As They are found in many indigenous varieties across the
a result, he developed techniques
to vaccinate dogs against rabies, world. China was the first country to introduce sericulture
and to treat humans bitten by around 2700 BC and later it was flourished in other countries.
rabid dogs. And fourth, Pasteur
developed “pasteurization,”
a process by which harmful External morphology
microbes in perishable food
products are destroyed using heat, The silkworm is a medium sized insect. It is creamy white
without destroying the food. in colour. The length of a silkworm is from two to three cm.

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The body is divided into three parts i.e. head, thorax and abdomen. The head bears a
pair of compound eyes, a pair of antennae and a sucking type of mouth. The thorax
bears two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs.

The abdomen consists of ten segments containing seven pairs of spiracles. The
abdomen of the female is larger than that of the male silkworm.
Lifecycle of silkworm
The lifecycle of a silkworm completes in four stages i.e. egg, larva, pupa and adult.
The male silkworm dies after copulation and the female moth dies after laying eggs.
(i) Eggs: A female silk moth lays about 300-400 eggs in clusters on a mulberry leaf.
The eggs are whitish, small and have a round structure, which turn grey later.
On getting a favourable condition and temperature of about 18°C to 25°C, the
eggs hatch into larvae in about 10-12 days.
When there is a scarcity of mulberry leaves, the eggs are kept in cold places to
prevent from hatching.

QUESTIONS
# Why are eggs of silk moths kept in cold places?

(ii) Larva: The larva of the silkworm is grey in colour and it is a very active stage
of the lifecycle of the silk moth. The larva of the silk moth or the caterpillar is
the voracious feeder on mulberry leaves. It is only considered for eating and
growing. The larva moults for four times in sixth, twelfth, eighteenth and twenty
sixth days respectively. While moulting, the caterpillar stops feeding for some
hours.
The stage of the larva between two successive moltings is called instar. The fifth
instar is about 100 times bigger than the first instar larva. After the last moulting,
it develops a pair of salivary glands which secrete liquid silk on the lateral side
of the body. When this liquid silk comes in contact with air, it becomes hard
with fine thread, inside which the caterpillar is enclosed. This stage is known as
the cocoon or pupal case.

216 | Invertebrates
(iii) Pupa: It is the inactive stage in the lifecycle of the silkworm, which doesn’t eat
and move at all. However the histogenesis and histolysis are talking place inside
the silk cocoon. The silk thread is obtained in the pupal stage of the silkworm.
For obtaining silk thread, the cocoons are put in hot water or oven to destroy the
glue of the silk thread so they can be obtained and unwounded easily. About
one thousand metres of silk thread can be yielded from a single cocoon.

MEMORY TIPS
About, 50,000 cocoons are required to prepare a kilogram of silk.

(iv) Imago or Adult: The pupa changes into an

adult from about twelve to fourteen days.
The imago breaks the cocoon by the
secretion of alkaline fluid, which softens
the thread. The imago cannot fly
immediately but as its wings get dry, it flies
and the female lays eggs on maturity.
Hence, its lifecycle continues.
Life cycle of silkworm
Features of silk thread
(1) Silk is shiny, attractive, light and durable fibre.
(2) It is strong, long and elastic fibre.
(3) It can be coloured easily.
(4) It can be dried easily.
(5) It does not decay easily.
(6) The clothes made from silk fibres are attractive, durable and expensive.

Economic importance of silkworm

(1) Silk is used to make clothes nets, surgieal stitching thread, curtains, etc.
(2) It is used for fishing.
(3) It can be blended with other fabrics to make more attractive clothes.
(4) It increases the economic condition of a person thereby uplifting the economic
status of the nation.
(5) A maximum number of women can be employed in sericulture.
(6) It can be reared in low land areas.

B. HONEY BEE
A honey bee is an invertebrate that belongs to phylum Arthropoda, class Insecta, and
is the member of subfamily Apinae.

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Honey bees are known for producing and storing honey as well as building impressive
large hives using wax secreted by the workers in a particular colony. In wild, their
hives are often located in holes of trees, rock crevices, etc. They are social insects that
live in colonies in huge numbers. Each colony contains three adult classes of honey
bees: egg-laying queens, sperm-producing male drones and infertile female workers.
These different classes of honey bees perform their own functions.

Queen bees are the fertile females that are involved in mating with the drone bees and
reproduce bees in the colony. Drone bees are the male bees and their only function is
to mate with queen bees for fertilization. Worker bees are infertile females that collect
pollen and nectar from plants, cut and shape wax, feed larvae and the queen, clean the
hive, protect the hive and queen bees, etc.
Anatomy of honey bee
Honey bees are usually oval-shaped
creatures with golden-yellow colours
and brown bands. The size and shape
of a honey bee differs according to its
types. The queen bee is the largest
bee with a large elongated abdomen,
and it is up to 2 cm in length. Drone
bees are smaller than the queen bee
but larger than workers, and worker
bees are the smallest in size and they measure up to 1.5 cm in length.
The body of a honey bee is divided into three major parts; head, thorax and abdomen.
The head consists of eyes, an antennae and feeding structures. The eyes include a
compound eye and simple eyes. Compound eyes help the bees understand colour,
light and UV rays direction while simple eyes detect the amount of light present. The
antenna detects odours and measures flight speeds. The mandible is bee’s jaw used
in eating pollen, cutting and shaping wax, feeding larvae and the queen, cleaning the
hive, grooming and fighting. Worker bees have the ability of chewing and lapping.

218 | Invertebrates
The thorax has three segments and it consists of two pairs of wings, three pairs of legs
and movement controlling muscles. Fore wings are used for flight and cooling the
body while hind limbs cool the hive. The legs of worker bees are covered with hair
and they contain a pollen basket for storing the pollen and nectar.
The sixth segment of abdomen includes the female reproductive organs in the queen
bee and the male reproductive organ in the drone. Both the queen and the worker bees
have a stinger at the end of their abdomen.

Life cycle of honey bee

The honey bee's life cycle goes through 4 basic stages. They are egg, larva, pupa and
adult stages. As a colony has three classes of bees, queens, drones and workers, each
class of bee develops as an adult over varying durations.
Egg stage
The lifecycle of honey bees begin when the queen bee hatches
eggs. A queen bee lays up to 3,000 eggs in a day. The queen
bee packs eggs closely together within the cells. The eggs
are long elongated and pink coloured. During the first stage
of its development, the egg cell divides rapidly and form the
digestive system, the nervous system and the outer covering. After three days, egg
hatch into larvae.
Each and every egg of the bee doesn’t get fertilized by sperms. Fertilized eggs are
diploid with a pair of 16 chromosomes (16 from male and 16 from female) while
unfertilized eggs are haploid and have only 16 chromosome in them. Fertilized eggs
develop as queen bees and workers bees while unfertilized eggs develop as drone
bees. Future queens develop into a large cell in the egg stage.
Larva stage
During the larva stage, each larva is fed about 1,300 times a
day. They are fed ‘royal jelly’, a highly nutritious food, by
worker bees for 3 days. These workers bees have the specific
task of feeding larvae and tending the brood and often
called ‘brood nurse’. After 3 days, the larvae of worker bees
and drone bees are fed with less nutritious food called ‘bee
bread’ which is made from pollen, honey and the secretion of
brood nurse while the potential queen larva receives royal jelly continuously. Due to
difference in intake of nutrients, bees show difference in the rate of their development.
All the larvae undergo molting. Their body develop rapidly.

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Pupa stage
At the end of the larva stage, the brood cell gets close and the
larva becomes the pupa. In about 5.5 days, the potential queen
bee’s larva spins itself into a cocoon and becomes a pupa while
it takes 6 days for the drone and the worker larva to become a
cocoon inside it. Under the brood, inside the cocoon, the pupa
gets metamorphosed into an adult honey bee.
Adult stage
A queen bee gets metamorphosed from the pupa to the adult
stage in about 7.5 days while it takes 14.5 days for the drone
bee and 12 days for the worker bee. For about 21 days, the
adult worker bees engages itself inside the hive as a brood
nurse by cutting and shaping wax, feeding larvae and the
queen, cleaning and protecting the hive. After that duration,
worker bees get out of the hive for the collection of pollens and
nectar from plants, manufacture honey, provide protection to
the hive from enemies, etc. When a worker bees see a source of
pollen and nectar, it dances and communicates the information with other bees which
are also known as honey bees dance. Drone bees are lazy and do no work.
Honey bee colonies can survive the winter, provided they have enough food resources,
are able to keep sufficiently warm, and are free from diseases and predators. However,
in the winter, colonies are smaller than in the summer because part of the colony
leaves the hive and some worker bees die due to cold. The queen bee lives up to 2
years, the drone bees up to 4 months and the worker bee lives up to 4 to 6 months.

Lifecycle of honeybee

220 | Invertebrates
When the number of bees and queens increase in the hive, a new queen and worker
bees separate from the colony along with drones to form a new colony. Within each
colony, a single queen rules her workers and drones. When an existing queen dies or
becomes incapable of laying eggs, worker honey bees raise a new queen from their
colony. As the new queen becomes a young adult, she attends a nuptial flight. A
nuptial flight is mode of flying of the queen bee for mating with several drones. After
releasing sperms, mating drones die due to the exhaustion of energy released in the
form of sperm. With the sperms stored in its abdomen, the queen bees begins to lay
eggs in the hive.
Different types of honey bees, their age and work division.

Bees Work
Drone bees To fertilize the female
Queen Laying eggs and controlling the colony
They are very small and weak. They warm the eggs, larva
Workers of 1-3 days
and pupa
Workers of 4-6 days They feed larva and eat themselves
They produce royal jelly. They feed royal jelly to larvae and
Workers of 7-11 days
the queen and also eat themselves.
They produce wax and use wax to make honey combs. They
Workers of 12-17 days
close the mouth of the honey comb by using wax.
Workers of 18-20 days They produce poison and protect the whole comb.
They become mature and go out of the comb for searching for
Workers of 21 days
nectar, pollen, water, etc.
Importance of honey bee
i. Honey bees help in pollination while moving from flowers to flowers and from
plants to plants. Without pollination from bees some of the plants cannot fertilize
and fruit/food production decreases.
ii. Honey is packed with number of nutrients/substances that are necessary for
human health benefits.
iii. Honey bees are important for apiculture, through which honey is manufactured
in a large scale.
iv. Honey is used in bakeries, confectioneries, food industries, pharmaceutical
industries, etc.
v. Natural waxes which are the secretion of honey bees are used in quality candles,
cosmetics and in polishing goods.

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 ACTIVITY
Prepare a table showing the duration of each stage of life cycle of each class of bees of a colony.
Visit an apiculture farm and prepare a report on ‘How honey is extracted in an apiculture farm?’

SUMMARY
 Silkworms are the useful insects which produce silk threads.
 There are two types of silkworms reared in Nepal i.e. Eri and Seri.
 The body of a silkworm is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
 The silkworm starts producing silk after the 4th moulting of the larval stage.
 The silk is obtained during the pupal stage by keeping them in hot water or even to destroy
the glue.
 Silk is long elastic durable and attractive fibre which is very expensive.
 Sericulture helps to uplift the economic condition of the individual and the nation.
 Each colony contains three adult classes of honey bees: egg-laying queens, sperm-producing
male drones and infertile female workers.
 Queens are fertile bees, drones are male bees while workers are infertile female bees.
 The body of a honey bee is divided into three major parts; head, thorax and abdomen.
 Fertilized eggs develop as queen bees and worker bees while unfertilized egg develop as drone bees.
 Honey bee colonies can survive the winter, provided they have enough food resources, are
able to keep themselves sufficiently warm, and are free from diseases and predators.
 When the number of bees and queens increases in the hive, a new queen and worker bees
are separated from the colony along with the drones to form a new colony.
 Nuptial flight is a mode of flying of the queen bee for mating with several drones.

E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Classify silkworms. Name the two species of silkworms cultivated in Nepal.

2. In which stage of the lifecycle of the silkworm is silk produced and in which stage
is the silk thread produced?
3. How is the silk thread obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm?
4. Why are the eggs of the silkworm kept in cold places?
5. How many times does the larva of a silkworm moult?
6. Draw a well labeled diagram of the lifecycle of the silkworm.
7. Write the economic importance of the silkworm.
8. What are the features of silk thread? Write any three points.
9. What feature of silk is useful for fishing and surgical thread?
10. Name the different stages of the life cycle of the silkworm.
11. Identify male and female silk moths.

222 | Invertebrates
12. Define.
(a) Brood nurse (b) Bee bread
(c) Nuptial flight (d) Drone bee
13. Give reasons.
(a) Royal jelly is fed continuously to the queen bee for six days. Why?
(b) Why don’t worker bees have reproductive organs in their abdomen?
(c) Why do drone bees die after mating?
14. Differentiate between:
(a) silkworm and honey bee
(b) queen bee and worker bees
15. Answer the following questions.
(a) Describe the anatomy of the bee.
(b) What is the use of the mandible in the bee?
(c) Explain the life cycle of the honey bee.
(d) Prepare a table showing the duration of each stage of the life cycle of each
class of the bee of a colony.
(e) When does the honey bee dance?

A
B
C GLOSSARY
Cocoon : a covering of silk thread that silkworm makes to protect itself in pupal stage
Crysalis : an organism inside puparium


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 UNIT

15 Human Nervous and Glandular System

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
Environmental factors such as light, heat, cold, touch,
taste, smell, sound, water current, force of gravity, etc. act
as stimuli to induce responses and reactions in all living
organisms.
The changes in the environment (or environmental factors) to
which the organisms respond and react are called stimuli.
Different organisms respond and act to stimuli differently.
Most of the plants do not possess any special structures for
Camillo Golgi
(1843) the perception of the external stimuli. They do not have the
The golgi bodies inside the cell nervous system. However, plants respond to the external
was first described by Camillo stimuli. They do so due to the action of plant hormones.
Golgi. Golgi received the Nobel
The plant hormones co–ordinate their behaviour either by
Prize in 1906 for his work on the
structure of the nervous system affecting the growth of plants slowly (e.g. plants respond
which he shared with Santiago to light by bending towards it) or by affecting the shape of
Ramony Cajal.
plant cells by changing the amount of water in them e.g :
response of ‘touch-me-not’ plant, Mimosa pudica.
The response shown by an organism towards or away from a
stimulus is called reaction.
The working together of various organs of the body of an
organism in a proper manner to produce proper reactions to
a stimulus is called co-ordination.
For proper control and co-ordination, higher animals have
two systems; nervous system and endocrine system.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The system of tissues, organs and the body which help in the
control and co-ordination of the body is called the nervous system.
The nervous system is composed of specialized cells called
neurons (nerve cells). They exercise by sending electrical
signals called nerve impulses. The nervous control is speedy
and flexible but its effect is localized.

224 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

NERVE CELL/NEURON
The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It has a special
structure and varies greatly in shapes and sizes. Neurons are in-fact, the largest cells
present in the human body.

Neuron (or Multipolar Neuron)

A neuron consists of three main parts as,

(i) Cell body
(ii) Dendrites
(iii) Axon
(i) Cell body (cyton)
A cyton has a nucleus and numerous basophilic Nissl’s granules. These granules are made
of ribonucleic acid and produce new cytoplasm in neurons. They are also concerned
with protein synthesis in nerve cells. The cyton has fine threads of neurofibrils forming
a network. The cell body is also concerned with metabolic maintenance and growth.

MEMORY TIPS
The mass of cyton found in the brain or the spinal cord is called nuclei and the similar mass
found outside the central nervous system is known as ganglion.

(ii) Dendrites
They are generally several short branching processes close to the cell body. They are
afferent because the neuron receives impulses through them. They lie in contact either
with receptors or with the axon of another neuron. Nissl’s granules are also found in
them.
(iii) Axon
The single process which is generally long and has terminal branches is called the axon.
They germinates by small swellings at the ends of the branches. They are different
because impulses are sent out through them. Axons lack Nissl’s granules.

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 MEMORY TIPS
 The nerve impulses travel only in one direction in neurons, from the dendrites to the
cell body and then through the axon.
 Neurons do not divide. They are formed shortly after birth. New neurons do not develop
and also they are not repaired when injured.
Differences between Dendrites and Axons.
Dendrites Axons
1. These are short and highly branched. 1. These are long uniform processes.
2. A number of dendrites arise directly 2. A single axon arises from the end of
from the cell body. the cell body.
3. They are afferent. 3. They are efferent.
4. They contain Nissl’s granules. 4. They lack Nissl’s granules.
5. They do not have knobs at the tips of 5. They have knobs at terminal
branches. branches.

Arrangement of neurons
Neurons lie from end to end in chains to transmit nerve impulses in the body. They
are not connected. There occurs a minute gap between the terminal portion of the
axon of one neuron and the dendron of the other. This minute gap is called a synapse.
The synapse acts as a one–way valve to conduct the limpulse in one direction only
with the help of Neuro transmitter. Nerve impulse travels from axon of one neuron to
dendron of another neuron through a synapse.

Impulse transmission across a synapse

Types of neurons
There are three types of neurons:
(I) Sensory (receptor) neurons or unipolar neurons
(II) Motor (effector) neurons or multipolar neurons
(III) Relaying (connector)/mixed neurons or bipolar neurons

226 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

 Basic neuron types

(I) Sensory (receptor) neurons: A receptor is a nerve cell or a group of nerve

cells which is sensitive to a specific stimulus or to the specific change in the
environment. They often occur in sense organs and receive stimuli by their
dendrites. They transmit impulse towards the central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord) through their axons. They are also called afferent neurons.
(II) Motor (effector) neurons: A motor neuron is the multipolar nerve cell, which
transmits impulses of commands sent by CNS to the effectors (respective
voluntary muscles or glands or other organs of specific parts) to exhibit necessary
responses to the stimulus. It is also called the efferent neuron.
(III) Relaying (connector)/mixed neurons: These are in the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord). These serve as links between sensory and motor
neurons for distant transmission of nerve impulses. These neurons receive and
observe the nerve impulses brought by sensory (or, unipolar) neuron, analyse
them, make a quick decision and command the respective voluntary muscles
or glands or other organs through the motor (or, multipolar) neuron to take
suitable reaction.
Name of Location of
Stimulus
Receptors Receptors
1. Heat and cold Thermo receptors Skin
2. Light Photo receptors Eyes
3. Sound Sono receptors Ears
4. Smell Olfacto receptors Nose
5. Taste Gustato receptors Tongue
6. Touch, pain, pressure Thigmo receptors Skin
7. Gravity Geo receptors Ear

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 227

 ACTIVITY
Put some sugar in your mouth. How does it taste? Block your nose by pressing it between your thumb
and index finger. Now eat some sugar again. Is there any difference in taste? Explain the phenomenon.

QUESTIONS
# What happens at the synapse between two neurons?
# How do we detect the smell of an incense stick?

Parts of the human nervous system

The human nervous system is much more complex and highly developed than that of
other animals. It consists of mainly two parts:
(I) Central nervous system
(II) Peripheral nervous system
The main parts of the human nervous system can be shown in the following chart:
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central nervous system [CNS] Peripheral nervous system [PNS]

Brain Spinal cord Autonomic nervous Voluntary nervous

system [ANS] system

Sympathetic Para sympathetic

nervous system nervous system
Main parts of human nervous system

(1) Central Nervous System (CNS)

It lies along the main longitudinal axis of the body. It consists of the brain or encephalon
and the spinal cord or the myelon.
(I) Brain or encephalon: The brain reaches its highest development in man with
better integration and has a mastery over the environment. It is situated in the
cranial cavity of the skull. Inside the cranium, the brain is contained in a fluid
filled balloon. It provides the shock absorption and protects the brain from
injury. The fluid which is filled in cranial cavity is known a cerebrospinal fluid.
The brain is made up of nervous tissue which is covered with three membranes
together, called meninges. The outer one is known as duramater, middle is

228 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

 arachnoid mater and inner one is the pia mater. The brain consists of three parts.
(a) Cerebrum (Fore brain)
(b) Mid brain
(c) Hind brain

Structure of brain
(a) Cerebrum (Fore brain): It is the largest, most complex and specialized part of
the brain. The two cerebral hemispheres lie side by side, being separated by a
deep longitudinal cerebral fissure. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided by three
deep fissures into four lobes: anterior lobe (frontal lobe), middle lobe (parietal
lobe), posterior lobe (occipital lobe) and lateral lobe (temporal lobe). The main
functions of the cerebrum are given below:
(i) It is the centre of intelligence, memory, imagination and emotions. It is
also the region for speech, facial muscular activities etc. (frontal lobe).
(ii) It is the region of ordinary sensations like auditory reception/hearing
(temporal lobe), visual reception (occipital lobe), touch, taste, smell,
temperature and conscious association (parietal lobe).
(iii) It controls the functions of other parts of the brain.

Functions of cerebrum

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(b) Mid brain: It consists of two fibres and two swellings. This part of the brain is
significantly small. It controls the reflex movements of the head, neck and trunk
in response to visual and auditory stimuli. It changes the pupil size as well as
the shape of the eye lens.
(c) Hind–brain: It consists of three parts – cerebellum, pons varoli and medulla
oblongata.
(i) Cerebellum
It is the second largest part of the brain. It is also known as the small
brain.
Its main functions are:
a. It is sensitive to gravity. It maintains the equilibrium and controls
the posture of the body.
b. It there is small injury in the cerebellum, it causes dizziness. It
disturbs the body balance.
c. It also helps in controlling the eye movement.
(ii) Pons Varoli
It controls the spontaneous respiration. It also controls the cerebellum in
some way.
(iii) Medulla Oblongata
It is the lowermost part of the brain which runs from pons varolii to the
spinal cord.
Its main functions are:
i. It controls the rate of heartbeat, breathing movements, expansion and contraction
of blood vessels to regulate blood pressure.
ii. It also controls swallowing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting, hiccupping, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
 Cerebrum and cerebellum are formed from grey matter and the inner core is formed
from white matter.
 Electroencephalograph is an instrument which records the electrical activity of the
brain in a graph and this record is known as EEG.

(II) Spinal cord or Myelon

It is a long cylindrical structure. It arises from medulla oblongata to the early part of
lumbar region of the vertebral column. It is protected inside the vertebral column or
the backbone. It is also surrounded by meninges and protected by cerebrospinal fluid.
There are 31 pairs of nerves in the spinal cord of a human. The main functions of the
spinal cord are:
i. It conducts sensory and motor impulses to and from the brain.
ii. It acts as the centre of reflex action.

230 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

 MEMORY TIPS
The injury in the spinal cord may lead to the paralysis of the body parts below the point of
injury.

QUESTIONS
# Differentiate between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
# Which part of the brain maintains the postures and equilibrium of the body?
# Which signals will get disrupted in case of spinal cord injury?

REFLEX ACTIONS
These are the involuntary actions. They are
generally done by the spinal cord for quick
response to a specific stimulus.
A reflex action may be defined as a quick,
spontaneous, automatic and mechanical
response to a stimulus.
The blinking of eyes, the movement of the
diaphragm during respiration, withdrawal
of the hand when suddenly pinched or
pricked or while touching a hot object,
coughing, sneezing, yawning, watering
of the mouth on seeing food, etc. are the
e e ti
examples of the reflex action.

REFLEX ARC
It is a pathway in which the nerve impulse travels along sensory and motor nerves in
the reflex action.
First of all, the receptors receive the stimulus. It is transmitted to the spinal cord
through the sensory neuron. In the spinal cord, impulse is passed on to the mixed
connector or relay neuron which, in turn, passes it to the motor neuron. The neuron
then transmits the instructions to the effector or muscle which shows the response.
Thus, the major components of reflex arc may be explained as,
(i) Sensory (receptor) organ: It receives the stimulus.
(ii) Sensory (afferent) nerve: It transmits the impulse from the receptor organ to the
spinal cord.

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(iii) Mixed neuron: It transmits the instruction of the spinal cord from the afferent to
the efferent neuron.

(iv) Efferent (motor) nerve: It carries messages from the spinal cord to the effector
organs.
The reflex action can be diagrammatically represented as:

Receptor Sensory
External stimulus Spinal
organs nerve cord
(Muscles)

Mixed
nerve

Motor nerve

Response Effector
organs

Diagrammatic representation of reflex action

MEMORY TIPS
Reflex actions involve the spinal cord and hence are also termed spinal reflexes. Some
reflexes that involve the brain are termed as cerebral reflexes, e.g. changing the size of the
pupil when bright light is focused on the eye.

ACTIVITY
Stand with a freely hanging leg. Now gently strike the leg below the knee. See what happens? Can
you explain the phenomenon?

QUESTIONS
# What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?
# What is the role of the brain in reflex actions?

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

There are secretary glands found in various parts of the body. They have no ducts
of their own. So their secretions called hormones or internal secretion are carried by
diffusion into blood and lymphatic vessels. These glands are known as endocrine
glands.

232 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

Differences between Endocrine and Exocrine glands
S.N. Endocrine glands S.N. Exocrine glands
1. They are ductless glands. 1. They are the glands with duct.
2. Their secretions are known as 2. Their secretions are known as
hormones. enzymes.
3. They pour hormones directly in to 3. They transfer enzymes directly to
the blood and lymphatic vessels. the organ of action.
4. Their site of their action and 4. Their site of their action and the
the organ of their production of organ of production of enzymes
hormones is at a distance. close by.
Example: Pituitary glands, Example: Salivary glands, tear
adrenal gland etc. glands, liver etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Pancreas and gonads are the intermediates between exocrine and endocrine. So, they are
also known as mixed or heterocrine glands.

HORMONES
They are the chemicals produced from the endocrine glands. They control, co–ordinate,
regulate and integrate the functions of various organs of the body. So, they are also
known as the chemical messenger of the body. They are produced in a small amount,
and small change in the amount of their production leads to the big disorder in the
body. Pituitary glands, thyroid glands, adrenal glands, etc. are some glands present in
the human body. Their location is shown in the figure below:

Position of endocrine glands

The endocrine glands present in the human body are discussed below:

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(a) Pituitary gland
It is a small pea-shaped endocrine gland which lies in a depression of the sphenoid
bone in the skull.

This gland has three lobes; anterior lobe, intermediate lobe and posterior lobe.
The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces about ten hormones. They not only
affect other organs but they also influence and control other endocrine glands. So, this
gland is also known as the Master gland of the body. It secrets somatotrophic hormone
or growth hormone. This causes the normal growth of the bones and the body. Over
secretion of the growth hormone leads to gigantism and acromegaly. Its hyposecretion/
less secretion leads to dwarfism. Other hormones are thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH), antidiuretic hormone (ADH), follicle–stimulating hormone, prolactin, etc.
The intermediate lobe produces intermedin hormone and posterior lobe produces
vasopressin and oxytocin hormone.

(b) Thyroid gland

It lies in the neck and its secretion is known as thyroxin. It
increases the rate of metabolism for the release of energy.
Deficiency of thyroxin in a young child causes a condition
known as cretinism and myxoedema, whereas excessive
production leads to the exopthalmic goitre. Deficiency of
iodine in thyroxin causes a simple goitre.

MEMORY TIPS
Cretinism is characterized by growth retardation, low intelligence, low development of sex
organs, bent legs, protuberence of the tongue and the abdomen.
Myxodema is common in women than in men.

234 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

(c) Parathyroid glands
They are the four minutely yellowish glands attached to the dorsal side (at the back
side) of thyroid. The hormone of parathyroid is called parathormone. It is concerned
with maintaining the amount of calcium and phosphorous in blood, and it is an
important part in bone formation.
Over secretion of parathormone causes calcium and phosphorous to go out of bones
and teeth making them soft and weak. Under secretion lowers the body calcium
retarding growth of the bones and leads to tetany in which a spasmodic contraction of
the limb muscles occurs.

(d) Adrenal gland

The adrenal glands are attached in front of the
kidneys. It has two portions, an outer cortex and an
inner medulla. Secretions of the cortex are essential
for life; they are concerned with carbohydrate
metabolism, balance of salts in the blood, balance
of sodium and fluids in the body, maintenance of
the volume of circulating blood, control of sexual
maturity and giving resistance to many diseases.
The several hormones secreted by the cortex are
collectively called cortin. Aldosterone, cortisol and
sex–corticoids are some examples of cortin.
Similarly, the medulla of the kidney secrets two
hormones i.e. adrenaline and non–adrenaline.
In normal situations, the production of these hormones is also normal or in a small
amount. But when a person faces stress or danger, these are secreted in a large amount
to prepare the body to face emergency situations. So, these hormones are also known
as emergency hormones.
When adrenal glands are removed from the body, the body will not be able to face
the emergency conditions, secondary sexual characters will be poorly developed, the
body will not be able to regulate carbohydrate, protein, fat metabolism, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Addision’s disease is caused due to the hypo secretion of cortisol. The under secretion of
Aldosterone results in increasing sodium and decreasing potassium concentration in the
blood leading to high blood pressure.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 235

(e) Pancreas
Pancreas is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland with two distinct kinds of tissues.
The endocrine part has isolated groups of cells called islets of langerhans. It has two
types of cells known as α - cells and β- cells. The β- cells produce the hormone called
insulin and α- cells produce another type of hormone known as glucagon.
Insulin controls carbohydrate metabolism. Deficiency of insulin causes diabetes mellitus
in which body cells become unable to consume appropriate amount of sugar or glucose
and the entire body system lose their efficiency for metabolic processes. Because of
diabetes mellitus, there is on one hand, lack of glucose in the cytoplasm for cellular
respiration and on the other hand, there is an excess of unused sugar in the blood
that is excreted with urine. So that, the sugar level becomes low in the blood due to
frequent urination.
Differences between Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetes insipidus
S.N. Diabetes Mellitus S.N. Diabetes Insipidus
1. It occurs due to the deficiency of 1. It occurs due to the deficiency of
insulin hormone. anti diuretic hormone (ADH).
2. Blood sugar level is high. 2. Blood sugar level is normal.
3. Sugar is excreted in urine. 3. Sugar is not excreted in urine.

