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#B 413 074
DOD LIBRARY
REPORT NO . DOT - TSC - OST - 74-39.I

TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS

TO AUTOMOBILE FUEL CONSUMPTION

Volume I : Executive Summary

C. W. Coon et al

TRA
NSP
T ORT
MEN AT
PART OF
A
IC
UN
*

ER
IT

AM
ED

STATE
S Of

DECEMBER 1974

FINAL REPORT

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF

DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON , D.C. 20402

Prepared for
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Systems
Development and Technology
Washington DC 20590
and
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Ann Arbor MI 48105 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

1975
 NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of

the Department of Transportation and the Environmental
Protection Agency in the interest of information
exchange . The United States Government assumes no
liability for its contents or use thereof .

NOTICE

The United States Government does not endorse products

or manufacturers . Trade or manufacturers ' names
appear herein solely because they are considered
essential to the object of this report .
 Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
DOT -TSC - OST - 74-39.I
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
December 1974
TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS TO AUTOMOBILE
FUEL CONSUMPTION 6. Performing Organization Code
Volume I : Executive Summary
8. Performing Organization Report No.
7. Author( s)
DOT -TSC - OST - 74-39.I
C. W. Coon et al
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
Southwest Research Institute * OS514 /R5523
Energy Conversion Systems Section 11. Contract or Grant No.
Department of Automotive Research DOT - TSC - 628
San Antonio TX 78284 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
12. JOINTLY SPONSORED BY- Final Report
U.S. Department of Transportation
Office of the Secretary June 1973 - January 1974
U.S. Environmental
Office of the Assistant Secretary for and Protection Agency
Systems Development and Technology Ann Arbor MI 48105 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Washington DC 20590
15. Supplementary Notes
U.S. Department of Transportation
*Under Contract to : Transportation Systems Center
Kendall Square
Cambridge MA 02142
16. Abstract
This report is a preliminary survey of the technological feasi-
bility of reducing the fuel consumption of automobiles . The study
uses as a reference information derived from literature , automobile
industry contacts , and testing conducted as part of the program
requirements . The design changes , which are recommended for the pur-
pose of maximizing fuel economy , have been derived after lengthy review
against a series of constraints including regulatory requirements ,
technical feasibility , and cost effectiveness .

Several possible technological improvements are identified ,

documented , and evaluated with respect to fuel economy . Results are
reported as percentage improvement in fuel economy by comparison with
1973 model year vehicles . The effect of vehicle emission control
systems is considered in the evaluation procedure .
The most promising individual improvements are incorporated into
three synthesized vehicle designs , and the projected fuel economy
improvement for these vehicles is reported .

The status of the technology reported is that available in the

time period of July 1973 to January 1974 .

17. Key Words Automobiles , Fuel Economy 18. Distribution Statement

Powerplants , Transmissions , Drive
FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF
Trains , Tires , Accessories , DOCUMENTS , U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING
Aerodynamics , Weight , Fuel OFFICE , WASHINGTON , D.C. 20402
Consumption , Innovations

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 14

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS , U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON , D.C.
STOCK NO . 050-000-0094
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

STUDY OBJECTIVE 1

COMPUTATION OF VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY 1

COST OF AUTOMOBILE OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION 1

INDIVIDUAL IMPROVEMENTS 2

Turbocharged, Spark Ignited , Carbureted Engine 2

• 2

222
Variable Displacement Engine
Reduction in Engine Friction 2
Lean Mixture Engine 2
Intake Port Fuel Injection 3
Stratified Charge Engines 3
Diesel Engine . 3
Drive Trains 3
Tires . . 4
Aerodynamics 4
Weight 5
Air Conditioning Improvements . 5
Cooling Systems . 5

SYNTHESIZED VEHICLE DESIGN 5

577
Conventional Spark Ignition Engine Design 5
Stratified Charge Engine Design 7
Turbocharged Diesel Engine Design 7

TEST PROGRAM 7

iii
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Study Objective purpose ; however, numerous procedures have been pro-

posed. The schedule used in this study was based on an
The study described by this report was performed equal distribution of vehicle use between an urban
in order to assess the possible effectiveness of technolog- driving pattern and steady-state road operation . The
ical improvements as a means of increasing automotive urban driving cycle was patterned after the LA4 emis-
fuel economy on a short-term basis. Specifically, only sion test driving cycle. For convenience, the cycle was
those devices or systems which could be demonstrated interpreted in terms of acceleration, cruise , and com-
by 1976 and produced in quantities appropriate to 10 bined deceleration and idle modes. The vehicle loading
percent of the total automobile production by 1980 used in the analysis was approximately equal to observed
were accepted for consideration. The goal of the study road loads. The road load portion of the composite cycle
was the specification of combinations of improvements was based on an equal distribution of speeds of 20 , 30,
that would result in a 30-percent reduction in fuel con- 40, 50, 60, and 70 mph. The evaluation procedure made
sumption; this goal was attained by a comprehensive use of brake specific fuel economy data obtained from
evaluation of individual improvements followed by the engine maps. Subsequent to the analysis, the results of
synthesis of vehicle designs. the use of the driving schedule were compared with
those from other suggested schedules, and the agreement
Throughout the study, considerations and con- was considered to be satisfactory.
straints other than fuel economy improvement were
observed. Foremost among the additional considerations The reference vehicle used throughout the study
was the subject of vehicular emissions ; it was specified was a standard 1973 automobile having a 350 CID en-
that the synthesized vehicles must meet the 1976 In- gine and a curb weight of 4300 lb (4600 lb loaded
terim Standards for gaseous emissions of: vehicle weight ; 4500 lb EPA emission test inertia
weight). For the various individual improvements , fuel
0.41 g/mile unburned hydrocarbons economy comparisons were made with and without con-
sideration of emission controls. When emission controls
3.4 g/mile carbon monoxide were included, a comparison was made between the fuel
economy of an improved vehicle meeting the 0.41-3.4-
2.0 g/mile oxides of nitrogen 2.0 emission standards and the fuel economy of the
reference vehicle meeting the 1973 emission standards ; it
Individual improvements were examined with re- is this comparison, expressed in percentage improve-
gard to the effect on emissions, and where possible, the ment, that is reported throughout this summary. It
calculated fuel economy benefits were biased to account should be observed that the reference vehicle, without
for the effect of emission control on fuel economy. It improvement, would suffer a 5-percent decrease in fuel
was generally assumed that , when necessary , emissions economy as a result of the application of the correction
of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide would procedure for emissions. Thus, in the text , a decrease in
be controlled by catalytic reactors in the exhaust over fuel economy of 5 percent does not imply a penalty.
the time period covered by the study. Similarly, exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR) was regarded as the primary Although a single reference vehicle was used
means for control of oxides of nitrogen. throughout the study for fuel economy comparison pur-
poses, some consideration was given to smaller and
In addition to fuel economy benefits and emis- lighter vehicles . Reductions in weight, rolling resistance,
sions control features, all suggested individual improve- and aerodynamic drag were each treated as individual
ments were evaluated with regard to safety, noise , reli- improvements, and the fuel economy benefits were eval-
ability, effect on vehicle performance , and cost to the uated. In addition , one of the synthesized designs in-
consumer. corporates these features, among others, in an analysis
which includes the effects of the engine and drive train.
Computation of Vehicle Fuel Economy
Cost of Automobile Ownership and Operation
An analytical evaluation of the fuel economy
benefit associated with a particular improvement was Included in the report is a section devoted to the
obtained on the basis of a composite driving schedule. cost of owning and operating an automobile. The goal of
There is, at present, no standard technique for this such a discussion was a mechanism for predicting the
allowable incremental cost of an improvement based on alcohol injection to prevent knock. It was believed that
the magnitude of the fuel economy benefit that could be the mechanical complexity and owner maintenance
expected . This information is presented in graphical requirements of such a system excluded it from further
form. A specific change in gasoline mileage can be used consideration.
to obtain the allowable increase in purchase cost that
would be justified by addition of the device. Moreover , a Variable Displacement Engine
description of the industrial engineering process associ-
ated with automobile production is included . The time A variable displacement engine was also evaluated
required for incorporation of an improvement on actual on the basis of fuel economy improvement . The engine
production vehicles is essential to the overall evaluation was based on a conventional V-8 configuration ; it was
process. assumed that a mechanism could be designed to allow
operation on four cylinders at light loads and eight cylin-
Individual Improvements ders at heavy loads. A fuel economy improvement of
7 percent was predicted , but a high degree of mechanical
The report contains comprehensive discussions of complexity would be required in the switching device. In
the proposed individual improvements together with addition, idle roughness and high loads on four cylinders
sections that describe the general characteristics of would be encountered . This concept was not pursued to
vehicle operation and emission control . Since all facets the synthesized vehicle design stage.
of the investigation cannot be treated in detail, there is
an inherent hazard in any attempt to summarize the Reduction in Engine Friction
results of the evaluation . In the following paragraphs the
major results are outlined, and the intent is to provide a It has been suggested that a reduction in engine
synopsis of the more detailed discussions in the main friction would provide an increase in fuel economy. In
body ofthe report. order to evaluate this hypothesis, an engine map was
constructed on the basis of a reasonable reduction in
Turbocharged, Spark Ignited, Carbureted mechanical friction . However, the total friction loss is
Engine divided between pumping losses and mechanical friction ;
in the usual engine operating regime the pumping losses
Turbocharging, or the use of a turbine in the dominate . The use of the fuel economy prediction
engine exhaust to increase combustion chamber pres- procedure did not result in an increase in fuel economy
sure, has been suggested as a means of improving fuel associated with the reduction in mechanical friction .
economy. It was found that turbocharged, spark ig-
nited, carbureted engine having a displacement of
Lean Mixture Engine
250 CID could have a power output equivalent to that
of the 350 CID reference vehicle engine. The fuel econ-
omy evaluation procedure predicted an improvement in Considerable emphasis has been devoted to the
fuel economy of 11 percent for this engine, but the operation of engines with lean mixtures as a means of
engine analysis indicated an extreme sensitivity to fuel conservation. An analysis was presented allowing
knock. For successful operation , a water-alcohol injec- the prediction of the fuel/air mixture which would result
tion system would be essential for knock control . In an in the best economy for any engine operating condition ,
attempt to decrease the knock limitation , a turbo- and the results were used for the construction of an
charged engine equipped with an aftercooler and a re- engine map. The resulting engine map data were used to
duced compression ratio was analyzed. It was found that predict fuel economy . It was estimated that an increase
a displacement of 280 CID would be required for power of 12 percent could be obtained if the engine operated
output equivalent to that of the reference vehicle . Al- only at the best economy mixture throughout the
though the engine could operate without knock, the pre- entire speed-load range . The estimate of a 12-percent
dicted economy increase was only 4 percent. A third improvement also assumes that no fuel penalty would
attempt, which was based on reduction of the compres- be incurred in the attainment of the 0.41-3.4-2.0
sion ratio to prevent knock, resulted in an insignificant emission standards. This 12 -percent estimate is probably
economy benefit since no appreciable reduction in optimistic ; therefore , an improvement on the order of
engine displacement could be achieved by comparison 6 percent is more likely. It should be noted that it is
with the reference vehicle. The only turbocharged engine possible to operate engines at fuel/air ratios much lower
which demonstrated a worthwhile economy improve- than those used in the best economy estimate outlined
ment was the 250 CID version that required water- above. Several devices are presently being proposed for

2
that purpose. However, engines operated at very lean design typically produces relatively high hydrocarbon
mixtures typically exhibit a sacrifice in the area of per- emissions. Some experimental versions are throttled
formance; if this compromise occurs, then the vehicles throughout the engine operating range in order to im-
cannot be compared to the reference vehicle used in this prove the compatibility with catalytic reactors. How-
study. ever, it would appear that the problems can be re-
solved and that the engine can be certified under the
Intake Port Fuel Injection 0.41-3.4-2.0 standards with substantial fuel economy
benefit.
Intake port fuel injection was considered as a
means of improving fuel economy. Precise engine map Another reason for interest in the stratified charge
data were not available, and a numerical comparison to design is the demonstrated ability of some of the engines
the reference vehicle was not presented. However, the to operate on a wide variety of fuels . The importance of
system is regarded as a worthwhile improvement on the this multifuel capability increases as fuel supplies
basis of superior control of the fuel/air ratio and the become uncertain.
possibility of improved distribution of the fuel among
the cylinders. Improved mixture control and mixture Diesel Engine
distribution could have a favorable effect on vehicle
emissions as well as fuel economy; injection systems are The diesel engine has been the object of much
basic features of the three-way catalyst systems that are interest as an automobile power plant, but its use has
being investigated by several groups . Further investiga- been primarily restricted to heavy-duty vehicles. How-
tion and direct comparison with carburetion systems ever, it does have advantages that cannot be overlooked
should be encouraged . in the treatment of fuel economy. Two diesel engine
configurations were analyzed during the course of this
Another feature of intake port fuel injection study, and one was incorporated into a synthesized
which deserves further study is the possibility of fuel vehicle design. Using the fuel economy analysis proce-
shutoff during vehicle deceleration. From a fuel econ- dure, it was predicted that a naturally aspirated diesel
omy viewpoint, it appears that substantial benefits could engine, having a displacement of 378 CID, would allow a
accrue, but there is some uncertainty regarding the fuel economy improvement of 26 percent after correc-
amount of fuel required to restart the engine. Another tion for the differing energy contents of diesel fuel and
area of study involves the compatibility between fuel gasoline. The corresponding figure for a turbocharged
shutoff on deceleration and emission control catalysts. If engine of 260 CID displacement was 57 percent . In both
the reactor cools while the vehicle is decelerating, then cases, the 0.41-3.4-2.0 standards for gaseous emis-
excessive emissions might occur after the engine starts. sions can be met without auxiliary devices .

Stratified Charge Engines Some problems are associated with the use of
diesel engines in automobiles. The weight of the engine
Stratified charge engines have been considered as a must be reduced; however, this objective can be met by
source of improved fuel economy. For this study, the means of a typical development program. In addition,
engine configuration of primary interest was the open diesel exhaust typically has an odor different from that
chamber design which employs spark ignition and direct of gasoline engine exhaust, and public acceptance of
cylinder fuel injection. Such engines exhibit their most large numbers of diesel engines is unknown. Finally,
favorable fuel economy when they are operated without some difficulty may be encountered with particulate
a throttle, and load control is achieved by controlling emission standards. Diesel engines exhibit higher exhaust
the fuel supply. Most , however, require throttling at idle particulate levels than carbureted, spark ignited engines.
for stable operation.
Drive Trains
For the purposes of this study, an engine map for
an experimental stratified charge engine was used. The The means by which power is transmitted from
fuel economy benefit as a result of the application of the the engine to the wheels can have an appreciable effect
calculation procedure was 34 percent based on the on fuel economy. An inappropriate drive train can result
0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standards. It should be noted that either in excessive losses or in uneconomical operating
some stratified charge engines incur a severe fuel penalty conditions for the engine. For the purpose of this study,
as emission standards for oxides of nitrogen become several alternate drive trains were examined , and their
more severe than 2.0 g/mile. In addition, this engine impact on fuel economy was assessed . In each case , a