(f) Gonads
In males, a pair of testis and in females a pair of ovaries are called gonads.

Male sex organs Female sex organs

In males, the testes are located in scrotum. They secret male sex hormones (i.e.
testosterone) under the stimulation of luteinizing hormone (LH). The testis is made
up of specialized cells called cells of Leydig. The testosterone mainly helps in the
development of male accessory glands and controls the development of secondary
sex characteristics such as the development of moustache, beards, change of voice, etc.

236 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

In females, ovaries are the oval-shaped organs which are located inside the lower
abdominal cavity of a woman on the either sides of the uterus. The ovary produces
three types of hormones i.e. Estrogen, Progesterone and Relaxin.
Estrogen stimulates the formation of ova in the ovary and the development of accessory
sex characters such as enlargement of breasts, broadening of pelvis, growth of pubic
hair and the onset of menstrual cycle.
Progesterone maintains pregnancy by suspending ovulation and stimulates the
thickening of uterine epithelium (in uterus) during the menstrual cycle.
Relaxin is produced at the end of gestation period which helps ease the birth of the
young one.

MEMORY TIPS
Pineal and thymus are other two endocrine glands. Pineal glands are located at the back
of brain secret Melatonin hormone lightens the colour of skin and regulates the working of
gonads. Similarly, thymus secrets thymosin, which regulates growth. This gland gradually
disappars with the increase in age.

ACTIVITY
Make a summary chart of major hormones, their glands, position in the body, functions and the
conditions due to their over secretion and under secretion.

QUESTIONS
# Why are hormones known as chemical messengers?
# Which gland is known as the ‘master gland of the body?’
# Which hormone is called the ‘emergency hormone’? Why?

Stimulation and reaction in Plants and Animals [Not included in new curriculum]
Plants do not respond quickly to the particular stimuli. This is because they do not have
the nervous system (or sensory cells), muscles and sense organs like animals. Yet, they
can respond and react to various environmental stimuli such as light, gravity, water,
touch, chemicals, etc. Plants show two different types of movements in response to
various stimuli. One type of movement is independent of the growth. For example,
the curling of leaves of Mimosa Pudica (touch me not plant). The next movement is
dependent on growth. For example, roots going down and stems coming up. Plants
coordinate their responses against environmental stimuli using the plant hormone.
The plant movements are broadly classified into two types:
(i) Nastic movements (ii) Tropic movements

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(i) Nastic movements
These are non–directional movements. In this case, plants show an immediate response
to stimuli but do not involve the growth of the plants. Nastic movement includes,
(a) Seismonastic movement (thigmonasty), e.g. dropping the leaves of ‘touch-
me not plant’ when they are touched.

(b) Nyctinastic movements: It is of two types i.e. photonastic movements and

thermonastic movement.
Example of photopnastic movement; opening of Dandelion flower in the
morning in bright light and closing in the evening when the light fades.
Example of thermonastic movement, the variations in the position of plant
parts such as leaves and flowers are due to the change in temperature.
(ii) Tropic movements or tropism
Directional movements of specific part of the plant in response to the external stimuli
are called tropism or tropic movements.
Tropic movements are very slow. The movement of the plant part can either be
towards the stimulus or away from the stimulus.
If the movement of the plant part is towards the stimulus, it is termed as positive
tropism and if the movement of the plant part is away from the stimulus, it is termed
as negative tropism.
Types of tropism
There are the following types of tropisms:
(a) Phototropism (b) Geotropism (c) Chemotropism
(d) Hydrotropism (e) Thermo tropism
(a) Phototropism: It is the directional movement of the plant
part in response to the light. For example, the stem or the
shoot of the plant moves towards light and shows positive
phototropism.
Roots of plants move away from light and thus show negative
phototropism.
Phototropism

238 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

(b) Geotropism : Here, the external stimulus
is the gravity of the earth. For example,
roots of a plant move downward in the
soil, in the direction of gravity and thus
show positive geotropism.
The stem shows a movement against
the direction of gravity and thus shows Geotropism
negative geotropism.
(c) Chemotropism: It is the directional movement or orientation of the plant part in
response to the chemical stimulus. For example: during the process of fertilization,
the growth of the pollen tube is towards the ovule. Similarly, plants like the
sundew, venus fly trap, etc. move towards the nitrogen compounds. Thus they
show positive chemotropism.
Bending of tendrils away from the chloroform, the contraction of tentacles of
sundew plant in response to the liquid protein, etc. are the examples of negative
chemotropism.
(d) Hydrotropism: The directional movement or the
orientation of the plant part in response to water is called
hydrotropism. For example, the growth of roots towards water
water is the positive hydrotropism.
The stem growing opposite to the water is the example of
negative hydrotropism. Hydrotropism

(e) Thermotropism: The directional movement of the plant part in response to heat is
called thermo tropism. For example, tulip, lotus, etc. open during the sunrise showing
positive thermo tropism and close at sunset showing negative thermo tropism.

TAXIS
The movement of the entire cell of an organisms or its whole body in response to the stimulus
is called taxis.
If the movement of the whole body is towards the stimulus, it is called positive taxis
and if the movement of the whole body is away from the stimuli, it is called negative
taxis. It is of the following types:
(i) Phototaxis (ii) Chemotaxis (iii) Geotaxis
(i) Phototaxis
Here the stimuli is light, e.g. the movement of the chalamydomonas, euglena moths,
bacteria, etc. towards the light is an example of positive phototaxis and the movement
of the earthworm, cockroach, etc. away from light are the examples of negative
phototaxis.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 239

(ii) Chemotaxis
Here, the movement of the whole body or the entire cell of an organism induced by the
chemicals, e.g. the movement of antherozoids of plants towards the ovary due to the
maleic acid is an example of positive chemotaxis and the movement of mosquitoes,
flies, etc. move away from the insect repellants like mats, Baygon, etc. are the examples
of negative chemotaxis.

(iii) Geotaxis
The movement of the entire cell or the whole body of an organism in response to the
gravity is called geotaxis. For example, the movement of the earthworm towards the
soil is an example of positive geotaxis and the movement of the cnidarian larvae away
from the seabed is an example of negative geotaxis.

MEMORY TIPS
 Auxins, Gibberllins, Cytokinin, Abscisic acid, ethene are the five types of phyto hormones
(plant hormones) which are involved in stimulation and reaction in plants.
 Thigmotropism/Haptotropism is the movement of plant parts, in which the external
stimuli is the touch.

ACTIVITY
Fill a conical flask with water. Cover the neck of the flask with a wire mesh.
1. Keep two or three freshly germinated bean seeds on the wire mesh.
2. Take a cardboard box with one side open.
3. Keep the flask in the box in such a manner that the open side of the box faces light coming
from the window.
4. Observe after two or these days.
5. What can we conclude from this activity?

QUESTIONS
# What are plant hormones?
# How is the movement of leaves of sensitive plant different from the movement of a shoot
towards light?

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?
Ü A reflex action is a spontaneous, automatic and mechanical response to the
stimulus acting on a specific receptor without the will of an animal. On the other
hand, walking is a voluntary action that occurs with the animal’s will.

240 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

2. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?
Ü The synapse between two neurons acts as a one–way valve to conduct impulse
in one direction only. The message is passed in the form of nerve impulse from
one neuron to another across the synapse.
3. What is the role of the brain in reflex action?
Ü Reflex actions generally involve the spinal cord for a quick response to a specific
stimulus. However, the information input also goes on to reach the brain where
feeling and thinking process occurs.
4. How is the movement or leaves of ‘touch–me–not plant’ different from the
movement of a shoot towards light?
Ü The movement of a shoot towards light is the tropic movement or tropism. It
involves the growth of the plant. However, the movement of leaves of the ‘touch me
not’ plant is the nastic movement, which does not involve the growth of the plant.
5. Hormones are called the chemical messengers of the body. Why?
Ü They are called the chemical messengers of the body because they are the
chemicals whose site of production and site of action are different and they help
in the control and co–ordination of the body.
6. Adrenaline is called the emergency hormone of the body. Why?
Ü When a person faces stress or fear, adrenaline is secreted in a large amount
to prepare the body to face emergency situations. It increases the rate of the
heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure and sugar level in the blood and activates
all cells of the body to perform their metabolic activities in efficiently so that the
person can tackle the situation. Hence, it is known as the emergency hormone.
7. Name the hormone which requires iodine for functioning. Also, site its
location and name the glands which produce that hormone.
Ü Thyroxine requires iodine for functioning. Thyroid gland produces thyroxine
hormone and this gland lies in the neck region over the larynx (voice-box).
8. Which hormone controls water and electrolyte balance in the body?
Ü Aldosterone controls water and electrolyte balance in the body.
9. What causes gigantism?
Ü Hyper secretion of somatotrophin (growth hormone) causes gigantism.
10. Which part of the brain controls the posture and equilibrium?
Ü Cerebellum controls the posture and equilibrium.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 241

 SUMMARY
 The environmental change which induces the organisms is called a stimulus.
 The nervous system is the network of organs and tissues that control and co–ordinate all the
activities of the body.
 Like the nervous system, the endocrine system is meant for the internal communication and
regulation of the animal body.
 The human nervous system is divided into: (i) Central nervous system (ii) Peripheral nervous
system.
 The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It is divided into axon,
dendrites and cell body.
 There are three types of neurons: (i) sensory (ii) motor (iii) mixed neurons or intermediate.
 The central nervous system comprises Brain and Spinal cord.
 Reflex action is a spontaneous, automatic and mechanical response to the stimulus acting,
without the will of an animal. It involves the spinal cord.
 Exocrine glands are ducted glands and endocrine glands are ductless glands.
 The secretion of endocrine glands is the hormone.
 Hormones are also called the chemical messengers of the body.
 The pituitary gland secrets the growth stimulating hormone, antidiuretic hormone,
vasopression, oxytocin, etc.
 The thyroid gland secrets thyroxine, adrenal gland produces adrenaline and non–adrenaline
hormone.
 The pancreas is called both the endocrine and exocrine gland.
 Testes are the male gonads which secret testosterone, and ovaries are the female gonads
which secret progesteron and oestrogen.
 Hyposecretion and Hypersecretion of hormones lead to various disorders.
 The non–directional movement of the plants which do not involve its growth is the called nastic
movement.
 The directional movement of the plant part in response to external stimuli is called tropism.
 The movement of the entire cell of an organism or its whole body in response to a stimulus is
called taxis.
 The movement towards the stimulus is called positive and the movement opposite to the
stimulus is called negative taxis/tropism.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. What do you mean by stimulation and reaction? Explain with examples.

2. What is a neuron? Differentiate between axon and dendrites.
3. Differentiate between afferent nerves and efferent nerves.
4. Write two functions of each.
(a) Cerebrum (b) Cerebellum (c) Medulla oblongata
5. Draw a neuron.
6. What is a spinal cord? Write its function.
7. When a person steps on a thumb pin, he shouts. Explain the process to bring this
stimulation.

242 | Human Nervous and Glandular System

8. What is a spinal cord? Draw a reflex arc and describe it.
9. What do you mean by reflex action? Give some examples.
10. Differentiate between the exocrine and endocrine glandular system.
11. What do you mean by hormones? Why are they called the chemical messengers
of the body?
12. Where are the following glands located in the human body? Also, name the
hormones secreted by each of them.
(a) Pituitary gland (b) Thyroid gland
(c) Pancreatic gland (d) Testes
(e) Ovary (f) Adrenal gland
13. Name the disorder caused due to the hypo and hyper secretion of thyroxine
hormone and growth hormone.
14. Differentiate between the nastic movement and tropic movement in plants.
15. What is taxis? Define positive and negative chemo taxis with examples.
16. When an earthworm is placed in soil, it tries to go under the soil. Why?
17. Write about the following with examples:
(a) Phototropism (b) Phototaxis
(c) Geotropism (d) Chemotaxis
18. Name the stimulus which acts in each of the given reactions.
(a) The shoot of a plant bends towards the sun.
(b) Mosquitoes fly away from a burning mat.
(c) Earthworms move inside soil.
19. Why is pancreas called the heterocrine gland?
20. Study the given figure and answer the following questions.
(a) In which direction does the plant grow?
(b) What do you do to let a plant grow straight?
(c) Why do roots grow towards the soil?
(d) Name the type of tropism shown by the plant.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Hormone : a chemical substance produced by different endocrine glands
Gestation period : the time that the young ones develop inside their mother’s body
Diurnal : active during the day
Reaction : what you do, say or think as a result of something that has happened
Stimulus : something that produces reaction in human body


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 243

 UNIT

16
Blood Circulatory System in Human
Body
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
The human body consists of millions of cells which lie apart
from each other, e.g. the cells of the head are far away from
the cells of the foot. All of these cells need oxygen, water,
minerals and other organic substances for their survibal and
proper functioning. The food is digested in the stomach,
the small intestine and the other parts of the alimentary
canal. The nutrients gained from these foods must be
available to all the cells of the body. Thus, there must be
some mechanism for the transportation of nutrients, oxygen
William Harvey and other materials from one part of the body to another.
(1578-1657) Such coordinated process carrying out proper distribution
Harvey announced the discovery and collection of materials from the cells is considered as
of the circulatory system in 1616. transportation or circulation.
He was the first to propose in
his book ‘An atomic exercise on
Thus, it is the system of the body which works in the transportation,
the motion in Animals (1628),’ distribution and regulation of nutrients and oxygen throughout
the first complete theory of the the body and collects the waste products from there for the process
circulation of blood. of excretion called the circulatory system.
In the human body, there are two circulatory systems
through which the materials are transported to the relevant
organs and tissues. They are:
i) Blood vascular system
ii) Lymphatic system
The blood vascular system consists of :
i) Blood
ii) Blood vessels and
iii) Heart
i) Blood
Blood is a red coloured, viscous
fluid connective tissue which
consists of 55% of plasma and 45%
of different types of blood cells. It
has a salty taste and is alkaline in
nature (PH- 7.3 to 7.5). Its specific
gravity is 1.05 to 1.06. An average
human body of an adult consists of 5.5 litres of blood.

244 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

ii) Plasma
It comprises about 55% of the blood. It is a transparent yellowish liquid which contains
about 90% of water and 8% of different types of proteins like albumin, globulin and
fibrinogens. The remaining about 2% includes clotting factors, electrolytes, minerals,
carbohydrates, salts, antibodies, hormones, gases and waste products. The blood cells
are suspended in the plasma. The functions of the plasma are as follows:

Functions of plasma
i) It transports digested food to different parts of the body like organs, tissues, cell,
etc.
ii) It transports the various metabolic waste materials of the body like ammonia,
urea, CO2, etc. from the tissues to their respective excretory organs for the
elimination.
iii) It maintains the amount of water (osmoregulation) in the body.
iv) It regulates the body temperature and the amount of various other chemicals in
the body.
v) The hormones secreted by the endocrine glands are transported to the tissues
through the blood.
vi) The protein in plasma (fibrinogen) helps in blood clotting.
vii) It helps in the maintaining of viscosity of the blood.

BLOOD CORPUSCLES/BLOOD CELLS

There are three types of blood cells in the body. They are:
a) RBC (Red Blood Cells/Erythrocytes)
b) WBC (White Blood Corpuscles)/Leucocytes)
c) Platelets (Thrombocytes)

(a) RBC (Red Blood Cells/Erythrocytes)

RBCs are circular biconcave and disc-shaped cells having
no nuclei. In a foetus, there are about 7.8 million of
RBCs per mm3 and in infants there are 6.7 million/mm3
whereas there are 5-5.5 million per cubic mm of the blood
in an adult. They are formed in the bone marrow and
after the completion of the lifespan of about 120 days, Red blood cells
they are destroyed in the liver and spleen. RBC is red in
colour due to the presence of iron pigmented substance known as haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. Thus oxygen is
transported to all the parts of the body in the form of oxyhaemoglobin (HbO). Similarly,
it combines with CO2 to form carboxyhaemoglobin. Hence CO2 reaches the lungs for
excretion.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 245

Function of RBCs
i. They carry oxygen from the lungs to the different parts of the body (like organs,
tissues and cells) and CO2 from the body to the lungs for excretion.
ii. Haemoglobin in the RBC balances the amount of acid and base in the blood.
iii. They maintain viscosity of blood. RBCs help in ion-balance.
Lack of RBCs or haemoglobin in the blood leads to anaemia.

MEMORY TIPS
 The RBCs of camels have nuclei in them.
 One of the causes of jaundice in a newborn baby is due to the excessive destruction of RBCs.
 Anaemia is a long-term disease due to the decrease in the number of RBCs or
haemoglobin. Its symptoms are tiredness, weight loss, pale and dull coloured skin,
retarded growth and loss in appetite.

QUESTIONS
# Why is RBC red in colour? What are the functions of RBC?
# What are the functions of the plasma?

ACTIVITY
Bring a little fresh blood from a butcher’s shop. Shake it vigorously and put it in a glass and observe it after
some time (i) What is the yellowish fluid on the top? (ii) What is the viscous matter which settles down?
Name the blood cells present in it.

(b) White Blood Cells (Leucocytes/WBC)

They are colourless irregular-shaped blood cells having
nuclei. They have nuclei with various shapes and sizes.
There are about 4000-11000 WBCs per cubic mm of the
blood. They are formed in the white bone marrow and
lymph nodes. They get destroyed in the liver, spleen or
the site of infection. They are of two types:
Granulocytes
They are the leucocytes having granules in their cytoplasm
and having lobed nucleus, e.g. neutrophils, eosinophils
and basophils.
Agranulocytes White blood cells

They are the leucocytes without granules and having unilobed nucleus, e.g.
lymphocytes and monocytes.
Functions of WBCs
i. They help in the defense of the body by phagocytosis with the production of
antibodies.

246 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

ii. They neutralize the toxic substances produced by the germs.
iii. Neutrophils destroy bacteria by engulfing them.
iv. Basophyl secrete anticoagulant.

MEMORY TIPS
The increase in the number of WBCs above the normal value leads to leukaemia (blood
cancer) and decrease in the number of WBC leads to the leucopenia.

(c) Platelets
They are the smallest blood cells which are oval
or round having no nucleus. They are produced
in the bone marrow and after the completion
of a lifespan of about 2-3 days, they die in the
spleen. The number of platelets in blood is about
2.5 lakh to 4.5 lakh per cubic mm.

Functions
i. They help in the clotting the blood and thus prevent the excessive loss of blood
from the wounds.
ii. They help in healing of wounds.

MEMORY TIPS
Blood clot is a thick jelly which closes ruptured blood vessels so that the flow of blood is
checked. The general mechanism of blood clotting is :
on exposure
Damaged tissue + Blood platelets release thromboplastin (proteins)
to air
Thromboplastin
Prothrombin Thrombin (enzyme)
Ca++
Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin (protein)
Fibrin + RBC Blood clot (thick mass of fibres to which RBCs are enlongled

ACTIVITY
Clean the fingertip with spirit. Prick the fingertip using a sterilized needle. Put a drop of blood on the slide and
make it a thin film. Let it to dry. Observe it under microscope. Did you see RBCs? Put few drops of leishmans’
strain on it and wait for 5 minutes. Wash the slide and observe under the microscope. Did you see WBCs?

QUESTIONS
# What are the functions of different types of blood corpuscles?
# How are anaemia and leukemia caused?

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 247

Function of blood
There are mainly three functions of blood.
(a) Transportation (b) Regulation (c) Protection
(a) Transportation
i) It transports oxygen from the lungs to different cells of the body and CO2
from different parts of the body to the lungs for excretion.
ii) It transports nutrients absorbed in the intestine to all parts of the body.
iii) It brings the waste materials from the body parts to their respective
excretory organs.
iv) It also transports hormones to the different body parts.
(b) Regulation
(i) It maintains the body temperature.
(ii) It regulates the amount of water in the body.
(iii) It also maintains different chemicals in the body.
(c) Protection
(i) It helps in the defense system of the body by producing antibodies which
fight against foreign toxic germs and substances.
(ii) It helps to prevent the loss of blood from the body by forming blood clot.
Blood vessels
The continuous muscular tubules through which blood flows throughout the body
are called blood vessels. There are three types of blood vessels in the human body.
a) Arteries
b) Veins
c) Capillaries
a) Arteries
These are the blood vessels which always carry pure (except pulmonary artery) blood
from the heart to different parts of the body. The exception is the pulmonary artery
which carries impure blood from the heart to the lungs for purification. The blood
pressure is very high in the arteries. So they are deep seated in the body. They are not
provided with the valves. They are scarlet in colour due to the flow of oxygenated
blood through them. They are thick-walled blood vessels.

Detail structure of artery

248 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

b) Veins
These are the blood vessels which carry impure blood from different parts of the body
to the heart. The pulmonary vein in the body carries pure blood/oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the heart. The blood pressure is low in the veins, so they are not
deep seated in the body. They have valves in them which prevent the back flow of
blood. They are violet in colour as they carry deoxygenated blood. They are thin-
walled blood vessels.

Detail structure of vein

c) Capillaries
They are very fine networks of the blood vessels that connect arteries to the veins. The
exchange of oxygen and CO2, nutrients and waste products take place in capillaries.

Differences between Vein and Artery

S.N. Vein S.N. Artery
1. It carries blood from different parts 1. It carries blood from the heart to
of the body to the heart. different parts of the body.
2. The blood pressure is low. 2. The blood pressure is high.
3. It has valves which help the blood 3. It does not have valves.
to flow in a backward direction.
4. It is superficial in the body. 4. It is deep seated in the body.
5. They are thin-walled. 5. They are thick-walled.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 249

 MEMORY TIPS
The three layers of blood vessel are tunica interna (inner layer), which is squamous
epithelium tunica externa (middle layer) which is an involunary smooth muscle and tunica
adventitia (outer layer), which is a tough fibrous connective tissue.

QUESTIONS
# Why are arteries deep seated in the body and veins are superficial?
# Why are veins provided with valves but arteries do not have valves?
(iii) Heart
The human heart is a hollow, muscular organ, roughly the size of a ‘clenched fist’. It
weighs about 300 gm in males and about 250 gm in females. It is the main pumping
organ of the body, which pumps blood to different parts of the body. The heart is
situated between the two lungs in the thoracic cavity. It is surrounded by a double
membranous structure known as pericardium. The pericardium has a pericardial
cavity which is filled with pericardial fluid. It reduces the friction during heartbeat
and protects the heart from shocks and injuries.

External structure of heart

Internal structure of heart

The heart is made up of special tissues known as cardiac muscles. It is divided by
septa into two halves- the right and the left. Each half consists of two chambers- upper
auricle and lower ventricle. The auricles are thin-walled, separated from each other by
the inter auricular septum whereas the ventricles are thick-walled chambers separated
from each other by the inter ventricular septum.
Different blood vessels enter and leave the heart. The superior venacava and the
inferior venacava bring impure blood from all parts of the body to the right auricle.
The left auricle is connected to two pairs of pulmonary veins, one from each lung,

250 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

which bring the oxygenated blood. The pulmonary aorta arises from the right ventricle
and the systemic aorta arises from the left ventricle.

Internal structure of heart

There are four valves in the heart. They are:

(i) Right autrio-ventricular valve or tricuspid valve: It is a valve between the right
auricle and the right ventricle. It consists of three lobes. It prevents the back
flow of blood from the right ventricle to the right auricle and blood flows to the
pulmonary artery.
(ii) Left autrio-ventricular valve or Bicuspid valve or mitral valve: It is a valve
between the left auricle and the left ventricle. It consists of two lobes. It prevents
the back flow or blood from the left ventricle to the left auricle and blood flows
to the aorta.
(iii) Pulmonic valve / Pulmonary value: It lies between of the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery. It is half moon-shaped and helps to flow blood to the lungs.
(iv) Aortic valve: It is a valve between the left ventricle and the aorta. It is also half
moon-shape. It helps to flow the blood from the ventricle to the aorta.

MEMORY TIPS
 The auricles are thin-walled as they have to pump blood to a shorter distance i.e. up to
ventricles whereas ventricles are thick-walled as they have to pump blood to the lungs
and different parts of the body. The left ventricle has the thickest wall to pump blood to
all parts of the body.
 The coronary sinus brings deoxygenated blood from the walls of the heart to the right
auricles.
 The coronary artery supplies oxygenated blood from the aorta to the muscular wall of
the heart.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 251

 QUESTIONS
# Name the valve between the right auricle and the right ventricles and between the left
auricle and the left ventricle.
# Why are there valves in the heart?

ACTIVITY
1. Bring a heart of a goat from butcher’s shop and observe its external structure and internal
structure (by cutting it longitudinally).
2. Draw a neat and labeled diagram showing the external and internal structure of the heart.

Differences between auricles and ventricles.

S.N. Auricles S.N. Ventricles
1. They are thin-walled upper heart 1. They are thick-walled lower heart
chambers. chambers.
2. They are smaller. 2. They are bigger.
3. They receive blood from different 3. They receive blood from auricles.
parts of the body.
4. They give rise to veins. 4. They give rise to arteries.

Functions of different chambers of the heart

a) Right auricle: It receives impure/deoxygenated blood from different parts of
the body and pumps it into the right ventricle.
b) Right ventricle: It receives the deoxygenated blood from the right auricle and
pumps it into the lungs for purification.
c) Left auricle: It receives pure/oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it
into the left ventricle.
d) Left ventricle: It receives pure blood from the left auricle and pumps it to
different parts of the body.

BLOOD CIRCULATION IN HUMAN BODY

The blood circulation in a human body is double circulation. This means that the blood
passes through the heart twice for each circulation of the body. The first circulation
involves the entry of blood from all parts of body into the heart. This impure blood
goes to the lungs for purification. Now, the second circulation involves the entry
of oxygenated/pure blood from the lungs to the heart, from where it is distributed
throughout the body. Thus, blood circulation is of two types in human body:
(i) Systemic circulation (ii) Pulmonary circulation

252 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

(i) Systemic circulatiheon
The circulation of blood from the heart to all parts of the body except the lungs is called the
systematic circulation.
When the left ventricle contracts, the pure blood is pushed to the aorta, from where
smaller arteries distribute blood to different parts of the body. The arteries divide into
arterioles and finally to capillaries. Capillaries have a thin wall and through this the
exchange of nutrients and oxygen of the blood with the waste products go to venules
from the capillaries. The venules unite to form veins and finally form venacava which
brings the blood to the right auricle of the heart.
The systemic circulation can be shown in the flowchart as shown below:

Left auricle Aorta Arteries

(pure blood) (pure blood) (pure blood)

Right auricle Arterioles

(impure blood) (pure blood)

Venacava Veins Venules Capillaries

(impure blood) (impure blood) (impure blood) (exchange of blood)

Systemic circulation

(ii) Pulmonary circulation

The circulation of blood between the heart and the lungs is called pulmonary
circulation.
The impure blood on the right ventricle is pumped to the pulmonary artery which
brings the blood to the lungs for purification. In the lungs, the blood releases CO2 and
then mixes with oxygen and gets purified. This pure blood is carried by the pulmonary
vein to the left auricle of the heart. This process can be shown in the chart as:

Right ventricle Pulmonary artery

(impure blood) (impure blood)

Lung
(Blood purified)

Left auricle Pulmonary vein

(pure blood) (pure blood)

Pulmonary circulation

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 253

 Blood circulation

BLOOD PRESSURE
The blood exerts force on the walls of the blood vessels. This force is called blood
pressure.
It is measured with the help of the instruments, called sphygmomanometer. There are
two types of blood pressure: systolic and diastolic.
(a) Systolic pressure is the pressure of blood inside the artery during
ventricular contraction. The normal systolic pressure is 120 mm of Hg.
(b) Diastolic pressure is the pressure of the blood inside the artery during
ventricular relaxation. The normal diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
Thus, the normal blood pressure in a human being is written as 120/80 mm of Hg.

254 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

Causes of blood pressure
i. High blood pressure may caused due to continuous smoking.
ii. It may caused due to obesity or heavy weight.
iii. It is due to lack of physical exercise.
iv. It is due to excessive salt in everyday food.
v. It is due to more and regular drinking alcohol.
vi. It is due to adrenal and thyroid disorder.
vii. It is due to heredity character that transfers from parents to the offspring.
viii. It is due to old age (more than 40 years).
ix. It is due to mental tension.
x. It is due to excessive fat in the food.
Preventive measures of the blood pressure
Blood pressure is a disorder of the body. It is not like a communicable disease. It does
not transfer through micro-organisms. It is mainly due to our habit. The following
preventive measures can be taken to avoid high blood pressure.
i. We should avoid smoking and drinking alcohol.
ii. We should control our body weight.
iii. We should do physical exercise regularly.
iv. The amount of salt in everyday food should be controlled.
v. We should avoid mental tension.
vi. The amount of fat in the food should be minimized.

Measuring of blood pressure

HEART BEAT
The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the cardiac muscles of the heart is called
heartbeat.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 255

The normal heart beat may increase with diseases, exercises, tension, emotions and
fever.
A heart beat of less than 60 beats per minute is known as bradycardia and more than
100 beats per minute is known as tachycardia.

DIABETES
Diabetes is a condition in which sugar level in the blood is high. It is due to hypo-
secretion of the insulin hormone from the pancreas. After the digestion of food, it
turns into glucose (sugar) molecules. This sugar gets absorbed by our body to produce
energy. The amount of sugar in the blood is controlled and balanced by an insulin
hormone. If the production of insulin is low then the sugar level in the blood is high.
As a result, sugar comes through urine.
Symptoms of diabetes
i. Hunger and fatigue
ii. Peeing more often and being thirstier
iii. Dry mouth and itchy skin
iv. Blurred vision
v. Unplanned weight loss
vi. Slow healing cuts
vii. Pain or numbness in feet and legs
viii. Nausea and vomiting
Preventive measure of diabetes
i. We should change our living style.
ii. We should have a balanced diet.
iii. It is necessary to control our body weight.
iv. We should be free from mental tension.
v. We should avoid drinking alcohol and smoking.
vi. We should have regular green vegetables in our food.
vii. We should do regular physical exercise.
Uric acid
Uric acid is produced from the natural breakdown of the body cells and the food that
we eat.
Most of the uric acid is filtered out by the kidneys, and it passes out of the body through
urine. A small amount of uric acid also passes out of the body through stool. If too
much amount of uric acid is produced in our body or our kidneys are unable to filter
it then the level of uric acid in the blood is high. If there is more amount of uric acid in
the blood then it makes solid crystals within the joints. This causes painful condition
called gout. High level of uric acid may cause kidney stones or kidney failure.

256 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

Causes of uric acid
i. It is caused due to poor functioning of the kidneys.
ii. It is due to more metabolism of the purine.
iii. It may be caused due to more amount of red meat, sea food, etc. in the diet.

Effects of uric acid

i. It causes dip pain in joints and muscles.
ii. It causes reddish skin, swelling in the skin and the muscle, burning in joints, etc.
iii. It causes problems in walking, bending and other physical works.

The way to reduce uric acid in blood

i. Drink sufficient water that decreases uric acid in the blood.
ii. Use baking soda that decreases uric acid in the blood.
iii. Eat cherries everyday as they contains anthocyanins that decrease uric acid in
the blood.
iv. Avoid fatty meat, red meat, sea food, excess proteins, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
 The heart in which the impulse for contraction is generated in the specialized collection
of cardiac muscle (sinuatrial node/SA node) is called myogenic heart. Human and
mammalian hearts are myogenic.
 The heart in which the impulse for contraction is generated in nerve cells is called
neurogenic heart. The frog’s heart is neurogenic.
 A pacemaker is the substance which can start electrical activity in the heart required
for cardiac contraction. So, the node is the natural pacemaker.

BLOOD GROUPS
Human blood can be divided into different blood groups according to the presence
or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. There are
four different kinds of blood groups A, B, AB and O. Blood group O +ve is called a
universal donor and blood group ‘AB’ +ve is called universal acceptors. (+) and (–) are
the rhesus (Rh) factor of the blood.

MEMORY TIPS
The systemic contraction of the heart can be felt as a jerk in the certain arteries like the
radial artery at the wrist, temporal artery in front of the ears, artery in the neck and facial
artery in the corners of the mouth. It is known as pulse. Its rate is the same as that of the
heart beat.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 257

 MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Define blood. Write its main constituents.

Ü Blood is a fluid connective tissue which is red in colour. The main components
of blood are plasma- 55%, blood cells (RBC, WBC,Platelets)- 45%.
2. Differentiate between RBCs and WBCs.

S.N. RBCs S.N. WBCs

1. They are oval, biconcave 1. They are round cells with nucleus
structure without nucleus. and capable of changing shapes.
2. They are smaller than WBCs. 2. They are bigger than RBCs.
3. They are red in colour due to the 3. They lack haemoglobin and are white
presence of haemoglobin. in colour.
4. They help in respiration. 4. They help in defending and
protecting the body against foreign
toxic substances.
3. The walls of arteries are thicker than those of veins. Why?
Ü The blood pressure in arteries is very high than in veins. So, to balance the
pressure and to prevent the arteries from rupturing due to more force, the walls
of arteries are thicker than those of veins.
4. Veins have valves but arteries do not have. Why?
Ü The blood pressure in veins is low. So, there is the chance of back flow of blood.
So, valves are provided to prevent the back flow of blood. However, due to
more pressure of blood in the artery, there is no danger of back flow of blood
and valves are not necessary in arteries.
5. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our
bodies?
Ü Deficiency of haemoglobin causes anaemia in our bodies. We will not be able to get
sufficient oxygen for respiration and so that we get easily tired, lose weight, etc.
6. The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle. Why?
Ü The left ventricle has to pump blood to a long distance i.e. to all parts of the body
but the right ventricle has to pump blood to only a short distance i.e. to lungs.
Due to this, more pressure is required for the left ventricle and its wall is thicker.

258 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

7. The blood should be treated with sodium citrate after the donation. Why?
Ü The donated blood is treated with sodium citrate to avoid the blood clotting as
it removes fibrinogen from the blood and prevents blood clotting.
8. Name the valve between the left auricle and the left ventricle.
Ü Bicuspid valve/mitral valve or the left autrio-ventricular valve.
9. Name the diseases caused due to the:
i) Lack of haemoglobin/RBC
ii) Lack of WBC
iii) Systolic pressure becomes more than 120 mm of Hg
iv) Over production of WBC
v) Inability to clot blood
Ü i) Anaemia
ii) Leucopenia
iii) High blood pressure
iv) Leukaemia
v) Haemophilia
10. Why does blood not clot inside the body?
Ü Blood does not clot inside the body due to the presence of heparin or
antiprothrombin (anticoagulant) produced in the liver.

SUMMARY
 The circulatory system is the system of the body which helps in the transportation and
distribution of materials throughout the body.
 The circulatory system comprises blood, blood vessels and the heart.
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue which consists of 55% of blood plasma and 45% of blood
cells.
 Erythrocytes, leucocytes and thrombocytes are three types of blood cells.
 RBCs are red in colour due to the presence of an iron pigmented substance known as
haemoglobin.
 WBCs help in the defense of the body by producing antibodies and antigens.
 Platelets help in blood clotting.
 The main functions of blood are transportation, protection and regulation.
 The heart is the main pumping organ, which pumps blood to different parts of the body.
 Blood vessels are the muscular tubes, through which blood flows throughout the body. There
are three types of blood vessels i.e. arteries, veins and capillaries.
 Arteries are thick-walled blood vessels, which are deep seated in the body. They carry mainly
pure blood away from the heart.
 Veins are thin-walled blood vessels, which are superficial. They carry mainly impure blood
towards the heart.
 Capillaries are narrow, thin-walled blood vessels, where the exchange of substances takes place.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 259

  The force, by which blood exerts pressure against the wall of blood vessels is known as blood
pressure.
 The normal blood pressure in human body is 120/80 mm of Hg.
 Heart beat is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart. The normal heart beats
72 times per minute.
 There are four different types of blood groups i.e. A, B, AB and O.
 There are two types of blood circulations in the human body i.e. i) Systemic circulation ii)
Pulmonary circulation.
 A heart consists of four valves, which prevent the back flow of blood.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define blood. Mention its various components.

2. What is plasma? Write the functions of plasma.
3. Differentiate between RBCs and WBCs.
4. What will happen if the numbers of RBCs decrease in the blood? Why is blood
red in colour?
5. Differentiate between:
(a) artery and vein
(b) pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein
(c) tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve
(d) auricles and ventricles
6. Mention the functions of blood.
7. Define pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
8. Give reasons.
(a) The left ventricle has a thicker wall than the right ventricle.
(b) Arteries are deep seated in the body.
(c) Arteries do not have valves.
(d) Blood in the pulmonary artery is violet and in the pulmonary vein it is scarlet.
9. Define heart beat. Why does it increase during physical exercises?
10. Draw a well-labeled diagram of the external structure of the heart.
11. Explain the working mechanism of the heart.
12. What do you mean by systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation?
13. The blood pressure of a person is 120/80 mm/Hg. What do you mean by it?

260 | Blood Circulatory System in Human Body

14. Study the given figure and answer the following questions.
(a) Label (A), (B) and (C) B

(b) Write the functions of (C) and (B). A

(c) Which of them is related to disease resistant?

15. State the functions of the following structures: C

(a) Tricuspid valve

(b) Pulmonary artery
(c) Pericardial fluid
(d) Mitral value
16. Why is our pulse taken in the wrist or the neck?
17. Write some functions of the blood circulatory system.
18. Define blood groups. Which blood group is known as ‘Universal donor’ and
which is known as ‘Universal acceptor’?
19. Which blood vessel brings pure blood from the lungs to the heart?
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Pulmonary : related to the lungs
Arterioles : branches of arteries
Venules : branches of veins
Bone marrow : the fluid found inside the bone which makes blood cells
Cardiac : connected to the heart
Deficiency : shortage
Emotions : strong feelings
a medical condition that causes severe bleeding from even a slight injury because the
Haemophilia :
blood fails to clot.
Propagate : to spread
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New Creative Science, Class 10 | 261

 UNIT

17 Chromosomes and Sex Determination

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
All living organisms are made up of cells and cells are
known as the structural and functional units of life. The
growth and development of every organism depend on
the multiplication and enlargement of its cells. All cells of
the body arise from the division of pre-existing cells. Thus,
the cell division provides the basis for the growth and
reproduction in living organisms.
The division of cells takes place in two fundamental steps
i.e. (i) Karyokinesis (division of nucleus) which may or may
Robert Hooke not be followed by (ii) Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm).

Robert Hooke’s father was John

Thus, cell division can be defined as the process in which a
Hooke, who was a curate at All Saints pre-existing cell divides into daughter cells by the process of
Church in Freshwater on the Isle of
Wight. Although formally a curate,
karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
since the minister was also Dean of
Gloucester Cathedral and of Wells,
As we know, the nucleus of the cell plays an important role
John Hooke was left in charge of All in cell division. Let’s be familiar with its parts. The nucleus
Saints. It was a well-off church being
in the patronage of St John’s College,
is one of the most important parts of the cell. It contains
Cambridge. As well as his duties in nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromosome bound together
the church, John Hooke also ran a
small school attached to the church
by a double membranous nuclear membrane.
and acted as a private tutor. Robert
had a brother named John, the same
Each organism has a fixed number of chromosomes. The small
as his father, who was five years older. change in the chromosome may also lead to vast changes in
Relatively few details of Robert’s the living organisms. The number of chromosomes present
childhood are known. What we
record here is information which he in various living organisms is given below:
mentioned to his friends later in his
life. Robert, like many children of S.N. Organism No. of chromosomes
his day, had poor health and was
not expected to reach adulthood. His 1. Human beings 23 pairs (46)
father was from a family in which
it was expected that all the boys
2. Frog 13 pairs (26)
joined the Church (John Hooke’s 3. Monkey 27 pairs (54)
three brothers were all ministers) so
had Robert enjoyed good health as a 4. Rice 12 pairs (24)
child there is no doubt that he would
have followed the family tradition. 5. Tiger 19 pairs (38)
As it was Robert’s parents did begin
to set up his education with this in 6. Pea 7 pairs (14)
mind but he continually suffered
from headaches which made studying
7. Horse 32 pairs (64)
hard. Lacking confidence that he 8. Sugarcane 40 pairs (80)
would reach adulthood, Robert’s
parents gave up on his education, 9. Dog 39 pairs (78)
leaving him much to his own devices.
10. Lion 19 pairs (38)

262 | Chromosomes and Sex Determination

The chromosome is made up of nucleic acids and proteins. Genes are the structural
and functional units of chromosomes. Chromosomes are of two kinds.

SEX CHROMOSOMES
They are the single paired chromosomes which determine the sex of an individual.
They are represented by X and Y.

AUTOSOMES
They are other chromosomes which determine various other characters in the
individual. For example, the human body contains 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair
of sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes in females are indicated and understood
as XX and that in males as XY.
The main functions of chromosomes are:
i. They transfer the genetic characters from parents to the offspring with the
help of gene.
ii. Sex chromosomes determine the sex or gender of the organisms.
iii. Due to the crossing over in chromosome, it may lead to variation and
evolution.
Types of cell division
In animals and plants, the following three types of cell division have been distinguished:
1) Direct cell division or amitosis
2) Indirect cell division or mitosis
3) Reductional division or meiosis

CHROMOSOME
We know that the body of an animal
and plant is made up of millions
and billions of cells. In each cell,
there are various cell organelles like
mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes,
nucleus, Golgi body, etc. In the
nucleus, there are many thread-like
structures called chromatin network.
They are very long and thin structures.
These chromatin structures cannot be
seen by our naked eyes but they can
be seen under the microscope. During
cell division, these structures become
short and thick. They are called chromosomes. Thus, chromosomes are the organized
structure of DNA and protein, which are present in the nucleus of the cell.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 263

STRUCTURE OF THE CHROMOSOMES
The study of the chromosome revels that each chromosome is made up of DNA
molecule along with many histone proteins. Each molecule of DNA contains thousands
and thousands of molecules of nucleotides. In the DNA molecule, these nucleotides
join together to make a long chain. The length of the DNA molecule is about 8.5 cm. In
the chromosome, there is a constriction called the centromere or kinetochore. On the
basis of the position of the centromere, there are four types of chromosomes. They are:

Metacentric chromosomes
The chromosomes in which the centromere is present in the centre of the
chromosomes making equal arms are called metacentric chromosomes. In
these chromosomes, the arms are equal sized.

Sub-metacentric chromosomes
The chromosomes in which the centromere is present slightly at one side from
the centre making unequal arms are called sub-metacentric chromosomes. In
these chromosomes, the arms are not have equal sized.

Acrocentric chromosomes
The chromosomes in which the centromere is present towards the end of the
chromosomes are called acrocentric chromosomes. In these chromosomes, one
arm is very long and another arm is very short.

Telocentric chromosomes
The chromosomes in which the centromere is present at the tip of the
chromosomes are called telocentric chromosomes. In these chromosomes, one
arm is very long and another arm is invisible.

NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES
The number of chromosomes in each cell of an animal or a plant is always fixed. But,
they vary from plant to plant and animal to animal. The number of chromosomes in
the gamete cell is just half as in the somatic cell. For example, in a somatic cell of the
human body, there are 46 chromosomes but in the gamete cell (ovum or sperm), there
are only 23 chromosomes. The chromosomes present in the somatic cell are called
diploid chromosomes and the chromosomes present in the gamete cell are called
haploid chromosomes. The diploid chromosomes are represented by “2n” and the
haploid chromosomes are represented by “n”.

264 | Chromosomes and Sex Determination

The number of chromosomes in different animals and plants
Organism Number of chromosomes
Human being 46
House fly 12
Frog 26
Gorilla 48
Allium cepa 16
Onion 16
Pinus 24
Mushroom 2

Function of chromosomes
i. Chromosomes are the storage genes.
ii. They transfer parental characters to the offspring.
iii. They determine sex of the offspring.
iv. They help in protein synthesis.

SEX DETERMINATION
In human beings, there are 23
pairs of chromosomes. Among
them, 22 pairs of chromosomes
are called autosomes and one
pair of chromosomes is called
sex chromosomes. Autosomes
determine the characteristics
of the body and the sex
chromosomes determine the sex
of the offspring.
In females, the sex chromosomes
produce same types of gametes,
which are called homogametes.
They are denoted by “x” and
“x”. So, the eggs of females
contain “x” chromosome.
Similarly, in males two different
types of gametes are produced,
which are called heterogametes. They are denoted by “x” and “y”. So, the sperms
of males contain “x” and “y”. The female gametes contain 100 % “x” chromosomes
whereas 50% male gametes contain “x” chromosomes and 50% “y” chromosomes.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 265

During fertilization, if the male gamete of “x” chromosome fuses with the egg of the
female, it produces the female zygote. Similarly, if the male gamete of “y” chromosome
fuses with the egg of the female, it produces the male zygote. The female zygote
contains “xx” chromosomes and the male zygote contains “xy” chromosomes. The
male zygote develops into a boy and the female zygote develops into a girl. From
the above discussion, it is clear that, the female has no role in sex determination in
the offspring because the female produces homogametes. It is also clear that the
production of the male and female offspring has 50-50 chance as 50% male gametes
contain “y” chromosomes.
Sex linked disease
Sometimes, the number and structure of chromosomes get changed in an animal
or a plant cell. It is called chromosome disorder. Due to chromosome disorder,
different types of diseases may occur in animals. Some diseases are located in the sex
chromosomes. These diseases are called sex linked diseases. Thus, the diseases which
are present in sex chromosomes and which transfer from one generation to another
generation are called sex linked diseases. For example, colourblindness, haemophilia,
etc. The patients suffering from haemophilia show continuous bleeding through the
wound. Thereis no blood clotting. So, patients may die due to the deficiency of blood
in their body. Sex linked diseases occur only in one particular sex (either male or
female). The blind is a sex linked disease, which occurs in man only and breast cancer
is a sex linked disease which occurs only woman.
Chromosomal disorder
The problems which are seen in the human body due to change in number of
chromosomes are called chromosomal disorder. Chromosomal disorder occurs due to
increase or decrease of one or more chromosomes. Sometimes it may occur due to an
unusual combination or deletion of chromosomes. During the cell division, sometimes
the chromatids cannot be splatted in equal number. So, the number of chromosomes
may increase or decrease. This condition is called aneuploidy. The various syndromes
like down’s syndrome, klinefelter’s, syndrome turner’s syndrome, etc. occur due to
chromosomal disorder.
Down’s syndrome
In every cell in the human body, there is a nucleus. In the nucleus, there are
chromosomes. In the chromosomes, there are many genes. Genes carry the hereditary
information from one generation to the next. Each cell of the human body contains
23 pairs of chromosomes. In case of Down’s syndrome, there is one extra copy of
chromosome in 21 pair of chromosomes. Thus, the disorder in the human body, which
occurs due to one extra copy of chromosome in 21 pair of chromosomes is called
down’s syndrome.

266 | Chromosomes and Sex Determination

Down’s syndrome alters the course of development. It causes the characteristics
associated with Down syndrome. The children suffering from Down’s syndrome have
low muscle tone. They have small stature. They have an upward slant to the eyes
and a single deep crease across the center of the palm. Although each person with
Down’s syndrome is a unique individual they may possess the above characteristics
of different degrees.
Klinefelter’s syndrome
The disorder in the human body which occurs due to one extra copy of “x” chromosome
in sex chromosomes is called Klinefelter’s syndrome. In this syndrome the person
has xxxy chromosomes in 23 pair of chromosomes. As a result of this syndrome, the
person seems like a male but he has breasts. They are impotent in nature.
Turner’s syndrome
The disorder in the human body which occurs due to deletion of “x” chromosome
in sex chromosomes of the girls is called Turner’s syndrome. Turner syndrome is a
condition that affects only girls and women. It results when a sex chromosome (the
X chromosome) is missing or partially missing in 23 pair of chromosomes. Turner
syndrome can cause a variety of medical and developmental problems. It includes
a short height, failure to start puberty, infertility, heart defects, certain learning
disabilities and social adjustment problems.
Nearly all girls and women with Turner syndrome need ongoing medical care from a
variety of specialists. Regular checkups and appropriate care can help most girls and
women lead relatively healthy and independent lives.

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. What is a haploid pair of chromosomes?
Ü The cells which have half number of chromosomes in their nucleus are called
haploid chromosomes. For example, in the sperms and ovum of the human
body, there are only 23 chromosomes. Such types of cells are represented by “n”.
2. What is a diploid pair of chromosomes?
Ü The cells which have diploid number of chromosomes in their nucleus are called
diploid chromosomes. For example, in the somatic cells of the human body,
there are only 46 chromosomes. Such types of cells are represented by “n”.
3. What are genes?
Ü The segments of DNA which are responsible to carry hereditary characters
from one generation to the next generation are called genes. They are the unit
of heredity. One gene carries only one character from one generation to the next
generation.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 267

4. What is the main difference between the autosome and sex chromosomes?
Ü The chromosomes which determine the body characters of the organisms are
called autosomes. For example, in the human body, each cell has 22 pairs of
autosomes. Similarly, the pair of chromosomes which determines the sex of the
offspring is called the sex chromosome. For example, in the human body, each
cell has only one pair of sex chromosomes. It is represented by “xy”.
5. What is syndrome?
Ü The chromosomal disorder which causes different kinds of problems in the
human body is called syndrome.
6. What is the chromosomal disorder in different kinds of syndromes?
Ü The chromosomal disorder in different kinds of syndromes is
i) Down’s syndromes = xxx in 21 pair of chromosomes
ii) Klinefelter’s syndromes = xxy in 23 pair of chromosomes
iii) Turner’s syndromes = 0x in 23 pair of chromosomes in girls
e
SUMMARY
 Chromosomes are the organized structure of DNA and protein, which are present in the
nucleus of the cell.
 Each chromosome is made up of the DNA molecule along with many histone proteins.
 The chromosomes in which the centromere is present in the centre of the chromosomes
making equal arms are called metacentric chromosomes.
 The chromosomes in which the centromere is present slightly at one side from the centre
making unequal arms are called sub-metacentric chromosomes.
 The chromosomes, in which centromere is present towards the end of the chromosomes are
called acrocentric chromosomes.
 The chromosomes, in which the centromere is present at the tip of the chromosomes are
called telocentric chromosomes.
 The chromosomes present in somatic cells are called diploid chromosomes.
 The chromosomes present in gamete cells are called haploid chromosomes.
 The diploid chromosomes are represented by “2n” and the haploid chromosomes are
represented by “n”.
 The diseases, which are present in sex chromosomes and which transfer from one generation
to another generation are called sex linked diseases.
 The problems, which are seen in the human body due to the change in the number of
chromosomes are called chromosomal disorder.
 The disorder in the human body which occurs due to an extra copy of chromosome in 21 pair
of chromosomes, is called Down’s syndrome.
 The disorder in the human body, which occurs due to one extra copy of “x” chromosome in sex
chromosomes is called Klinefelter’s syndrome.
 The disorder in the human body, which occurs due to deletion of “x” chromosome in sex
chromosomes of the girls is called Turner’s syndrome.

268 | Chromosomes and Sex Determination

 E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define the following terms.

(a) Chromosomes (b) Centromere
(c) Metacentric chromosomes (d) Sub-metacentric chromosomes
(e) Acrocentric chromosomes (f) Telocentric chromosomes
(g) Syndromes (h) Down’s syndrome
(i) Klinefelter’s syndrome (j) Turner’s syndrome
2. Differentiate between:
(a) Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome
(b) autosomes and sex chromosomes
(c) haploid and diploid
3. Give reason.
(a) Male is responsible for sex determination
(b) Gene is called the unit of heredity
4. Answer the following questions.
(a) What are chromosomes?
(b) Classify chromosomes on the basis of the centromere.
(c) What is chromosome disorder? Write down the names of different types of
syndromes.
(d) How is sex determined? Explain with a figure.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Autosomes : the chromosomes which determine characters
Sex chromosomes : the chromosomes which determine sex
Centromere : the constriction of the chromosomes
Diploid : chromosomes which are present in pair
Haploid : chromosomes which are present in one set only
Chromosomal disorder : change in number of chromosomes



New Creative Science, Class 10 | 269

 UNIT

18 Reproduction in Animals and Plants

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
Reproduction is a special biological process related to the
production of new generation of individuals of the same
species. Though, the reproduction is not an essential
process for the survival of an individual, it is essential for
multiplication and continuation of the species.
Reproduction provides group immortality by replacing
the dead individuals with new ones for the survival of the
species on the earth.
Louis Pasteur
(1822)
Reproduction may be defined as the production of new generation
Louis Pasteur was born on
December 27, 1822 in Dole, in of individuals of the same species that are physically independent
the region of Jura, France. His of their parents.
discovery that most infectious
diseases are caused by germs,
known as the “germ theory
of disease,” is one of the most
A. ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
important in medical history.
His work became the foundation
The reproductive methods of the living organisms are
for the science of microbiology, broadly categorized into two types:
and a cornerstone of modern
medicine. i) Asexual reproduction
Pasteur’s phenomenal
contributions to microbiology
ii) Sexual reproduction
and medicine can be summarized
as follows: First, he championed i) Asexual reproduction
changes in hospital practices
to minimize the spread of Asexual reproduction involves the participation of a
disease by microbes. Second, he
discovered that weakened forms single individual parent. It occurs without using the sex
of a microbe could be used as
an immunization against more organs or formation of gametes. It is a common method of
virulent forms of the microbe. reproduction in lower plants and animals like in unicellular
Third, Pasteur found that rabies
was transmitted by agents so organisms; algae, fungi, bryophytes, sponges, hydra, etc.
small they could not be seen under
a microscope, thus revealing the Asexual reproduction may be defined as the production of young
world of viruses. As a result, he
developed techniques to vaccinate ones by a single parent without the formation of gametes or
dogs against rabies, and to treat
humans bitten by rabid dogs. fertilization or meiosis cell division.
And fourth, Pasteur developed
“pasteurization,” a process by It occurs due to the mitosis cell division. It is an easy and
which harmful microbes in
perishable food products are rapid method of reproduction in which the young ones
destroyed using heat, without
destroying the food.
posses all the genetic characters of the parents.

270 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

It occurs in the following ways:
a) Fission
b) Budding
c) Sporulation
d) Fragmentation and regeneration
e) Vegetative propagation
a) Fission
It is a common method of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms, in which the
organism breaks into two or more halves.
Thus, fission may be defined as the process of breaking of a parent cell into two or more separate
daughter cells.
The fission may also be of two types: Binary fission and multiple fission.
Binary fission
In this process, a parent cell divides into two nearly equal sized similar daughter
cells. In this process, the nucleus divides first followed by the division of cytoplasm.
According to the plane of division, the binary fission may be simple, transverse,
longitudinal and oblique. It takes place in the favourable conditions. This process is
common in amoeba, euglena, paramecium, bacteria, diatom, etc.

Daughter amoeba

Mother amoeba

Binary fission in amoeba

Multiple fission
In the multiple fission, the nucleus of the cell divides very rapidly into many nuclei.
Each daughter nuclei is surrounded by the little mass of the cytoplasm. In this
method, a thick covering or cyst is formed around the cell under the unfavourable
condition and on getting the favourable condition of food and water, the cyst breaks
and small offspring are released and they live their independent life. It is common in
plasmodium, amoeba, monocyst, chlamydomonas etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 271

 Multiple fission in plasmodium

MEMORY TIPS
Malaria parasite (plasmodium) produces about 100 daughter cells from one parent at a
time, each capable of invading RBC.

b) Budding
This type of asexual reproduction is common in yeast, some
protozoans, coelentrates (hydra) and other lower animals. In
this process, the body of the parent gives out a small outgrowth
known as a bud. The bud is supported by the parent body and
it ultimately develops into a new individual. The developing
individual gets food from the body of the parent and when
it becomes fully mature, it is detached from the body of the
parent and leads an individual existence. Budding in yeast

Budding in hydra

MEMORY TIPS
The formation of a bud takes place by the amitosis division of the nucleus and cytoplasm.

ACTIVITY
Fill a conical flask with water. Cover the neck of the flask with a wire mesh.
1. Dissolve about 10 gm of sugar in 100 ml of water.
2. Take 20 ml of this solution in a test tube and add a pinch of yeast granules to it.
3. Put a cotton plug on the mouth of the test tube and keep it in a warm place.
4. After 1 or 2 hours, put a small drop of yeast culture from the test tube on a slide and cover it with a
cover slip.
5. Observe the slide under a microscope.

272 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

 QUESTIONS
# How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?

c) Sporulation
Spores are produced by spore mother cells in sporangia.
They gets detached from the parents and give rise directly or
indirectly to a new individual.
This method of reproduction is common in some bacteria and Sporulation in muc or
most of the fungi. During the formation of spores, the fungal
hypha develops on sporangium whose nucleus divides many times. Each nucleus gets
surrounded by cytoplasm and develops into a spore. Each spore grows into a new
hypha after germinating. Rhizopus, mucor; aspergillus, penicillium etc. reproduce by
sporulation.

MEMORY TIPS
Non-flagellated and non-motile spores are called aplanospores and the flagellated and
motile spores are called zoospores.

ACTIVITY
Wet a slice of bread, and keep it in a cool, moist and dark place. Observe the surface of the slice with a
magnifying glass after 2-3 days.

d) Fragmentation and Regeneration

The process in which an organism breaks into fragments and are formed into new
organisms from these fragments is called fragmentation and regeneration.
Regeneration is common in lower plants (e.g; Algae, fungi etc.) and animals (hydra,
planaria and sponges).
A mature filament of spirogyra breaks into two or more pieces and each piece grows
into a new individual.

Daughter
planaria

Mother planaria

Regeneration of planaria

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 273

 MEMORY TIPS
The term ‘fragmentation’ is generally used for plants and the term ‘regeneration’ is used
for animals.

e) Vegetative propagation
It is common in higher plants. In this process, parts of the plants other than seeds are
used as propagules. It is more useful in those plants which have lost their capacity
to produce seeds or produce non-viable seeds, e.g. banana, seedless grapes, rose,
pineapple, etc. It is of two types:
(i) Natural vegetative propagation
(ii) Artificial vegetative propagation
(i) Natural vegetative propagation
This type of vegetative propagation occurs naturally and takes place through the
following parts:
Vegetative propagation through roots: The adventitious roots of some plants like
dahlia, mint, sweet potato, etc. reproduce by means of roots. These roots contain the
adventitious buds through which new leafy shoots can be developed.

Dahlia Sweet potato

Vegetative propagation by roots
Vegetative propagation through stem: Underground
modified stems such as rhizomes (e.g. ginger, water
hyacinth), corms (banana, colocasia), bulbs (e.g.
garlic, onion etc.) also give rise to the new plants.
The rhizome is a short and swollen underground
modified stem having buds, scale leaves and
adventitious roots.
The corm is a swollen underground modified stem
having a swollen base. It remains surrounded by scale leaves with one or more buds
on it.
The bulb is an underground modified stem having a short shoot and fleshly storage
leaves.

274 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

Some plants like potatoes reproduce asexually by means of a tuber. A tuber is a swollen
underground modified stem having buds. Similarly bamboo, pineapple, banana, rose,
sugarcane also propagate vegetatively from the stem.
Vegetative propagation through leaves: Some plants develop adventitious buds on
their leaves which develop into new plants, e.g. bryophyllum, begonia, ctc.