3
comparison was made with the standard three-speed that would allow the engine to operate near an optimum
automatic transmission in the reference vehicle . The condition. There is some reason for concern since the
effect of the proposed transmission on engine emission optimum schedule would require engine operation at
control was considered. low speeds and high loads ; however, the precise extent
of necessary engine modifications has yet to be deter-
It was found that a lock-up clutch that would oper- mined. Of the two drives considered , one was of the
ate in high gear when there was no need for torque multi- traction-type and the other was a combination planetary
plication would result in a fuel economy decrease of about gear-hydrostatic drive. The quantity of test data avail-
2 percent. This value is only slightly better than that able was minimal; however, the traction drive was evalu-
which would be observed for the reference vehicle with- ated through the use of the fuel economy prediction
out the addition of any improvement, and the lack of procedure . The results indicated a 3-percent improve-
positive results may be attributed to the driving cycle ment in feul economy over the combined urban and
used in the evaluation procedure . However, a fuel econ- steady speed schedule. It should be noted that most of
omy benefit should be observed in the highway cruise the benefits that accrue from the use of a continuously
modes (ref. Table 27). variable transmission occur during steady state driving.
Furthermore , little is known about engine emissions at
The use of a manual transmission should result in a the speed and load conditions that would be dictated by
fuel economy improvement on the order of 2 percent. this drive . Compensation of the fuel economy improve-
The difference between this result and that for the lock- ment for emission control is difficult.
up clutch lies in the complete separation of engine and
transmission that occurs with a manual transmission at
An optimum vehicle drive train was selected for
engine idle. Since a substantial amount of idle time is comparison purposes . The optimization process was
included in the urban cycle and since the load on the biased toward fuel economy; speed and acceleration
engine is decreased by clutch disengagement at idle , the were maintained at acceptable levels . The drive train em-
manual transmission can be expected to allow a more ployed a four-speed automatic transmission in which the
substantial fuel economy improvement than would a highest gear was in fact an overdrive . The use of the fuel
lock-up clutch. Consumer acceptance of the manual economy evaluation procedure resulted in the prediction
transmission, however, was judged to be minimal . of a 4-percent increase in fuel economy that could be
attributed to this system.
The combination of an overdrive and a lock-up
clutch was found to result in a fuel economy decrease of Tires
3 percent. This represents some improvement by com-
parison with the reference vehicle , but the benefit is not
of sufficient magnitude to overcome the effect of emis- The tires with which an automobile is equipped
sion controls. dictate the rolling resistance , and therefore , a substantial
influence is exerted by the tires on the overall road load.
The type of lock-up clutch considered for the pur- The report describes the major methods of tire construc-
pose of this study would operate only in high (direct) tion and compares them on the basis of rolling resis-
gear, and it would engage when the torque converter tance. It was found that a reduction of 30 percent in
approached the coupling point. It would be possible to rolling resistance could be accomplished through the use
construct a lock-up device which would engage at any of radial ply tires. In the analysis procedure, this reduc-
preset torque ratio in every gear. In this way , the econ- tion translates into a 4-percent increase in fuel economy.
omy benefit of the manual transmission could be ap-
proached. Such transmissions are used in some heavy- Aerodynamics
duty vehicles, but the application to passenger cars
involves questions of cost and driveability that remain Another method of reducing vehicle road load is
unanswered. through the reduction of aerodynamic drag. The
various factors which influence drag were discussed ,
An object of particular interest is the continuously and an assessment of the possible drag reduction for
variable (or infinitely variable) transmission. Many such the reference vehicle was made . In order to estimate
devices have been proposed, and two were considered the magnitude of the possible fuel economy benefit, it
during the present study. In principle, the continuously was assumed that the aerodynamic component of the
variable transmission, with an appropriate control road load could be reduced in the near term by 10 per-
system, is capable of selecting a gearing configuration cent. Over the driving schedule used for the fuel

4
economy evaluation, this change resulted in a fuel econ- Synthesized Vehicle Design
omy benefit of 1.5 percent.
The individual improvements were evaluated and
Weight assessed according to their potential in coordination
with one another, and three vehicle designs were
The weight of the vehicle is an important factor in synthesized. The main features of each design are out-
any consideration of fuel economy. For the purpose of lined in the following discussion with greater detail given
evaluating the influence of vehicle weight in the context in the body of the report.
of this report, it was assumed that the curb weight of the
reference vehicle could be reduced from 4300 to Conventional Spark Ignition Engine Design
3600 lb. The resulting fuel economy benefit was found
to be 7 percent for the driving schedule. Of the two The characteristics of the proposed vehicle are as
methods examined for weight reduction, one involved a follows:
reduction in vehicle size and the other assumed a weight
reduction without size reduction. The first option is (1) Engine -260 CID V -8 , aluminum block,
essentially equivalent to a 1973 intermediate size spark ignition
vehicle. The second option, weight reduction for a
vehicle of 1973 standard size, would be achieved only (2) Engine accessories
after a full-scale development program.
(a) Electronic fuel injection with fuel
Air Conditioning Improvements shutoff during deceleration

Air conditioning has become an accepted feature (b) Catalytic reactor in exhaust system for
of automobiles in many parts of the country, and it does control of HC, CO
influence the fuel economy of a vehicle. No air condi-
tioning system would result in a net improvement in fuel (c) Spark advance control
economy for the standard reference vehicle ; however,
the cost of air conditioning in terms of fuel economy (d) Exhaust gas recirculation
was estimated to be 6 percent when the system is oper-
ating. Several modifications of existing systems were (3) Vehicle size-Intermediate ; styling similar to
recommended as a means of decreasing the fuel econ- 1973 models
omy penalty. Among the suggested changes were altera-
tions ofthe control system, improvements in compressor (4) Tires- Radial ply, steel belted
efficiency, and changes in the method used for driving
the compressor. With regard to the latter, it was recom- (5) Vehicle weight-Curb, 3600 Ib ; loaded
mended that the compressor be driven at a speed appro- vehicle weight, 3900 lb; emission test inertia
priate to the air conditioning system load. The use of a weight , 4000 lb
constant speed drive was not recommended due to the
lack of availability and inconsistency with air condi- (6) Transmission-Coupling biased converter or
tioning system requirements.
lock-up clutch with planetary gearset ; four-
speed automatic, gear ratios 2.5 : 1 , 1.5 : 1 ,
Cooling Systems 1 : 1 , 0.7 : 1

The fuel economy for a cold vehicle is generally

significantly lower than that for a warm vehicle ; there- (7) Rearaxle ratio- 3.23 : 1
fore, it is possible that modifications to the vehicle
cooling system could have a positive effect on fuel econ- The change from full to intermediate size will pro-
omy by decreasing the time required for warmup. It was vide a reduction of approximately 10 percent in the
recommended that the ebullient cooling system be aerodynamic drag, primarily due to the reduction in
studied as a means of reducing the time required for frontal area. The radial ply tires and reduced weight
attainment of warmed up economy . allow a substantial reduction in rolling resistance . The
four-speed automatic transmission provides an overdrive
Salient features of the individual improvements are capability which would function at speeds above approx-
summarized and compared in Table 1 . imately 30 mph.

5
 TABLE 1. SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIVIDUAL IMPROVEMENTS

DEMONSTRATION
OTHER DISADVANTAGES
UNCONTROLLED

MODIFIED
VEHICLE

ADVANTAGES

ACCEPTANCE

ION
0.41-34-2.0

BY PRODUCT
SOLERIN

1080P
OTHER
INDIVIDUAL

LOS
AS
IMPROVEMENT

TURBOCHARGED 17% TOPSPEED

SAME 11% 76-100 INCREASED 20% LESS WT. DECREASED ENGINE MORE
TOFUEL SENSITIVE
QUALITY DECREASED
CARBURETED ENGINE SLIGHT LOSS SAME BOX
200CIO, WATER- VOLUME INLETAIR TEMP. PROPER

1
ALCOHOL INJECTION OF ACCEL. WATER ALCOHOL
PERFORM. INJECTION
TURBOCHARGED
CARBURETED ENGINE 10% 416 100-200 TOPSPEED INCREASED 10% LESSWT.
10%MORE SENSITIVE TOCONDITIONS SLIGHTLY YES
SAME
SLIGHT LOSS ENHANCING KNOCK, DECREASED

ย
289CID.
AFTERCOOLED OF ACCEL BOXVOL. BUTNOT TOEXTENT
PERFORM OF 209CIDENGINE
VARIABLE 2316 125-175 TOPSPEED NONE NONE DECREASED COMPLEX VALVEGEAR- SIGNIFICANTLY
DISPLACEMENT SAME DIFFICULTCONTROL DECREASED VE

P
ENGINE PROBABLE
LOSS OF PROBLEM
ACCEL.
ENGINE WITH 0% -0% NOT NONE SIGNIFICANT DECREASED YES YSS
REDUCED PRICTION EVALUATED INCREASE NONE SAME
LEAN MIXTURE 123% NOT NONE NONE NONE DECREASED SAME NOT NOT
ENGINE MAX MAX EVALUATED EVALUATED EVALUATED
NATURALLY NONE SIGNIFICANT 20%
40% MORE
MOREWT. EQUAL EXHAUSTODOR DECREASED NO
DIESEL-378 CIDASPIRATED 24% (MPG)||| 20%
16% (BTU) 20% (BTU)
(MPG)|| 100-270 INCREASE OR POSSIBLE MULTI-FUEL
CAPABILITY DOUBTFUL
BOXVOL. BETTER MAJOR EFFORT A
WEIGHTREDUCTION
EXHAUSTPARTICULATE
TURBOCHARGED REDUCED SIGNIFICANT 1915 MORE WT. EQUAL POSSIBLE YES
DIESEL
200CID
88% (BTU)
44% (MPG) 67%
09% (BTU)
(MPG) 200-300 ACCEL
PERFORM INCREASE SAME OR EXHAUST
THAN ODOR, BUT
NADIESEL LESS
WEIGHT CAPABILITYMULTI-FUEL DECREASED YES,WITH
MAJOR
EFFORT
BOX VOL BETTER REDUCTION EXHAUST
PARTICULATES
CONTINUOUSLY 21% NONE NONE UNKNOWN NONE UNKNOWN CHANGES OPERATING POTENTIAL EXISTS POR SAME DOUBTFUL NO
VARIABLE
TRANSMISSION MODE OFENGINE, REDUCTION IN ENGINE
REQUIRES DISPLACEMENT
REDESIGN ENGINE
HYDROMECHANICAL 17% 0183 NONE NONE INCREASED NONE UNKNOWN CHANGES POTENTIAL EXISTS FOR SAME DOUBTFUL NO
TRANSMISSION OPERATINGENGINE
MODE REDUCTION IN ENGINE
DISPLACEMENT
TRANSMISSION HAS
LOW EFFICIENCY
LOCK-UP
CLUTCH
316 *- 20-30 NONE NONE 20% INCREASE SLIGHT CAN BE USED
WITHOVERDRIVE BAME YES
IN TORQUE DECREASE
CONVERTER
WEIGHT
OVERDRIVE 13 -316 00 NONE ENGINE 4 POUND BLIGHT POTENTIAL EXISTS POR SAME
DISPLACEMENT YES YBS
SPEED INCREASE DECREASE
(AND NOISE)
REDUCED REDUCTION
RATIOCHANGEWITH AXLE
MANUAL 11% 100 SLIGHT NONE REDUCED SLIGHT DECREASED YES
TRANSMISSION LOSS OF DSCREASE

1
ACCEL
PERFORM.
4-SPEED NOT EVALUATED 09 IMPROVED NONE SLIGHT NONE SAME YES
AUTOMATIC SEPARATELY INCREASE
TRANSMISSION
INTAKE PORT NOT EVALUATED 76 SLIGHTLY NONE NONE SLIGHT
DECREASE POTENTIAL FOR BETTER SAME
FUEL-AIR FOR
RATIO YBS
FUEL INJECTION SEPARATELY IMPROVED CONTROL
CATALYST SYSTEMS
STRATIFIED 20% 34% SAME OR NONE DECREASED POSSIBLE EXHAUST POTENTIAL EXISTS SAME YES YES
ENGINE (NOTCHARGE 100-200 SLIGHTLY NONE
UNLESS ODOR PROBLEM;HIGH FOR MULTI-FUEL
CARBURETED) MPROVED MADE ENGINE
18BENSITIVE
LESS
TO
EXHAUSTPARTICULATES,
ENGINE SENSITIVE TO
OPERATION
HUECT & THING INJECTION & TIMING
2.4% NONE YES
IMPROVED DECREASED
AIRCONDITIONING 16 SLIGHTLY NONE SAME YES
IMPROVEMENTS MAX
STEEL BELTED . 75 NONE NONE NONE INCREASED RELIABILITY NOT SAME YES YES
RADIAL DBOREASED BY
TIRES PLY INCREASEDTIRE
PRESSURE
WEIGHT REDUCTION 716 MATERIAL NONE
200- NONE NONE SAME DOUBTFUL YES
CHANGE FOR MATL
400-SIZE CHANGE
YESFOR
REDUCTION RED.SIZE
AERODYNAMIC 2 NONE NONE NONE SMALL CHANGE NONE SAME VES
DRAG DECREASE INWEIGHT
CAREDUCED 10%
REFERENCE ON -8
VEHICLE
ป

6
 The engine displacement and rear axle gearing (3) Vehicle size -Full ; aerodynamic drag reduc-
were selected to allow equal acceleration performance tion of 10 percent
for the synthesized design and the 4300 lb reference
vehicle. The power requirement is 115 hp at 4000 rpm. (4) Tires-Radial ply, steel belted

The application of the fuel economy calculation (5) Vehicle weight-Curb , 3800 lb; fuel and one
procedure resulted in the prediction of a 30-percent fuel occupant, 4100 lb ; inertia test weight,
economy benefit. The effects of emission controls are 4000 lb
included in this estimate.
(6) Transmission -Conventional three-speed
It was concluded that the cost decrease as a result torque converter design with modified shift-
of the vehicle size change would be approximately equal ing controls (ratios are the same as the refer-
to the cost of the added accessories. The cost, then, ence vehicle)
would be about equal to that of a 1973 reference vehicle
constructed during the same year. (7) Rear axle ratio- 3.08 : 1

Consumer acceptance of the design should be The characteristics of fuel consumption as a func-
good. Cold start capability and driveability should be tion of load for this engine make the four-speed trans-
enhanced, and the noise level at highway speeds should mission used in the previous design unnecessary. The
be reduced. The gearing will not accommodate the power output of the engine will be approximately the
towing of heavy loads without operation in third gear. same as that for the conventional spark ignition engine
in the previous design , although some reduction may be
The vehicle should exhibit the same reliability and necessary for control of smoke.
maintainability characteristics as the reference vehicle.
No difficulty is expected in meeting the 1973 safety The vehicle is basically equivalent to a standard
standards because the vehicle is essentially a modifica- 1973 automobile except that the weight has been re-
tion of the existing intermediate chassis. duced. The radial ply tires and styling changes allow a
reduction in road load of 10 percent by comparison with
The development of the engine and emission con- the reference vehicle.
trol system is straightforward, although testing and eval-
uation will be required. The design can be demonstrated It was predicted that an economy benefit of
by 1976 and produced by 1980 ; the longest lead time 55 percent by comparison with the reference vehicle,
item will be the lightweight engine. after correction for emission controls , could be obtained
with this design. This estimate might be reduced by as
Stratified Charge Engine Design much as 5 percent if it proves impossible to control
emissions of oxides of nitrogen to the 2.0-g/mile level
A vehicle design was synthesized about the strati- without exhaust gas recirculation . The combustion pro-
fied charge engine. The primary characteristics of the cess is responsible for most of the control, and for some
vehicle are as follows: engines, the fuel penalty rises rapidly as the level de-
creases. Although present designs exhibit high hydrocar-
( 1) Engine- 300 CID (open chamber, stratified bon emissions even with aftertreatment, there is consid-
charge) V-8, cast iron block erable optimism within the industry for compliance with
the 0.41 -g/mile standard through improved reactor
(2) Engine accessories (additional) design and operating schedule .

(a) Vacuum pump for supply of functions The usual procedure is to treat each change in strati-
presently produced by manifold fied charge engine specifications, even a change in dis-
vacuum ; the engine will be throttled at placement, as a completely new design. With this philos-
idle only ophy, demonstration of the engine by 1976 would require
an intense effort. Quantities on the order of one million
(b) Catalytic reactor in exhaust for control
ofHC, CO should not be expected by 1980 , although a pilot produc-
tion should be possible by that time. The pilot produc-
(c) Exhaust gas recirculation for control of tion run would be used to resolve some production
NOx (possibly) tolerance control problems.

7
 The cost of the vehicle described above was esti- reference vehicle but are the highest of any of the
mated to be approximately $400 greater than that of the synthesized designs due to the increased rolling
1973 reference vehicle. According to the procedure for resistance.
estimating the allowable incremented cost of improve-
ments, this amount can be justified . In addition to the obvious need for power steering,
a suitable vacuum pump would have to be driven to
Consumer acceptance of the stratified charge supply the various subsystems requiring vacuum power.
engine is not regarded as a problem; therefore , vehicle Power requirements for this accessory were also assumed
characteristics would not be noticeably altered . From an to be on the order of the power steering pump parasitic
overall viewpoint, it is worthwhile to reiterate the multi- requirements.
fuel capability of the engine.
On the basis of the fuel economy evaluation proce-
Turbocharged Diesel Engine Design dure, it was estimated that the fuel economy benefit for
this design would be 70 percent by comparison with a
A vehicle based on the turbocharged diesel engine 1973 reference vehicle. This figure includes an adjust-
was specified as follows: ment for the energy content of diesel fuel .