Vegetative propagation through leaves

Advantages of vegetative propagation

i) The plants which are unable to produce viable seeds can be easily propagated
by this method, e.g. sugarcane, banana, rose, potato etc.
ii) Plants raised by vegetative propagation bear flowers and fruits earlier than
other plants of the same species.
iii) All plants produced by this method are generally similar to the parent plants
and have all its characteristics.
iv) It is a cheap and rapid method of reproduction.
v) It can give disease-free plantlets (through tissue culture).
vi) We can take both the advantages of better root system of one plant and more
efficient shoot system of another plant.
Advantages of Asexual reproduction
i) It is a rapid and cheap method of reproduction, as it does not need two
individuals for reproduction.
ii) It is better for seedless plants and the plants bearing non-viable seeds.
iii) They give their young ones exactly the same characters of their parents.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 275

 QUESTIONS
# Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?
# Write some advantages of asexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction
The production of the offspring by the fusion of male and female gametes produced due to the
meiosis cell division is called sexual reproduction.
In this process, male and female gametes unite to form a zygote. It finally develops
into a new organism. The male reproductive part of living organisms produces male
gametes and that of female reproductive part produces female gametes.
The fusion of male and female gametes takes place to form a zygote and this process
is known as fertilization. The zygote divides mitotically and grows into an embryo,
which finally develops into a new organism.
The sexual mode of reproduction involves two individuals- one acting as a male and
the other acting as a female. In majority of the higher animals, the male and female are
separate i.e. an individual may be either a male or a female. Such organisms are called
unisexual or dioecious.
When both of the reproductive organs are found in the same individual, they are
called bisexual or hermaphrodite, e.g. tapeworm, earthworm, hydra, and other lower
organisms.

Features of sexual reproduction

1. In the second reproduction male and female gametes are involved in fertilization.
2. The meiosis cell division takes place during the formation of gametes. So, the
gametes are haploid. These gametes are united during fertilization forming a
diploid zygote.
3. It is complicate type of reproduction, which takes a long time to complete.
4. Products of sexual reproduction show variation, i.e. they are not genetically
similar to their parents.

External and Internal fertilization

The fertilization which takes place outside the body of the female is known as external
fertilization. Fishes and amphibians have external fertilization.
If the fusion of male and female gametes takes place inside the body of a female, then it is known
as internal fertilization. Insects, birds, mammals, reptiles have internal fertilization.

MEMORY TIPS
Sexual reproduction may be syngamy, conjugation or autogamy.

276 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

 QUESTIONS
# What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?

Sexual reproduction in plants

In flowering plants, all the steps of sexual reproduction occur within the flower. So,
the flower is also known as the main reproductive organ of the flowering plants.
A typical angiosperm flower consists of four whorls attached to the receptacle or
thalamus. The receptacle is the swollen top of the flower stalk. The four whorls of a
flower are:
i) Calyx ii) Corolla iii) Androecium iv) Gynoecium
i) Calyx
It is the outermost whorl of the flower. Each member of the calyx is known as a sepal.
They are usually green in colour. They protect the flower during the bud stage.
petal
ii) Corolla
stigma
It is the second whorl of the flower. Each member anther

of the corolla is known as petals. They are usually

filament
bright, colourful and scented. They attract insects style
for pollination.
iii) Androecium sepal
receptacle
It is the third whorl of the flower and also the male ov ary
reproductive part of the plant. Each member is
known as a stamen. A stamen is divided into anther and filament. The anther consists of
the pollen sac (sporangia) which produces male gametes or microspores or pollen grains.
iv) Gynoecium
It is the fourth and innermost whorl of the flower and also the female reproductive
part of the plant. Each member is known as the pistil or the carpel. The pistil is
differentiated into three different parts stigma, style and ovary. Ovary produces
megaspore or female gametes or ovules.

Parts of flower

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 277

Pollination
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of stamen to the stigma of pistil is called pollination.
It is an important process that facilitates successful fertilization in plants. The common
agents responsible for successful pollination are wind, water, insects, birds, bats and
animals.
Types of pollination
Pollination is of two types: (i) Self pollination (ii) Cross pollination
i) Self pollination
It involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower or the stigma of another flower which is born on the same plant.
ii) Cross pollination
It involves the transfer of pollen grains from the flower of one plant to the stigma of
the flower of another plant of the same species.

Cross pollination
Self pollination

Pollination

Fertilization in plants
After the deposition of pollen grains over the stigma,
they absorb water. They swell and then germinate to
produce pollen tubes. One of the pollen tubes grows
into stigma, passes through the style and moves
towards the ovary. The pollen tube finally pierces the
egg through micropyle.
The mature embryo sac consists of an egg apparatus
(one haploid egg and two synergids), two polar nuclei
and three antipodal cells.

278 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

During fertilization, one male gamete fuses with the egg to form the diploid zygote.
The diploid zygote finally develops into an embryo.
The other male gamete in pollen grain fuses with the polar nuclei to form triploid
(3n) primary endosperm nucleus. This process is called triple fusion and the whole
mechanism is called double fertilization. After fertilization, the zygote develops into an
embryo, the ovule develops into a seed and the ovary develops into a fruit. It can be
summarized as:

Summary of fertilization

MEMORY TIPS
Due to the triple fusion or double fertilization process, fruits are developed in angiosperm
but the gymnosperms lack this process. So, gymnosperms do not bear fruits.

ACTIVITY
Study the different types of flowers near your school or locality and differentiate the
structures of whorls in those flowers.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 279

Difference between self- pollination and cross-pollination.
S.N. Self Pollination S.N. Cross Pollination
1. It is the transfer of pollen grains 1. It is the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther to the stigma of from the anther of one flower to the
the same flower or another flower stigma of another flower in the other
of the same plant. plant.
2. It preserves the parental 2. It does not preserve the parental
characters. characters.
3. External agents of pollination are 3. External agents of pollination are
not required. required.
4. Variation does not take place in 4. Variation takes place in the offspring.
the offspring.
5. It takes place in bisexual flowers. 5. It takes place in unisexual as well as
bisexual flowers.
Sexual reproduction in animals
Sexual reproduction is the only mode of reproduction in higher animals. The higher
animals are usually unisexual. The male produces male gametes or sperms and the
female produces female gametes or ova/eggs. Sperms are motile and have a tail
which is produced by the process known as spermatogenesis in testes. Similarly, ova
are non-motile, larger and do not bear a tail. The process by which eggs are produced
is known as oogenesis. On favourable condition, the male and female gametes fuse
to form a zygote. This process is fertilization and the fertilization may be external
or internal. The zygote is the diploid structure formed after the fertilization of two
haploid gametes. The zygote divides mitotically and forms an embryo which finally
develops into a young animal.
Advantages of sexual reproduction
1. It brings variation and helps the living organisms to get adopted to the particular
environment.
2. It gives continuity to the generation.
3. The offspring of sexual reproduction exhibit diversity of characters.
4. It helps in the origin of new species and leads to variation required for evolution.

MEMORY TIPS
In human females, fertilization takes place inside the fallopian tube.

ACTIVITY
Visit a nearby fishery (fish farm) observe the egg, larva and adult of the fishes and draw their
figures

280 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

B. ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION IN PLANTS
Artificial vegetative propagation is a commercial technique of reproducing/
propagating plants rapidly by using their vegetative part. It is usually used to
reproduce those plants that produce either very few seeds or do not produce viable
seeds. It is widely used in agriculture, horticulture and floriculture sector for the quick
and large scale production of plants. It provides an opportunity for propagation of
best selected varieties of plants. Bananas, pineapples, oranges, grapes, roses, pears,
etc. are some of the common examples of plants that are propagated by artificial
vegetative propagation.
Layering, grafting and tissue culture are the widely used artificial vegetative
propagation techniques and is therefore they are discussed briefly in this unit.

I. Layering
The development of roots on a stem while the stem is still attached to the parent plant
is called
Layering. A layer is the rooted stem following detachment (removal) from the parent
plant. Layering is popular technique in horticulture. Some types of layering are
explained below.
a. Simple layering: This method produces a new plant
from a low growing flexible stem. The low growing
flexible stem is bent so that its bend get dipped into
the shallow trench of about 10-15 cm. The bending
part in the trench is covered with soil leaving 20-25
cm of the branch tip part above the soil. After 2-3
months of the growing season, the branch develops rooting. Bending the branch
in a vertical position and wound the lower side of the bent branch induce rooting
faster. This method is used in lemon, forsythia, honeysuckle etc.
b. Compound layering: This method produces many new plants from a single
flexible stem. For compound layering, a flexible stem near to the ground is bent
to the shallow trench like simple layering. But here
the number of trenches are more and the buds in the
section of the stem is alternately exposed and covered
with soil in shallow trenches. Roots develop from
each of the buds covered in the soil. This method is
used in sweet potatoes, pears, apples, grapes, heat-
leaf philodendron, etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 281

c. Mound layering: It is used to produce new plants from plants with heavy stems,
closely branched shrubs and rootstocks of tree
fruits. For mound layering, the plant is cut back
to about 3 cm above the soil surface in the
dormant season. Dormant buds produce new
shoots in the spring. As the new shoots grow
soil is mound over them. Roots will develop at
the bases of the young shoots. The layer should
be then removed in the dormant season.
d. Tip layering : Tip layering is a type of artificial
vegetative propagation in which the branch of
a tree is buried into the soil and a new plant is
grown up. In this method, 5-8cm of the branch
of a tree is buried into the soil for about 3-4
months. In this period, roots and branches
come out from the parent branch. After that the parent branch is separated from
the tree for its independent growth.
e. Air layering : Air layering is a type of artificial vegetative propagation, in which
the branch of a tree is cut and buried into the soil to grow a new plant.
It is the most popular method of artificial
vegetative propagation. First of all, a branch
of about two years old is selected for the air
layering. The bark of the branch is removed
making a ring-like structure. It protects the
circulation of food from the leaves to the roots.
It also helps to germinate roots at the part cut.
At the area of the this part, moist soil and some
algae are kept covering with plastic. Some growth hormone is supplied to it.
After about 4-8 weeks, roots start to come from the part cut. After about one
month, the branch is removed from the tree and sown in the ground for further
germination.

ACTIVITY
Produce layers of one of the plants like litchi, grape, sweet potato, etc. using compound layering.

II. Grafting
Grafting is the method of joining the parts of two separate plants so that they will
unite and continue to grow as a single plant. With such a quick method of uniform
propagation, plants with similar characteristics and disease resistance in rootstocks

282 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

have advantages of grafting. The scion and stock of two compatible plants are joined
in this method. The scion is part of the union to be attached to the rootstock that
forms the bearing parts and the shoot system. The stock is the part of the union, which
contains the root portion of the union that forms the lower trunk and root system of
the tree. For the success of grafting, the cambial layer of the scion and the stock need
to make contact with each other. The cambium is the regenerative tissue or the layer
of cells, located between the bark and the wood of the plant.
Some common methods of grafting are mentioned below.
a. Whip Grafting : The whip graft is useful for plants that unite easily. This method
is useful for apples, mangos and pears. It can be used to graft the root, stem or
the top graft. The diameter of the scion and the rootstock should be the same,
from the size of a pencil to 10-15 mm.
a. Simple whip grafting: This type of grafting practice
includes the process of a simple sloping cut on both
the scion and the rootstock. The two parts should
overlap each other perfectly. The wider the scion
and the root stock, the longer should be the cut
surface. The joint of the scion and the stock need to
be wrapped air tight. Within 3-4 months, the wound
in the joint gets recovered.
b. Tongue whip grafting : This method is more
common in practice, especially in the case of pear
and apple trees. The scion should have two or three
buds with the graft made below the bottom bud.
The first cut is a 2-5 cm sloping cut at the bottom of
the scion. The second cut is made with a distance of
1/3 cm from the tip of the first cut making a tongue.
The same process is repeated on the rootstock so
that the tongue of the scion fits in the tongue of the stock. The joint is
wrapped air tight using plastic and within 3-4 months, the joint gets
recovered.
b. Saddle grafting : In this method, the stock is cut in the
shape of a wedge (inverted V shaped). The scion is also
cut carefully creating an inward inverted V shaped slot
that exactly fits the stock wedge tightly in it. The scion
and the stock are joined using grating wax and wrapped
air tight by grafting a tape or plastic.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 283

c. Cleft grafting: In this method, branches of the stock are sawed straight across,
and the stub of the branch is split to a depth
approximating the diameter of the stock. A
temporary wedge sufficient to open the slit is
inserted at the centre of the split. Two scions, each
having several buds, are inserted at the edges of
the split, then adjusted so that the lowest bud is
close to the top of the stock facing outward. The
wedge is removed without displacing the scions,
and the cut is covered with grafting wax and wrapped air tight by plastic.

ACTIVITY
Take a scion and a stock of a local fruit or flower. Propagate it by saddle grafting and transfer it
to your school garden/ nursery.

TISSUE CULTURE
Tissue culture is the method of producing a number of plants in a cultured medium
under sterile condition by using small pieces of plant tissues (explant). It is also
known as micro-propagation. Mass production of plants with no seeds or non-viable
seeds, production of identical plants with identical plants with common features of
sizes, colours, quality, etc., production of disease free plants and production of mature
plants in s short time are the major reasons for the widespread development of tissue
culture.
Tissue culture involves six major steps. They are:

Preparation and sterilization of growing medium

Murashige Skoog (MS) media is the growing medium for the plant tissue which is
prepared in sterile distilled water. Agar, sucrose and growth hormone along with
other substances are added to it. The growing media is kept in tubes, capped tightly
and sterilized using autoclave or boiling in water.

Preparation of sterile transfer chamber and equipment

The working desk is sterilized using chlorox bleach and other disinfectants. Equipment
like razors, forceps, scalpels, etc. are sterilized autoclave or boiling in water.
Plant preparation: The plant part is washed cleanly with detergent water and sterilized
using chlorox solution. If the plant part is infected with bacteria or fungi, they may
destroy it or may result in diseased plantlets.

284 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

Transfer of plant material to tissue culture medium
Discard the tissue of prepared plant part if it is destroyed by bleach. Carefully transfer
the sterilized plant tissue/ plant part in the tube containing growing medium using
sterilized forceps and replace the cap of the medium tightly.

Growing plants
A yellow-brown mass of cells called callus develops from the piece of the plant. Small
chunks of the callus are separated using sterilized equipment and each piece is placed
in a sterile Petri dish with a hormone like auxin and cytokinin along with nutrient mix
that stimulates the development of the callus pieces into plants. Auxin promotes shoot
formation and cytokinin promotes root formation.

Potting the plants

The young plants, after the development of shoots and roots, are removed from the
Petri dish and placed in pots with soil. They also can be placed into a controlled
greenhouse or the ground, where they grow to maturity.

ADVANTAGE OF TISSUE CULTURE

i. Propagation of plants from any of vegetative parts or tissues of the plant.
ii. Mass production of healthy plants in a short time.
iii. Preservation of endangered and near to extinct plant species.
iv. Production of plants with same characteristics that are in their parents.

MEMORY TIPS
Parthenogenesis is another type of asexual reproduction in which an organism is developed
from unfertilized eggs.

ACTIVITY
1. Take an average sized potato tuber and observe its surface.
2. From where do the new buds get their food?
3. From which part of the potato gives rise to new buds?

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Explain the various steps of budding in yeast.
Ü During budding, a small bud like outgrowth arises at one end of the parent cell.
Slowly, it enlarges in size. The nucleus at first, enlarges and divides into two,
out of which one remains in the parent cell and the other migrates into the bud.
Later cytoplasm divides and the bud grows into a new individual. It separates
out from the parent body and leaves freely.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 285

2. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Ü Sexual reproduction has the following advantages over asexual reproduction.
i. The offspring shows diversity of characters in sexual reproduction.
ii. It plays a prominent role in the origin of new species and leads to evolution.
3. Regeneration cannot be regarded as reproduction. Why?
Ü In regeneration, an organism is cut or broken up into many pieces. These pieces
then grow into separate individuals. In nature, most of the organisms would not
normally depend on being cut off to be able to reproduce. They would like to
survive themselves as well as reproduce new individuals.
4. Asexual reproduction is advantageous to farmers. Why?
Ü It is because, asexual reproduction is a rapid method of reproduction, in which
flowers and fruits are developed after a short duration. It is an easy and cheap
method of reproduction.
5. Gametes are haploid and zygotes are diploid. Why?
Ü Gametes are formed after meiosis cell division and the zygote is the structure
formed after the fusion of two haploid gametes.
6. The fertilization in amphibians is called external fertilization. Why?
Ü It is so because, the fusion of sperms and eggs takes place in water i.e. outside
the female body.
7. Differentiate between sperm and ova.
S.N. Sperm S.N. Ova
1. It is a male sex cell. 1. It is a female sex cell.
2. It is motile. 2. It is non-motile.
3. It is smaller in size. 3. It is bigger in size.
4. Generally, a large number of 4. Less number of ova are produced
sperms are produced at a time. at a time.

SUMMARY
 Reproduction is the process of production of new young ones from the parent body.
 There are two types of reproduction i.e. sexual and asexual.
 Budding, fission, regeneration, sporulation and vegetative propagation are the types of asexual
reproduction.
 In fission, an organism breaks into two or more nearly equal halves. It may be binary fission or
multiple fission.
 In budding, a small bud develops in a parent body. It is common in hydra, yeast and other fungi.
 In sporulation, spores are produced, which on getting favourable conditions germinate into
new plants.
 The ability of an individual fragment to replace its lost parts is called regeneration.

286 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

  In vegetative propagation, new plants are developed from the vegetative parts like roots, stem,
leaf, etc.
 Artificial vegetative propagation is a commercial technique of reproducing/ propagating
plants rapidly by using their vegetative part.
 The development of roots on a stem while the stem is still attached to the parent plant is
called Layering.
 Simple layering, compound layering, mound layering, etc. are the methods of layering.
 Grafting is the method of joining the parts of two separate plants so that they will unite and
continue to grow as a single plant.
 Simple whip grafting, tongue whip grafting, saddle grafting, cleft grafting, etc. are different
methods of grafting.
 Tissue culture is the method of producing a number of plants in a cultured medium under
sterile condition by using small pieces of plant tissues (explants).
 Auxin and cytokinin are growth hormones that promotes, shoot formation and root formation,
respectively.
 Tissue culture is a modern technique of asexual reproduction.
 Sexual reproduction is the process, which involves the fusion of male and female gametes.
 Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of the flower.
 Fertilization means the fusion of male and female gametes after pollination.
 Fertilization leads to the diploid structure known as the zygote.
 The organism having both male and female sex organs in the same body are known as bisexual
or hermaphrodite or monoecious.
 The organisms having male and female sex organs in different parts of the body are known as
unisexual or dioecious.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. Define reproduction. How many types of reproduction are there? Name them.
2. Define asexual reproduction. What are its characteristics?
3. What is fission? Name its types.
4. Describe the multiple fission in plasmodium.
5. Define budding. Describe its process in hydra.
6. Name the method of asexual reproduction common in the given organisms.
(a) Amoeba (b) Hydra (c) Plasmodium (d) Spirogyra
(e) Monocyst (f) Potato (g) Bryophyllum (h) Onion
(i) Sweet potato
7. Differentiate between:
(a) male gametes (sperms) and female gametes (ova)
(b) spores and gametes
(c) pollination and fertilization
(d) spores and zygote
8. Draw a figure to show fertilization in plants.
New Creative Science, Class 10 | 287
9. Write in short about the sexual reproduction in animals.
10. List the advantages of vegetative propagation.
11. List the advantages of asexual reproduction.
12. Study the given diagram and answer the questions asked.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(a) Which one of them shows vegetative propagation?
(b) What is the name of the animal shown in (a)? What is the method of
reproduction in it?
(c) What type of reproduction is shown by (c)?
(d) Which one of them is the simplest method of reproduction?
13. ‘Fusion of gametes in angiosperm’ is called double fertilization. Why?
14. Define monoecious and dioecious plants.
15. Define hermaphrodite and give two examples of it.
16. Label the parts ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’, ‘E’ and ‘F’ in the following figure. Assign the
role played by ‘B’ and ‘F’

288 | Reproduction in Animals and Plants

17. Only some flowers of cucurbita, pumpkin and bitter gourd set fruits whereas
others fail. Why?
18. What is syngamy? What happens after syngamy?
19. Define.
(a) Layering (b) Layer (c) Grafting (d) Scion
(e) Stock (f) Tissue culture (g) Explants (h) Callus
20. Give reasons.
(a) Auxin and cytokinin are added into the nutrient medium. Why?
(b) Why grapevines are preferred plants for layering?
21. Differentiate between:
(a) layering and grafting
(b) simple layering and compound layering
(c) simple whip grafting and tongue grafting
22. Answer the following questions.
(a) Describe the method of compound layering in plants.
(b) How is tongue grafting done in an apple? Explain it in short.
(c) List out the major steps to be considered in tissue culture.
(d) What are the advantages of tissue culture?
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Bud : a projection formed at the side of the body
Prepagules : the structural unit that is employed in place of seed
Germ cells : sex cells
Immortality : the state of being alive forever
Propagate : to spread



New Creative Science, Class 10 | 289

 UNIT

19 Heredity
INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
It is commonly seen that members of a species are largely
alike. A cow resembles other cows, a rose plant looks alike
other rose plants, children resemble their parents. It is a
well-known fact that ‘like begets like’, like, which implies
continuity of life. It is, however, not absolutely true as the
members of a species are seldom exactly alike i.e. a son may
resemble his parents or grandparents but he is not exactly
the same as them. The similarities and differences among
Gregor Johann Mendel
the members of a species are not coincidental; they are
(1822-1884 received from their parents by the young ones.
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-
1884) was born in a peasant family
Heredity is the passing of characters from one generation to
of Maravia. Due to poverty, he another whereas variations are departure from a complete
became a monk in 1843 and
later in 1847, was made an abbot
similarity between the successive generations.
(head) of Augustinian monastery
of St. Thomas at Brunn, Austria
‘Genetics’ is the branch of biology which deals with heredity
(now Bruna in Czech Republic). and variations. The term ‘genetics’ was coined by William
From here, he went in 1851 to
the University of Vienna where
Bateson in 1906.
he studied natural history and
mathematics for two years. He also HEREDITY
became interested in the process of
hybridization. Mendel returned to The resemblance of the offspring with their parents is due
the monastery in 1853 and also
worked as a teacher in a school. to heredity. A chick cannot be hatched from a duck's egg,
From 1856 to 1865, Mendel calves cannot be given birth by a horse, a puppy is similar
conducted breeding experiments on
garden pea plant (Pisum sativum) to its parents. All of these processes are due to the heredity.
in the garden of his monastery. Thus,
He published his findings in 1866
in the ‘Annual Proceedings of the Heredity is the process of transmission of characters from parents
Natural History society of Brunn’.
His findings remained unknown to the offspring, i.e. from one generation to the next. It is also
until these were rediscovered by known as inheritance.
three biologists namely Hugo
Devries of Netherland, Karl
Correns of Germany and Erich VARIATION
Van Tshermak of Austria
independently in 1900. The work Heredity involves inheritance of the similarities as well as
of Mendel was published in 1901. some changes in the body of living organisms from one
Mendel’s findings formed the basis
of the science of genetics and he is generation to the next. Asexual reproduction involves a
credited as the father of genetics. single parent. So, the individuals produced through asexual

290 | Heredity
method would be similar. However, there would be very minor differences between
them, which arise due to the small inaccuracies in DNA copying.
Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, generates greater diversity among individuals.
Thus, the differences in the characteristics shown by the individuals of a species and
also by the offspring of the same parents are referred to as variations.

The causes of variation

(i) Separation of chromosomes during gametes formation
(ii) Crossing over during meiosis
(iii) Mutations
(iv) Environmental factors like scarcity of food, temperature of surroundings, etc.

Variation may be of two types:

(a) Hereditary variation: The differences seen in an organism due to the chromosomal
changes during the meiosis cell division in the sexual reproduction are known
as hereditary variation. These variations pass from generation to generation
through genes. It is an example of continuous variation.
(b) Environmental variation: The organisms having the same genetic make-up
may also seem to be different due to the changes in the environmental factors
like heat, light, food, temperature, etc. These changes in an organism due to the
environmental factors are called environmental variations.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 291

Significance of variation
i. Variation helps in organic evolution.
ii. It helps to adapt living organisms to a particular environment and hence increases
the change of survival of an organism in a changing environment.
iii. It maintains the individuality (distinct personality) of the organism.

MEMORY TIPS
A larva of a bee fed on bee-bread (pollen mixed with honey) grows into a worker but larvae
fed on royal jelly form a queen. This is an example of the environmental variation. Blood
groups, colour blindness, etc. are the examples of germinal variations.

ACTIVITY
Observe the ears of all the students in the class. Prepare a list of students having free or attached
ear lobes and calculate the percentage of students having each type of ears. Prove variation on
this basis.

Some terms related to genetics

i. Gene: It is a structural unit of chromosome made up of nucleic acids governing a
particular character in a living organism.
ii. Offspring: They are the individuals produced from sexual reproduction. They
are also called filial generation.
iii. Contrasting characters: The characters which always appear in two opposing
conditions are called contrasting characters.
iv. Trait or characteristics: It is the recognizable feature in an individual like the
height of a plant or skin color in humans, etc.
v. Clone: A group of organisms formed, which inherits all its parental characters is
known as clone, e.g. clone of bacteria.
vi. Alleles or allelomorphs: A pair of genes (Homologous pair) which controls two
alternative characters is called alleles. For example, in a cross between tall and
dwarf plant ‘T’ stands for the gene of tallness and ‘t’ stands for the alternative
form of the gene of dwarfness. Here, ‘T’ and ‘t’ are termed as alleles of each other.
vii. Homozygous: A condition when a diploid organism has the same allelic forms of
a gene, e.g. 'tt' or ‘TT’ is homozygous.
viii. Heterozygous: A condition when a diploid organism has different allelic forms of
a gene, e.g. ‘Tt’ (hybrid) is heterozygous.
ix. Genotype: It is the genetic expression of an organism. It cannot be seen or observed
physically.

292 | Heredity
x. Phenotype: It is the physical or observable expression of an organism. It is the
result of genotype.
xi. Dominant characters: The allele that expresses itself in the F1-generation of cross
between two contrasting characters is called dominant characters. It is represented
by capital letters, e.g. ‘T’, ‘R’ for tallness and red colour of flower respectively.
xii. Recessive characters: The allele which cannot express itself when present along
with the dominant allele is called recessive characters. It is represented by small
letters, e.g. ‘t’, ‘r’ for dwarfness and white colour of a flower respectively. Such
character is expressed only when they make a homozygous pair.
xiii. F1-generation: It refers to the 1st filial generation. The offspring produced by
crossing true-breeding parental forms are called F1-generations.
xiv. F2-generations: It refers to the 2nd filial generation produced by the self crossing of
F1-generation.
xv. Punnet square: It is a checker board, which helps to study all the possible results
of various crosses.
xvi. Monohybrid cross: It is the cross between one pair of contrasting characters, e.g.
the cross between tall plants with dwarf plants.
xvii. Dihybrid cross: The cross between two pairs of contrasting characters, e.g. the cross
between tall plants having red flowers with dwarf plants having white flowers.
xviii. Hybrid: The organism which has heterozygous condition in its genotype or the
organism having different genotype and phenotype is called hybrid.

MEMORY TIPS
Twins derived from a single zygote are clones of each other but offspring of their parents.

MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTAL PLANT

Mendel selected garden a pea plant (Pisum sativum) for a series of hybridization
experiments. He had several reasons to choose the pea plant for his experiment, like:
1. It is an annual plant with well-defined characteristics.
2. It could be grown and crossed easily.
3. It has perfect flowers (bisexual) and can be self-pollinated.
4. The life cycle of the plant is short.
5. The plant can produce a large number of offspring at a time.
6. Mating can be controlled in it.
7. When the hybrids are crossed, they result in perfectly fertile progeny.
8. It has various contrasting characters among its different varieties as shown in the
table below.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 293

Seven contrasting characters noted by Mendel in the garden pea plant.