(1) Engine - 230 CID turbocharged diesel, It was estimated that the cost increase would be
4 cylinder, cast iron block ( 115 hp at approximately $425, and this increment is justified by
4000 rpm) the fuel savings .

(2) Engine accessories The diesel engine meets the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emis-
sions standards without auxiliary control devices, but
(a) Vacuum pump extreme difficulty will be encountered if particulate
emission standards are set at low levels.
(b) Clutch fan
The primary development risk involves reduction
of engine weight or vehicle compatibility with a heavier
(3) Vehicle size-Full ; aerodynamic drag reduc-
tion 10 percent engine . The development program would involve testing
on engine dynamometers and chassis dynamometers , and
it is expected that a prototype vehicle could be de-
(4) Tires- Radial ply, steel belted veloped by 1976. As with the stratified charge engine,
the first production would probably be on a pilot basis.
(5) Vehicle weight- Curb weight , 3950 lb ;
loaded vehicle weight, 4250 lb ; inertia test Test Program
weight, 4000 lb

During the period occupied by this study, several

(6) Transmission-Four-speed torque converter
tests were performed on a small sample of vehicles .
type (ratios the same as those listed for the
The series of tests involved two vehicles each (one
S.I. engine synthesized design)
standard and one intermediate size) from each of the
three major manufacturers. The pair of vehicles from
(7) Rear axle ratio 3.23 : 1 each manufacturer was nominally equipped with the
same engine.
This design is basically a full-size vehicle with re-
duced weight. The four-speed transmission has been The tests were conducted in order to characterize
specified as a means of increasing turbocharger energy the fuel consumption traits of the standard and inter-
input at road load, and the transition to third gear on mediate vehicles. Each vehicle was operated on the
demand will reduce the possibility of severe turbo- chassis dynamometer using the LA- 4 emission test proce-
charger lag. dure, and direct fuel consumption measurements were
made for cold start and hot start test runs. In addition ,
Radial ply tires and aerodynamic improvements each vehicle was operated on the road , and measure-
are also incorporated in this design . Road load horse- ments of fuel consumption and road load were obtained .
power requirements are reduced with respect to the Finally, each engine was operated on a dynamometer in

8
order to obtain engine map data. The test procedures and specific tuning used by each manufacturer for emission
the results are described in the body ofthe report. control.

The results of the tests indicated significant In addition to the vehicle tests, power consump-
differences between the fuel consumption characteristics tion measurements were made for each of the major acces-
of the several vehicles. These differences were attributed sories on each vehicle , and the effect of air conditioning
to variation in engine operating condition and to the was determined during the chassis dynamometer tests.

9
REPORT NO . DOT - TSC - OST - 74-39.IIA

TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS

TO AUTOMOBILE FUEL CONSUMPTION

Volume IIA : Sections 1 through 23

C. W. Coon et al

SPO
MEN

TRA
RTA
ART

NSP
OF
TIO
DEP

N
CA
UN

RI
IT

E
AOFM
ED
S

STATE
S

DECEMBER 1974
FINAL REPORT

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF

DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON , D.C. 20402

Prepared for
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY

Office of the Assistant Secretary for Systems
Development and Technology
Washington DC 20590
and

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Ann Arbor MI 48105 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

DAVIS

MAY 15 1975

U. S. DEPOS.
GOV'T. DOCS . - LIBRARY
 NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of

the Department of Transportation and the Environmental
Protection Agency in the interest of information
exchange . The United States Government assumes no
liability for its contents or use thereof .

NOTICE

The United States Government does not endorse products

or manufacturers . Trade or manufacturers ' names
appear herein solely because they are considered
essential to the object of this report .
 Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
DOT -TSC - OST - 74-39 . II A
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
December 1974
TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS TO AUTOMOBILE
FUEL CONSUMPTION 6. Performing Organization Code
Volume IIA : Sections 1 through 23
8. Performing Organization Report No.
7. Author(s)
DOT -TSC - OST - 74-39.IIA
C. W. Coon et al
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
Southwest Research Institute * OS514 /R5523
Energy Conversion Systems Section 11. Contract or Grant No.
Department of Automotive Research DOT - TSC - 628
San Antonio TX 78284 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
12. JOINTLY SPONSORED BY-
Final Report
U.S. Department of Transportation
Office of the Secretary U.S. Environmental June 1973 - January 1974
Office of the Assistant Secretary for and Protection Agency
Systems Development and Technology Ann Arbor MI 48105 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Washington DC 20590
15. Supplementary Notes U.S. Department of Transportation
Transportation Systems Center
* Under Contract to : Kendall Square
Cambridge MA 02142
16. Abstract
This report is a preliminary survey of the technological feasi-
bility of reducing the fuel consumption of automobiles . The study
uses as a reference information derived from literature , automobile
industry contacts , and testing conducted as part of the program
requirements . The design changes , which are recommended for the pur-
pose of maximizing fuel economy , have been derived after lengthy review
against a series of constraints including regulatory requirements ,
technical feasibility , and cost effectiveness .
Several possible technological improvements are identified ,
documented , and evaluated with respect to fuel economy . Results are
reported as percentage improvement in fuel economy by comparison with
1973 model year vehicles . The effect of vehicle emission control
systems is considered in the evaluation procedure .

The most promising individual improvements are incorporated into

three synthesized vehicle designs , and the projected fuel economy
improvement for these vehicles is reported .

The status of the technology reported is that available in the

time period of July 1973 to January 1974 .

Volume II consists of two parts , Volume II A and Volume II B.

17. Key Words Automobiles , Fuel Economy , 18. Distribution Statement

Powerplants , Transmissions , Drive FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF
Trains , Tires , Accessories DOCUMENTS , U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON , D.C. 20402
Aerodynamics , Weight , Fuel
Consumption , Innovations

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pones 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 232

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS , U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON , D.C.
 PREFACE

The transportation sector of the U.S. economy accounts for approximately 25 percent of the
total energy demand , predominately in the form of petroleum fuels. The Government has been
actively engaged in reviewing the technological and institutional actions that can be taken to reduce
our transportation energy demand. One such effort is the preliminary study covered in this report
on the technological feasibility of improved fuel economy in automobiles .

The work described in this report was performed by Southwest Research Institute for the
U.S. Department of Transportation and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . The project
was monitored by the Power and Propulsion Branch , Mechanical Engineering Division , Transportation
Systems Center, U.S. Department of Transportation . The technical monitor for the project was
H. Gould.

The authors recognize the timely significance of this study , and despite warnings to the con-
trary, information may be taken out of context. For these reasons, the report has been written in
an instructive fashion to acquaint the uninitiated reader with facts about automobile design. Hope-
fully, this instruction will nullify the majority of misconceptions and provide insight into an exceed-
ingly complex issue.

This work does not address the overall automobile transportation energy problem, but it is
directed to one of the major components of the American automobile market -the " large" automo-
bile. Specifically, this study is concerned with cars of the 4300- and 3300-lb curb weight classes.
These vehicles are frequently identified by Federal Test Procedure inertia weight class with cor-
responding values of 3500 and 4500 lb.

The status of the technology reported is that available in the

time period of July 1973 to January 1974 .

iii
 The work covered in this report represents approximately a three-man year level of effort and
was conducted over a six-month period . The goals of the project are ambitious, and the effort of
each member of the project team was vital to the final product . Space does not permit the listing of
all participants , but major efforts were contributed by:

Dr. C. W. Coon , Senior Research Engineer

B. C. Dial, Senior Research Engineer
Roger Hemion , Institute Scientist
R. W. Hull , Senior Research Engineer
• R. J. Mathis , Research Engineer
Carlton Morrison , Technician
Lynn Rhymes , Research Engineer
C. D. Wood , Manager, Energy Conversion Systems
S. W. Seale , Research Analyst
Tom Stettler , Technician
Clifford Reeh , Technician
H. O. Woller, Senior Technician
John W. Colburn , Jr. , Project Manager

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume IIA

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS:

INTERRELATIONSHIPS INFLUENCING ECONOMY · 5

3. COMPUTATION OF VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY 13

4. TEST PROGRAM DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS 19

Accessory Power Tests . 19

Road Tests 21
LA-4 Chassis Dynamometer Tests 26
Engine Load/Speed BSFC Tests . 32

5. THE COST TO OWN AND OPERATE AN AUTOMOBILE 37

Methodology for the Analysis of the Cost to Own and Operate an Automobile . 37
Analysis of the Estimated Cost to Own and Operate an Automobile 41

6. CONSIDERATIONS IN PREDICTING PREPRODUCTION LEAD TIME FOR

INCORPORATION OF FUEL ECONOMY INNOVATIONS 47

Introduction 47
Product Development Lead Time 47

7. FUEL ECONOMY OF CARBURETED SPARK - IGNITION ENGINES 51

T

General 51
Theoretical Cycle Efficiency 51
Factors Affecting Actual Engine Performance . 52

8. EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF AUTOMOTIVE SPARK - IGNITION

CARBURETED ENGINES • 61

General 61
Source of Exhaust Emissions • 61
Effect of Engine Variables Upon Emissions . 62
Emission Control Systems 66
Conventional Automobile Exhaust Emissions and the Federal Emission Standards . 68
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Page

9. EMISSION CONTROL HARDWARE . 73

Positive Crankcase Ventilation . 73

Lean Mixture Operation 73
Retarded Spark 74
Idle Stop Solenoid 75
Choke Heating Element 76
Heated Inlet Air System 76
Exhaust Gas Recirculation ( EGR ) 76
Air Injection 76
Evaporative Emission Control • 76
Exhaust Reactors . . 78

10. TURBOCHARGED SPARK- IGNITED , CARBURETED ENGINE . 81

Concept 81
Performance Evaluation Procedure • 82
Results . 84
Exhaust Emissions · 87
Evaluation 88

11. VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT ENGINE . 93

Concept 93
Fuel Economy Evaluation Procedure 93
Emissions . 94
Evaluation 95

12. ENGINE WITH REDUCED FRICTION 99

080

General 99
Fuel Economy Analysis Procedure 100

13. LEAN MIXTURE ENGINES 103

General 103
Fuel Economy Analysis 103
Evaluation . 104
Intake Valve Throttling 106
Evaluation - Intake Valve Throttling 107

14. INTAKE PORT FUEL INJECTION 111

Evaluation - Intake Port Fuel Injection 111

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Volume IIA ( Cont'd )

Page

15. STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINES-—SPARK IGNITION 117

Stratified Charge Engines- Evaluation . 122

16. DIESEL ENGINE 129

General 129
Fuel Economy Analysis Procedure 132
Evaluation 136

17. DRIVE TRAINS . 143

Current Practice 143

Evaluation 147
Stage of Development 151
Reliability 152
Cost . 152
Safety 152
Effects of Transmissions on Engine Exhaust Emission . 153
Noise .. 155
Performance 155
Consumer Acceptance . 155

18. TIRES . . 157

Background . 157
Current Practice · 157
Inflation Pressure . 158
Tread Mass 158
Compounding 159
Construction 159
Reduced Deflection . 159
Evaluation 160

19. AERODYNAMICS 165

Current Practice . 165

Vehicle Aerodynamics . 166
Effect of Aerodynamics on Fuel Economy 167

20. WEIGHT . 173

Current Practice • 173

Weight Reduction Potentialities 175
Effect of Weight on Fuel Economy · 181
Evaluation -Weight Reduction . 181

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Volume IIA ( Cont'd ) Page

21. ACCESSORY DRIVES 185

Present Usage • 185

Fan Clutches 185
Friction Type Speed Limiting Accessory Drives 188
Hydrostatic Drive 190

22. AIR-CONDITIONING . 193

Air-Conditioner Performance 194

Vapor Compression System . 197
Other Refrigeration Systems 199
Evaluation -Air-Conditioning . 200

23. COOLING SYSTEM 205

Current Practice 205

Ebullient Cooling Systems 206
Effect of Cooling System on Fuel Economy 207
Volume II B
24. SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL IMPROVEMENTS 213

25. SYNTHESIS OF DESIGNS FOR MAXIMUM FUEL CONSUMPTION

REDUCTION 219

Introduction 219
Conventional Spark - Ignition Engine Design . 220
Evaluation 222
Stratified Charge Engine Design 226
Evaluation . . 226
Turbocharged Diesel Design 228
Evaluation 229

LIST OF REFERENCES . 231

BIBLIOGRAPHY 241

APPENDIX A-Specifications of Reference Vehicles 245

APPENDIX B-Accessory Power Test Data . 253

APPENDIX C-Road Test Data 261

APPENDIX D- LA-4 Chasis Dynamometer Test Results . 283

APPENDIX E- Installed Engine Power/BSFC Data . 315

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd )
Volume II B ( Cont'd )
Page

355
APPENDIX F-Calculations of Fuel Economy
359
APPENDIX G-Ambient Effects on Economy .
363
APPENDIX H-Comment by Reviewers

387
APPENDIX I - REPORT OF INVENTIONS ·

ix
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Volume II A
Figure Page

1 Vehicles Used During Test Program . 2

2 Generalized Torque Characteristics of An Internal Combustion Engine 5

3 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine 7

4 Comparison of Maximum Performance and Road Performance 7

5 Portion of Driving Cycle . 9

6 Motive Power Requirements (4300-lb Vehicle) 10

7 Motive Power Requirements ( 3300-lb Vehicle) 11

8 Warmup Economy 11

9 Elements of Calculation Procedure . 13

10 Horsepower for Calculation Procedure 14

11 Accessory Power Test Apparatus . 20

12 Typical Accessory Power Test Results . 21

13 Vehicle Instrumentation · 22

14 Vehicle Instrumentation · 22

15 Road Load Fuel Consumption . 23

16 Road Load Fuel Consumption . 23

17 Road Horsepower Requirements . 24

18 Road Horsepower Requirements . 25

19 Road Horsepower Requirements . 25

20 Chassis Dynamometer Test . 27

21 Torquemeter 28
2230

22 Engine Parameters 29

23 Vehicle Parameters

xi
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)
Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Figure Page

24 LA-4 Cycle, 350 CID V8 2.73 to 1 Rear Axle , 3500-lb Inertia Weight 31

25 Results of Analytical Prediction 32

26 Engine Test Apparatus . 33

27

27 Data From Three Engines 34

28 Alteration of Exhaust Gas Recirculation 35

29 Comparison of Estimated Cost to Provide Repair and Maintenance for Full

Size Automobile Adjusted to 1973 . 39

30 Present Worth of Total Cost of Automobile Ownership at Selected

Discount Rates 42

31 Cost of Gasoline by Year for Three Pricing Alternatives ( 1973 Dollars) 43

32 Effect of Gasoline Pricing on the Total Cost of Automobile Ownership and

Operation 43

33 Total Gasoline Cost for 100,000-Mile Lifetime at Various Fuel

Consumption Rates . . 44

34 The Effect of Various Fuel Consumption Rates on the Total Cost of

Automobile Ownership and Operation 45

35 Allowable Incremental Additional Costs to Realize Increased Fuel Economy

at Constant Total Cost to the Consumer With Reference Vehicle Composite
Fuel Consumption Data Shown • 46

36 Automotive Industrial Engineering Process . 49

37 Pressure-Volume Diagram 51

38 Efficiency as A Function of Compression Ratio 52

39 Efficiency as A Function of Fuel Air Ratio .. 52

40 Carbureted Engine BSFC at Constant Speed . 54

41 Energy Required for Ignition 56

42 Correlation for All Speeds and Loads 58

43 Carbon Monoxide Emissions 62

xii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Figure Page

44 Unburned Hydrocarbon Concentration 62

45 Hydrocarbon Concentration 64

46 Hydrocarbon Mass Emission 64

47 Fuel/Air Ratio . 65

48 Emission Trends 66
3
49 Closed Crankcase Ventilation System • 73

50 Conventional Distributor . • 75

51 Electronic Ignition Distributor 75

52 Thermal Vacuum Switch (T.V.S.) 75

53 Heated Inlet Air System . 76

54 EGR System 77
55

Air Injection System ( 8-Cylinder Engine) 77

56 Evaporation Control System 78

57 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine 81

58 Turbocharged Carbureted Engine , 250 CID , CR = 8.0, Water-Alcohol

Injection . 84

59 Turbocharged Carbureted Engine , 280 CID , CR = 7.2 , Aftercooled 86

60 Variable Displacement Engine . 94

61 Motoring Friction of Carbureted Engines 100

62 Estimated Possible Friction Reduction 100

63 Engine with Reduced Friction 350 CID 100

64 Normal Fuel/Air Ratios for Automobile Engines . 104

65 Product Fη for Fuel/Air Cycles • 104

xiii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Figure Page

66 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio Variation on Carbureted Engine Performance 105

67 Lean-Mixture Engine 350 CID . 106

68 Fuel Economy as A Function of Spark Advance . 107

69

Specific Fuel Consumption with Conventional Throttling 1200 rpm ,

Indolene 30 Fuel . 107

70 Specific Fuel Consumption with Valve Throttling 1200 rpm, Indolene

30 Fuel 108

71 Partial Performance Map of Vehicle C Equipped with Complete Gasoline

Injection System (Automatic Metering Control Provides an Essentially
Constant Air/Fuel Ratio of 14.5 : 1 at All Speeds and Loads. ) . . . 113

72 Honda Civic CVCC Engine 120

133

73 Broderson Engine Combustion Chamber Cross- Section 121

74 Texaco Controlled-Combustion System 121

75 BSFC Island Curve (430 CID FCP Engine) 122

76 Experimental Stratified Charge Engines . 123

77 Characteristics of Production Diesel Engines 129

78 Diesel Engine Friction . 132

79 Performance Map Normally Aspirated Diesel Swirl Chamber 378 CID 133

80 Performance Map Turbocharged Diesel Swirl Chamber 250 CID . . 135

81 Vehicle-Engine Performance with Various Drive Train Gear Ratios . 144

82 Vehicle-Engine Performance with Various Drive Train Gear Ratios . 145

83 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine · 147

84 Bias Tires . 158

85 Radial Tires . 158

86 Belted Bias Tires . 158

xiv
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Figure Page

87 General Relationship -Inflation Pressure vs. Rolling Resistance 158

88 Effect of Tread Removal . 159

89 Effect of Tire Construction on Rolling Resistance 160

90 Vehicle Resistance 161

91 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine 162

92 Distribution of Vehicle Aerodynamic Drag . 166

93 Weights of Vehicles by Yearly Model Full-Size Vehicles . 173

94 Weights of Vehicles by Yearly Model Lighter Vehicles 174

95 Fan Clutch Operation . 187

96 Power Requirements-Water Pump and Fan 187

97 Evaluation of Speed-Limiting Accessory Drive 189

8869

8 Output Torque Versus Output Speed Model 10 Light Duty Transmission . 191

99 Air-Conditioning System . 194

100 Air-Conditioning Compressor Characteristics. 195

101 Road-Load Fuel Economy 196

102 Compressor Capacity 197

103 Boiling Point of Water and 44-Percent Glycol at Various Pressures 206

104 Accessory Power Requirements 206

105 Schematic of Ebullient Cooling System Without A Condensate Return

Pump . 207

106 Effect of Water Jacket Temperature on Specific Fuel Consumption 207

107 Warmup Time for Automobile in 20° F Atmosphere at A Constant Speed

of 30 mph • 208

108 Temperature Response - LA-4 Cycle 209

XV
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Figure Volume II B Page

109 Performance Characteristics Reference Vehicle 222

110 Performance Characteristics- Candidate Vehicle .• 223

xvi
 LIST OF TABLES

Volume II A
Table Page

1 Typical Road Load Power Requirements for A Full-Size Reference

Vehicle 8

2 3-Percent Grade Power Requirements for 4300-lb Vehicle 8

3 Auto Trip Statistics . 12

4 LA-4 Cycle Data : 14

5 Typical Road Load Values for Vehicle B. 26

6 Results for A 4500-lb Inertia Weight Vehicle 30

7 Modal Fuel Use · 30

8 Comparison of Inertia Weight Effects on LA-4 Economy 31

9 Influence of "Cold " Starts Versus " Hot" Starts . 31

10 Categorization of the Various Cost Components of Automobile Ownership

and Operation . 37

11 Distribution (%) of 100,000-Mile Lifetime Over 10-yr Interval 38

12 The Original Cost for Reference Vehicles in 1973 Dollars 38

13 Non-Variable Costs to Own and Operate A 1973 Reference Vehicle- By

Year . 41

14 Effects of Discount Rates on Evaluating Total Cost of Automobile

Ownership • 42

15 Total Gasoline Costs at Selected Fuel Costs 43

16 Total Gasoline Cost at Selected Fuel Consumption Rates in 1973 and

Discounted Dollars . 44

17 Allowable Incremental Additional First Costs for Increased Fuel Economy

Above 10 mpg, 14 mpg, and 18 mph · 45

18 Internal Combustion Engine Systems- Non-Homogeneous Fuel/Air

Mixtures 119

19 Over-the-Road Fuel Economy - M- 151 Vehicle 122

xvii
 LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)

Table Volume II A ( Cont'd ) Page

20 Fuel Economy Improvements of Open Chamber Stratified Charge

Engine . . 122

21 Exhaust Emissions -Turbocharged TCCS M- 151 . . 126

22 Exhaust Emission Levels- Controlled TCCS M- 151 . 126

23 Effect of Emissions Control on Fuel Economy- M- 151 TCCS . 126

24 Comparison of Weights and Volumes - Automotive Diesel vs. Automotive

Carbureted • 130

25 Particulate Emissions - Mercedes 220D Diesel Engine 137

26 Drive Train Comparisons . 148

27 Estimated Fuel Economy Improvement Without Emission Considerations . 148

28 Cost Estimate for Development Type Units .. 152

29 Percent Change in Mileage with Vehicle Speed 162

30 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Reference Vehicles 166

31 Drag Rating System 169

32 Lenth/Weight Ratios for Reference Vehicles 174

33 Material Breakdown for 1973 Fury . 175

34 Rubber Parts in the Average 1974 Car . 175

35 Comparative Aluminum and Steel Weights . 177

36 Hood and Deck Weights in Steel and Aluminum . 178

37 Aluminum Use Projection 1973-1980 . 178

38 Vehicle Length and Weight , 1967-1973 179

39 Comparative Data for 1973 Full-Size and Intermediates 179

40 Weight Reduction , 4500-lb Inertia Weight Vehicle 180

41 Weights and Prices of 1973 Automobiles . 183

xviii
 LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Table Page

42 Compression Volumetric Efficiency 198

43 Air-Conditioning Penalty . 201

Volume II B
44 Comparison of Individual Improvements . 214

45 Road Load Horsepower Requirements 221

xix
 1. INTRODUCTION

The primary objective of the study is to define a series of viable technological improvements
which will result in a 30-percent or more reduction in fuel consumption relative to 1973-model year
vehicles. It should be noted that the goal may also be stated in terms of a fuel economy increase .
The 30-percent reduction in fuel consumption corresponds to a 42-percent increase in the number
of miles per gallon of fuel . Another objective of this report is to underscore repeatedly the inter-
relationships between various automobile design characteristics , as they influence operating fuel
economy, and increase the relationship between the vehicle power plant emissions and fuel economy
potential .

The conception of automobile design changes for this program was based on the following
restrictions:

(1 ) Recommended technology should be off-the-shelf or in a mature stage of development .

(2) The systems should be demonstrable by 1976 in a small number of vehicles.

(3) Emissions standards ( 1975 Federal Test Procedure) :

NOx 2.0 g/mile

CO 3.4 g/mile
HC 0.41 g/mile

(4) Safety standards- 1973 US/ DOT.

(5) Noise - Comparable to reference vehicles.

(6) Reliability - Nearly equivalent to reference vehicles.

(7) Performance - No significant degradation ; driveability of any proposed design should be as

good as the reference vehicles.

(8) Minimal cost to the consumer including both initial cost and discounted life-cycle cost .

(9) Fuel economy improvements were to be assessed against the LA- 4 driving schedule and
against road load economy at 20, 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , and 70 mph .

The reference vehicles for the study were selected due to their high sales volume for 1972 .
All vehicles were equipped with standard V-8 engines, power steering, automatic transmissions , and
optional air-conditioning , as these items represented items purchased by the majority of the con-
sumers. The vehicles selected (Figure 1 ) for the study were :
2
FIGURE
PROGRAM
TEST
DURING
USED
VEHICLES
1.
 Public scale weight with
Vehicle full gas tank (lb)

Ford Galaxie 4270

Ford Mustang 3470
Chevrolet Impala 4360
Chevrolet Camaro 3560
Plymouth Fury 4190
Dodge Challenger 3490

The 3500- and 4500-lb inertia weight vehicles from each manufacturer were leased equipped
with identical power teams including engine , transmission , and rear axle . (See Appendix A for
vehicle specifications .) The two Ford vehicles were not directly comparable , however, as two differ-
ent 351 CID engines were used .

These vehicles were used during this study for two primary purposes : ( 1 ) to acquaint the..
project team with some of the details of 1973-model year technology and (2 ) to provide test data
for in-house use by the Department of Transportation. Approximately one-half of the contract funds
were expended in the acquisition , handling , and preparation of the test data.

In addition to the testing of the 1973-model vehicles, this report studies improvements in areas
of vehicle design such as engines, transmissions and axles , tires , aerodynamics , vehicle weight , and
engine accessories and auxiliaries.

The program was not designed to reduce any fuel use improvement to practice , as such action
would properly consume a considerable amount of development funds. The objective of the study
effort was to obtain the maximum amount of available data on any candidate improvement, screen
these data , and then analytically project and discuss the potential of the fuel conservative on improvement.

The reader is cautioned against amplifying or projecting the results of this study without care-
fully weighing the realities that actual hardware will demonstrate . Assumed operational characteristics
or assumptions about design performance could result in erroneous conclusions , high costs, or design
penalties in other areas of the vehicle without the confirmation of prototype assessment.

3
 2. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS :
INTERRELATIONSHIPS INFLUENCING ECONOMY

The performance and economy of an automobile is determined by the detailed engineering

characteristics of the specific vehicle , the vehicle operating requirements , and the demands of the
driver.

In this section of this report , a brief explanation of some of the basic interrelationships of
design and operating parameters will be given which forms a generalized background for the inter-
pretation of detailed evaluations of changes in vehicle design characteristics .

The basic physical law governing the motion of an automobile is Newton's Second Law of
Motion. In order to place an automobile in motion a force must be exerted through the vehicle
driving wheels. The amount of the force depends on the weight of the car and the rate of vehicle
acceleration, as well as the magnitude of forces which retard motion such as rolling resistance and
aerodynamic drag.

The motive force is applied to the vehicle driving wheels by a combination of the operation of
the vehicle engine , transmission , and rear axle . The function of the transmission and rear axle is to
deliver the turning effort of the engine to the driving wheels at a speed different from that of the
engine . This difference in speed also implies a multiplication of the turning effort of the engine
depending on the value of the overall gear ratio .

The turning effort of the engine is termed torque and arises as a result of ignition and subsequent
expansion of the products of combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel and air mixture within the cylinders
of the internal combustion engine . Detail design characteristics of internal combustion engines
determine the amount of torque produced by the engine . Basically , it is the quantity of fuel and air
ingested by the engine during each revolution that determines the amount of torque produced .
Typically , small displacement engines produce less torque than larger displacement engines , all other
factors being equal.

Traffic conditions require that a vehicle be operated at varied speeds and acceleration , all of
which require varied torques. Ignoring the transmission momentarily , the torque needed to sustain
the desired operating condition is obtained by varying the amount of fuel/air mixture processed by
the engine. For a vehicle with a carbureted engine, this is accomplished by the modulation of the
accelerator pedal. Depressing the accelerator allows more mixture to enter the engine , thus pro-
ducing more torque . Of course , there is a limit to the amount of
WOT torque that any engine can produce with fixed design character-
TORQUE

istics . This maximum torque is produced at wide open throttle

(WOT). The generalized torque characteristic of a conventional,
reciprocating internal combustion engine at wide open throttle
is shown in Figure 2.

The transmission is used to multiply the torque output of

ENGINE SPEED the engine so that the vehicle can be subjected to motive forces
higher than those developed by the direct connection of the
FIGURE 2. GENERALIZED TORQUE
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN engine to the rear axle . Transmission gear ratios greater than
INTERNAL COMBUSTION 1 : 1 allow the torque necessary to move the vehicle at smaller
ENGINE throttle (accelerator) settings . To meet any given vehicle torque

5
requirement , many gear ratios and various combinations of engine displacement and throttle
openings can be used.

Another basic concept which must be considered in the discussion of automobile performance
and economy is power. To define what is meant by power we must go back to our explanation of
the force acting at the wheel of the vehicle. As the force acts on the vehicle , the vehicle begins to
move . The force , of course , then acts on the vehicle over the distance through which the vehicle
moves. This quantity (force X distance ) is termed work , and the rate at which the work is done is
termed power.

In engineering terms, the power output of an engine is specified as Power = torque X rpm/con-
stant . The constant is selected to get the units of power into a comparative unit of measure such as
horsepower. In essence , power is the price one has to pay when demanding a given force at a given
speed . It is the power requirement of the desired motion of an automobile relative to the overall
efficiency of the translation of the energy of combustion into meeting this power demand that
determines automobile economy .

Before further deliberations on the fuel economy of automobiles , it is necessary to note that
other physical laws and rules of standard practice are significant to the subject of fuel economy .
Metallurgical considerations dictate the maximum temperatures to which engine components can
be exposed. Thermodynamic principles can then be invoked to establish theoretical efficiency
boundaries below which real systems can operate . In particular, no practical internal combustion
engine can have a thermal efficiency (power out/power available from fuel combustion) over about
50 percent . In other words, it is not possible to use more than 50 percent (and usually considerably
less) of the energy available in the fuel. The remainder is rejected to engine exhaust and cooling
systems. Detail design characteristics and operation of various engines dictate how close to this theo-
retical limit that real engines can operate .

The conventional naturally-aspirated (NA) carbureted engine demonstrates a performance

(torque vs speed) map under fully warmed-up conditions similar to Figure 3 (adapted from Refer-
ence 1 ) . The contours are lines of constant fuel consumption for each unit of horsepower devel-
oped (brake specific fuel consumption) . This characteristic map is due to two primary effects.
The first is the increase in brake specific fuel consumption with decreasing torque output at a con-
stant engine speed due to the higher percentage of friction power at low brake power outputs.
Second, brake specific fuel consumption increases with increasing speed (at constant torque) due
to increased engine friction . Consequently , the highest fuel use efficiency for the engine occurs at
low engine speeds and high torque outputs.

The engine performance map is an extremely significant constituent of the overall economy
formulation. This map is the representation of the units of fuel consumed in meeting the power
demanded by the motion of the vehicle . The values of the brake specific fuel consumption , as
well as the shape of the characteristic fuel consumption curves, are extremely significant in deter-
mining accurate estimates of economy. For the purposes of this study , the engine map of Figure 3
has been used as characteristic of a nonemission controlled spark-ignition engine ; therefore , the
changes in design can be evaluated relative to the same baseline . It is not suggested that this map
represents all engines ; however it represents a convenient generalization for purposes of comparison.
It was found , after test data had been acquired , that the agreement between Figure 3 and the test
engines was acceptable .

¹Obert , Edward F. , Internal Combustion Engines, International Textbook Company, December 1968.