S. Contrasting characters
Characters
N. Dominant Recessive
1. Plant size or height Tall Dwarf
2. Position of flower on the stem Axial Terminal
3. Colour of the unripened pod Green Yellow
4. Shape of the pod Inflated Constricted
5. Shape of the seed Round (smooth) Wrinkled
6. Colour of the seed Yellow Green
7. Colour of the flower Violet (or, red) White

MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE

Mendel conducted breeding experiments in three steps.
(a) Selection of pure plants (i.e. plants having the same genotype and phenotype).
(b) Production of first generation of plants by cross breeding (hybridization).
(c) Raising of the second generation by self-fertilization of hybrids.
For getting pure plants, Mendel avoided the self-fertilization between two traits of the
plant. For this, he removed the anther (male parts) of the flower before the maturity
of the female part. Such flowers were covered to prevent the entry of foreign pollen
grains from outside. Now, he crossed it with the pollen grain of a desired plant. The
seeds developed by such crosses were collected and they belonged to the first filial
generation or F1-generation. He then self-pollinated the F1-generation and the products
so formed were called F2-generation and so on.
He maintained all the records of his experiments.
On the basis of the number of characters chosen, Pure tall Pure dwarf
the crosses performed by him may be monohybrid
cross, dihybrid cross, trihybrid cross, etc.
H yb rid Tall
(I) Mendel’s monohybrid cross in F1
generation
The cross between only one pair of contrasting
characters or alleles is called monohybrid cross.
H yb rid Tall
In monohybrid cross, Mendel selected pure tall
(TT) and dwarf pea plants (tt). He made cross
between these two plants. In the F1-generation, he
found all the pea plants were tall (Tt). Again, he F2 generation
self- pollinated the F1-generation plants and get
F2-generation in which he found, three out of four
Pure
plants were tall and one was a dwarf, i.e. 75% of tall
H yb rid Pure
Tall dwarf

294 | Heredity
the plants were tall and 25% of the plants were dwarfs. In other words, the ratio of
tallness and dwarfness is 3:1 phenotypically.
But, genotypically it was found that 25% of the plants were pure tall (TT), 50% were
hybrid tall (Tt) and 25% were pure dwarf (tt). In other words, the genotypic ratio of
pure tall, hybrid tall and pure dwarf plants is 1 : 2 : 1.
He repeated the same experiment by taking other characters also and every time he
succeeded with his result of phenotypic ratio 3 : 1 and genotypic ratio 1 : 2 : 1 in every
F2-generation. This can be demonstrated as,
Monohybrid cross in Drosophila
T.H Morgan also performed the same experiment in drosophila (a type of fly). He first
crossed between long winged drosophila (LL) and short winged drosophila (ll). In F1-
generation he found all of the drosophila had long wings (Ll) and when F1-generations
are crossed with each other then the ratio of drosophila having long and short wings
was found to be 3 : 1 which proved Mendel’s result.
Pure tall Pure dwarf
TT × tt

Gametes T T t t

F1 generation Tt Tt Tt Tt

A cross between pure a tall and pure dwarf plant

H yb rid Tall H yb rid Tall

Tt × Tt

Gametes T t T t

F2 generation TT Tt Tt tt

H yb rid tall
Pure tall Pure dwarf
Result A cross between hybrid tall plants
Phenotype ratio = 3 : 1
Genotype ratio = 1 : 2 : 1

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Monohybrid cross in Guinea Pigs
It is another example of the monohybrid cross. When a guinea pig having white coat
(bb) is crossed with the one having black coat (BB), then it was found that all the
hybrid of F1-geneation were black (Bb) and when the F1-hybrids were crossed with
each other then in F2-of generation the black and white guinea pigs were produced in
the ratio of 3:1 as

296 | Heredity
MENDEL’S LAW OR MENDELISM
On the basis of the above crosses and results obtained from there, Mendel proposed
the following three laws and these laws are known as Mendelism.
(i) Law of dominance
(ii) Law of segregation or law of purity of gametes
(iii) Law of independent assortment
(i) Law of dominance (Mendel’s first law)
It states that, “when a cross is made between two pure (homozygous) organisms for a
pair of contrasting characters, only one of them can express itself in the F1-generation”.
Example- when a pure tall plant (TT) is crossed with a pure dwarf plant (tt) then
all F1-generation pea plants were tall phenotypically though they also contained
dwarfness in their genes. Thus, tallness is dominant character (as it expressed itself in
F1-generation) and dwarfness is the recessive.
Pure tall Pure dwarf

TT × tt

Gametes T T t t

F1 generation Tt Tt Tt Tt

A cross between pure tall and pure dwarf plant

Similarly, the black coat of guinea pig and the long wing of drosophilla are dominant
traits.

MEMORY TIPS
Mirabilis jalpa (four o’ clock plant) shows incomplete dominance as pink flowers are also
produced along with red and white in F1-generation.

ACTIVITY
Make a family of at least three generations of your family by taking any one character like colour
of skin, colour of eyes, height, etc. (by asking your parents and study the dominant and recessive
characters).

QUESTIONS
# Would Mendel have been succeed if he had used a frog instead of a pea for his experiment?

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 297

(ii) Law of segregation or law or purity of gametes
It states that, ‘At the time of gamete formation, the two members of the factor
controlling a pair of characters segregate so that each gamete receives only one factor
of each character. This shows that gametes are pure, and this law is also known as law
of purity of gametes.
For example, in Mendel’s monohybrid cross between pure tall and pure dwarf plants,
the genotypic ratio of the pure tall, hybrid tall and pure dwarf plants was found to be
1 : 2 : 1 in F2 generation. This is due to the separation of characters of the hybrid pea
plant during the gamete formation.
Hybrid tall Hybrid Tall

Tt × Tt

Gametes T t T t

F2 generation TT tt tT Tt

A cross between Hybrid tall plant

Result
Phenotype ratio = 3 : 1
Genotype ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
Here in the above figure. 'Tt' allels of the hybrid tall pea-plant are separated or
segregated during the formation of gametes, therefore one type of the gametes have
got 'T' or tallness character and the other type of gametes have got 't' or dwarfness
character. This proves that characters are segregated during the formation of gametes
making them always pure. Gametes are never hybrid.

QUESTIONS
# What do you think are the reasons behind Mendel’s success?
# Do you think Mendel was lucky to choose a pea plant?

298 | Heredity
GENETIC CHARACTERS IN HUMAN BEINGS
The hereditary characters in human beings are as follows:

Dominant characters Recessive characters

1. Curled hair 1. Straight hair
2. Isolated ear lobule 2. Joint ear lobule
3. Presence of dimple mark 3. Absence of dimple marks
4. Straight thumb 4. Back turned thumb
5. Rolling of the tongue 5. No rolling of the tongue
6. Forebending of the tongue 6. No fore bending of the tongue

SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE IN HUMAN

Some of the characters in human beings are found in only one type of sex group; male
or female, these characters transfer from male to male only or female-to-female only.
Such a process is called sex-linked inheritance.
E.g. Haemophelia (unability of blood clotting at wounds) and Daltonism (colour
blindness) are found in male only. Females may only be the carrier of this diseases but
are not infected. These types of disease are called sex-linked diseases.

MEMORY TIPS
In colour blindness, a man cannot separate red and green colour.

ACTIVITY
Identify in your class how many of your friends have dominant characters and how many of them
have recessive characters in reference to the above six characters in human beings.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 299

MUTATION
It is a sudden, large and discontinuous variation in an individual.
It is stable variation and is inheritable, e.g. hairless variety of dogs and cats, disability of
a baby by birth, six fingered man, fused fingers, cut at lips, etc. An individual suffering
from mutation is called mutant and the agents of mutation are called mutagens.
MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. Why did Mendel select a pea plant for his experiment?

Ü Mendel choose a pea plant (Pisum sativum) for his experiment because of the
following reasons.
(a) It has a short lifespan and can easily be grown.
(b) Self and cross pollination can be done in it.
(c) It has a number of distinguishable contracting characters like the height of
plant (tall or dwarf), colour of flower (red or white) etc.
2. Differentiate between genotype and phenotype.

S.N. Phenotype S.N. Genotype

1. It is the visible external characters 1. It is the genetic expression of an
of an organism. organism.
2. It is determined by the genotype. 2. The phenotype of an organism may
or may not be useful to determine the
genotype.
3. It can be changed by the influence 3. It cannot be changed by the
of environmental factors. influence of external factors.
4. It may or may not be inheritable. 4. It is inheritable.

3. State the law of dominance.

Ü It states that, in a cross between a pair of contrasting characters, only one of
them can express themselves in F1- generation.
4. Draw a chart to show the result in the first and second filial generations of the
offspring of a black father (BB) and a white mother (bb).
♀ \♂ B b
B BB Bb
b Bb bb

300 | Heredity
 Black father (BB) White mother (bb)

Hybrid black Bb F1 generation

Bb Bb Bb bb F2 generation
White
Black
Phenotypic ratio of black and white = 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio of pure black, hybrid black, pure white = 1 : 2 : 1
5. Mention Mendel’s law to the point.
Ü (i) Law of dominance
(ii) Law of segregation
(iii) Law of independent assortment

SUMMARY
 ‘Genetics’ is the branch of science, which deals with heredity and causes variation in
living organisms.
 The transfer of parental characters from one generation to the next is known as
inheritance.
 The phenomenon, by which each of the organisms is distinguished from the other is
called variation.
 Variation is responsible for evolution while heredity checks over uncontrolled variations.
 Sir Gregor Johann Mendel is known as ‘the father of genetics’.
 The genetic expression of an organism is known as genotype and the physical expression
of the organism is known as phenotype.
 The characters which can express themselves in F1- generation are called dominant
characters.
 The characters which cannot express themselves in F1 - generation are called recessive
characters.
 The cross considering between only one pair of alleles is called monohybrid cross.
 The cross considering between two pairs of alleles is called dihybrid cross.
 Mendel’s laws in genetics are–
(a) Law of dominance (b) Law of segregation (c) Law of independent
assortment
 The phenotypic ratio in monohybrid cross is 3 : 1 and the genotypic ratio is 1 : 2
: 1 in F2 - generation.
 The ratio of characters in dihybrid cross is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 in F2 generation.
 Mutation is the sudden and discontinuous change.
 DNA and RNA are the two nucleic acids found in a cell of organism.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 301

 E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Define heredity. Who is known as the father of genetics?

2. Why did Mendel select a pea plant for his experiment?
3. Define dominant and recessive characters and give their examples.
4. Differentiate between.
(a) Phenotype and genotype (b) Variation and mutation
(c) Monohybrid cross and dihybrid cross.
5. State the law of dominance and prove it with an example.
6. Why is the law of segregation known as the law of purity of gametes?
7. Show a chart showing the cross between a long winged drosophila with a short
winged drosophila. Also mention the phenotypic ratio and genotypic ratio up to
F2-generation.
8. When black and white guinea pigs are crossed, all the pigs of F1-generation are
found black. Explain this result in reference to Mendelism.
9. Do you think Mendel was lucky to choose a pea plant for his experiment? Why?
10. Define mutation. Draw a chart to show both phenotype and genotype of the result
obtained in the first and the second filial generation of the offspring of the mouse,
having black colour and white colour according to the Mendel’s experiment.
11. When the hybrid tall plants are self-pollinated then the result showed that the ratio
of a pure tall, hybrid tall and a pure dwarf plant is 1 : 2 : 1. Interpret this result.
12. What is the significance of variations?
13. Differentiate between clone and offspring.
14. Twins are the clone of each other but the offspring of their parents. Prove it.
15. Study the chart and answer the following questions.
(a) Results of which filial generation is shown in the figure?
(b) What is the genotypic ratio? ♀ \♂ T t
(c) What is the phenotypic ratio? T TT Tt
(d) Which law does this result prove? t Tt tt

(e) What is the cause of the reappearance of dwarfness in this generation

whereas it was not seen in the earlier generation?
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Beget : to make something happen
Traits : characters
Segregate : to separate
Drosophila : a kind of fruit fly
Macromolecule : a larger molecule
Assortment : a collection of different things or different types of something


302 | Heredity
 UNIT
Environmental Pollution and
20 Management
INTRODUCTION
About the Ozone hole
Human beings along with other living organisms interact
with each other and with the physical surroundings for their
survival. Human beings, on the other hand, are modifying
the environment haphazardly to fulfill their increasing
needs. This is disrupting the natural balance between the
components of the environment resulting in continuous
environmental degradation. Environmental pollution is one
of the major and long term consequences of environmental
degradation. Have you ever noticed the air in an urbanized
and industrialized area of our country contains visible mass
Ozone Depletion
of dust and smoke and is unpleasant to breathe. Fertile
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) lands are used for construction buildings and dumping
are the chief air pollutants that wastes. Effluents from industries, hospitals, market centres
are responsible for depletion of
ozone layer. Others are carbon- and households are discharged to water bodies. Such
tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, activities of human results pollution of the air, water, land,
methyl bromide etc. CFCs used etc. Consumption of goods and services from the polluted
in refrigerators, air conditioners,
spray cans after emitting into the environment causes different diseases to human and even
atmosphere releases free chlorine to other life forms. Besides, cumulative effects of such
(Cl) radical which involve in
chain reaction and destroys
pollutions results various global environmental problems
protective stratospheric ozone. like climate change, global warming, ozone layer depletion,
As a result UV radiation passes etc. These problems can have adverse effects on the survival
through the atmosphere and
reaches the earth. UV radiation of living organisms in the earth. Therefore, this unit aims of
causes skin cancer, damage to providing information regarding the major environmental
eyes and immune system of pollutions, their effects and measures to control, reduce and
humans, causes mutation in
plants and animals and destroys prevent them along with the conservation and management
living system. of forest and water resources.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND MANAGEMENT

Environmental pollution is defined as the introduction of
contaminants into a natural environment that cause undesirable
change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of the environment. Environmental pollution makes the
environment unhealthy for living beings. Air, water and
soil are the major components of the natural environment
that are polluted directly or indirectly due to anthropogenic
activities. There are even natural activities like the
earthquake, volcano, storms, forest fires, etc. that pollute the
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environment but they have less significance in comparison to anthropogenic activities.
Environment management is an attempt to control human impact and interaction with the
environment in order to conserve environmental resources. Environmental management
requires technical, administrative and legal interventions from the local to the global level.

AIR POLLUTION
Air is a mixture of different gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon,
water vapour, etc. in definite proportion. Introduction of air borne contaminants into the
atmosphere that cause undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of the environment including adverse effects in human health and quality of life is called air
pollution. Carbon dioxide, methane, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, lead, ozone,
volatile organic compounds, aerosols, asbestos, etc. are the major air pollutants.
Burning of fossil fuels like coal and petroleum is the major cause of air pollution. Air
pollutants are released in the form of vehicular and industrial emissions, radioactive
fallouts from nuclear wastes, biomass burning, forest fires, explosions, degradation of
organic substances, etc.
Based on the mode of formation, air pollutants are categorized as primary air pollutants
and secondary air pollutants. Air pollutants that are directly released in the atmosphere
from their source are primary air pollutants. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
lead, methane, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, etc. are primary air pollutants. Air
pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between
various primary pollutants are secondary air pollutants. Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN),
formaldehyde, photochemical smog, ground level ozone, nitric acid, sulphuric acid
etc. are secondary air pollutants.
Sources of air pollution
Sources of air pollution are divided into natural sources and anthropogenic sources.
a. Natural sources: These are the sources of air pollution that are resulted due to
the natural processes or activities. Prominent natural sources of air pollution are
eruption of volcanoes, forest fires, salt sprays from ocean, dust storms, decay of
organic matters, etc.
b. Anthropogenic sources: These are the sources of air pollution resulted from
human activities. Vehicular and industrial emission, emission through
incineration, household cooking and biomass burning, radioactive fallouts
from nuclear power plants, accidents, explosions and testing, emission from
agriculture practices, etc. are the major anthropogenic sources of air pollution.
Effects of air pollution
a. Adverse effects in human health: Gaseous air pollutants and particulate matters
affect the respiratory system of humans and other animals and cause a number
of short term and long-term health problems. Short term health effects include
irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such

304 | Environmental Pollution and Management

 as bronchitis and pneumonia. Headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions are
very common. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of
individuals with asthma and emphysema. Long term health effects can include
chronic respiratory diseases, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the
brain, nerves, liver and kidneys.
b. Ozone layer depletion: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the chief air
pollutants that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer. Others are
carbon-tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, methyl bromide etc. CFCs used in
refrigerators, air conditioners, spray cans after emitting into the atmosphere
releases free chlorine (Cl) radical, which involves in chain reaction and destroys
the protective stratospheric ozone. As a result, UV radiation passes through the
atmosphere and reaches the earth. UV radiation causes skin cancer, damage to
eyes and the immune system of humans, causes mutation in plants and animals
and destroys the living system.
c. Greenhouse effect: Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
CFCs, water vapour, etc. are greenhouse gases. Among them CO2 is increasing
at an alarming rate. These gases allows short wave solar radiation to enter the
earth atmosphere but traps the heat radiated back from the earth. This is leading
to a global environmental problem of increase in earth’s temperature called
‘global warming’. Global warming is accelerating climate change.
d. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides are released
into the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. In the atmosphere water
droplets combine with these air pollutants and forms acids like sulphuric acid
and nitric acid. The acidic water then falls on the ground in the form of acid
rain. Various monuments, buildings and statues are damaged due to corrosion
by the acid present in the rain. The soil also becomes acidic. The cumulative
effect is the gradual degradation of soil and a decline in forest and agricultural
productivity. It also affects plants and animals.
e. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition in which high amount of nitrogen
present in some pollutants gets developed on the sea’s and turns itself into
algae. Air pollution is also responsible for eutrophication. It adversely affects
fish, plants and animal species. The green coloured algae that is present on lakes
and ponds is due to presence of this chemical only.
f. Effect on wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating effects
of air pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to
move to new places and change their habitats. The toxic pollutants deposit over
the surface of the water and can also affect sea animals.
g. Ground-level ozone formation: Ground-level ozone is a colourless and highly
irritating gas that forms just above the earth's surface. It is formed by the reaction
of primary pollutants; nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of

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 health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, congestion,
permanent scar in the lung tissue, etc.
h. Reduction in visibility: Polluted air concentrated with smoke containing
particulate matters reduces visibility. Smog which is a by-product of air pollution
is also responsible for reducing visibility. It can result a road accidents, air craft
accidents and disturbs transportation.
i. Reduction in solar radiation: Particulate matters remain in the air for a longer
time. Clouds of these particulate matters block solar radiation from reaching
the earth surface. As a result, temperature drops. It affects living organisms and
even retard the growth and development of plants.
Measures to control air pollution
Some of the major measures to control and reduce air pollution and its impact on
humans and the surroundings are mentioned below:
a. Relocate air polluting industries and factories far away from the settlement areas.
b. Use air pollution treatment and control technologies like bag house, electrostatic
precipitators, cyclone filters, etc. to filter gases and particulate matters before
emitting them in the atmosphere.
c. Increase the height of the chimneys of industries and factories so that the air
current dilutes the emission high in the sky and affects less to the surrounding
areas.
d. Use public mode of transportation especially mass transportation like buses,
trains, and practice carpooling wherever possible.
e. Conserve energy by switching off the devices when not in use as most of the
electricity in the world is generated from fossil fuels and nuclear plants.
f. Emphasize the use of clean energy sources like bio-gas, solar energy, wind energy,
etc. for daily energy consumption.
g. Use energy efficient devices like LED appliances, CFL, etc.
h. Promote clean energy vehicles like electric bikes, electric cars and buses more
often than fossil fuel-based vehicles.
i. Ban the use of old vehicles and impose high taxation on fossil fuel-based vehicles.
j. Reuse, recycle or reduce the consumption of the goods as most of industrial goods
pollute air during their production.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is any change or modification in the physical, chemical and biological properties
of water that will have a detrimentals consequence on living things, especially on human
health and wellbeing. Water pollution occur when pollutants are discharged directly or
indirectly into water bodies without enough treatment to get rid of harmful substances.
There are both natural and anthropogenic causes of water pollution but pollutants
get into water mainly by anthropogenic causes or factors. Plants and animals require
water that is moderately pure, and they cannot survive if their water is loaded with
toxic chemicals or harmful microorganisms.

306 | Environmental Pollution and Management

Sources of water pollution
There are a number of natural and anthropogenic activities that cause water pollution.
However, pollutants from anthropogenic activities are the major sources of water
pollution. The prominent sources of water pollution are described below.
a. Domestic waste water and sewage: Domestic waste water includes water from
the kitchen and washing utilities. Such water is rich in cleansing chemicals
like soap, detergents. These chemicals deteriorate the chemical and physical
properties of water when it reaches water bodies. Household sewage contains
waste organic matter and lumps of micro-organisms in it. When sewage gets into
water bodies, micro-organisms spread in those water bodies and pollutes water.
Drinking water from such sources without treatment causes infectious diseases.
b. Industrial effluents: Industrial effluents are rich in numerous chemicals that are
byproducts of various industrial processes. Chemicals can be acids, bases, toxic
chemicals, heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, etc.) etc. These chemicals
pollute water and cause different diseases to us when such water or aquatic
beings from such water are consumed. They also destroy physio-chemical
properties of water.
c. Agriculture chemicals: Fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides,
etc. are agriculture chemicals. Rainfall washes these chemicals from agriculture
fields and produce agricultural runoff which discharge water into nearby water
sources. These chemicals pollute water and may remain in water for longer
time causing long-term pollution. Pesticides like DDT (Di-chloro-di-phenyl-tri-
chloro-ethane), BHC (Benzene Hexachloride), Aldrin, Dieldrin, Carbosulfan,
Endosulfan, Malathion, etc. are toxic to human health, as well as terrestrial and
aquatic life forms.
d. Surface runoff: Surface runoff along with agricultural chemical carries
soluble and insoluble organic wastes, chemical substances, dust and dirt from
settlements and built up areas into water bodies. Turbidity is the major natural
water pollution resulted by solutes and suspended particles due to runoff. Urban
runoff sweeps different types of wastes into water sources. Concentration of
various pollutants from runoff in lakes and obstruction in flow of water also
causes water pollution.
e. Oil and petroleum: Oil and petroleum products pollute water bodies mainly
by means of accidental spills from ships, tanker trucks, pipelines, and leaky
underground storage tanks. Oil spills form a layer of oil in the upper surface
of water bodies obstructing the interaction of oxygen in water bodies. Oil
and petroleum products are poisonous if ingested by animals. Spilled oil also
damages feathers of birds and the fur of animals, often causing death.
f. Heat: Heat is the waste byproduct in many industrial processes. Water is used
as a coolant in such industrial processes, which increases the temperature of
water. Such heated water when discharged into water bodies affects the aquatic

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 life as most aquatic animal respond quickly in increased temperature. Warmer
water also holds less oxygen.
g. Radioactive substances: Uranium, radium, thorium, plutonium, etc. are
radioactive substances that produce radiations harmful to humans and other life
forms. Nuclear power plants and nuclear test programs are the major sources
of radioactive substances. These substances or traces of these substances even in
the form of nuclear waste pollutes water with nuclear radiations.
Measures to control water pollution
Water pollution can be controlled to a large extent on the principle, “the solution
to pollution is dilution.” The various methods for the control of water pollution are
discussed below:
a. Domestic waste water and sewage are subject to treatment into non-toxic/ less
toxic substances before discharging it into water bodies.
b. Target organism specific or less toxic or reduced pesticides uses or biological
control mechanism can be prioritized in agricultural activities.
c. Both domestic and industrial effluents can be stored in large shallow ponds for a few
days before releasing them into water bodies. Sunlight can break organic nutrients
and bacteria get adequate oxygen for decomposition of harmful organic matter.
d. Water from domestic uses can be recycled to get clean water for flushing, cleaning,
irrigating or can be reused directly for irrigating small household gardens.
e. Water cooling ponds can be used before discharging hot industrial water into
regular water bodies.
f. Oxidations ponds can be useful in removing low level of radioactive wastes before
discharging them into water bodies.
g. Awareness should be made regarding waste management especially disposal of
dead and decayed organic waste far from water sources.
h. Regular cleaning of nearby water bodies and maintaining proper sanitation
should be ensured.
i. Enactment of law and orders especially against mass water polluters should be
enforced.

SOIL POLLUTION
Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust composed of unconsolidated products
of rocks erosion and organic decay along with microorganisms. A typical soil is
composed of mineral matter (45%) and organic matter (5%) with pore space filled with
water (25%) and or air (25%) and soluble nutrients. Soil is an abiotic component of
the ecosystem, which supports plant growth on which all microscopic to macroscopic
life forms depends directly or indirectly. Soil pollution is the contamination of soil with
harmful substances that can adversely affect the quality of the soil and the health of those living
on it. Soil pollution results in the degradation of the physio-chemical and biological
properties of the soil. It finally hampers the growth and development of all life forms
including human beings.

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Source of soil pollution
Soil can be polluted by both xenobiotic (man-made) or natural sources. However,
the activities of human beings have disturbed a number of processes and cycles that
recycle nutrients in the soil causing pollution of soil. Some of the major sources of soil
pollution are given below.
a. Domestic waste: Waste foods, packages, paper waste, clothes, plastic, sewage,
etc. are domestic wastes. When such wastes are improperly disposed, it results in
soil pollution. Degradable domestic waste spreads harmful microorganisms that
affect both plants and animals in the soil including humans. The accumulation
of non-degradable waste on the land surface hampers plant growth and causes
degradation in soil productivity.
b. Commercial waste: Apart from the domestic waste, a large amount of waste is
produced from commercial centers like shopping malls, hotels and restaurants,
recreational parks, cinemas, etc. The waste consists of dried sludge and sewage
and urban refuse such as plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers,
street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles and other
discarded manufactured products. Leakey sewer systems can pollute soil on its
way to treatment centers. Urban refuse does not degrade easily and therefore
degrades the land where it is disposed of.
c. Agricultural practices: Modern agricultural practices use a large quantity of
synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and fungicides to increase crop
harvest. However, the excessive and the long-term use of chemical fertilizers
changes the physical and chemical properties of soil and it even causes permanent
loss of productivity. Pesticides like DDT, parathion, malathion, BHC, Eldrin,
Carbosulfan, etc. persist on land for long periods. They not only kill the targeted
organism but also destroys the soil microorganisms. They do not degrade easily
and retard the growth of beneficial microorganisms and plants in the soil.
d. Industrial activity: Besides, management of domestic and commercial waste,
there is a big challenge to manage industrial waste. Rapid industrialization has
produced more chemical waste along with goods and services. These waste
ranges includes, dirt, toxic metals, plastics and other liquid toxic chemical.
All this waste on disposing on any land surface degrades the quality of land
beyond its use for any purpose. Mining of minerals for industrial activities has
also resulted in large surface of land unusable for other activities. This toxic
waste when reaches agricultural land by any means results in enormous loss in
production as wells as numerous disorder in crops.
e. Construction and demolition activities: Construction of new infrastructures on
the one hand degrades the soil usability by concrete pavements. While, on the
other hand, it results in concrete waste that clogs soil pores and destroys its
physical, chemical as well as biological properties. Apart from this demolition of
large buildings, nuclear facilities and industries have resulted in the degradation
of soil.

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f. Accidental oil spills: Accidental oil spills especially the petroleum products
result in quick loss of soil characteristics including its productivity and usability
for other purposes. Accidental spills alter the chemical properties of soil, kill soil
organisms and plants and decrease soil productivity.
g. Hazardous waste: Dumping of toxic waste form pharmaceutical facilities,
battery industries, and hospitals also degrade soil quality and this may happen
for a long period. This hazardous waste first destroys the soil organisms and
plants or forces them away and gradually alters the physio-chemical properties.
h. Acid rain: Acid rain dissolves a number of soil nutrients from soil and causes
them to infiltrate deep down the soil strata or washes them away. It increases
acidity in the soil and hence decreases the productivity of soil.
i. Heat and radiation: Heat and radiation through nuclear tests, blasting, warfare
bombardments, etc. is also one of an major causes of soil pollution. Every year
thousands of hectares of lands from the world become a rubble or are barren
as a result of nuclear tests, bombardments or warfare consequences. Heat and
radiations result in immediate and long-term damage to soil properties.
Measures to control soil pollution
The activities of humans are the major sources of soil pollution and also humans are
the ultimate living beings to bear its consequences. The basic measures mentioned
below are need to be applied to control soil pollution and get less affected from its
consequences.
a. Recycle, reuse, reduce and repair are the most basic principle to get rid from
management of excess soil polluting domestic and commercial wastes.
b. Human sewage needs to be properly treated and nutrients can be recycled
before disposing them of in ponds or water bodies.
c. Sanitary landfilling, incineration, etc. should be used for conserving energy.
d. Sanitary landfill sites can be used as sports fields, recreational parks after their
life span.
e. Irrigating agricultural land through polluted water should be discouraged.
f. Organic manure, natural fertilizers and bio-pesticides need to be prioritized and
practiced and chemical fertilizers and pesticides should be gradually reduced.
g. Soil should be conserved by conserving forest, afforestation and providing
various engineering measures like embankments, walls and dams should be
checked wherever necessary.
h. Nuclear waste and other hazardous wastes should be safely managed beyond
the level of soil contamination.
i. Public should be regularly made aware through mass media regarding
management of their own waste and to treating them at the source level.
j. Worldwide banned toxic chemicals like DDT, cabosulfan, parathion, eldrin,
dieldrin, etc. should be extensively restricted for use by enacting law and order.

310 | Environmental Pollution and Management

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FOREST AND WATER SOURCES
Conservation and Management of Forest
Forest provides fresh oxygen to living organisms. Most of the human needs like food,
clothes, houses, water, etc. are derived or obtained directly from forest resources.
Forest is the habitat of numerous flora and fauna which are the resources for welfare
and development of human society. Forest also regulates the climate of a place. Soil
nutrients reach agricultural lands and river basins as decayed and decomposed organic
materials washed away by runoff from forest. Forest also checks the ground water
level from presenting it drop down below. Forest also checks soil erosion, landslide,
etc. Forest also acts as a sink for carbon dioxide, which is a major greenhouse gas.
Therefore, forest has numerous advantages to human and other life forms. Therefore,
forest needs to be conserved and managed well.
Some of the successful measures for the conservation and management of forest are
listed below:
For the conservation of forests, following steps can be taken:
i. Applying scientific forest management techniques of the cutting of trees
like clear cutting, selective cutting, shelter wood cutting, etc.
ii. Control over forest fires
iii. Reforestation in deforested areas and afforestation in unused or degraded
lands and their conservation
iv. Check over forest clearance for agricultural and other purposes
v. Proper utilization of forest product
vi. Redefining land use policies and provisions as per global and local
environment needs
vii. Enactment of law and order
Conservation of water resources
Water is another important natural resource for humans. It is also one of the most
essential abiotic components of the environment. About 71% of the earth surface is
covered by water but still water is not accessible to all people. Out of total water in
the earth surface, 97% water is salt water of the sea and ocean which are not usable
for human purposes. Remaining 3% is only fresh water resources, out of which 2%
of water stored in icebergs and the remaining 1% water resources supply water to
the world’s population. This 1% water which is distributed as water in ponds, lakes,
streams, and ground water is used for all human activities. Drinking, sanitation,
irrigation, hydropower production, industrial utilities, etc. all need water. Therefore,
water resources should be conserved properly. Some of the measures for conservation
of water resources are mentioned below:
i. Provide awareness to people for behavioural change in conserving water
through small efforts like reducing unnecessary water use, using water
efficiently, etc.