6
 140 HORSEPOWER PER SQUARE INCH OF PISTON AREA
0.6 1.0 1.4 2.0

ENGINE
300

CID50
120 TH
FB T
RO
)(3
L
- FU TT
0,54 LL LE
100
9.50
BMEP
200 0.51
-SI
P

80
0.52
9.54
0.56
60

60
TORQUE

0.58

100 9.60
40
40

0.70
0.80
0.90
20 1.0
12
1.8
2.0 BSFC
1000 2000 3000
PISTON SPEED - FPM

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

ENGINE RPM
( 3.5" STROKE )
FIGURE 3. PERFORMANCE MAP OF CARBURETED SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

Unfortunately, the conventional application of the engines to vehicles results in a compromise of

where the engine operates in the map under road cruising conditions relative to the maximum per-
formance capability of the vehicle . This is illustrated in Figure 4. The road load is met at points of
high brake specific fuel consumption . The difference between the torque capability at full throttle
and the road load torque value determines the performance (acceleration) capability of the vehicle .
If the design characteristics of a vehicle were adjusted such that the road load power requirements
could be met by operating near the point of minimum brake specific fuel consumption , then a marked
improvement in fuel economy could be gained . However, such a move with conventional technology
(such as a very small engine) would also result in substantial reduction in the acceleration and passing
capabilities of a full-size automobile . One object
- ACCESSORY TORQUE of this study was to investigate methods of
improving fuel economy while considering the
ACCELERATION

effects such changes may have on the vehicle

MAXIMUM TORQUE ( WOT )
TORQUE

systems and operation .

MARGIN

The above discussion stressed the differ-

ence between the full-power capability of a
vehicle and that power necessary to maintain
I ROAD LOAD TORQUE level road motion ( no acceleration). For a
(AERODYNAMIC AND ROLLING
RESISTANCE ) full-size reference, typical road load power
requirements are given in Table 1 .
ENGINE SPEED
ROAD SPEED
This power requirement is determined
FIGURE 4. COMPARISON OF MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE by a large number of factors including vehicle
AND ROAD PERFORMANCE weight, tire design and construction , road

7
TABLE 1. TYPICAL ROAD LOAD POWER surface conditions, air temperature and density , and vehicle size
REQUIREMENTS FOR A FULL-SIZE
REFERENCE VEHICLE and shape. The vehicle design must accommodate a range of
power requirements which result from operation throughout
the U.S. For example , at an altitude of 4000 ft , the road load
Speed Power
at 70 mph will be reduced by 3.8 hp or about 10 percent as a
(mph) (hp)
result of the decreased air density . Operating a vehicle in a 0° F
20 5. ambient instead of a 100° F ambient will increase the road load
30 8.2
by 12 percent at 70 mph.
40 13.0
50 19.0
60 28.0 Fuel economy , then , can be seen to be influenced by
70 38.5 ambient conditions as well as the vehicle operating requirements .

TABLE 2. 3-PERCENT GRADE POWER The economy measured under level road conditions is one
REQUIREMENTS FOR 4300-LB method for comparison of vehicle designs ; however , the vehicle
VEHICLE
must be capable of meeting varied road conditions such as grades.
"Level" sections of interstate highway are not always level. Often
Additional Percent
Speed increase over highways include grades , and a 3-ft rise in 100 ft of road is not
grade
(mph) level road uncommon. The conventional American automobile can nego-
horsepower
tiate such grades without requiring a downshift to a lower gear.
20 6.88 137
30 10.32 143 The significance of grades on vehicle power requirements is
40 13.75 105 illustrated by Table 2.
50 17.19 90
60 20.63 74
70 Negotiating a grade of only 3 percent more than doubles
24.07 63
the road load power requirements at speeds up to 40 mph and
provides a substantial increase even at 70 mph .

A vehicle cannot be designed to maximize economy under specific level road conditions but
must accommodate a wide range of driving conditions encountered in the U.S. The discussion of
economy detailed in this report recognizes these factors , however , in order to establish a convenient
yardstick, level road power requirements are used in evaluating design changes.

In addition to steady-state driving conditions, transient operation of vehicles is also extremely

important. Stop-and-go traffic conditions such as acceleration , braking , and idling constitute typical
driving conditions experienced by the public , and these modes of operation must be included in any
assessment of fuel economy. The appropriate protocal for simulation of urban driving has been an
object of intense discussion among automotive experts ; however, no agreement has been reached
to date .

One of the most thoroughly documented driving schedules is the EPA Urban Dynamometer
Driving Schedule or the LA- 4 Dynamometer Cycle. This procedure was developed from observations
of urban traffic for use in emission certification tests2 . Basically, the cycle is a series of non-
repetitive accelerations , decelerations , and idling periods , as well as periods of nonsteady cruise
operation. The cruise portions are not representative of the road load operation discussed previously ,
since there is rarely a period of more than several seconds when the vehicle speed remains constant .
An illustration of the initial 4 min of the cycle is given in Figure 5. During the entire procedure ,
a vehicle would operate for about 23 min and cover a distance of 7.5 miles .

2Kruse and Huls , " Development of the Federal Urban Driving Schedule," SAE Paper 730553 , 1973 .

8
 60

50

40H

30-

6
20

60 120 180 240

TIME
)(SECONDS

FIGURE
PORTION
5.
DRIVING
OF
CYCLE
 Although the LA- 4 cycle is a chassis dynamometer procedure , it does provide assistance in the
analysis of the fuel economy of a vehicle operating in urban traffic . For the purposes of this study ,
it was assumed that a vehicle could execute the speed-time requirements of the cycle in actual
operation. The cycle was divided into component parts as described in Chapter 3 , and a procedure
was developed for prediction of the fuel consumption.

The LA-4 Cycle emphasizes the parameter of vehicle weight . Under acceleration , weight is the
most important parameter influencing fuel consumption . Figure 6 clearly establishes the magnitude
of this power demand . Under the maximum acceleration requirements of the LA- 4 cycle , the power
required to accelerate the 4300-lb vehicle is over six times that required to maintain steady motion.
at 30 mph. Also shown for reference are the power requirements of accelerating the vehicle at
other performance levels . It should be noted that the maximum performance of a full-size reference
vehicle lies somewhere between 5 and 6 sec to 30 mph . The performance capability of a given
vehicle weight then can be seen to significantly influence the power required and , consequently ,
the fuel consumption . For further comparison , Figure 7 illustrates the power requirements of a
3300-lb vehicle under the same acceleration loads . The requirements here are 3300/4300 = 76.7 per-
cent of the loads for the 4300-lb vehicle. The influence of vehicle weight can be marked ; however ,
the significance over a driving cycle will depend on the amount of time spent in acceleration modes'
and the amount of acceleration demand .

Before leaving the subject of vehicle and performance weight , it must be emphasized that the
weight of the vehicle is the primary factor that determines the installed power requirements of the
vehicle when a given level of performance is specified . For example , in determining the power
necessary to accelerate a 4300-lb vehicle to 30 mph in 5 sec , less than a 10-percent error would be
encountered in totally ignoring the road load . Conversely , unless the performance level or weight
of a full-size vehicle is significantly reduced , the maximum power output of the engine must remain
at 1973 reference vehicle levels .

The LA-4 Cycle , when used as a dynamometer procedure , incorporates an additional typical
operating feature - a cold start, i.e. , the test is performed after the vehicle has soaked overnight and

100

ACCELERATION POWER ( 0-30 MPH IN 5 SEC.)(.273g)

HORSEPOWER

ACCELERATION POWER ( 0-30 MPH IN 6 SEC.)(.228g)

ACCELERATION POWER
LA- 4 MAXIMUM
ACCELERATION
(35 MPH/SEC )
4" Hg VAC.

ROAD LOAD POWER REQUIREMENTS

10 20 30
VEHICLE SPEED- MPH
FIGURE 6. MOTIVE POWER REQUIREMENTS (4300-LB VEHICLE)

10
 100

HORSEPOWER

ACCELERATION POWER ( 0-30 MPH IN 5 SEC.)( 273g)

ACCELERATION POWER ( 0-30 MPH IN 6 SEC.) 228g)

50

ACCELERATION POWER
LA- 4 MAXIMUM
ACCELERATION
ROAD LOAD POWER REQUIREMENTS (3.5 MPH/SEC)

10 20 30
VEHICLE SPEED- MPH
FIGURE 7. MOTIVE POWER REQUIREMENTS (3300-LB VEHICLE)

has come to equilibrium with the ambient temperature of the test lab . The influence on cycle
operating economy due to starting and operating a vehicle " cold " as compared to "warm ” is signifi-
cant. The loss in economy is attributable to varied sources , including carburetion enrichment to
permit ignition , viscous losses in cold engines, transmissions , and axles and higher heat losses in the
engine due to rejection of heat to "cold" coolant. Since the effects discussed above are thermal,
ambient temperature would be expected to influence the amount of economy degradation .
ECONOMY

Figure 8 illustrates this effect (Reference 3) . These curves were developed from sequential
WARMED
FULLY
CENT
CITY
PER
UP
OF

100

80

90°F AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

70°F AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
60 30°F AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
10°F AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

20

10 15 20
TRIP LENGTH - MILES
FIGURE 8. WARMUP ECONOMY

3Scheffler , C.E. and Niepoth , G.W. , "Customer Fuel Economy Estimated from Engineering Tests ," SAE 650861 .

11
TABLE 3. AUTO TRIP STATISTICS repetition of a driving cycle . Obviously , the driver who makes short
Trip length Vehicle trips in cold climates will suffer a significant reduction in his fuel
Trips miles
(one-way economy from that obtainable from a fully warmed-up engine .
miles) (%) (%)
Urban mileage
Table 3 taken from Reference 4 illustrates that over one-half
Under 5 54.1 11.1
5-9 19.6 13.8 of the trips taken in the U.S. are under 5 miles . Although the total
10-15 13.8 18.7 miles driven for these short trips are not a major portion of the total
16-20 4.3 9.1
21-30 4.0 11.8 travel, improvements in the fuel consumption during warmup will
31-40 1.6 6.6 also decrease the overall energy demand .
41-50 0.8 4.3
51-99 1.0 7.6
100 and over 0.8 17.0 During the course of this study , some information on vehicle
Total 100.0 100.0 warmup was obtained for LA4 cycle operation . Fuel economy
Total mileage (%) data for cold and hot starts are provided in Section 3 , and a tempera-
Urban 55.5 ture versus time record for two cooling system temperatures is
Highway 44.5 shown in Section 23.

4"Motor Vehicle Facts and Statistics," published by Motor Vehicle Manufacturer's Association , 1972.

12
 3. COMPUTATION OF VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY

There are numerous papers in the technical literature covering predictive techniques and proce-
dures for computing vehicle fuel economy. (References 5 through 9) . In this study, we are not con-
cerned with the prediction of absolute fuel economy statistics but with the screening of changes in
design to target those changes which will result in marked economy benefits. Consequently, the
method employed in this study was a straightforward simplistic procedure amenable to hand calcu-
lations. The method results in an absolute fuel economy prediction , but these values are not
reported . The results discussed in later sections of the report are expressed in terms of percentage
improvements relative to the baseline vehicle rather than absolute numbers .

In this section , details of the computational method are described with reference to the baseline
calculations conducted for the full-size reference vehicles . In general , the computation of fuel econ-
omy of a candidate vehicle design was based on the major elements illustrated by the flow chart in
Figure 9.

Road load fuel economy was based on the power requirements reported in Section 2 for 20
through 70 mph. For the LA- 4 cycle , the loads were based on ( 1 ) the road load horsepower at
50 mph from Section 2 and (2 ) the force required to accelerate the vehicle at the specified rates on
the LA-4 cycle.

As previously discussed , the LA- 4 cycle is a rapidly varying nonrepetitive cycle and, consequently,
the forces required to propel any given vehicle are also extremely time variant . To minimize the
analytical effort for evaluation of this cycle , an approximation of the cycle described in Table 4 was
made. Subsequent evaluation and comparison with other abbreviated versions of the LA- 4 cycle
indicated that the description in Table 4 was adequate for the present purpose.
DOE

ROLLING
RESISTANCE

ACCELERATION DRIVELINE TRANSMISSION MOTIVE

LOAD LOAD PERFORMANCE LOAD

ENGINE
MAP -FUEL ECONOMY

AERODYNAMIC ACCESSORY
LOAD LOAD

FIGURE 9. ELEMENTS OF CALCULATION PROCEDURE

5Jaroslav J. Taborek, Mechanics of Vehicles (Reprints from Machine Design) Penton Publishing Co. , Cleveland, Ohio, 1957.
6J. L. Koffman, "Vehicle Performance: The Effect of Rotating Masses on Acceleration," Automobile Engineer, December 1955 ,
576-578.
P. M. Clayton, "Forecasting Specific Fuel Economy," SAE Paper 199B SAE Summer Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, June 5-10, 1960.
8R. K. Louden and Ivan Lukey, "Computer Simulation of Automotive Fuel Economy and Acceleration," SAE Paper 196A, SAE
Summer Meeting, Chicago, Illinois, June 5-10, 1960.
9M. A. Ordorica, "Vehicle Performance Prediction," SAE 650623 , Detroit Section, May 10 , 1965 .

13
TABLE 4. LA-
4 The acceleration mode is comprised of a number of accelerations from rest
CYCLE DATA
typically to 25 mph and from intermediate speeds to terminal cruise speeds ; how-
ever, the majority of accelerations are from rest . The acceleration rate is also
Speed Time
variable , but our analyses indicate that a typical value of 2.0 mph/sec was repre-
(mph) (sec)
sentative. The total number of accelerations at all rates on the cycle was 19 .
Cruise These two figures were not consistent with the mode time of 212 sec , so a compro-
mise was performed resulting in the specification of 21 accelerations from 0 to
20 90
25 312 25 mph at 2.5 mph/sec.
30 113
35 57
When the LA- 4 cycle is executed on a chassis dynamometer , the road horse-
45 15
55 83 power is set at 50 mph, and the power absorbed at other speeds is determined by
the dynamometer characteristics. This same procedure was used in the calcula-
Idle tions associated with this study in order to preserve sufficient simplicity for hand
--- 250 calculations ; however, the actual road horsepower at 50 mph was used instead of
the published emission test horsepower setting . The effect of this step is equiva-
Deceleration lent to the assumption that a constant force is required to maintain any steady
- 240 vehicle speed ; a comparison of horsepower predicted as a result of this assump-
tion with actual horsepower is shown in Figure 10. The force required to propel
Acceleration the vehicle at steady speed was computed from the equation

O-various 212
P = FV
Total 1372

P = horsepower

F = resistive force

V = vehicle relative velocity

50
HORSEPOWER

40

30

20 CONSTANT
FORCE

10
ACTUAL ROAD
LOAD

O
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
MPH
FIGURE 10. HORSEPOWER FOR CALCULATION PROCEDURE

14
at P = 19 hp and V = 50 mph, F = 142.5 lb.

The force required to accelerate the vehicle was determined by:

Winertia wt
Faccel = a
g

where

a = acceleration in ft/sec²

g = gravitational constant

For an acceleration rate of 2.5 mph/sec and a 4500-lb inertia weight, this force was computed
to be

Faccel = 524 lb

The above two forces , or the variable forces for actual road loads, compromise the external
load requirements of the vehicle . Translating these loads to driveline torque was accomplished by
assuming a rolling radius of 1.07 ft and a rear axle ratio of 2.75 : 1 . This then provided the trans-
mission output torque requirement.

The losses in the automatic transmission were calculated on the basis of actual slip data taken
from the tests conducted on the reference vehicles and the data of References 10 and 11. These
loads in combination with the gear reduction of the transmission ( 2.5 : 1 first gear, 1.5 : 1 second gear,
1.0 : 1 third gear) produce the drive torque requirements of the engine . In the acceleration modes of
the LA-4 cycle, it was assumed that 0-15 mph was negotiated in first gear and 15-25 mph in second
gear. All cruises were in third gear.

In addition to the torque requirements , the N/V (engine rpm/mph) ratio in third gear was spe-
cified as 36 rpm/mph, consistent with the rolling radius and rear axle gearing. These specifications
established the motive load torque and speed requirements of the engine.

The accessory torque is added to the drive load torque to produce the net torque requirement
for the engine. Due to the limited speed range of the reference vehicle engine when operated on the
LA- 4 cycle , the accessory torque was also assumed constant. The torque value of 14.4 lb-ft was
computed from accessory test data which indicated a total requirement of 5.5 hp at 2000 rpm.

Each operating condition for the vehicle (other than idle and deceleration) has been defined in
terms of engine speed and torque requirements. The fuel consumption of the vehicle then is deter-
mined by the engine fuel consumption characteristics in meeting these operating conditions. The
engine map shown in Section 2 (Figure 3 ) was chosen as representative of nonemission controlled
spark-ignition engines. This map serves as a generalization and was reported in terms of bmep
(brake mean effective pressure) . To determine the bmep corresponding to the torque , the follow-
ing equation was used:

10Jandasek, V. J., "The Design of a Single Stage Three-Element Torque Converter," SAE SP-186.
11Design Practices - Passenger Car Automatic Transmissions, Society of Automotive Engineers, Volume 3, 1973 .

15
 bmep (psi) X displacement (cu in. )
Torque (ft-lb) =
150.8

where the displacement of the reference vehicle engine was 350 CID . The map is also given in terms
of piston speed so piston speeds were determined by:

piston speed (fpm ) = 2 stroke (ft) · rpm

for a 3.5-in. stroke ,

piston speed = 0.583 ft X rpm

With these parameters , the brake specific fuel consumption was determined for each operating
condition.

The fuel consumption during the idle and deceleration modes was assumed to be 6 lb/hr on the
basis of test data acquired at SwRI on several 350 CID engines . For other evaluations in this report
where the carbureted engine displacement was changed , the fuel consumption during idle and decel-
eration was assumed to be directly proportional to displacement. There is some evidence that the
fuel consumption during idle and deceleration is higher than the value assumed ; 1 gal/hr have been
reported . Also , some calculations were performed using a fuel consumption of 4 lb/hr during idle
and deceleration , and a noticeable effect on the mileage predicted by the calculation procedure was
observed . However , the only values reported in this study are percentage improvements by compari-
son to a reference vehicle . The effect of a change in idle fuel consumption is trivial in this result if
the same value for idle fuel consumption is used in both the reference vehicle and improved vehicle
calculations .

The summed modal fuel consumption for the urban cycle was assumed to be expended over the
standard 7.5 mile cycle length .

The calculations result in a series of economy numbers : Road load economy at 20 through
70 mph, and a composite figure for the urban cycle . A representative figure for the percentage of
time spent in each operating mode could not be determined ; consequently, on the basis of a recom-
mendation from the Department of Transportation , the composite mileage of a vehicle was computed
by assuming that 50 percent of all miles are driven under urban-type conditions and the remaining
50 percent of the miles driven are divided equally by operation at 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , and 70 mph .

The formula for overall economy then becomes :

1 1 1 1
= + +
(MPG)avg
2 (mpg) LA-4 12 (mpg )20 mph (mpg)70 mph

Following the completion of the analysis using the modal distribution listed above , other
distributions were suggested as being more appropriate . Specifically , the following were recommended :

1. 1 1
= + +
( MPG)avg
2 (mpg) LA -4 20 (mpg)40 mph 7.69 (mpg)50 mph

1 1
+ +
5.26 (mpg)60 mph 7.69 (mpg)70 mph

16
 1 1 1 1
(MPG)avg = 2 (mpg) LA4 + + +
2 (mpg)LA-4 20 (mpg)40 mph 7.69 (mpg)50 mph 3.125 (mpg) 55 mph

In both cases , it is assumed that half of the driving occurs on an urban cycle . The road load distribu-
tions correspond to :

5% at 40 mph 5% at 40 mph
13% at 50 mph 13% at 50 mph
19% at 60 mph 32% at 55 mph
13% at 70 mph

A comparison was made between the percentage improvements predicted with these distributions
and the improvement predicted by the distribution which assumes equal occurrence of speeds of
20, 30, 40, 50, 60 , and 70 mph . The comparison is shown in Appendix F.

17
 4. TEST PROGRAM DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS

A test program was devised to acquire information on the power demands and fuel consumption
characteristics of the reference vehicles. Although one sample of each of several different automobiles
is not sufficient to characterize the total vehicle population for the 1973 model year , the data do give
insight into the characteristics of "typical" automobiles. Because of the small size of the sample of
vehicles, and because association of numerical results with a particular model could lead to erroneous
conclusions regarding the entire production of that model , the vehicles are identified by letter (A, B ,
C , D, E, F) throughout this report.

The literature gives little information on the design characteristics of recently produced auto-
mobiles. Since the dominant use of the American passenger automobile is at low load factors (road
load), data on vehicle performance and operating requirements were necessary. The variable load
demands of the Federal Driving Cycle also represent a "typical" commuter trip , thus operational data
for this cycle were also necessary .

Prior to conducting any tests , 2000 miles were accumulated on each vehicle by following the
break-in schedule specified below:

First 100 miles on freeway access roads at speeds not to exceed 40 mph

Second 100 miles on freeway access roads at speeds not to exceed 50 mph

Next 300 miles on Interstate at speeds not to exceed 60 mph

Remaining 1500 miles on Interstate at speeds not to exceed 70 mph.

The test program devised to provide the necessary information consisted of the following phases :

( 1) Accessory power tests

(2) Road load fuel consumption and motive power requirements tests

(3) LA-4 chassis dynamometer tests

(4) Engine load/speed BSFC tests.

Accessory Power Tests

Each belt driven accessory was driven by a cradled electric motor (Figure 11 ) to determine its
load/speed requirements. The horsepower requirements of the accessories under these conditions
are accurately determined ; however, testing a stationary vehicle does result in inaccurate simulation of
actual road conditions for some accessories. For example, the engine fan is required to operate
against a high static head since there is no relative air flow. At high fan speeds power determinations
by this method will be inaccurate . An accurate road load fan test can only be performed in a wind
tunnel. Data taken by the method employed at SwRI accurately represent LA- 4 test cycle loadings.
The air conditioner compressor also poses a problem in that the power requirements of air condi-
tioning are dependent on the ambient temperature , the automobile internal heat load (both latent
and sensible) , and the condenser air flow, as well as the design characteristics of the particular

19
 FIGURE 11. ACCESSORY POWER TEST APPARATUS

air conditioning system. To achieve the control necessary for calorimetric in-vehicle testing would have
required a significant effort ; consequently, it was decided that the compressor tests would be con-
ducted in the controlled environment of the SwRI emissions laboratory . Thus , the compressor tests
represent the engine loading experienced during operation on LA- 4 (stationary vehicle ) test.

Tests of the power steering pump represent the parasitic losses experienced when the wheels
are not turned . Testing of the water pump represents the power requirement with the thermostat
closed or open and under varied radiator pressures. The torque requirements were found to be insensi-
tive to the above system conditions.

The alternator power requirements depend on the loading (power requirements) and condition
of the electrical system. Data were acquired under varied wattage outputs , but a nominal value of
30 to 40 amps draw was chosen to represent a typical alternator characteristic for calculations used
for this report.

Exhaust manifold air pumps were also tested on vehicles so equipped . Power requirements
were found to be insensitive to position of the flow modulation valve .

Figure 12 illustrates the typical results of the accessory power testing for one of the full-size
reference vehicles. Complete data are presented in Appendix B.

20
 7.0

6.0

5.0 AIR COND.

POWER
HORSE

WATER PUMP
AND FAN
3.0
T

POWER
STEERING
2.0

ALT 30 AMP
1.0-

WATER PUMP
ONLY

1000 2000 3000

ENG. RPM

FIGURE 12. TYPICAL ACCESSORY POWER TEST RESULTS

Road Tests

Multiple road tests were conducted to determine road load fuel economy of each of the refer-
ence vehicles. The tests were conducted by a skilled test driver on a flat hard surface public road
approximately 75 miles southeast of San Antonio , Texas. Tests were conducted in both directions
over the course to minimize the influence of wind and grade loads. Tests were conducted at 20, 30 ,
40, 50, 60 , and 70 mph . Each test was replicated at least five times. The individual mileage deter-
minations at each test speed were within ±3 percent of the mean mileage determined at the test
speed .

Mileage was determined by using a 1/10 gal burette fuel supply and by measuring the distance
traveled through the road course by means of a fifth wheel. A typical vehicle installation is illus-
trated in Figures 13 and 14. With this information mileage can be easily calculated .

In addition to the mileage (mpg) determination , engine speed , vacuum , driveshaft speed ,
ambient temperatures, and air conditioning compressor suction and discharge pressures were
recorded .

Figure 15 illustrates the mileage determined for the three full-size reference vehicles. Figure 16
illustrates the road load mileage of the sport-type vehicles. There is a remarkable spread in the fuel
use efficiency of these automobiles. The differences in fuel economy are apparently due to basic

21
FIGURE 13. VEHICLE INSTRUMENTATION

FIGURE 14. VEHICLE INSTRUMENTATION

22
 24

22 VEHICLE
A
VEHICLE
B
20
MPG

18
T

16

14
VEHICLE

O
с
12
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPEED ( MPH )

FIGURE 15. ROAD LOAD FUEL CONSUMPTION

26

24 VEHICLE
D

22

20

18 VEHICLE
E

16

14
VEHICLE

12

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPEED ( MPH )

FIGURE 16. ROAD LOAD FUEL CONSUMPTION

23
 differences in engine design and , more significantly , to differences in engine calibration for emission
control. In addition , the difficulties associated with maintaining a precise load condition during the
experiment have some effect on the results. Complete test data are given in Appendix C.

All tests were conducted during the summer in South Texas under "high" ambient temperatures
(~90 °F) ; consequently , the vehicle windows were down to allow an acceptable comfort level for the
test crew. This action of course alters the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle but is representative of
the action taken by any driver to maintain his comfort . The air conditioning system tests were also
conducted with the windows down to provide the highest possible loading on the air conditioning
system. This is not a typical operating mode and does not represent a condition that a consumer
would see in practice . This approach was taken since the variable loading on the air conditioning
system was detrimental to maintaining the desired vehicle speed . The net effect of this choice of test
condition is to amplify the apparent penalty of air conditioning systems. A more representative fuel
use penalty is advanced in the section on air conditioning systems. The data obtained from the tests ,
however, are useful from an engineering standpoint for evaluation of the systems.

Tests were also conducted to determine the motive power (road load horsepower) requirements
of each vehicle . This was accomplished by measuring the driveshaft speed and input torque to the
rear axle of each vehicle . Description of this instrumentation is included in the section describing
the LA-4 tests .

Road horsepower requirements for the reference vehicles are illustrated in Figures 17 through
19. Although there are differences in the road horsepower values determined for vehicles in each
class, these differences are not felt to be highly significant . The values presented should be regarded
only as total road loads ; sufficient detail is not present for separation of the total into component
rolling and aerodynamic resistances .

60

50 A VEHICLE C
0 VEHICLE E

40
POWER
HORSE

30

20
OD

L
20 30 40 50 60 70
MPH
FIGURE 17. ROAD HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS

24
 60

50 A VEHICLE A
VEHICLE D
HORSEPOWER

40

30

D
20

90
10

O 1
20 30 40 50 60 70
MPH

FIGURE 18. ROAD HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS

60

30 A VEHICLE 8
D
O

VEHICLE

40
POWER
HORSE

30

20-
OD

..L
C 30 40 50 60 70
MPH

FIGURE 19. ROAD HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS

25
 Testing of vehicles on the " level" road demonstrated that barely perceptible acceleration of the
test vehicles can result in torque demands that are at least twice that required to sustain steady
motion. Slight grades also favor increased torques as would be expected . On the whole , the steady
load demand is a difficult quantity to achieve in practice , requiring strict attention to experimental
detail.

In general , it is difficult for any driver to maintain the operation of a vehicle at a steady speed
even on a level road . There are two causative factors, ( 1 ) the fact that road conditions are not con-
stant and (2 ) current vehicles are designed with a large reserve power factor especially at the low
road speeds. A slight movement of the accelerator pedal can result in a substantial increase in accel-
eration , consequently in power demand and fuel consumption . "Underpowered " vehicles (low
power/weight) which operate at a larger percentage of full load are not subject to such operating
difficulties , but , of course , such vehicles have much lower performance than the reference vehicles.
The tires on each vehicle were checked and adjusted to the manufacturer's recommended pressures
for the vehicle loading condition (two occupants and 200 lb of instrumentation) prior to travel to
the test site .

TABLE 5. TYPICAL ROAD Road load tests also provided useful information on the performance
LOAD VALUES FOR
of the vehicle transmissions . The low torque values transmitted during
VEHICLE B
road load operation are obtained at high efficiency levels as reflected by
Road Engine Driveshaft the high-speed ratio across the torque converter (driveshaft speed/engine
speed speed speed speed). Typical road load values for vehicle B are given in Table 5 ; similar
(mph) (rpm) (rpm) data for the other vehicles are located in Appendix C.
20 815 646
30 1128 1016 In the case of two vehicles (from the same manufacturer) , the trans-
40 1433 1353 mission would not allow a shift into high gear at 20 mph ; consequently ,
50 1740 1689
60 2060 2020 engine speed at 20 mph was approximately 300 rpm higher. This may
70 2390 2353 decrease the fuel economy under road load conditions since the engine
torque requirement is decreased and operation is possibly at a point of
higher BSFC . It should also be noted , however , that the determination of economy benefit or degra-
dation could be obtained only by testing , and such tests were not performed . Conversation with the
manufacturer indicated that the transmission setting preventing shifting to third gear at 20 mph was
established as part of the emission control system for the vehicle .

LA-4 Chassis Dynamometer Tests

Six chassis dynamometer tests were conducted on each test vehicle to gather a variety of infor-
mation . The normal LA-4 emissions test is a cold start test approximately 23 min long. This test
was conducted followed by a 10-min period with the engine stopped . The 23 -min test was then
repeated followed by another 10-min " rest " period and then by another 23-min test . The tests.
were repeated again on another test day starting with another cold start. The " hot" tests , however,
were conducted with the air conditioning system in the maximum cooling mode with vehicle win-
dows open during the second series .

For each test, the chassis dynamometer was warmed up with an auxiliary vehicle by driving
for a minimum of 15 min at 30 mph with the dynamometer set at the appropriate inertia . The
dynamometer was then adjusted so that the horsepower setting specified in EPA regulations was
obtained at 50 mph.

After calibration checks of the dynamometer were completed , the warmup vehicle was
removed and the test vehicle was then pushed onto the chassis dynamometer . The rear tires of all

26
vehicles were inflated to 45 psi to minimize the losses incurred by deflection over the dynamometer
rolls. The driver then executed the cycle by following a preprinted speed-time trace on a strip chart
recorder.

Driver training and familiarity with the test vehicle are necessary to drive the schedule within
the EPA specified limits of ± 1 sec or ± 2 mph of the schedule . The drivers used during these tests
were all trained drivers with experience in driving the LA- 4 cycle .

The data acquired for each test consisted of engine speed , driveshaft speed , driveshaft torque,
manifold vacuum , and fuel weight consumed versus time . Analog transducers for each parameter
were installed and were FM -tape recorded on a Consolidated Electronics Corporation 11 channel
recorder. All recordings were made at 1-7/8 in. per sec (ips) . Subsequently, the analog signals were
converted to digital data by playback at 60 ips to a Raytheon MADC15-05 A/D system. These data
were then processed by a digital computer. The analysis of these data and some of its implications
will be discussed later in this section . (All of the acquired data are not reported , however, typical
results are shown in Appendix D. ) Figure 20 illustrates the test setup for a typical test . No emis-
sion tests were conducted .

Speeds were obtained by pulse generators mounted on the vehicle . Engine speed was obtained
from the ignition circuit, and driveshaft speed was obtained from a magnetic pickup which sensed
the passage of four small magnets mounted on the driveshaft. Circuitry design limitations prevented
accurate data below 375 engine rpm (an acceptable level) and 75 driveshaft rpm (approximately
2-3 mph).

CAUTION
ENTER

FIGURE 20. CHASSIS DYNAMOMETER TEST

27
 Manifold vacuum was measured by a Celesco model PLC transducer excited and amplified by
an Action Pak model 4051-217. The transducer was designed to measure positive gauge pressures ;
consequently , a calibration was performed using a U-tube manometer and vacuum pump to ensure
linearity of the transducer.

Fuel consumption was determined by a system consisting of a fuel reservoir suspended from a
6-in. long aluminum bar. The bar was instrumented with four standard 120 ohm strain gauges . The
bridge was then excited and amplified by an Action Instruments module 4051-217 .

The rear axle input torque was monitored through a model MCRT-6-02T torquemeter produced
by S. Himmelstein and Company.