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 ii. Conserve watersheds by maintaining forest and check erosion, landslide
and deforestation in the watershed.
iii. Treat municipal and industrial effluents to at least a minimum acceptable
level before draining them into water bodies.
iv. Apply scientific irrigation techniques like drip irrigation, sprinkle
irrigation to avoid excess loss of water in agricultural fields.
v. Use waste water from the kitchen and other domestic processes in kitchen
garden.
vi. Trap rainwater to recharge ground water by constructing ground water
recharging pits, and harvesting rain water from roofs and floors into
household tanks for future use.
vii. Reduce or control the production of pollutants that are responsible for
water pollution and maintain sanitation around water sources.

SUMMARY
 There are other natural activities like the earthquake, volcano, storms, forest fires etc. that
pollute environment but they have less significance in comparison to anthropogenic activities.
 Carbon dioxide, methane, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, lead, ozone, volatile organic
compounds, aerosols, asbestos, etc. are the major air pollutants.
 Natural sources like the volcano, forest fires, salt sprays from the ocean, etc. and anthropogenic
sources like vehicular and industrial emission; emission through incineration, household
cooking and biomass burning etc. pollute air.
 Major effects of air pollution are health of humans and animals, ozone layer depletion,
greenhouse effect, acid rain, reduction in visibility, etc.
 Use of clean energy, prioritizing public transportation, energy conservation, effective application
of air pollution control technologies in industries, etc. can control air pollution.
 Domestic waste water and sewage, industrial effluents, agriculture chemicals, surface runoff,
oil and petroleum, heat and radioactive substances are sources of water pollution.
 Treat of waste water and sewage and industrial effluents before discharging in water bodies;
reduction in use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture; recycling domestic waste
water for flushing, cleaning, irrigating home garden, etc. can control water pollution.
 Various domestic waste, commercial waste, agriculture practices, industrial activities, construction
and demolition activities, oil spills, hazardous waste, etc. are the sources of soil pollution.
 Safe disposal of sewage and industrial effluents, sanitary disposal of wastes, reduction in the
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, proper land use planning, etc. can control soil pollution.
 Forest can be conserved and managed by applying scientific forest management techniques,
afforestation and reforestation, control forest fires, reducing forest clearances and enactment
of the law.
 About 97% of the earth’s water is salt water and only about 3% is fresh water usable for
humans. Out of 3% fresh water only 1% is distributed as ground water and surface water for
our uses while the remaining 2% is stored in icebergs and therefore is not accessible.
 Measures like efficient use of water, recycling of waste water after treatment, maintaining
watershed, applying scientific method of irrigating water, harvesting of rain water, etc. can
conserve water resources.

312 | Environmental Pollution and Management

 E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. Define the following terms.

(a) Environmental pollution (b) Environment management
(c) Air pollution (d) Eutrophication
(e) Water pollution (f) Soil pollution
2. Differentiate between:
(a) primary and secondary pollutants
(b) air pollution and water pollution
(c) acid rain and greenhouse effect
3. Give reasons.
(a) Sulphuric acid is a secondary air pollutant.
(b) Acid rain decreases soil productivity.
4. Answer the following questions.
(a) Name any two natural sources and any four man made sources of air pollution.
(b) List any six effects of air pollution.
(c) Name any three ozone depleting air pollutants.
(d) What do you mean by greenhouse gases? Name them.
(e) List any six measures to control air pollution.
(f) Mention the sources of water pollution.
(g) How can water pollution be controlled? List some measures.
(h) How do agricultural activities does pollute soil.
(i) Write down the major sources of soil pollution.
(j) Write some measures to control soil pollution.
(k) What are the necessary steps for forest conservation and its management?
List them.
(l) How can water resources be conserved? Mention possible measures.

ACTIVITY
1. Prepare a detailed report of water pollution in your surroundings. In the report, list the local
sources of water pollution, its effects on the surrounding environment and measures taken
to control it through little efforts of local people and local bodies.
2. Climate change is the burning global environmental issue. Prepare a brief report listing its
causes and effects. Take help from news, newspapers, magazines and other available sources
of information.



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 UNIT

21 History of the Earth

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
The earth is the only planet in the solar system, which
has the suitable condition for life such as suitable climatic
condition, temperature, pressure, air, water, etc. Thus, only
the earth, among all the heavenly bodies of the solar system
has life in it. ‘Geology’ is the branch of science which deals
with the study of the earth.
There are many queries about the origin of the earth
but till now no one has given the satisfactory view about
Charles Darwin
it. However, many scientists have proposed their own
(1809-1882) hypothesis about the origin of the earth linking it with the
Charles Darwin set on a voyage, origin of the solar system as the earth being a member of the
at the age of 22, on the ship solar system. Some hypotheses about the origin of the earth
H.M.S. Beagle. Five-year
voyage from 1831 to 1836 took
are described below.
him to South America and the
Golapagos islands off its coast. (1) Planetesimal hypothesis (George Wofan hypothesis)
During his survey expedition,
he made extensive observations
According to this hypothesis, the earth along with other
of animals and plants. He noted planets and satellites were formed when a large comet
a huge variety of life and also collided with the sun millions of years ago.
remarkable similarity among
organisms and their wonderful Later in 1905, New planetesimal hypothesis was formulated.
adaptation to the environment.
After completing his voyage,
According to this hypothesis, the sun and the comet did not
Darwin returned to England, collide but they only came closer to one another. And as they
stayed at home, and analysed the came together, due to the gravity of the comet, the materials
observations of nature during his
voyage. He also read population raised from the sun and these materials broke away from
theory given by Malthus. His the sun and formed different heavenly bodies along with
observations during the voyage the earth.
and population theory of
Malthus led him to formulate
Darwin’s theory of natural
(2) Nebular hypothesis
selection. He gave his theory in According to this hypothesis, the origin of the earth and
his book entitled ‘The origin of
species’. He did not know the other heavenly bodies took place from Nebula.
mechanism whereby variations
arose in the species. He was also
Nebula is a very huge mass of dust, cloud and gases in the space.
not aware of Mendel’s work on It states that, “the nebula in the sky began to collide with
inheritance. Besides theory of
evolution, Darwin also studied one another due to gravity and it became larger due to the
the role of earthworms in soil accumulation of more masses, gases and clouds. As their
fertility.
mass increased, their gravity also increased. Due to this,

314 | History of the Earth

they grew up and began to spin faster. When the surface was cooled, a ring of matter
was formed over the surface and the ring detached and became the heavenly bodies.
The core mass became the sun.
(3) Tidal Hypothesis
The tidal hypothesis was proposed by Jeans and Jeffreys in 1917 A.D. It states that, “as
the sun and a big star approached each other due to the gravity of the star, a tide of
materials of the sun was drawn from it. The tidal matter detached and the inner part
came back into the sun. The middle part formed planets and satellites.
(4) Dust-cloud hypothesis
According to this hypothesis, the dust and clouds of gases in the space formed larger
particles due to the light of the star. These large particles were attached to each other
by gravity and a large mass was formed. This mass is the sun. The nuclear reaction
started and it began to produce solar energy. The dust and cloud around the sun
formed the planets and other heavenly bodies.
Some facts about the Earth
Estimated age = about 4500 million years ago (4.5 billion years ago)
Diameter along equator = 12,756.3 km
Mass = 6 × 1024 kg
Satellite = 1 (Moon)
Average surface temperature = 20°C Source: The World Book Encyclopedia

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

The total time of the earth’s history from its origin to the present days is called geological time
scale. It is divided into four types of time periods according to the origin of species i.e.
(I) Eon (II) Era (III) Period and (IV) Epoch
(I) Eon
It is the largest unit having more time period. It is divided into three parts as,
(A) Azoic Eon
(B) Cryptozoic Eon
(C) Phanerozoic Eon
(A) Azoic Eon
Its time period is 3500 my to 4500 my ago (my = million years). No life was originated
in this Eon.
(B) Cryptozoic Eon
It was extended in between 570 my ago to 3500 my. It is further divided into two eras. i.e.
(a) Archaeozoic era (2500 my ago – 3500 my ago)
(b) Proterozoic era (570 my ago – 2500 my ago)

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These two eras are jointly known as pre-cambrian era. In Archaeozoic era, marine
invertebrates were formed among which few were containing shells. In Proterozoic
era, earliest plants like marine algae were formed. In this era, Gneiss and Granite rocks
were found.
(C) Phanerozoic Eon
This Eon started 570 my ago and it is present till now. A variety of plants and animals
originated and disappeared in this Eon. It is again divided into three Eras.
(a) Palaezoic Era: This Era began about 570 million years ago and ended about 225
million years ago. It is again divided into seven periods. They are
(i) Cambrian (ii) Ordovician (iii) Silurian
(v) Mississippian (vi) Pennsylvanian (vii) Permian
(iv) Devonian
The origin of fishes, amphibians and reptiles took place in the various periods of
this era.

MEMORY TIPS
Palaeozoic era is also called time of fish as they were dominant in this era.

(b) Mesozoic Era: It began about 225

million years ago and ended about
65 million years ago. This era is
again divided into three periods as,
(i) Triassic period
(ii) Jurassic period
(iii) Cretaceous period
This era was the time of reptiles because
in this era, reptiles were abundant.
Different types of dinosours
Dinosaurs were originated in the Triassic
period; they were at their peak in Jurassic period and they become extinct in the
cretaceous period of this era.
First birds and mammals were formed during this time and conifers were also formed.
(c) Cenozoic Era: This era began about 65 million years ago and is still continuing.
It is divided into two periods:
(i) Tertiary period and
(ii) Quaternary period
(i) The Tertiary period lasted until 2 my ago. It is divided into 5 epochs. They are
1. Paleocene 2. Eocene 3. Oligocene
4. Miocene 5. Pliocene

316 | History of the Earth

(ii) The Quaternary period is again divided into two Epochs. They are
1. Pleistocene 2. Holocene
Birds and mammals along with human civilization developed in this era (Cenozoic).
The evolution of life in various time periods is given in the chart below.
Geological Era and Evolution of Life
Era Duration (years) Manifestation of life

Azoic or Evolution of the

Archaeozoic, Earth to 570 million
(57 crore) years ago Evolution of the Earth
or Pre-
Cambrian

Evolution of very simple unicellular micro-organism

Discovery of fossils of soft bodied invertebrates
Some marine animals
570 million years Different marine invertebrates
ago to 250 million
Palaeozoic years ago Evolution of green plants and fishes
(57 crore years ago to Evolution of winged insects, development of fish
25 crore years ago) and evolution of plants

Evolution of reptiles and amphibians, evolution and

development of pteridophytes
Extinction of different vertebrates and invertebrates

250 million years Evolution of dinosaurs aves, turtles, reptiles,

ago to 65 million development of conifers
years ago Dominance of reptiles development of dinosaurs
Mesozoic
(25 crore years ago and aves
to 6 crore 50 lakh Evolution of angiosperms, and different arthropods
years ago) and extinction of dinosaurs and huge reptiles
Evolution of primary mammals and horses
Growth of different mammals, like owls, crocodiles,
bats, elephants, whales
65 million years ago Evolution of sharp teethed cats, rats, dogs and
Cenozoic to till today monkeys
(6 crore 50 lakh years Development of herbs and grasslands
ago to till today)
Evolution of ancient human beings
Primitive human beings, mammoths
Modern human beings other mammals, human
dominance

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 MEMORY TIPS
In Azoic era, there were no sedimentary rocks, indicating that no evolution of prominent life
had taken place in this era.
a) 'Epoch' are not the sub-division of 'periods'. They are the synonims of 'Era'.For eg.:
Azoic Era → Precanbrian Eopch (4500 [Link] to 570 [Link])
Palaeozoic Era → Primary Epoch (570 [Link] to 240 [Link])
Mesozoic Era → Secondary Epoch ( 240 [Link] to 65 [Link])
Cenozoic Era → Tertiary Epoch (65 [Link] to 1.8 [Link])
Neozoic Era → Quaternary Epoch (1.8 [Link] to recent)
b) Azoic Era has 3 periods, i.e.
i) Proterozoic period (4500 [Link] to 3500 [Link])
ii) Archeozoic period (3500 [Link] to 1000 [Link])
iii) Eozoic period (1000 [Link] to 570 [Link])
c) Palaeozoic Era has only 6 periods. They are Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous and Permian
But, Mississipian and Pensylvanian are only the sub-periods of Carboniferous period.
Therefore, the geological time-scale is : Eon → Era or Epoch → Period
d) Many fishes were/are much bigger and powerful than amphibians, therefore
palaeozoic Era is considered as the era of Fishes, not of Amphibians.
e) Because of historical and modern human's activities like standing on two legs, using
tools, fire and other things, the Quarternary Epoch (Pleistocene and Holocene
periods) is/can be kept in separate era called Neozoic Era.

ACTIVITY
Choose a nearby land or forest or a river near your locality. Find out the changes that took place
(asking your elders) in this place and write a report.

QUESTIONS
# Which period is known as ‘time of fishes’. Why?
# Why is the Mesozoic era known as the time of reptiles?
# When were human beings originated on the earth?

EVOLUTION OF LIFE
The earth is 4.5 billion years
old. And it is expected to last for
another 4.5 billion years. When
the earth first originated, it was
hot and molten. There was a large
ocean of molten rocks but no water,

318 | History of the Earth

oxygen, ozone or life on it. Over millions of years, the earth slowly started to cool
down. Millions of comets carrying ice crystals struck the earth forming oceans. In the
Pre-Cambrian Eon, the ocean along with hot chemical soup at its floor allowed the first
prokaryotic life- a bacterium to form about 3.8 billion years ago. These bacteria lived
in colonies and were called stromatolites. They started photosynthesis and produced
huge amount of oxygen. Slowly, life started evolving. Algae evolved and dominated
the oceans about 3.2 billion years ago.
Then, for the first time, marine invertebrates evolved in the Paleozoic era. Some of
them were called trilobites, brachiopods, etc. Gradually, the ocean was full of marine
invertebrates. These marine invertebrates slowly evolved into marine vertebrates and
terrestrial organisms. In the Paleozoic era, green plants and forests formed on the
land. The small-sized different fishes and several creatures were evolved. Most of the
animals were extinct towards the end of the Paleozoic era in the Permian period due
to volcanic eruption and low temperatures in Polar Regions.
After millions of years, again in the Mesozoic Era, large reptiles evolved and ruled the
world. Dinosaurs were dominant. There were flying dinosaurs, carnivore dinosaurs
and herbivore dinosaurs and so on. But, at the end of the Mesozoic Era, in the
Cretaceous period, a large meteorite struck the earth and killed all the dinosaurs. Only
few small organisms living on land, oceans and underground survived. After that,
flowering plants, arthropods and small mammals were evolved.
These few organisms evolved to form large mammals. For the first time, in the
Cenozoic era, in the Paleocene epoch, large mammals evolved. There were whales,
horses, rats, cats and then in the Pliocene epoch, ancient human beings evolved. These
ancient human beings looked like humans partially. Finally, in the Holocene epoch,
the modern man evolved. The scientists believe that humans first originated in Africa
and then moved to Asia, America and Europe. As there were several kinds of highly
developed large mammals in the Cenozoic era, it is also called the Era of mammals. It
is evident that the evolution of organisms is an ever going process.

FOSSILS
The remaining parts of dead
plants and animals or their
impressions which are buried
and preserved in the Earth’s
crust over a long period of
time are called fossils.
Most of the fossils are
found to be preserved in the
sedimentary rocks.

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 Fossils

Identification of fossils
Fossils can be identified by comparing them with different shapes and parts of the
organs. They can be identified as,
(i) They are usually found in the sedimentary rocks.
(ii) The fossils may be only the impression or the whole body part.
(iii) They may be in the form of mould.
(iv) We can see the hard covering of animal shells and inner wood of plants in the
sedimentary rock.
(iv) Fossils may be a part of the skeletal system or the whole body. From these
structures, we can identify them.

Process of fossil formation

Fossilization is the process of formation of fossils from the dead plants and animals.

Fossilization

320 | History of the Earth

When an organism dies, its soft part gets decayed due
to the bacterial action or consumed as food by other
scavengers and its hard part may be preserved inside the
soil, which later forms fossils.

Due to the natural disasters like the volcano, earthquake, flood, etc. plants and animals
may sink to the earth’s surface, where they are preserved from bacterial decomposition
and they form fossils.

When living beings die near the water source, the debris cover the organism layer by
layer preserving it. It also helps to form fossils.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 321

 QUESTIONS
# How do fossils form layer by layer?

Let us start 100 million years ago, some invertebrates on the sea-bed die and are buried
in the sand. More sand accumulates and sand stone forms under pressure.
Millions of years later, dinosaurs living in the area die and their bodies too are buried
in the mud. This mud is also compressed into rocks, above the rock containing the
earlier invertebrate fossils.
Again millions of years later, the bodies of horse-like creatures dying in the area are
fossilised in rock above these earlier rocks.
Much later, by erosion or water flow wears away some of the rocks and exposes the
horse like fossils. As we dig deeper, we will find older and older fossils.
Importance of fossils
The importance of fossils are listed below:
(i) The study of fossils helps us to know about the process of evolution in the
organisms.
(ii) They give us information about plants and animals, which were found on the
earth but are now extinct.
(iii) Some fossils are used to get energy, which are called fossil fuels.
(iv) The study of fossils helps us to investigate the deposits of coal and petroleum
inside the earth’s crust.
(v) They help to determine the comparative age of rocks, etc.
Fossil fuels
The fuels formed by the process of fossilization are called fossil fuels. Coal, petroleum,
natural gases are fossil fuels.
Coal
It is a black or brown carbonaceous deposit formed from plant fossils. It is found in the form
of a black hard solid taken out by mining. There are four types of coals according to
the amount of carbon content. They are:
(1) Lignite (2) Sub-bituminous (3) Bituminous (4) Anthracite
Out of them, anthracite is the best quality and lignite is the lowest quality of coal.
Formation of coal
Coal is formed from dead plants and animals. When plants and animals get buried
inside the earth’s crust due to the natural disasters like the earthquake, volcano, etc, these
remnants get pressed under high pressure and temperature for a long time and form
coal. The principal parts of the plants are cellulose and lignin. Lignin plays an important
role in the formation of coal as it contains protein, oil, organic acids mineral oils, etc.

322 | History of the Earth

 MEMORY TIPS
A coal mine is found in the Dang district of Nepal.

Importance of coal
(i) It is used as fuel in railways, industries, brick factories etc.
(ii) It is used to generate electricity.
(iii) Coal tar obtained from coal is used in the manufacture of plastic.
(iv) It can also be used to make mineral fuels.
(v) It is used in steam engines to change water into steam.
(vi) Coal is also used to prepare various organic compounds.
Mineral fuel
Mineral fuel refers to the petroleum. It is a type of crude oil. It is a highly combustible
substance formed by hydrocarbons (90-95%) and other substances like N2, O2, S and
other minerals.
Formation of mineral oil
Mineral oils are formed due to the death, decay and decomposition of soft part of
plants and animals, which were buried under the earth crust millions of years ago. It
is a dark coloured liquid.
This liquid is taken out and purified to get various petroleum products.

Pipes to take out oil and gas

Hard rock
Gas
Oil
Water

Sand rock and gravel

Formation of mineral oil

Importance of mineral oil

(i) It is used as fuel for cooking food, generating electricity running vehicles,
industries, factories, etc.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 323

(ii) It is used for making plastics, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, paints, explosives,
medicines, etc.
(iii) It is used for the construction of roads.
(iv) It is also used as a lubricant.
Some Petroleum Products and Their uses
SN Petroleum Products Uses
1. Petroleum gas It is used as a fuel for cooking, heating and lighting.
2. Petroleum ether It is used as a solvent to dissolve various substances and for
cleaning purposes.
3. Petrol It is used as a fuel in vehicles, generators, etc.
4. Diesel It is used as a fuel in the heavy vehicles, to generate electricity, etc.
5. Kerosene It is used as a domestic fuel for cooking, heating and lighting.
6. Lubrication oil, They are used to reduce friction in vehicles, engines, etc.
Grease, Vaseline
7. Paraffin wax It is used to make candles, matchsticks, laboratory trays, etc.
8. Petroleum coke It is used as a fuel

MEMORY TIPS
Petroleum products are a non-renewable source of energy. So, they should be used wisely.

ACTIVITY
Take a small paper box. Pour the solution of plaster of Paris (2CaSO4 . H2O). Put a part of the plant
like the root, stem or leaf. Again, put the solution of plaster of paris over it. When the solution sets
hard, take out the upper part and see; how can you explain this process?

MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER

1. The earth originated about 4500 million years ago but human beings originated
about 2 million years ago only. Why?
Ü It is because, at the time of the origin of the earth, it did not have the atmosphere
and suitable conditions for life as it is in the present time. Thus, no organisms
were originated in along with the earth. But later, simpler organisms originated,
which gradually evolved to the higher form, and finally the highly developed
man originated about 2 my ago.
2. Mesozoic Era is called ‘the time of reptiles’. Why?
Ü It is because in this era, reptiles were abundant in the earth. The largest reptilia,
i.e. dinosaurs also originated in this era. The dinosaurs originated in the Triassic,
era reached in their peak in the Jurassic era and become extinct in the cretaceous
period of the same era.

324 | History of the Earth

3. Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks only. Why?
Ü Sedimentary rocks are formed due to the sedimentation of the sand and mud
from layer to layer. In course of its formation, it may trap and preserve the parts
of dead plants and animals, which remain as fossils. So fossils are found in
sedimentary rocks only.
4. Which eras are known as the ‘time of fish’ and ‘time of mammals’?
Ü Palaeozoic Era and cenozoic era are known as the ‘time of fish’ and the ‘time of
mammals’ respectively.
5. Fossils help to provide the evidence of evolution. How?
Ü By the study of fossils, we can say about the morphology, shape, age and size
of that organism. It is found that older fossils are found at the bottom layer and
new fossils are found at the top of the sedimentary rocks. From the comparative
study of their fossils, we can trace the evolution of an organism.
6. In which time period did the following events take place?
(a) Human beings originated.
(b) First amphibians originated.
(c) Dinosaurs were in their peak.
(d) First primates and horses originated.
Ü a) Pliocene period, tertiary epoch, cenozoic era, phanerozoic eon.
b) Devonian period, palaeozoic era, phanerozoic eon.
c) Jurassic period, mesozoic era, phanerozoic eon.
d) Paleocene period, tertiary epoch, cenozoic era, phanerozoic eon.

SUMMARY
 There are many hypotheses about the origin of the earth but non of them are really convincing.
 Planetesimal, nebular, tidal and dust-cloud hypotheses are some of the hypotheses given for
the origin of the earth.
 The branch of science which deals with the study of the earth is called geology.
 The geological time period is divided into eon, era, period and epoch.
 The eras in geological time scale are azoic, palaeozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic (neozoic)
 Life was originated on the earth in the archeozoic period.
 The mesozoic era is called the time of reptiles.
 The cenozoic era is called the time of mammals.
 The palaeozoic era is called the time of fishes.
 Fossils are the remnants or impressions of dead plants and animals preserved inside the earth.
 Fossils support evolution and help to know about the plants and animals which have been extinct.
 Coal and mineral oil are called fossil fuels.
 Fossils are formed inside the earth’s crust under high temperature and pressure.
 They have various uses.

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 E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. State the planetesimal hypothesis and Kant’s hypothesis about the origin of the
earth.
2. How was the solar system originated according to the nebular hypothesis?
3. Define the geological time scale. How is it divided?
4. Write the major events that took place in the palaeozoic era.
5. Differentiate between
(a) Cenozoic era and Mesozoic era
(b) Palaeozoic era and Mesozoic era
6. Which era is known as the ‘time of reptiles’? Why?
7. Define fossils. How can you identify them.
8. Write the importance of fossils.
9. How are fossils formed? Describe.
10. How is coal formed?
11. Give three advantages of coal.
12. Define mineral fuel. Write its uses.
13. Why was life not possible in the azoic era?
14. Dinosaurs became extinct in the cretaceous period of the Mesozoic era. Why?
15. How do fossils give the evidence of evolution?
16. In which time periods did the following events take place?
(a) First fishes originated
(b) Conifers appeared on the earth.
(c) Development of human civilization
17. In which period are we living now?
A
B
C GLOSSARY
the broken and shrunk solid particles from the sun from which planets are thought to be
Planetesimal :
formed
Hypothesis : an idea based on few facts but has not yet been proved to be true
Geological time : the time period of the earth
Mining : the process of getting coal and other minerals from under the ground
Encyclopedia : a book of set of books giving information about all areas of knowledge
Assortment : a collection of different things or different types of something


326 | History of the Earth

 UNIT

22 Climate Change and Atmosphere

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
The earth’s environment has three parts. They are
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. The atmosphere
extends over about 1600 km from the earth's surface.
Thus, the atmosphere is the thick layer (but thin in comparison
to the radius of earth like peel of an orange) of different gases
surrounding the earth from all the sides. It consists of 78% of
N2 gas, 21% of oxygen gas, 0.3% of CO2 gas by its volume and
the remaining percentage of other gases and water vapour.
Tycho Brahe The gravity of the earth holds the atmosphere towards it. It
(1546-1601) makes life possible on the earth, protects us from harmful UV
rays of the sun, maintains rain, etc.
The external part of the earth is divided into three major
regions. They are atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
The lithosphere is the land part of the earth. Similarly, the
hydrosphere is the water part and the atmosphere represents
the air part. The atmosphere is a gaseous envelop of the
earth. In the atmosphere, there are many gases. These gases
make a homogeneous mixture. The changes in atmosphere,
Johannes Kepler lithosphere and hydrosphere are responsible for the climate
(1571-1630) change and weather phenomena on the earth.
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe
made accurate observations CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
of the night sky. He also built
the world’s first observatory The average statistical weather patterns of a place estimated
and identified over 1000 stars. over a 30 years period is known as climate. It is affected by
Tycho’s accurate measurements
both natural and anthropogenic changes going on in the
later helped Johannes Kepler
to describe the orbits of planets earth. In the absence of human activities, the climate of a
around the sun place is more or less constant. But, for the last 1300 years
and especially after 1950 AD, the climate has changed at an
unexpected level due to increased anthropogenic causes.
The increased concentration of the carbon dioxide emission
along with other greenhouse gases has warmed the earth’s
atmosphere. The satellites, statistical calculations, computer
models and data from all over the world from Antarctica to

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Amazon reveal that the climate is changing day to day. This gradual change in climate
due to anthropogenic causes is called climate change. The climate that is changing
now is the resultant effect of the emission that people generated several decades ago.
Likewise, the emission that we are generating today will have very adverse effects
after many years from now. So, there must be global efforts in reducing the change in
climate by global attempts. The climate in Nepal is also changing day by day. Some of
the evidences to suggest this fact are listed below:
a) The overall temperature of Nepal has increased by 0.060C. It seems
negligible but it is vast to cause adverse effects.
b) Draughts, drying up of water sources like springs, reduction in water flow
in rivers, etc. also suggest that the effect of climate change is becoming
serious.
c) The glaciers and Himalayan snow are also rapidly melting.
d) Increase in the incidences of outburst of glacial lakes.
e) Loss of biodiversity and habitat
These are only some of the geographical impacts. The impacts on the socioeconomic
areas are also huge. Nepal contributes only about 0.025% of global greenhouse gas
emissions but has to face a devastating effects because of global emission results.
In this chapter, we shall discuss about the composition of atmosphere, climate change,
effects of climate change, controlling measures of climate change, ozone layer,
industrial gases, etc.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE

MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION
Climate Change has become a global problem. The effects of climate change are
recognized globally all over the world. These effects are also causing various problems
to underdeveloped countries, which are least responsible for climate change. Some
people are still debating on the consequences of climate change. The impact of climate
change may be minimal to challenge human survival but the adverse effects are already
being felt in the rest of the biodiversity. It affects directly on ecosystems, biodiversity,
weather patterns, oceanic and wind currents and human lifestyle. As suggested by
several researches, climate change has become a challenge to the survival of several
species of living organisms, many of which have become extinct.
Climate Change is the combined effect of both natural and human activities brought
by industrialization, urbanization and population growth. The industrial revolution
after the 19th century caused adverse effects to existing the climate pattern. Now
the challenges are very dangerous. Therefore, there should be global actions to
moderate climate change. A single country or society is unable to reduce it. Everyone
is more or less responsible for climate change. The United Nations has formulated

328 | Climate Change and Atmosphere

an international policy to check climate change. Various efforts have been made by
several governmental, non-governmental and private agencies to reduce the effects
of climate change. One of the greatest achievements in this step is the incorporation
of the chapter climate change in the textbooks of formal education in schools,
colleges and university levels. Its aim is to encourage, educate and warn the future
generations about the on-going climate change, its impacts and mitigation measures.
Small steps like use of public transportation, avoiding forest fires or even switching
off of a light bulb can contribute to the joint collaborative effort. Hence, mitigation of
climate change should not just be an international effort but also an individual one.
It should be noted that climate change cannot be stopped immediately but can be
slowed down. Measures that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases are already in
effect. The impact of changed climate is already affecting the countries worldwide.
Attention should be given to adaptation and elasticity measures from the effects of
climate change. Some of the national and international efforts in the mitigation and
resilience of climate change are given below.