The driveshaft of the test vehicle was modified to accept the torquemeter by removing a section
of tubing and installing two flanges. The torquemeter was then mounted between the flanges . The
torquemeter was a strain-gauge type using rotary transformers excited by an alternating current
carrier amplifier (Hewlett Packard 8805A) . The advertised accuracy of the unit is 0.2 percent ; how-
ever, two end-to -end calibrations were performed (static and dynamic) to ensure transducer calibra-
tion. The torquemeter is shown in Figure 21 installed in its calibration driveshaft . This installation
is in the dynamometer test stand for BSFC testing described later in the report .

All instrumentation was calibrated end-to-end to the tape recorder input . The system output
was linear with respect to the parameter being measured over the complete range of each parameter.

FIGURE 21. TORQUEMETER

28
 The LA-4 cycle , due to its transient nature , represents the most complex combination of opera-
tional requirements examined during the test phases of this study . Figure 22 illustrates two engine
parameters which are of the greatest significance in determining engine power output and fuel con-
sumption. As can be noted from this Figure , the load and speed are continuously changing , thus,
making instantaneous fuel consumption determinations a difficult proposition . To provide greater
insight into the fuel use distribution , the cycle was broken into mode intervals over which fuel use
was summed. In addition , the driveshaft rpm and torque (Figure 23 ) were also used to obtain the
instantaneous motive power for the vehicle . These power computations were integrated over the
corresponding intervals as a measure of the work done in moving the vehicle . Results for a 4500 - lb
inertia weight vehicle , during a cold start test with a load of 12.7 hp at 50 mph, are given in Table 6.

The acceleration work is 45 percent of the total motive work expended on the LA- 4 cycle , and
the cruise work is 55 percent of the total. Since there are periods of deceleration and idle where fuel
is consumed that is not useful to the motion of the automobile , the percentage of fuel consumed by
the acceleration and cruise modes will decrease . It is useful to note , however, that the total useful
work done during all modes is higher than that indicated in Table 6 , due to accessory power con-
sumption. On a energy-use basis , the modal fuel use is given in Table 7 .

The reference vehicles negotiate the acceleration ramps (~0-25 mph) of the LA-4 cycle by
operating in first and second gear. All cruises and decelerations are performed in third gear. Due to
the abrupt change in the shape of the speed required curve , the shift to third gear occurs at the top

2000

1500

1000

500

20

15

10

1
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
SECONDS
FIGURE 22. ENGINE PARAMETERS

29
 SHAFT
DRIVE

2000
-RPM

1500아

1000

500

Em

300

200

100

-100
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
SECONDS

FIGURE 23. VEHICLE PARAMETERS

speed of each acceleration . The load demands of the LA-4 cycle are not excessive with respect to
the performance capability of any of the reference vehicles. So little power is required relative to
the potential of a given vehicle that engine speeds of about 2200 rpm are the maximum encountered .
To further illustrate the power margin between the vehicle capability and the LA - 4 demands , a
"map" of the vacuum ( load) and speed of a 3500 -inertia weight vehicle with 350 CID engine was
plotted from the test data (Figure 24) . Roughly one -half of the maximum torque capability of the
installed engine is utilized in negotiating the cycle .
TABLE 6. RESULTS FOR A TABLE 7. MODAL FUEL USE
4500-LB INERTIA WEIGHT
VEHICLE
Percent of total
Fuel Used Mode
Work LA-4 fuel use
Mode
(hp-hr) (lb)
Acceleration 29
Acceleration 1.417 1.20 Cruise 54
Cruise 1.736 2.27 Deceleration 9
Deceleration 0.36 Idle
Idle 0.34

Total 3.153 4.17

30
 226 The performance capabil-
O

236 238 235 ity of the 3500-lb inertia weight

2 vehicle is superior to the 4500-lb
FULL THROTTLE
TORQUE inertia weight vehicle . Since the
motive loads are lower with the
smaller inertia weight vehicle , the
fuel consumption is obtained at
VACUUM

points of higher brake specific

fuel consumption than the mini-
(ING
)-H

mums achieved by the larger

vehicle ; this partially offsets the
O

gains obtained by lowering the

inertia requirements . Leaving the
engine size unchanged as the iner-
N

tia weight is lowered provides

little economy gain as reflected
in Table 8. These test results
are also confirmed by analytical
16
DECEL predictions such as advanced by
Ambs (Reference 12) and as
18 illustrated in Figure 25 .

20
750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 As weight is lowered , the
ENGINE RPM engine size must be decreased to
prevent an increase in performance
FIGURE 24. LA-4 CYCLE , 350 CID V8 2.73 TO 1 REAR AXLE,
3500-LB INERTIA WEIGHT capability .

One final factor of interest obtained from the LA- 4 test program is the influence of "cold"
starts versus "hot" starts. This is illustrated in Table 9.

The influence in commuter type traffic for warmed -up driving versus cold starts can be seen to
be as significant an effect as a 1000-lb inertia weight change in the automobile . Although all of the
percentage gain due to warmup is not obtainable , the potential significance of the improvement
merits the further consideration of methods which will improve warmup economy.

TABLE 8. COMPARISON OF INERTIA WEIGHT EFFECTS TABLE 9. INFLUENCE OF “COLD” STARTS

ON LA-4 ECONOMY VERSUS "HOT" STARTS
(Mileages Are Average of Two Runs)
Inertia wt Cold start Air conditioner Average
Vehicle
(lb) test (mpg) off (mpg) mpg Percent
Vehicle Cold start Hot start improvement
A(a) 4000 11.52 11.92 11.72 in mileage
D(a) 3500 12.59 12.43 12.51
c(b) 4500 10.97 10.34 10.66 A 11.72 12.51 6.7
E(b) 3500 12.09 11.16 11.63 B 10.03 10.64 6.1
C 10.65 12.00 12.6
(a) 12.5% reduction in wt results in a 7% improvement . Ꭰ 12.51 13.59 8.6
(b) 22.2% reduction in wt results in a 9% improvement. E 11.63 12.19 4.8
F 9.43 9.85 4.4

12Ambs, L. L., “Passenger Car Design Influences on Fuel Consumption and Emissions," Paper 739113 , 8th Intersociety Energy Con-
version Engineering Conference Proceedings, University of Pennsylvania, August 13-17, 1973.

31
 MILEAGE
CHANGE

20
Specific information concerning
CENT
FUEL
PER

engine warmup during LA- 4 cycle opera-

IN

15 tion is provided in Chapter 23 of this

study; it may be observed that the engine
cooling system achieves a fully warmed-up
10 condition after about one-third of the
318 CID
cycle . However, it should be noted that
the fuel economy associated with the
5 warmed-up condition cannot be achieved
on the road until all vehicle components ,
particularly those which are lubricated ,
reach an appropriate temperature .
O

400 CID
Fuel economy is generally poorer
5I

with a cold engine due to the fuel sys-

tem compromises which must be made
to assure operation . A choke is typically
-10
employed to provide a fuel/air ratio of
approximate unity in order to allow suf-
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 ficient fuel vaporization . The choking
VEHICLE WEIGHT ( LBS ) function is diminished automatically as
FIGURE 25. RESULTS OF ANALYTICAL PREDICTION the engine warms up. Both the engine
and other vehicle components , such as
gears, are affected by lubricant viscosity . Until sufficient energy has been imparted to achieve
the relatively low operating viscosity , large friction losses must be endured in these components .

Engine Load/Speed BSFC Tests

In any computational procedure for estimating fuel economy of a vehicle , it is necessary to use
engine fuel consumption data for conditions which meet the load and speed demands of the vehicle
operation. The calculation procedure described earlier explained these relationships. Data on the
performance of the 1973 -reference vehicle power plants were not available ; consequently , tests were
conducted to assess the state -of-the -art .

To facilitate this type of testing , which is highly time consuming, the engines were left in the
vehicles. This obviated the need for removal and installation time . The vehicle was positioned on a
rack , the automatic transmission and flex plate were removed , and a flywheel was installed . The
flywheel was then coupled to a Midwest Eddy Current dynamometer through a two-piece driveshaft
to complete the setup . Load was controlled by an external servo system which maintains an estab-
lished load automatically . Water temperature was controlled to 190 ± 10°F by an external heat
exchanger , and fuel consumption was monitored by the breaker and balance method . The test setup
for these tests is shown in Figure 26. No vehicle was tested until at least 4000 miles had been
accumulated . Prior to testing, ignition timing and dwell were checked and were found to be within
manufacturers specifications.

All engines (vehicles B , D , E , F) were run with power steering , water pump , fan and air pumps
operating. The alternator was disconnected to eliminate variable loading , and battery voltage was
maintained by an external source . Tests were conducted at 1000 , 1250 , 1500 , 1750 , 2000 , 2500 , and
3000 rpm with approximately eight loads replicated at each engine speed . On one engine , some of
the higher loads could not be obtained since excessive exhaust manifold temperature repeatedly

32
 FIGURE 26. ENGINE TEST APPARATUS

ignited the sparkplug wires . At the lower loads, representative of typical driving conditions, no problems
were encountered with the engine .

Figure 27 illustrates some of the data acquired on three different 350 CID engines illustrating
that substantial differences in brake specific fuel consumption are evident. The reference speed of
1500 rpm will produce a road speed of about 42 mph in the reference vehicles , near the point of maxi-
mum road load economy . Since the road loads are approximately equal , the difference in fuel con-
sumption should largely be due to the difference in engine performance . At a load of about 45 ft-lb,
the difference in BSFC is 1.05 versus 0.95 lb/hp-hr or 10 percent greater for vehicle C. Referring
back to Figure 15 , at 40 mph the difference in mileage is 18 versus 20 mpg or 10 percent . The pre-
dominant difference in fuel consumption then is attributable to the fuel use efficiency of the engine.

As a further example vehicle F is a "sporty" car and has a lower road horsepower requirement
( 10.5 hp versus 13 hp) ; however, a comparison of Figure 15 and Figure 16 illustrates that the mileage
of vehicle F is substantially lower than that of either vehicles B or C. The BSFC curve for vehicle F
indicates a BSFC of ~ 1.38 lb/hp-hr at 38 ft-lb of torque, corresponding to 40 mph road load . Calcu-
lations with the data demonstrate that over 75 percent of the difference in mileage between these
vehicles can be attributed to engine operational characteristics, that is, the difference in calibration
of the various engine systems when the engines are used in specific vehicle models.

At a constant torque of 45 ft-lb (full-size reference vehicle at ~40 mph) , the spread in mileage
will be 21 percent from the " best " to the "worst " 350 CID engine tested . These engines represent

33
 1.40

1.30

1.20

1.10
RPM
1500

1.00

.90

00
.80

34
BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70

.60

4
.50

.40
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 180
160 200
220
240 280
260
TORQUE
)-L
(FT B

FIGURE
ENGINES
THREE
FROM
DATA
27.
only single samples, however , this information does indicate that precise information on the fuel use
of the specific engine design , in meeting the load demands, is necessary to establish an accurate
mileage estimate.

Another point to consider while reviewing the operation of the engine is the influence of emis-
sion controls . The specifics of why various design changes have been incorporated are covered later
in this report ; however, the significance of one parameter on one engine was briefly tested under
this test phase. Figure 28 illustrates the improvement in fuel consumption obtained on the specific
test engine by reducing the amount of exhaust gas recirculation to zero . On this specific engine , the
improvement would be a 16-percent reduction in fuel consumption under road load conditions at
40 mph. Fuel consumption benefits at higher loads are also evident .

1.40

1.30 2

1.20

1.10
(PB
R

1.00
HL
/
)-

-I( NG
)H
A VACUUM VS. TORQUE
10

VACUUM
.90 OBSFC VS. TORQUE
• BSFC VS. TORQUE (ZERO EGR.)
BSFC

.80 12
350 CID AT 1500 RPM
70

70

.60 11 16

.50 18

.40 20
190
20

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
O

TORQUE (FT - LB)

FIGURE 28. ALTERATION OF EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION

35
 5. THE COST TO OWN AND OPERATE AN AUTOMOBILE

Methodology for the Analysis of the Cost to Own and Operate an Automobile

Notwithstanding the widespread ownership and usage of American automobiles , there exists no
generally accepted method of analyzing the costs of automobile ownership . Therefore , it is necessary
to define the methodology by which automobile ownership and operation costs are developed and
presented in this study. The methods that are described and used in this analysis draw heavily from
prior studies of a similar nature .

The most widely disseminated series of reports of automobile costs have been done by the U. S.
Department of Transportation . ( 13,14,15 ) In addition to distribution through normal government
publications , the results of these studies have been republished in Consumers Report.

Consumers Report, in addition to publishing DOT study results, began in January 1973 to include
in its evaluation of automobiles "an estimate of typical costs of new car ownership over the first two
years of operation. " ( 16) To quantify these economic considerations, many of the assumptions from
the DOT studies were used along with fuel consumption data derived from actual driving tests con-
ducted by Consumers Union .

The estimates of automobile ownership and operation costs in this Analysis are based upon:
(1 ) fuel consumption data developed from testing at SwRI ; ( 2) automobile usage assumption from
the DOT studies ; and ( 3) all costs analyzed on a pro forma basis discounting future costs.

TABLE 10. CATEGORIZATION OF THE VARIOUS The Cost Included

COST COMPONENTS OF AUTOMOBILE
OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION
This analysis of cost of owning and operation
of an automobile includes only those costs that are
Cost included in analysis Cost excluded in analysis not sensitive to geographic location or consumer use .
Table 10 categorizes all of the costs into two groups.
• Original vehicle cost • Owner purchased
• Repair and maintenance accessories The cost items excluded are those that are subject
• Replacement tires • Insurance to owner discretionary spending, the specific use of
• Gasoline Garaging and parking the automobile , and the owner's financial circum-
• Oil Toll fees
Interest lost stances. The cost items included in the analysis pro-
Registration & titling vide a financially conservative estimate of the cost
incurred in owning and operating the automobile.

Automobile Lifetime/Mileage Assumptions

In addition to the specific component of costs that are discussed in subsequent paragraphs ,
there are several assumptions that must be made to ensure an equitable comparison of alternatives
and, at the same time , maintain an accurate representation of consumer costs.

13U.S. Department of Transportation , Federal Highway Administration , Office of Highway Planning, Highway Statistics Division,
Cost ofOperating an Automobile, April 1972 , by L. L. Liston and C. L. Gauthier (Washington , D.C. , Government Printing Office,
1972).
14U. S. Department of Transportation , Federal Highway Administration , Bureau of Public Roads, Cost of Operating an Automobile,
February 1970, by E. M. Cope and C. L. Gauthier (Washington , D. C., Government Printing Office, 1970).
15Similar studies were published in 1960 and 1968 .
16"The 1973 Autos," Consumers Report , April, 1973.

37
 TABLE 11. DISTRIBUTION (%) OF 100,000-MILE LIFETIME OVER
10-YR INTERVAL

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

% 14.5 13.0 11.5 10.0 9.9 9.9 9.5 8.5 7.5 5.7

Source: DOT, Cost to operate an Automobile 1972.

Note : International Research and Technology Corporation in its study Eco-

nomic Impact of Mass Production of Alternative Low Emissions Auto-
motive Power System dated March 1973 used an automobile lifetime of 10+
years and 112,000 miles.

TABLE 12. THE ORIGINAL COST The assumed automobile lifetime and annual driving pat-
FOR REFERENCE VEHICLES
IN 1973 DOLLARS terns are taken from the 1972 DOT Cost to Operate an Auto-
mobile. The automobile has an assumed lifetime of 10 yr and
a total lifetime mileage of 100,000 miles distributed as illus-
Estimated
Description trated in Table 11 .
original cost
of car (1973)
(dollars)

Group Ifull size 4-door sedans Original Purchase Price

Ford-Galaxie 500 3880

3900 The reference vehicles tested during this project are divided
Plymouth Fury III
Chevrolet -Impala 3905 into two groups : ( 1 ) "sporty " cars and ( 2 ) full -size cars .

Group II sporty 2-door hardtops

The estimated original purchase price for each automobile
Ford-Mustang 3655 (1973 dollars) is shown in Table 12.
Dodge Challenger 3750
Chevrolet-Camaro 3700
An estimated cost of $ 3900 is used in this analysis as
Source: Southwest Research Insti- the estimate of the original cost for full-size sedan ; this cost
tute.
includes :

Four-door sedan,

Eight-cylinder engine equipped with 2 -barrel carburetor ,

Automatic transmission ,

Power brakes ,

Power steering,

Air-conditioning ,

1973 increase (average) in base cost as approved by Cost of Living Council,

Additional 20 percent of estimated dealer costs to allow for dealer markup ( 5 to 10 percent) ,
destination charges (4 to 5 percent) , makeready ( 1 to 2 percent) , and optional equipment
(10 to 15 percent) .