Efforts in the national level:

The efforts to mitigate the climate change inside Nepal are called the national level
efforts. Some of the major efforts to bring resilience, awareness, adaptation and
mitigation regarding climate change are listed below:
a) National communication report
b) Climate Change Policy, 2067 B.S.
c) Strategic Program for Climate Change Resilience
d) National Adaptation program for Climate Change
e) Local Adaptation Programs for Climate Change
f) Other programs
a) National Communication Report
Nepal has submitted the national communication report to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in the past. The report judges
the emission patterns of greenhouse gases (GHG) in Nepal from various sources.
This report also includes the effects of climate change in Nepal and its mitigating and
adaptation measures. This report also includes the susceptible sectors of Nepal which
are directly or indirectly affected by climate change. It also involves the capacity
building plans and policies to minimize the effects of climate change. This report
highlights the needs and necessities which are required in the areas that are mostly
affected by climate change. For example, transportation, industries, agriculture, forests,
health, waste management, etc. On the basis of these intensive studies, a separate
mechanism has to be set up for the scientific learning regarding climate change.

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b) Climate Change Policy, 2057 B.S.
In the contest of Nepal, the impacts of climate change and global warming are adverse
in areas like agriculture, forests, public health, biodiversity, socioeconomic aspects,
etc. It is now essential to adopt the effective measures in checking, adapting and
mitigating the impacts on these areas with the raising of public understanding and
awareness. Likewise, there should be level wise capacity building plans in order to
tackle these needs. This policy also considers problems, challenges and needs to fight
against climate change. It also emphasizes on a clear vision, mission, target and the
goal oriented approach of the policy. This program has a clear way for the future
efforts in the climate adaptation and flexibility.
c) Strategic Program for Climate Change Resilience
Nepal is ranked as the 4th most climate change vulnerable nation in the world. It is
because Nepal has diversity in the climate and geography. Its altitude ranges from
59 m to 8848 m from the sea level. It has variety of ecosystems and biodiversity.
The Climate Investment Fund invited the Government of Nepal in 2009 A.D. to be a
part of its global pilot program for climate change resilience. This program provides
essential funding to underdeveloped countries in the field of climate resilience. The
SPCR planning project has engaged a large number of national and international
stakeholders in the field of climate change resilience support. The climate resilience
strategic program in Nepal is taken as a long term sustainable program and is divided
into five major categories as five investment programs:
i) Investment program 1: Building Climate Resilience of Watersheds in
Mountain Eco-Regions
ii) Investment program 2: Building Resilience to Climate-Related Hazards
iii) Investment program 3: Main streaming Climate Change Risk Management
in Development
iv) Investment program 4: Building Climate Resilient Communities through
Private Sector Participation
v) Investment program 5: Enhancing Climate Resilience of Endangered
species
d) National Adaptation Program for Climate Change
The National Adaptation program was formulated by the Government of Nepal in
2010 A.D. It mainly judges the impacts of climate change and related hazards. Its
major goals are improving the livelihoods of people by mitigating and adapting to
the adverse impacts of climate change. It also has a goal for low-carbon emissions
and socio-economic development. It supports the country's commitments to national
and international agreements related to climate change. It has 9 unified programs
including 250 sub-programs. The main objectives of the national programs are:

330 | Climate Change and Atmosphere

 i) Integrated management of agriculture, water, forest and biodiversity to
promote community-based adaptation.
ii) Community-based disaster management for facilitating climate adaptation
iii) Adaptation in the public health caused due to climate change
iv) Disaster risk assessment and monitoring of Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF).
v) Capacity building and enhancement of vulnerable communities through
an improved system and access to service for agricultural development
vi) Forest and ecosystem management
vii) Ecosystem management for climate adaptation
viii) Empowering vulnerable communities through sustainable management
of water resources and clean energy supply
ix) Promoting climate friendly urban settlements
e) Local adaptation programs for climate change
The local adaptation programs for climate change are running for local and rural
communities of Nepal. Four guideline principles are adopted in Local Adaptation
program for climate change. The four guideline principles are bottom-up, inclusiveness,
responsiveness and flexibility. The local adaptation program for climate change
ensures the formation and coordinating of several programs related to the local
adaptation plans. Some of the issues that are supported by this program are:
i) To identify the most climate vulnerable Village Development Committee
(VDC), Municipality, wards and communities and their adaptation
challenges and opportunities
ii) To identify and prioritize the needs of the local people for adaptation
against climate change.
iii) To prepare local action plans to integrate them national plans.
iv) To identify and mobilize appropriate mechanisms and resources for the
proper implementation of the action plan.
v) To monitoring and evaluating the action plans.
vi) To search the cost effective adaptation plans.
f) Other programs
Some of the other programs are clean brick kiln programs, improved cooking stoves
and bio-gas plants program, encouragement programs for low-carbon emissions,
rain water harvesting programs, programs on early natural hazard warning systems,
conventions, meetings, seminars and conferences on climate change, etc.
Efforts in the international levels
The efforts to mitigate the impacts of climate change outside the national levels are
known as international level efforts. The efforts have been mostly conducted by the
organs, agencies and bodies of the United Nations, as a global attempt to address
this serious issue. Some of these international efforts to mitigate and adapt with the
impacts of climate change are:

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 a) United Nations Framework convention on climate change (The Rio Earth
Summit)
b) Conference of the Parties (COP) to the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)
c) Agenda 21
d) Intergovernmental panel on climate change
e) Kyoto protocol
f) Emission control measures of greenhouse gases in Kyoto protocol
g) Reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation
a) United Nations Framework convention on climate change
(The Rio Earth Summit)
From 3rd to 14th June, 1992 A.D., 154 countries of the world gathered in Brazil, Rio De
Janeiro to attend the Rio Earth Summit. The Convention was called United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The main objective of the
summit was to control the greenhouse gases and their negative impacts. The summit
addressed the issues such as climate change, sustainable development and global
impacts created due to increasing anthropogenic causes. It also realized the fact that
we cannot stop climate change fully right away but we can develop ways to cope with
it, build resilience and implement mitigation measures. The UNFCCC came into effect
from 21st March, 1994 A.D. and now has 197 countries (as of December 2015) which are
known as the Parties to the UNFCCC. It also led to the Kyoto protocol that forced the
parties to reduce their carbon emission.
Nepal became a party of the conference on June 12th, 1992 A.D. After the declaration
of the related acts by the legislature, the directives of the Rio Summit were endorsed
by Nepal as regulations.
b) Conference of the Parties (COP) of UNFCCC
According to the UNFCCC, the signatory countries (called parties) should inform
about the progress and reformation works regarding climate change to other member
nations. For this, they set up a conference annually to exchange ideas. There have been
22 conferences of the Parties by the year 2016 A.D. Nepal also formulated the National
Climate Change Policy in 2011 A.D.
c) Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is the program related to the achievement of sustainable development and
climate change minimization and mitigation for environmental conservation. The 21
stands for the 21st century. The slogan for agenda 21 is ‘Think globally and act locally’.
This plan gives priority to the sustainable development, environment conservation
and balance in the society. Agenda 21 is a result of the Rio Earth Summit. It is just an
action plan of the UN and governments worldwide for the local and national level
implementation. The agenda document has 350 pages with 40 chapters and 4 sections.

332 | Climate Change and Atmosphere

The four sections of Agenda 21 are:
i) Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions: Its aim is to fight with
population growth, poverty and public health.
ii) Section II: Conservation and Management of the Resources for Development:
Its aim is the protection of biodiversity, the conservation of environment
and pollution control.
iii) Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups: It tries to bring the
underprivileged, disadvantaged, indigenous, women, youths, children,
farmers, businesses, NGOs, local authorities together to support their roles.
iv) Section IV: Means of Implementation: It includes sharing of science,
technology, education and financial mechanisms of the concerned goals.
d) Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC)
The intergovernmental panel focuses on the study and investigation of climate change
and its impacts from an objective point of view. It is formed on the request of the
member nations of the UN jointly, by two UN organizations. They are the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP) in 1988 A.D. The nations which are the members to WMO and UNEP can
be the members of the IPCC. The IPCC reports about the scientific, technical and
socio-economic information about the understanding of the scientific basis of risk of
human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and
mitigation. The report also supports the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is the main international treaty on climate change.
The scientific research carried out in IPCC is volunteered by thousands of scientists
from all over the world. Due to its exceptional role in the field of climate change
research, the IPCC received the Nobel peace prize in 2007 A.D.
e) Kyoto protocol
After the UNFCCC convention, the parties reached an agreement to form a protocol
that forms as a regulatory and enforcing body for the control of greenhouse gases
emission. The UNFCCC alone was not enough to do so because it was not an enforcing
body. Thus, 36 developed and 137 developing nation parties signed a treaty in Kyoto,
Japan, committing to reduce the greenhouse gases emission, in December 11th, 1997
A.D. The commitment period for the parties was from 2008 to 2012. This period was
called the first commitment period. During this period, the parties agreed to reduce
the carbon emission by 5.25% compared to the levels of 1990 A.D. There were some
amendments in the protocol during the Doha Meet on 8th December, 2008 A.D., known
as the Doha Amendment. According to this amendment, the developed nations have to
reduce their carbon emission during another commitment period i.e. from 1st January,
2013 A.D. till 31st December, 2020 A.D. by 18% below the levels of 1990 A.D. As of 29th
December, 2016 A.D., there are 75 parties ratifying the agreement.

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f) Emission control measures of greenhouse gases in Kyoto protocol
Since the industrial revolution, the developed countries of the world have been turned
into industrial monsters. The carbon emission that these countries have produced is
mostly responsible for the climate change that the world is facing today. The Kyoto
Protocol makes the developed nations more responsible than the developing or
underdeveloped nations. Thus, the carbon emission reduction has to be more in the
developed nations. But, reducing greenhouse gases means affecting the development
process that is being conducted due to industrialization and urbanization. So, it is
very difficult to stop the emission immediately. The Kyoto Protocol encourages the
developed and developing nations to work on three mechanisms. They are international
emission trading, joint implementation and Clean Development mechanism.
According to these mechanisms, there is a certain limit up to which each nation can
emit carbon. If the limit exceeds, they will have to pay a fine for that and if it does not,
they may sell their carbon limit values to other countries in exchange of financial gain.
The developed nations have to help the developing and underdeveloped nations in
building the clean energy sources. In doing so, they also get credits to allow them to
do developmental activities.
Reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD)
Among several greenhouse gases, carbon is the chief greenhouse gas. Carbon in the
environment can effectively be checked by the absorption and storage of carbon
dioxide thorough biological means (absorption and food making by the plants).
In this regard, the developed countries which emit more greenhouse gases should
stop deforestation. These developed nations have agreed theoretically on providing
compensation to the developing and underdeveloped nations in the area of forest
conservation and management in the future.

Layers of atmosphere
The earth's atmosphere has been divided into different
layers on the basis of the height, temperature and
composition of different gases. The atmosphere is
divided into five layers. They are;
(1) Troposphere
(2) Stratosphere
(3) Mesosphere
(4) Thermosphere
(5) Exosphere
1. Troposphere
It is the first, thinnest and lowest layer that extends

334 | Climate Change and Atmosphere

from the surface of the earth to an altitude of about 16km. Most of the moisture of the
atmosphere occurs in this layer. Therefore, many climatic events such as convection
current, cloud formation, lightening, thundering, etc. occur in this layer. The lower
part of troposphere is the reservoir of gases that are essential for the life i.e. N2, O2 and
CO2. It also contains dust particles, spores and pollen grains.
The temperature falls with the increase in height in this layer. About 6.5°C temperature
falls in this layer per km increase in altitude.
The uppermost part of this layer is called tropopause having temperature of about
–56°C.
2. Stratosphere
It extends between 16-50 km from the earth's surface. It has a protective ozone layer
that protects us from the harmful uv radiation of sunlight. So, it is also known as
ozonosphere. The temperature increases from – 56°C to –2°C in this layer. This layer
does not contain storms and clouds with negligible humidity. The upper boundary of
this layer is called stratopause. A uniform horizontal motion of air having 300 km/hr
is observed in this layer.

MEMORY TIPS
Jet planes fly in the stratosphere as this layer is clear and cloudless.

3. Mesophere
It is the third layer of the atmosphere which extends from 50 to 80 km above the earth’s
surface. The temperature first increases then decreases with height. This layer is the
coldest layer of the atmosphere having temperature variation from –2°C to –110°C. Its
upper boundary is called mesopause.

MEMORY TIPS
In mesosphere, strong wind blows from west to east during winter and from east to west
during the spring season. The streaks of hot gases released from meteors can also be
seen in this region.

4. Thermosphere
It is the fourth layer of the atmosphere that extends from 80 to 720 km above the
earth. The temperature increases with increase in altitude. The upper surface has
hydrogen and helium and the lower surface has nitrogen and oxygen. This layer is
near to the solar radiation. So, the radiation changes some of the atoms and molecules
into ions in the lower part of this layer. So, this layer is also known as ionosphere. The
radio waves are reflected back from ionized layers. So, this layer is very important for
communication.

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 MEMORY TIPS
The sun is regularly showering the ionized particles [not only for some time] which when
strike against the earth's magnetic line of force produce flashes of light called Aurora.
Since the concentration of magnetic lines of force is higher above the polar regions, aurora
is also more distinct above the polar regions.

5. Exosphere
It is the outermost layer extended beyond 720 km above the earth’s surface. So, it is
also known as the fringe region. The gravity is so weak that the atoms of this layer
escape to the space. The temperature varies from 1200°C to 6000°C in this region.

MEMORY TIPS
Venus and Mars do not have life in them as their atmosphere consists of 95.97% of CO2
gas and Venus has a thick cloud of sulphuric acid.

OZONE LAYERS
Ozone is a form of oxygen. A molecule of ozone contains three oxygen atoms (O3). It
is found in the stratosphere of the earth.
It is formed by the combination of molecular oxygen with atomic oxygen in the
presence of UV rays.
uv rays
O2 O+O
O2 + O O3
In the stratosphere, ozone is being photo dissociated and generated by the absorption
of harmful short wavelength ultraviolet (uv) radiation coming from the sun.
uv radiations
O3 O2 + [O]
These reactions are in equilibrium thereby maintaining the steady concentration of
ozone in the stratosphere. The ozone layer is commonly known as the ozone blanket.
For the dissociation as well as formation of ozone, it absorbs harmful uv rays thus,
acting as a shield to protect all types of life from harmful effects of uv radiations.

Effects of ozone layer

(i) The ozone layer protects us from severe burns due to uv rays.
(ii) It also protects us from skin diseases, cataracts, deficiency of immune power as
well as cancer due to the exposure to uv rays.
(iii) It plays a vital role in the balance of weather and temperature on the earth.
(iv) If the ozone comes near the earth’s surface, then it will be very harmful as it causes
the burning of throats and the destruction of lungs.

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Ozone layer depletion
The thinning of the ozone layer or formation of hole in it is known as ozone layer
depletion.
Ozone is being depleted by air pollutants. CFCs methane, oxides of nitrogen, CO2, etc.
are air pollutants that are mainly responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer in
the stratosphere.

MEMORY TIPS
An English scientist J.C. Farmann found out for the first time the ozone layer depletion over
Antarctica in 1885 A.D.

Mechanism of ozone layer depletion

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) is a synthetic, harmful chemical, which is widely used in
refrigerators and air conditioners as coolants: in fire extinguishers, aerosol sprayers as
propellants.
Once released in air, these harmful chemicals produce active chlorine (Cl and ClO
radicals) in the presence of uv rays. These radicals through chain reactions, then
destroy the ozone by converting it into oxygen as
uv rays
(1) CF2Cl2 CF2Cl + Cl
uv rays
(2) Cl + O3 ClO + O2
Chlorine oxide
uv rays
(3) ClO Cl + O
uv rays
(4) O + O3 O2 + O2
Hence, the ozone layer becomes thinner. A single ‘active chlorine’ converts one lakhs
molecules of ozone into oxygen.

MEMORY TIPS
The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by Dobson spectrometer and is expressed
in Dobson units (DU).
Effects of ozone depletion
The thinning of the ozone layer allows more uv radiations to pass through it which
then strike the earth. This causes the following harmful effects on man and animals.
(i) UV radiations can cause skin cancer, cataract, damage to the immune system
etc. in human beings.

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 (ii) It decreases the crop yielding.
(iii) It adversely affects the fertility of animals.
(iv) It can cause global warming.

Conservation of ozone layer

The following methods should be applied for the conservation of the ozone layer:
(i) The use of CFCs should be reduced in refrigerators, air conditioners,
aerosols, etc. but alternative cooling should be developed.
(ii) The production of CFCs should be banned.
(iii) People should be aware of the ozone layer depletion, its possible effects and
the ways to protect it.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The gases like carbon dioxide, methane,
CFCs, oxides of nitrogen, water vapour,
etc. are the green house gases. These gases
trap the infrared radiation reflected by the
earth. This heats up the atmosphere and
increases the temperature of the earth.
This phenomenon of increasing the
temperature of the earth as the effect of green
house gases is called green house effect.

Importance of greenhouse effect

Green house gases are important in keeping the earth warm. The average temperature
of the earth is around 20°C. In the absence of green house gases, it may drop to –20°C,
killing all forms of life on the earth. So, greenhouse effect is important for sustaining
lives on the earth.

Adverse effect of greenhouse effect

Greenhouse effect is necessary for the survival of life on the earth. But over greenhouse
effect may lead to the adverse effect to the living beings.
Men is adding a large amount of CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere by burning fossil
fuels in houses, industries, automobiles as well as due to deforestation. Methane is
also added to the atmosphere by the decay of vegetation in the marshland, paddy
fields, etc. This leads to the problems like.

338 | Climate Change and Atmosphere

(i) The greenhouse gases trap the heat reflected by the earth. This heats up the
atmosphere and leads to the increase in earth’s temperature. This phenomenon is
called global warming.
(ii) The global warming means the increase of the temperature of the earth, which
causes melting of ice on the poles. This results rise in the sea level.
(iii) It changes the pattern of rainfall and weather condition.
(iv) It affects water cycles, soil moisture and soil composition. So, there is change in
harvesting and cultivating crops.
(v) It helps to increase the pathogenic insects which help to increase the number of
pathogenic diseases.
(vi) It has adverse effects on the ecosystem by imbalancing it.

Ways of controlling greenhouse effect

The over greenhouse effect can be controlled by controlling human activities:
(i) By decreasing deforestation and increasing afforestation.
(ii) By reducing the use of fossil fuel.
(iii) Banning CFCs.
(iv) Using the pollution free sources of energy like solar energy, wind energy, etc.

Artificial greenhouse
The houses made up of plastics or glass for the cultivation of plants and crops inside it are called
artificial greenhouses.
The glasses or plastics allow the sun’s radiation to enter them. But as the radiation
strikes the ground, it changes into the waves having less energy and longer wavelength.
These rays now can’t go outside and get reflected inside the house. As a result, due to
the accumulation of more infrared radiations, the temperature inside the greenhouse
is always more than that of outside.
Due to higher temperature inside the greenhouse, different types of plants like
vegetables, flowers, etc. can be grown in any season in any climatic region.

MEMORY TIPS
The earth is a natural greenhouse and the greenhouse gases on the earth are CH4, CO2,
NOx, H2O etc.

ACTIVITY
Visit a greenhouse and observe the plants there. Are they all from your locality? Are they all the
seasonal plants? Interpret your answer.

INDUSTRIAL GASES
During the manufacture of various substances in industries, different harmful

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substances along with the harmful gases are released. These toxic gases like SO2,
CO2, CO, NOx, etc. produced from industries are called the industrial gases. They are
pollutants and cause air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.
Effects of industrial gases
The industrial gases cause serious environmental problems which directly or indirectly
affect organisms.
(1) Acid rain: When the gases like SO2, NOx and CO2 mix with rainwater, they form
weak sulphuric, nitric and carbonic acids respectively. This causes acid rain.
Acid rain corrodes the historical monuments like statues, sculptures, temple,
etc. It increases the acidity of soil thereby reducing the crop yield. Moreover, it
causes different types of skin and respiratory diseases.
(2) Global warming: Many industrial gases are greenhouse gases, which lead to
global warming.
(3) Photochemical smog: These gases form photochemical smog, which causes eye
itching, and have negative effects on plant growth.
(4) Ozone layer depletion: Some industrial gases also cause ozone layer depletion.
(5) Human diseases
• Carbon monoxide reduces the efficiency of haemoglobin.
• Oxides of nitrogen cause lung diseases.
• Sulphur dioxide causes respiratory diseases, headache, etc.
MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. How does the atmosphere help for the living beings on the earth to survive?
Ü The earth’s atmosphere contains the necessary things for the life of an organism
like N2, O2, water vapour, CO2 etc. It also maintains suitable temperature on the
earth’s surface for the survival of living beings.
2. Stratosphere is also known as a protective layer. Why?
Ü Stratosphere consists of the ozone layer, which absorbs harmful uv rays from
the sun and protects the earth from its effects.
3. Why does temperature increase with the increase in altitude in stratosphere?
Ü It is due to ozone layer which absorbs solar radiation which makes it warmer.
4. Why is the greenhouse effect a must for the survival of living organisms on
the earth?
Ü If there is no greenhouse effect, then the temperature of earth’s surface falls
below – 20°C at which no creatures can survive.
5. Global warming is the consequence of the greenhouse effect. Why?
Ü The greenhouse gases like CO2, H2O, NOx and CH4 do not allow some of the

340 | Climate Change and Atmosphere

 heat radiation to escape to the space after they enter the earth’s surface. So, due
to the accumulation of heat waves inside the atmosphere, the temperature of the
earth increases. It is called global warming.
6. How acid rain is harmful?
Ü Acid rain destroys monuments, temples, and statues. It also causes skin diseases
and decreases the fertility of soil causing acidity. So, acid rain is harmful.
7. Acid rain is more probable in the industrial areas. Why?
Ü When the industrial gases like SO2, NOx, CO2 etc. mix with the rainwater, it
changes into weak acid and falls in the form of rain, it is called acid rain. So, it is
more probable in industrial areas.

SUMMARY
 The thick layer of air which surrounds the earth’s surface is called atmosphere.
 Atmosphere can be divided into 5 layers i.e. troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere.
 Troposphere is the lowermost layer which controls rainfall and other climatic activities.
 The ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. It is formed in stratosphere by the
influence of uv rays on oxygen gas.
 Ozone layer absorbs uv rays and protects us from the harmful effects of uv rays.
 CFCs is the main chemical, which destroys the ozone layer.
 The effect of increasing temperature on the earth due to the greenhouse gases is called the
greenhouse effect.
 CO2, CH4, NOx and H2O are the main greenhouse gases.
 The greenhouse effect maintains the temperature of the earth, which is suitable for the
survival of life.
 The greenhouse effect causes global warming, which is the burning problem of the present day.
 Industrial gases like CO2, CO, SO2 cause air pollution, global warming and acid rain.

E XXERCISE
E RCIS
RCISEE

1. What is climate and climate change?

2. List out the efforts in national levels, which are made to reduce climate change.
3. What attempts have been done in international level to reduce climate change.
4. What is Kyoto protocol? Describe its actions.
5. What is climate change policy 2067 BS?
6. What are the different layers of atmosphere? Name them. In which layer does the
strong wind blow?
7. How are stratosphere and ionosphere beneficial to us?
8. Define stratopause and mesopause.
9. Write short notes on:
(a) Troposphere (b) Thermosphere

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 341

 (c) Mesosphere (d) Stratosphere
10. Study the layer of atmosphere in the given diagram and answer the following
questions.
(a) Name the layers 2, 3 and 4.
(b) Which layer consists of ozone?
(c) From which layer are the radio waves reflected? 1
2
(d) In which layer do jet planes fly? 3
4
5
(e) In which layer is aurora is seen?
11. Why is stratosphere called the protective layer?
12. Write two advantages and two disadvantages of ozone.
13. How is ozone layer depleting?
14. Write two preventive measures for ozone layer depletion.
15. Define greenhouse effect. Can the earth be said as a natural greenhouse? Why?
16. What are the effects of global warming?
17. Give reasons:
(a) The use of CFCs must be banned.
(b) Summer vegetables can also be grown in winter inside a greenhouse.
(c) We should conserve the ozone layer.
18. It is warmer inside a greenhouse. Why?
19. Define acid rain.
20. Illustrate how the industrial gases are harmful.
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Fringe : an outer edge of area
Photo dissociation : dissociation by the help of light
Propellants : the gases that force out the content of aerosols
Aerosols : particles suspended in a gas like smog, ashes etc.
Global warming : increasing the worldwide temperature on the earth
Smog : the mixture of smoke and fog which decreases transparency in atmosphere
NOx : oxides of nitrogen NO2, N2O, NO, N2O5, N2O3



342 | Climate Change and Atmosphere

 UNIT

23 The Earth in the Universe

INTRODUCTION
About the Scientist
The universe is the unimaginable vast space. Till now many
theories, hypothesis, facts are found yet there are many
unexplained areas of the universe.
Everything that we have seen, unseen, felt, not-felt, heard,
not heard are the members of the universe. From the tiny
atoms to the biggest star, unicellular protozoans to higher
complex living organisms, all the waves, light, sound, sun,
stars, planets, satellites, all matters and all the energies, etc.
are the members of the universe. It is so vast that even the
Stephen William fastest traveller (having velocity 3 × 108 m/s) takes millions
Stephen William Hawking is
of years to travel from one star to another. So, we just cannot
a British theoretical physicist, imagine the immense size of the universe.
whose world-renowned scientific
career spans over 40 years. His
The universe is the aggregate of all the existing things
books and public appearances including all celestial bodies and all the space.
have made him an academic
celebrity and he is an Honorary
The solar system is only a very small particle of the universe.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Astronomy is the branch of science in which we study about
Arts, a lifetime member of the
Pontifical Academy of Sciences,
the universe.
and in 2009 was awarded the
Presidential Medal of Freedom,
Some units to measure the distance in the universe
the highest civilian award in the It is very difficult to measure the distance in the universe in
United States.
the units like metre, kilometre, etc. as the distance between
Hawking has a neuro-muscular
two heavenly bodies is very large. So, special units must be
dystrophy that is related to
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis used to measure the distance between the heavenly bodies.
(ALS), a condition that has Some of the units used to measure the distances in the
progressed over the years and universe are:
has left him almost completely
paralysed.
(a) Astronomical unit (AU)
(b) Light Year
(c) Parsec
(a) Astronomical unit (AU)
It is defined as the mean distance between the sun and
the earth. Its value is 1.5 × 1011 m. It is used to measure
the distances between the members in the solar system i.e.
smaller distances in the universe.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 343

 MEMORY TIPS
Tittus Bode's concept about the distance of planets from the sun in AU is calculated by
applying the following rules:
a) Make a series of numbers starting from 0 and 3 and doubling afterward
i.e. 0 3 6 12 24 48 96 192 394
b) Add '4' on each number of the series
i.e. 0+4 3+4 6+4 12+4 24+4 48+4 96+4 192+4 394+4
c) Divide every 'sum' by 10
0 + 4 3 + 4 6 + 4 12 + 4 24 + 4 48 + 4 96 + 4 192 + 4 394 + 4
i.e.
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
d) The value of each fraction will be the approx distance in AU of the planets from sun i.e.
0+4 3+4
= 0.4 AU for Mercury 10 = 0.7 AU for Venus
10
6+4 12 + 4
= 1 AU for Earth = 1.6 AU for Mars
10 10
24 + 4 48 + 4
= 2.8 AU for Asteroids = 5.2 AU for Jupiter
10 10
96 + 4 192 + 4
= 10 AU for Saturn = 19.6 AU for Uranus
10 10
394 + 4
= 98.8 AU for Neptune
10
[But, approx. distance of Neptune is 30 AU and that of Pluto is 39 AU from the sun]
(b) 1 light year
The distance travelled by light in one year is known as 1 light year. Its value is 9.46 ×
1012 km.
Method to calculate the value of one light year
We know that,
Velocity of light in vacuum (v) = 3 × 108 m/s
Time taken (t) = 1 year
We have, distance travelled = v × t = 3 × 108 m/s × 1 yr
= 3 × 108 × (1 × 365 × 24 × 60 ×60)s
= 9.46 × 1015 m
= 9.46 × 1012 km
∴ 1 light year = 9.46 × 1012 km

344 | The Earth in the Universe

(c) 1 Parsec
The distance which is equal to 3.26 light year is called 1 parsec.
∴ 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years

MEMORY TIPS
• Proxima Centauri, the second nearest star from our solar system lies 4.3 light years
away. Sirius is 8.6 light years and Vega is 26.5 light years away. (First nearest star is
the sun itself)
1° 1 min
• Parsec = The parallax angle having the value of 1 second. = 1 minute, = 1second.
60 60
Parallex angle means the angle which is obtained by bisecting the vertex of an isosceles
triangle by a perpendicular on its base.
If an angle of 1° is equally divided into 3600 fragments, then a single fragment of the
angle is called 1 second (1'')
Parsec is the vertical distance of the triangle (height of the perpendicular drawn from
the vertex to base) of the isosceles triangle whose base is taken the longest diameter
of earth's orbit. See the figure:

SOLAR SYSTEM
The sun and the celestial bodies which revolve around the sun form the solar system.
It consists of planets, satellites, comets, asteroids, meteors and very thin interplanetory
air, which revolve around the sun due to the gravitational attraction between the sun
and these bodies. The sun is the main member of the solar system. The eight planets
of the solar system are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune. Our solar system lies in the Milky Way galaxy.
The international convention of astronomers held on 2006 in Prague of Czech Republic has
removed the Pluto from the list of the planets as it does not fit the new definition given
by IAU (International Astronomical Union). The new definition of planets given by
convention is as follows:
‘A planet should have its own round (elliptical) orbit around the sun which must not cross the
orbit of other planets.
As the orbit of Pluto crosses the orbit of Neptune, it was kept in the category of ‘dwarf
(or dropped) planet’ along with its satellite Charon. A new heavenly body named (2003
UB 13)/Jena was also discovered in our solar system.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 345

 Solar system

The sun
The sun is a medium sized yellow coloured star. It is the main and largest body in the
solar system. All the members of the solar system revolve around the sun. Some facts
about the sun are:
Diameter of the sun = 1,392,000 km
Distance of the sun from Core

Galactic centre of milky ways galaxy → 2.5 × 10 light years.

4 Corona
Chromosphere
Distance between sun and the earth → 1.5 × 108 km
Photosphere
Temperature of its surface → 6 × 103 °C
Temperature of its core → 1.5 × 107 °C
Mass of the sun = 2 × 1030 kg
The sun is composed of about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. It takes 2.5 ×108 years
to complete one revolution around the galactic centre and this time period is known
as one cosmic year.
It consists of three-layers photosphere, chromosphere and corona. The sun producers an
enormous amount of energy due to the nuclear fusion reaction in which hydrogen is
continuously changing to helium.

Importance of the sun

The sun is the main member of the solar system as well as very important part of it.
The importance of the sun can be summarized as,
i. It helps to revolve other members of the solar system due to its strong gravitation.
ii. It gives heat and light energy to all the living beings on the earth.

346 | The Earth in the Universe

iii. It maintains water cycle on the earth.
iv. Solar energy is used by the plant for photosynthesis.
v. Solar energy can easily be converted into electricity by using solar battery, which
can be used for various purposes like cooking, heating, lightening, etc.

MEMORY TIPS
Chromosphere of the sun can only be seen during the total solar eclipse.

Planets
These are the heavenly bodies, which revolve around the sun in their own elliptical
orbit. There are 8 planets in our solar system. They are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
These planets are again divided as outer and inner planets. The planets which lie inside
the asteroid belt, i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are inner planets or terrestrial
planets and those planets which lie outside the asteroid belt are called outer planets.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer planets or Jovian planets.
Inner planets have thin rocky crust and the core of molten metals. The outer planets are
made up of gases having a ring-like structure around them. Therefore, outer planets
are also called gas giants.

MEMORY TIPS
Planet means ‘wanderer’ in Greek language and this name is given as the planets revolve
around the sun.
A short description about each of the eight planets is given below:
(i) Mercury (Budha)
It is the nearest, smallest and the fastest revolving planet. Its
rotation period is 59 days and revolution period is 88 days.
It does not have any satellite and atmosphere. The days are
very hot and nights are extremely cold on it. Its diameter is
about 4880 km. (0.4AU)

(ii) Venus (Sukra)

It is the brightest and hottest planet. It is also known as the
morning or the evening star as it is seen in the sky before sunrise
and just after sunset. Its mean distance from the sun is 1.08 ×
108 km (0.7AU) and has a diameter of about 12104 km. It does
not have any moon. It is the closest planet from the earth. It is
also called the sister planet of the earth.
New Creative Science, Class 10 | 347
 MEMORY TIPS
In Venus, the sun rises from the west and sets in the east dut to the extreme inclination of
its axis which is beyond 180°.

(iii) Earth (Prithvi)

It is also called the green planet or the blue planet. It is the only
planet in the solar system which has the suitable condition
for the survival of living beings. Its distance from the sun
is 1.5 × 108 km (1 AU). Its rotation period is 24 days and
revolution period is 365 days. Its diameter is 12,756 km. It
has only one satellite i.e. the moon.

(iv) Mars (Mangal)

It is the red planet. Its distance from the sun is about 2.26 × 108
km, (1.6 AU) and its diameter is about 6720 km. Its rotation
period is 24 hours 37 minutes and it takes 687 days for the
completion of one revolution. Phobos and Diemos are the two
satellites of Mars.

MEMORY TIPS
• Mars is seen red because its surface consists of limonite (iron oxide).
• Nix Olympia (Olympus) is an extinct volcano in Mars and is 3 times the height of Mt.
Everest.

(v) Jupiter (Brihaspati)

It is the largest planet. The clouds on Jupiter form bright and
dark grey hands on the surface. Its distance from the sun is
about 7.78 ×108 km (5.2 AU) and its diameter is about 140800
km. Its rotation period is 10 hours and revolution period is 12
years. It has a red spot on its surface. It has 63 satellites.

(vi) Saturn (Sani)

It is the second largest planet having prominent rings made
for up of rock particles and snow. It is approx 16.294 × 108
km (10 AU) away from the sun. Its diameter is about 120585
km. Its rotation period is 10 hours 14 minutes and revolution
period is 29.5 years. It consists of about 60 satellites. The
biggest satellite of Saturn is ‘Titan’.

348 | The Earth in the Universe

 MEMORY TIPS
The density of Saturn is so less (0.6 g/cm3) that it can float on water.

(vii) Uranus (Arun)

It is made up of fluids. It is not solid but is made up of the small
crystals of methane gas. Its mean distance from the sun is 2.87
× 109 km (19.6 AU). Its diameter is about 51200 km. Its rotation
period is 17 hours and 14 minutes, and revolution period is 84
years. It consists of 27 satellites.

(viii) Neptune (Barun)

This is the farthest and coldest planet from the sun. Its mean
distance from the sun is about 4.48 × 109 km, (30 AU) its
diameter is about 48,000 km. It is made up of hydrogen, helium
and methane. It consists of 13 satellites among which Triton is
the biggest one.

ACTIVITY
Draw the solar system in a chart paper and colour them.

QUESTIONS
# Why is Venus called the hottest and brightest planet?
# Which planet is called the red planet. Why?
Differences between planets and stars

Planets Stars

1. Those heavenly bodies which 1. Those heavenly bodies which do not

revolve round the sun are called revolve round the sun are called stars.
planets. 2. They are luminous objects.
2. They are non luminous objects. 3. They twinkle at night.
3. They give continuous light at night
due to the reflection of the sun light.
4. They have comparatively a very high
4. They have comparatively a very low temperature.
temperature.
5. They are big in size.
5. They are small in size.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 349

Satellites
Satellites are the heavenly bodies, which revolve around the planets in their own orbit.
Satellites are of two types.
(i) Natural satellites (ii) Artificial satellites
(i) Natural satellites
Satellites which are naturally revolve round a planet are called natural satellites.
Among all the eight planets in the solar system, only Mercury and Venus do not have
satellites and the remaining other planets have one to many satellites. There are 152
natural satellites found till now.
Moon
It is the only one natural satellite of the earth and is the brightest
body in the sky and nearest celestial object to the earth. Some
facts about the moon are given below:
i. Distance from the earth – 3,85,000 km
ii. Surface area of the moon– 37,940,000 km2.
iii. Diameter = 3476 km
iv. Temperature range = (–125°C to 130°C)
v. Gravity = 1 th of the earth’s gravity
6
vi. Time taken by moon to
1
Complete one revolution around the earth (sidereal month) = 27 3 days
1
vii. Time period between one full moon to another (synodic month) = 29 2 days

MEMORY TIPS
The moon has about 30 plains, 30,000 craters and mountains on its surface.

ii) Artificial satellites

The satellites which are man-made and allowed to revolve certain planets from a fixed
distance for various purposes are called artificial satellites.
Purposes of launching artificial satellites
(1) To study the weather patterns of the
earth.
(2) They are launched to communicate
signals of the radio, television, telephone,
etc.
(3) To know the exact position of navigators
in air or in the oceans.

350 | The Earth in the Universe

(4) For scientific research, study of cosmic rays and solar radiations.
(5) For observing the military troops movement and detecting the test of nuclear
weapons in the space.
E.g. of artificial satellites: INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-I, Sputunik-I, EDUSAT, etc.

ASTEROIDS
The celestial bodies which revolve around the sun in the space between the orbit of
Mars and Jupiter are called asteroids or small planets or baby planets. The diameter of the
largest asteroid (Ceres) is about 800 km and other asteroids having a diameter from
1.6 km to 3.2 km are also found. Example: Juno, Vesta, Pallas, Eros etc.

The Asteroid belt

COMETS
Comets are also the members of our
solar system. They revolve around the
sun in highly elliptical orbits. Their
period of revolution round the sun is
usually very long.
A comet appears generally as a bright
head with a long tail. The length of the
tail grows in size as it approaches the
sun. The tail of the comet is always
directed away from the sun. The head
is made up of ice-mass. The head is also known as coma which contains a central part
called the nucleus.
Many comets are known to appear periodically. One such comet is Halley’s comet,
which appears after nearly 76 years. It was seen in 1986 AD.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 351

 S.N. Name of Comets First Observed Revolution (years)
1 Halley’s comet 240 BC 76
2 Temple- tutle 1366 AD 33
3 Enke 1786 AD 33
4 Schwasman- Washman 1927 AD 15
5 Bennet 1969 AD 16
6 Shoemaker Levi 1992 AD 78
When a comet is away from the sun, its tail is not formed as the ice-mass is not
evaporated. Some comets never return as they may collide with other heavenly bodies
and may get destroyed, e.g. Shoemaker Levi collided with Jupiter in 1994 AD.

METEORIDES, METEORS AND METEORITES

At night, when the sky is clear and the moon is not there, we may sometimes see bright
streaks of light in the sky for a short time. These are commonly known as shooting stars
(falling stars), though they are not stars. They are called meteors.
A meteor is usually a small object that occasionally enters the earth’s atmosphere with a very
high speed. The friction due to the atmosphere heats it up. It glows and evaporates
quickly. That’s why the bright streak lasts only for a very short time.
Some meteors are large. So, they can reach the earth before they evaporate completely.
Such body which reaches the earth is called a meteorite. Meteorites help scientists to
investigate the nature of the materials from which the solar system was formed.

MEMORY TIPS
When the earth crosses the tail of a comet, showers of meteors are seen. These are
known as meteor showers. Some meteor showers occur at regular interval of each year.

Meteorites are of three types:

(i) Stony – They have silicon more than iron and magnesium.
(ii) Iron – They have more iron and less silicon.
(iii) Stony iron meteorites – They have equal an amount of silicon and iron.

GALAXY
Our universe consists of billions and billions of stars among, which the sun is just a
middle-sized star. That means there are also other stars, which are bigger than the sun.
The group of billions of stars, star clusters, nebulae, dust and gas all held together by the
gravity is called galaxy. There are about 1012 galaxies in the universe, e.g. Milky Way
galaxy, Andromeda galaxy etc. All the stars of galaxy revolve around the hypothetical
centre known as galactic center or nucleus.

352 | The Earth in the Universe

The diameter of galaxies varies from one thousand light year to hundred thousand
light years. Scientists measure the distance between galaxies on the basis of the study
of rays like IR, x-rays, Y-rays, uv- rays emitted by the stars.

TYPES OF GALAXIES
Spiral galaxy
These galaxies have spiral shapes. In their centre, there are spiral arms. These galaxies have
enough gases and dust particles. These galaxies are brighter than other galaxies. For example,
Milky way galaxy, Andormeda galaxy, etc.

Elliptical galaxy
They have an elliptical shape. They have a large amount of interstellar matter. These galaxies
have comparatively old stars. From the centre of these stars, bright light comes out. For
example, fornax and sculptor

Irregular galaxy
These galaxies have irregular shapes. They are less bright than spiral galaxies. For example,
NGC 6822 and IC 1613

Milky Way Galaxy

Our solar system lies in one of the corners of the Milky Way galaxy. In this galaxy, there are
about 1011 stars. The structure of the Milky Way galaxy is like a convex disc. Its central part is
thicker and its edge is thinner. In the gaps between the stars, there is a cloud of dust. The mass
of the Milky Way galaxy is about 1.33*1011 times as big as the solar mass.

BIG-BANG THEORY
This law gives the idea about the formation of galaxies and the universe. According
to this theory, the entire mass of the universe was accumulated as a fireball, which
exploded about 13 billions years ago, and the constituents of galaxies and the universe
were formed. The universe is still expanding i.e. galaxies of the universe are moving
away from each other.

CONSTELLATIONS
A group of few stars which may change their
position but do not change their shapes in the
sky are called constellations. There are about 88
constellations known to us, among which 12
are used as the sign of zodiac.
Constellations were devised by ancient
people to be able to recognize stars in the sky.
The shapes of constellations resemble objects
familiar to those people.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 353

E.g.: Great Bear (Ursamajor)
Ursa minor Cassiopeia Leo major Orion
Aries Libra Sagittarius Scorpio
Cancer Aquarius Scorpio Gemini
Scorpio Pisces Virgo Leo

Cassiopeia Ursa Minor Cepheus Ursa Major

Ursa Major
It is also known as the great bear or Saptarishi. In Latin language,
Ursa means a woman. The shape of the Ursa major is like a bear.
According to the Hindu ethic, it has seven stars, so it is also called
Saptarishi. In the months of Baishak and Jesth, Ursa major can be
seen in the northern sky. It is the third largest constellation in the sky.
Ursa Minor
It is also known as little bear or Laghu Saptarishi. It also
has seven bright stars. The shape of the Ursa Minor is like
Ursa Major. At the end of Ursa Minor, there is Polar star
(Dhurba tara). In the months of Ashad and Sharwan, Ursa
Minor can be seen in the northern sky.
Orion
In this constellation, there are seven stars. It looks like a hunter. It can
be seen in the sky during the months Poush and Magh.

ZODIACS AND THE SUPERSTITIONS RELATED TO THEM

As the earth revolves around the sun, the sun traces a certain path through the sky
known as the ecliptic. This path has 13 groups of stars, among which 12 are considered
by astrology as zodiac constellations. Zodiacs are 12 out of 13 groups of constellations
that have astrological significance. These zodiac constellations are:
a) Aries b) Taurus
c) Gemini d) Cancer
e) Leo f) Virgo

354 | The Earth in the Universe

 g) Libra h) Scorpius (Scorpio in astrology)
i) Sagittarius j) Capricornus (Carpricorn in astrology)
k) Aquarius l) Pisces

The 13th zodiac constellation which is not considered by astrologers as a zodiac is

Ophiuchus. Astrology claims to tell the horoscopes of people by studying these 12
zodiac constellations. When a child is born, it is given a zodiac sign and a name on the
basis of it. The belief is that the name and the zodiac sign determine the omen of that
person. Marriages also seem to be fixed with brides and trains that have favourable
matches of their zodiacs. In fact, this practice of astronomy is about 2000 years older,
which was based on the false data of the position of stars. The sky and the position of
the stars seen from the earth and that it changes slightly every year. Even if astrology
is based on the actual positions of stars, its claims have no scientific evidence and
logical values. Much of its beliefs are superstitious.

Some superstitions related to the horoscopes or zodiacs

i) People born on the same day may not have the same fate: The zodiacs for
horoscopes are 12 in number but the total number of people in the world
is billions. All these people get their horoscope signs according to their
date of birth. Astrologers predict that the people born at the same time
throughout the world have the same fate. This is not observed, empirical
and scientific.
b) People born in any particular day of the year are not less ill-fated than
the rest. Our society considers people born on the day of the New moon
(Aunsi) as ill-fated New-mooners (Aunsiya). The society forces these people

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 355

 to marry people born on the same day, and believes that if it is not done,
their marriage life and purpose will expire. This is completely unscientific.
Marriages work with mutual understanding, love and respect for each
other and not just because you were or not born on that particular day.
c) People born on the 19th lunar mansion (Moola Nakshatra) are said to have
ill-omen and are humiliated and demeaned by the society. The lunar
mansions are just the positions, in which the moon moves along. There is
no scientific evidence that they have an impact on human life.
d) People judge the behaviour of other people and call names on the basis of
their zodiac signs. In reality, the relation of zodiac signs with the behaviour
of people is unscientific.
e) People prefer their zodiac signs to predict their omen during important
events like owing a house or a motorbike. Life is full of ups and downs.
Buying a house or a bike of a particular colour on a particular day does not
guarantee the safety of itself and the owner.
f) It is observed that people use the prediction of their zodiac signs, names
and the direction as the basis of their travel date, journey and other
important events. This activity is not based on any proved scientific and
experiential evidence. Hence, it should be absolutely rejected on the basis
of logical grounds.
g) People are seen wearing rings that they believe would bring good omen
to their life or prevent ill fate. This is based on the predictions of their
respective zodiac signs. Some of them have all the fingers of their hands
with rings for various astrological purposes. This is truly a belief that is
not supported by scientific evidence and empirical data.
h) People often confuse astrology with astronomy. Astronomy is a branch of
science which is based on scientific truths and empirical ideas while astrology
is based on belief systems that have no scientific evidence and proof.
Since, the significance of zodiac constellations in our life has no scientific proof and
is not verified by empirical data we should not spend our time and money on such
things. We should not believe in something that does not have scientific evidence.
If horoscopes could work, people having the same zodiac sign would all behave in
a similar manner and have ups and downs in the life in the similar predicted way.
Therefore, instead of going after these kinds of practices, one should illuminate
himself or herself with scientific understanding and thoughts. But, if one has an inner
psychological obligation to believe, it is true that he or she may receive peace even
through such false practices. These are of course for people who do not understand or
want to understand science or logical reasoning.

356 | The Earth in the Universe

 ACTIVITY
Observe the constellation (Ursa major) for few hours. Do you find any change in its shape? Do you
find any change in its position?

Differences between galaxy and constellation.

S.N. Galaxy S.N. Constellations

1. It is a group of billions of stars. 1. It is a group of few stars.
2. It has no regular pattern. 2. It has a regular pattern i.e. fixed shape.
3. There are about 10 galaxies.
12
3. There are 88 constellations known so far.
The heavenly bodies having their own heat and light and that revolve around the galactic
centre of their respective galaxies are called stars. There are billions and billions of stars
in the universe. They can produce their own energy due to the thermonuclear fusion
reaction in which hydrogen continuously changes into helium.
Colour of stars and their age
The colour of stars keep on changing in the order of VIBGYOR
Violet → Indigo → Blue → Green → Yellow → Orange → Red
Blue stars are the youngest stars and have the surface temperature of about 24000°C.
Similarly, yellow or orange stars are the middle-aged stars having the temperature of
about 5500°C and red stars are the oldest stars having the lower temperature of all.
Evolution of star
The evolution of stars can be explained in various stages from birth till death.
(1) The Nebula in space slowly increases in size as its gravity attracts more and
more interstellar materials to it. Finally, these materials are compressed so that
it has a dense hot core and it is called the protostar. This is the birth of the star.
(2) The process of the contraction of the interstellar material continues and when
the temperature of the core reaches 8 × 106°C, then the nuclear reaction starts in
it. Now, it is a star. It takes about 105 years to form a protostar and the protostar
again takes 105 years to form a star.
A star has a delicate equilibrium in which gravity pulling inward and the
pressure of radiation heat outward is balance. This makes the size of the star
constant.
(3) After a certain time, when the maximum amount of hydrogen is converted into
helium, the star will have helium core. This star then cannot undergo fusion
reaction. As a result due to more gravitational pull, the helium core contracts and
the remaining hydrogen expands. Thus, the size of the star increases and its surface

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 357

 temperature falls. The star appears red and this condition is called Red giant.
If the mass of a star is high, then it forms super red giant.
Our sun will become a red giant in 5 billion years.
(4) After the formation of the red giant, the star will either become white dwarf or
become supernova according to the mass.
If the mass of a star is the same as that of the sun or less than it, the outer layer
escapes and the inner core still appears white called white dwarf. The white dwarf
will eventually change into red and then black dwarf when cooled.
If the mass of a star is more than that of the sun, the inner core pulls the outer
layer of H2 and the helium core undergoes a nuclear reaction. Finally, the star
explodes and such a star is called a supernova.
5. If the remnant of a supernova explosion is more than 1.4 times but less than 3
times of the sun, then it forms a neutron star and finally to a pulsar.
A rapidly spinning neutron star surrounded by an extremely powerful magnetic
spin is called a pulsar.
The star having only the neutron is called a neutron star. They have of diameter
of only 20-30 km.
6. Finally, the stars having mass more than 3 times that of the sun, it collapses and
forms a black hole. It is due to the continuous collapsing of the solar mass in the
area of about 3-km across.
A black hole is the remnant of a star condensed in such a way and that its gravitational pull
is so enormous that even light cannot get escaped through it. So, it is invisible in the space.
The black holes are discovered by studying the X-rays emitted by them. It is believed
that galactic centres are the black holes.
Diagram showing various stages of stars
Protostar

Star

Red-giant star

W hite dwarf Supernova

Red dwarf Neutron stars Blac k hole

Blac k dwarf Pulsars

358 | The Earth in the Universe

 MODEL QUESTIONS ANSWER
1. Venus is the hottest and brightest planet. Why?
Ü Venus has the atmosphere of CO2 gas, which is a greenhouse gas. So, it traps the
solar radiation and becomes the hottest and brightest planet.
2. Mars is called a red planet. Why?
Ü Mars is called the red planet as it appears red due to the presence of iron oxide
(limonite) on its surface.
3. Earth is called the blue/green planet. Why?
Ü Earth is called the blue/green planet as it is seen so due to the reflection of light
from the water bodies on its surface.
4. How life is possible on the earth?
Ü Life is possible on the earth because the earth has water, suitable temperature,
pressure, atmosphere having O2 as the abundant gas, etc.
5. Some comets never return. Why?
Ü Some comets never return because they may have collided with other bodies,
e.g.: Shoemaker Levi had collided with Jupiter in 1994 AD.
6. A comet is also known as a tailed star. Why?
Ü A comet is also known as a tailed star because it forms a long tail like structure as
it approaches the sun due to the evaporation of frozen materials in the opposite
direction of the sun.
7. What will happen to our sun after 5 billion years?
Ü After 5 billion years, almost all the hydrogen in it will convert into helium thereby
forming the red giant. After the formation of the red giant, the sun changes into
a white dwarf, which finally gets cooled to from a black dwarf.
8. Will our sun change into a Black hole?
Ü No, because its mass is less so as to form a black hole. The mass of a star must be
more than 3 times the mass of our sun to form a black hole.
9. Asteroids are called minor planets. Why?
Ü Asteroids are called minor planets because they revolve around the sun as same
as that of planets. But, they do not have a fixed orbit and are smaller than the
major planets. They revolve around the sun in the region between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter.
10. Black hole is invisible. Why?
Ü The gravitational force of the black hole is so enormous that even the light
entering it cannot escape through it. So, it is invisible.

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 359

 SUMMARY
 The aggregate of all the existing things is called the universe.
 The units used for measuring the distance in the universe are called astronomical units (AU).
E.g. parsec and light year.
 The whole group of planets, asteroids, satellites, comets, meteors and meteorites, which
revolve around the sun is called the solar system.
 The moon is the natural satellite of the earth.
 Asteroids are the heavenly bodies of the solar system, which revolve around the sun in the
space between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
 Comets are also known as tailed stars.
 Meteors burn up in the atmosphere but meteorites reach the earth’s surface.
 Stars also born, become mature and die.
 The colour of stars can determine their age.
 Protostar is the newly formed star.
 Red giant is the stage of the death of a star.
 Our sun will convert into a black dwarf.
 The stars having mass 3 times more than that of the sun they become a black hole finally.
 Black hole is the remnant of a star which has an enormous gravitational pull.
 The exploding star is called the supernova.

E XERCIS
XERCISE
RCISE

1. What is the universe?

2. What are the units used to measure the distances in the universe?
3. Define the solar system. In which galaxy does our solar system lie?
4. Write short notes on:
(a) The sun
(b) The biggest planet
(c) Earth
(d) Saturn
5. What do you mean by a satellite. Name some artificial satellites. What are the
uses of artificial satellites?
6. Why are comets known as tailed stars? Some comets never return. Why?
7. Define asteroids. How are they differ from other major planets?
8. Differentiate between:
(a) meteor and meteorite
(b) galaxy and constellation

360 | The Earth in the Universe

 (c) planet and stars
(d) protastar and red giant
9. How does the colour of stars determines their age?
10. Name:
(a) the biggest planet
(b) the brightest planet
(c) the hottest planet
(d) the red planet
(e) the planet with rings
11. What is a supernova? How is it formed?
12. Write in a short about the evolution of stars.
13. What is a red giant and a super red giant? Why does its size reach the maximum
level?
14. Give reasons.
(a) A black hole is invisible.
(b) The tail of the comet disappears as the comet goes far away from the sun.
(c) Will our sun be converted, to black hole?
15. Name any two,
(a) Natural satellite
(b) Artificial satellite
(c) Asteroid
(d) Comet
(e) Galaxy
(f) Dwarf planet
(g) Satellite
16. What are pulsar stars and neutron stars?
17. What is a black hole and how is it formed?
18. What is the importance of the sun?
A
B
C GLOSSARY
Celestial bodies : heavenly bodies
Galactic centre : centre of galaxy
Galaxy : group of billions of stars which revolve around the galactic centre
Streak : a long thin mark of line
Constellation : group of few stars having fixed shape


New Creative Science, Class 10 | 361

 Specification Grid
Subject : Science Full Marks: 75
Class : Ten Time: 2:15 Hours
Total
AREA Topics K U A H.A
Marks
1 F orce
2 P ressure
Physics

3 Energy
5×1 4×2 2×3 1×4 23
4 H eat
5 L ight
6 Electricity and magnetism
7 Classification of elements
8 C hemical reaction
9 Acid, base and salt
Chemistry

1 0 S ome gases 4×1 4×2 2×3 1×4 22

11 M etals
1 2 H ydrocarbons and their compounds
1 3 Materials used in daily life
1 4 Inv ertebrates
1 5 H uman nerv ous and glandular system
1 6 Blood circulatory system in human body
1 7 C hromosomes and sex determination
Biology

5×1 4×2 2×3 1×4 23

1 8 A) Asex ual and sex ual reproduction
1 8 (B) Artificial vegetative propagation in plants
1 9 H eredity
2 0 Env ironmental pollution and management
2 1 History of the earth
Geo and
Astro

2 2 C limate change and atmosphere 1×1 1×2 …….. 1×4 7

2 3 The univ erse
Total questions 15 13 6 4 38
Total Marks 15 26 18 16 75

Note : Questions will be asked from each unit.

K = Knowledge
U = Understanding
A = Application
H.A = Higher ability

362 | New Creative Science, Class 10

 A sample set of model question
Group 'A' [15 × 1 = 15]
1. Define acceleration due to gravity.
2. State law of floatation and name any one instrument based on it.
3. What are alternative sources of energy? Write an example.
4. What is power of lens? Write down its SI unit.
5. What is meant by 1kWh?
6. State Mendeleev’s Periodic law.
7. Define acid-base reaction.
8. Write down any two inorganic acids with their molecular formula.
9. Which metals can be extracted from argentite and hematite ores?
10. What is cocoon?
11. Define gene?
12. What are endocrine glands? Write the name of an exocrine gland.
13. Write down the name of any two organisms which reproduce by means of budding.
14. Define dominance and recessive characters.
15. Write down any two gases which are responsible for ozone layer depletion.
Group 'B' 13 × 2 = 26
16. Write down any two causes that bring energy crisis.
17. If the weight of a stone in three different media air, water and salt solution are given in
the table, study the given table and answer the following questions.
Media Weight
A 15 N
B 18 N
C 16 N
a. Which one is water and which one is salt solution?
b. Find the mass of water displaced by the stone.
18. A student cannot see the black board from the last bench of the class. What type of
defect of vision is present in his eyes? Write down the type of lens which can be used to
correct this defect.
19. Name the device which is shown in the given figure. Write down any
three methods to increase its power.

20. Show the sub-shell electronic configuration of chlorine and calcium.

21. Write down any two differences between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
22. Write down any two causes and two control measures of chemical pollution.
23. All alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis. Why?
24. Write two differences between cerebrum and cerebellum.
25. Identify the given figures and name them.

26. Write down any two characteristics of the silk fibres. a b c d

New Creative Science, Class 10 | 363

27. What are the causes of high blood pressure? Write down any two points.
28. We see comet after very long interval of time. Why?
Group 'C' 6 × 3 = 18
29. The mass of the earth is 6 × 1024 kg and its radius is 6400 km. what will be the
acceleration due to gravity on the earth? Calculate the weight of a person of mass 80 kg
on the earth’s surface?
30. On the basis of specific heat capacities of the three different substances, answer the
Following questions:
Substance) Specific heat capacity)
A 140 J/kg°C
B 800 J/kg°C
C 4200 J/kg°C
a. What do you mean by specific heat capacity of A is 140 J/kg°C?
b. Which one of the above substances will gain more temperature if they are
supplied with equal amount of heat? Also write correct reason.
c. If equal mass of all three substances are heated up to 100°C, and allowed to
cool down, then which one will cool fast and why?
31. Write down any three uses of ammonia gas.
32. Organic fertilizers are better than chemical fertilizers. Justify your answer with any
three points.
33. Which endocrine gland is called the master gland? Write down any two hormones
secreted by this gland. Write down any two importance of the hormones secreted by
this gland.
34. Write down any two causes, two effects and two control measures of the soil pollution.
Group ‘D’ 4 × 4 = 16
35. Observe the given diagram and answer the following questions.
i. What type of defect of vision of eye is given in the diagram?
ii. Write down any causes of this defect.
iii. What type of lens can be used to correct this defect?
iv. Draw the corrected diagram after using suitable lens.
36. Observe the given diagram and answer the following questions.
i. Which gas is going to be prepared according to the given diagram?
ii. Name the chemicals which are required to prepare this gas.
iii. Why is this gas collected by upward displacement of air?
iv. Write down any two uses of this gas.
37. What is law of dominance? Show the cross with phenotypic and genotypic ratio when tall
pea plant is crossed with dwarf pea plant.
38. Complete the table with the correct answer.
Era Duration Animals and plants that were evolved in these eras
Mesozoic era
Cenozoic era

364 | New Creative Science, Class 10