An estimated cost of $ 3700 is used in this analysis for the group of "sporty" type automobiles;
this cost includes :

Two-door hardtop body ,

Eight-cylinder engine , 2 -barrel carburetor ,

38
 Power steering,
Power brakes,

Automatic transmission ,

Air-conditioning ,

1973 increase (average) in base cost approved by Cost of Living Council ,

Additional 20 percent of estimated dealer cost to allow for dealer markup (5 to 10 percent) ,
destination charges (4 to 5 percent) , makeready costs ( 1 to 2 percent) , and optional equip-
ment (10 to 15 percent).

No salvage value is considered at the end of the 10-yr lifetime . It may be argued that the vehicle
still has a value of 3 to 5 percent of its original cost, but this economic benefit to the last owner will
be virtually offset by the cost to dispose of the automobile .

Repair and Maintenance

The 1972 DOT Cost of Oper-

MAINTENANCE

ating an Automobile , estimate of

repair and maintenance costs, ap-
REPAIR

pears to be the best data source. This

COST
AND

cost item is compared in Figure 29

OF

5.0
with the 1970 estimate of repair and
maintenance costs. (The 1970 esti-
)CENTS

mate has been adjusted by the change

(MILE
PER

4.0 in the private auto repair and mainte-

nance consumer price index . ) The
only significant variation in cost per
3.0 mile is in the years numbered 4 and
9 when the 1972 estimates reflect
additional one time repair.

2.0 Stanford Research Institute con-

ducted a year-long survey of over
3600 vehicles in 1968 for a consor-
1.0 tium of clients . Summary data from
the proprietary study, Opportunities
1
in the Changing Automotive After
2 3 5 6 7 9 10
Market, were entered as testimony
YEAR OF OWNERSHIP
before investigation of the Automo-
FIGURE 29. COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED COST TO PROVIDE REPAIR tive Repair Industry hearings con-
AND MAINTENANCE FOR FULL SIZE AUTOMOBILE ADJUSTED TO 1973 ducted by the Subcommittee on
Antitrust and Monopoly (U.S.
Senate) .( 17) While the data are judged to be accurate and valid , the results (adjusted for the different
years) were considerably LESS than DOT estimates. In SRI's survey, the maintenance items listed
are comparable to four line items in the DOT studies : ( 1 ) repair and maintenance , (2) tires , (3 ) oil,
and (4) accessories . A second variation in the study methods contributes to the difference of results .
The Stanford study was a cross section of all automobiles age 0 to 9 during a given calendar year ;

17U. S. Congress, Senate, Hearings, Automotive Repair Industry , 90th and 91st Congress, 1969, pp. 3548-63 .

39
whereas, the DOT study method is for one car for 10 yr. If there was a significant variation in the
maintainability of more recent autos (which is generally true) , then the Stanford results necessarily
reflect a lower average cost per vehicle .

The 1972 DOT study results for Repair and Maintenance are used . The repair and mainte-
nance cost per mile have been adjusted by the change in the consumer price index , i.e. , the 1972
average private auto repair and maintenance index - 135.1 , and the average for the first 5 months
of 1973 = 140 (a 3.6-percent increase) .

Replacement Tires

The life expectancy of the original equipment tires is estimated to be 25,000 miles. The new
car is equipped with five of these tires providing a total of 125,000 miles of tire life . This total life
divided by four tires on the ground yields an estimated 31,250 miles of travel before replacement
is required .

It is assumed that replacement tires are bought in sets of four every 28,000 miles ( 18 ) after the
initial replacement . With these assumptions , replacement tires would be required in the third year at
31,250 miles , in the sixth year at 59,250 and in the ninth year at 87,250 miles. At the end of the
10-yr period , 50 percent of the tread on the last set of tires would be remaining . No salvage value is
considered , since no provision was made in the change out schedule for a spare tire beyond the time
when the original equipment is in use.

Cost of Motor Oil

The assumed consumption rate of oil is 1 qt/ 1000 miles driven . This consumption rate is
derived from an estimated usage of 5 qt/oil change every 6000 miles, plus an additional quart of
makeup between each regular oil change . The DOT study used a cost of 49 ¢/qt . For this study , a
cost of 67 /qt is used . ( 19)

Cost of Gasoline

The 1972 DOT study assumed a cost of fuel at 26.9 ¢/gal (added to this is 7 ¢/gal state tax and
4 ¢/gal Federal tax ) for a total of 37.9 ¢/gal . The maximum 3 ¢/gal increase in retail price that was
allowed by the Cost of Living Council during 1973 is added to the 37.9 ¢/gal to update the total cost
of gasoline to 40.9 ¢/gal . The estimate of automobile ownership and operation cost published by
Consumers Report in 1973 assumes the same price of 40.9 ¢/gal for gasoline . In addition to the 1973
40.9 /gal , two alternative costs of gasoline are used : [ 1 ] the 40.9 ¢/gal increased by 5 percent/yr
for the 10-yr period (the tenth year cost would then be 53.4 ¢/gal) , and [ 2 ] a fixed 10 -yr price of
50 ¢/gal.

At the time of this writing , officials of the Federal Energy Administration are predicting an
11 ¢/gal increase to the average 43.9 ¢/gal cost of gasoline within 2 months.

18The price of Sears 2 polyester cord ply , 2 fiberglass belted F78-14 tires is used in this analysis. The Sears 1973 Fall and Winter
catalog price is $37.94 , plus $ 2.01 Federal excise tax and $ 1.30 shipping, for a total cost of $41.25 per tire. These tires are
guaranteed for 28,000 miles.
19The estimated cost of 67 4/qt of oil is derived from the Sears 1973 Fall and Winter catalog price for 10 W-40 oil, plus shipping
charges.

40
 In lieu of predicting future gasoline costs , the three alternative gasoline prices are used because
they yield a financially conservative estimate of the additional new car costs that could be incurred
to achieve fuel conservation.

If it is found that the overall acceptability of a particular fuel economy innovation hinges on
this cost factor alone , then a more detailed analysis will be conducted .

Analysis of the Estimated Cost to Own and Operate an Automobile

The basic assumptions and definition of the reference vehicles have been previously established
and include : ( 1 ) the lifetime and annual driving pattern , (2 ) the vehicle initial cost , ( 3 ) the antici-
pated repair and maintenance cost , (4) the cost of replacement tires, and ( 5 ) the cost of motor oil.
These costs are tabulated and summarized in Table 13 .

TABLE 13. NON-VARIABLE COSTS TO OWN AND OPERATE A

1973 REFERENCE VEHICLE - BY YEAR

Item Year
1 2 3 4 ༨ 8 10 Total
6 7 9

Miles driven (thousands); 14.5 13.0 11.5 10.01 9.9 9.9 9.5 8.5 7.5 57 100.0
Initial cost $3900.00 $3900.00
Repair & maintenance $ 84.10 $ 119.60 $ 251.85 $ 306.00 $ 285.12 $ 302.94 $412.30 $ 177 65 $ 253.50 $30 21 $2223 27
Replacement tires 165.00 165.00 165.00 $495.00
Motor oil 9.72 8.70 7.70 6.70 6.63 6.63 6.37 570 5.03 3.82 67.00

! Total $ 3900.00 $ 93.82 $ 128.30 $424.55 $ 312.70 $ 291.75 $474.57 $418.67 $ 183.35 $423.53 $34.03 $6685.27

The analysis of the cost to the consumer to own and operate a 1973 reference vehicle (full-size ,
four-door sedan) using the methodology heretofore developed must be examined to identify its
sensitivity to three remaining variables. These variables are ( 1 ) the discount rates for reducing costs
to present worth , (2) the cost of gasoline, and (3) the fuel consumption rate or automobile mileage.

Discount Rate of Future Costs

To examine the sensitivity to variations of the rate at which the future costs are discounted to
present value , a quantity for each of the variables (gasoline cost and mileage) must be selected and
held constant as the discount rate is allowed to change . The suggested values of discount rate shown
in the Statement of Work used are 0 , 6 , 10 and 18 percents .

Time value factors for annual compounding at an effective rate (i) per year applied to the end
of year amounts are used . These rates may be derived from the appropriate tables or the expression ;

1
Present Worth of Future Cost =
( 1 + i)n

For this examination of the variations caused by changing discount rates, the assumed cost of
gasoline is $ .409/gal and the fuel consumption rate is 14 miles/gal . Using these assumptions, the
total cost of automobile ownership and operation for the four discount rates is tabulated in Table 14.

From the data illustrated in Figure 30 , the total cost of automobile ownership , with the specific
assumptions and operating patterns described , may be expressed as a value of $ 9607 to $ 6531 ,

41
 TABLE 14. EFFECTS OF DISCOUNT RATES ON EVALUATING TOTAL
COST OF AUTOMOBILE OWNERSHIP

Year
Item Total
0 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10

Nonvariable costs $3900.00 $ 93.82 $ 128.30 $424.55 $ 312.70 | $ 291.75 $474.57 $ 418.67 $ 183.35 $423.53 $ 34.03 $6685.27
Gasoline costs(a) 423.60 379.79 335.95 297.15 289.20 289.20 277.55 248.30 219.10 166.50 2921.34
Total $3900.00 $ 517.42 $ 508.09 $ 760.50 $ 604.85 $ 580.95 $763.77 $ 696.22 $431.65 $ 642.63 $ 200.53 $9606.61

Factor-0% 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Present worth $3900.00 $517.42 $508.09 $ 760.50 $604.85 $ 580.95 $ 763.77 $ 696.22 $ 431.65 $642.63 $ 200.53 $9606.61

Factor-6% 1.0 0.9434 0.8900 0.8396 0.7921 0.7473 0.7050 0.6651 0.6274 0.5919 | 0.5584
Present worth $ 3900.00 $488.13 $452.20 $ 638.52 $ 478.56 $434.14 $ 538.46 $463.06 $ 270.82 $ 380.37 $ 111.98 $ 8156.23

Factor- 10% 1.0 0.9091 0.8264 0.7513 0.6830 | 0.6209 | 0.5645 0.5132 0.4665 | 0.4241 0.3855
Present worth $ 3900.00 $470.39 $419.89 $ 571.36 $ 413.11 $ 360.71 $431.15 $ 357.30 $ 201.36 $ 272.54 $ 77.30 $7475.11

Factor-18% 1.0 0.8475 0.7182 0.6086 0.5158 0.4371 0.3704 0.3139 | 0.2660 | 0.2295 | 0.1911
Present worth $3900.00 $ 438.51 $ 364.91 $462.84 $ 311.98 $ 253.93 $282.90 $ 218.54 $ 114.82 $ 144.91 $ 39.32 $6531.66

(a)Fuel costs: $0.409 per gallon. Fuel consumption : 14 mpg.

098765 + 32 - O

10 depending upon the rate at which future costs are dis-

9,607 counted . The 0 -percent discount rate reflects costs as
8156 though they occur simultaneously , i.e., completely
DOLLARS

$7,475
6,531 neglecting the idea that future dollars are worth less
)(000

today . The 18 -percent discount rate most appropriately

reflects the consumer cost of financing nondurable goods
and is, therefore , too high a discount rate for consumer
transportation . The 6-percent discount rate is not high
enough; 6-percent more nearly reflects the yield on con-
0% 6% 10% 18% sumer savings which is always 2 to 4 percent below the
DISCOUNT RATE cost of money to the same consumer. Therefore , for
FIGURE 30. PRESENT WORTH OF TOTAL the remainder of this analysis of automobile costs to
COST OF AUTOMOBILE OWNERSHIP AT the consumer, all future costs will be discounted at a
SELECTED DISCOUNT RATES rate of 10 percent/yr.

The Cost of Gasoline

The second variable to be considered is the cost of gasoline . No attempt is made to predict what
gasoline prices will be at any future time . Three alternative gasoline costs are assumed , and their
impact on automobile ownership costs is examined . First , the estimated 1973 gasoline price of
$0.409 ¢/gal is used ; second an arbitrary $ 0.500/gal is chosen ; and the third alternative is the $ 0.409/gal
increased at 5 percent/yr compounded annually. (The 5 -percent annual increase equals the average
annual increase in the Consumer Price Index for the years 1967 through 1972. )

The annual gasoline cost in 1973 dollars (discount rate equals 0 percent ) is illustrated in Figure 31
for the three alternative pricing assumptions.

As with the prior sensitivity analysis , as the price of gasoline is allowed to vary , all other variables
are fixed . In this case , the fixed costs include the nonvariable costs from Table 13 with all future

42
 600

DOLLARS
500

400

1
300 -ATA.

200 T
O 0.409 / GAL + 5 %/ YEAR
Δ $ 0.409/ GAL
100 0.500/ GAL
1 1 1. T
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
YEAR
FIGURE 31. COST OF GASOLINE BY YEAR FOR THREE PRICING
ALTERNATIVES ( 1973 DOLLARS)

costs discounted at 10 percent . The tabulation of the remaining variable , total gasoline cost, at the
three selected prices is shown in Table 15 .
TABLE 15. TOTAL GASOLINE COSTS AT SELECTED FUEL COSTS(a)
Year
Item Total
0 2 3 6 7 8 9

Present worth factor- 10% 0.9091 0.8266 0.7513 0.6830 | 0.6209 | 0.5645 0.5132 0.4665 0.4241 0 3855
Gasoline cost:
$0.409 per gal $423.61 $ 379.79 $ 335.96 $ 292.14 $ 289.22 $ 289.22 $ 277.54 $ 248.32 $219.11 166.52 $ 2921 43
Present worth 385.09 313.86 252.40 199.54 179.56 163.25 142.44 115.831 92.92 64 19 190º.08

$0.500 per ga $ 517.85 $ 464.28 $410.71 $ 357.14 $ 353.57 $ 353.57 $ 339.29 $ 303.57 $267.86 $203.57 $3571.23
Present worth 470.78 383.69 308.57 243.93 219.53 199.59 174.12 141.62 13.60 78.48 2336.91

$0.409 per gal plus

5% annual inflation $423.61 $398.82 $ 370.46 $ 338.29 $ 351.66 $ 369.27 | $ 372.06 $349.53 $ 323.84 $258.41 $ 3555.95
Present worth 385.09 329.59 278.33 231.05 218.35 208.45 190.94 163.06 137.34 99.62 2241 32

(a) Fuel consumption rate: 14 mpg

10 The nonvariable costs and the fuel cost for

- HOUSANDS

the three pricing alternatives are combined and

DOLLARS

9
discounted to illustrate the effect of various gaso-
line prices on the total cost of automobile owner-
T

ship and operation . These results are illustrated

7

$ 7475 $ 7900 $ 7808 in Figure 32.

6

From Figure 3 , it is apparent that there is

5

no significant difference in the total cost of auto-

mobile ownership and operation if a gasoline cost
3

of $0.500/gal for 10 yr, or the alternative of the

initial cost of $ 0.409 /yr, inflated at a rate of
2

5 percent/yr for the 10-yr period is used . With

-

all the existing uncertainties concerning gasoline

prices, the most reasonable alternative is the one
.409 .500 409+ which starts with a good estimate of present cost
5% /YEAR
and increases at a uniform rate over the study
GASOLINE PRICE ( / GALLON )
period . Therefore , for the remainder of this analy-
FIGURE 32. EFFECT OF GASOLINE PRICING ON
sis the cost of gasoline is assumed to be $ 0.409
THE TOTAL COST OF AUTOMOBILE
OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION inflated at a rate of 5 percent/yr.

43
 Gasoline Consumption Rates

The final independent variable , and the primary objective of this an alysis, is gasoline consump-
tion rates. As with the previous examinations, the determination of the sensitivity of ownership
cost to various fuel consumption rates will be made with all other variables fixed . All future costs
are discounted to present worth at a rate of 10 percent. Gasoline prices start at $ 0.409/gal and
increase at a rate of 5 percent/yr compounded annually. The tabulation of gasoline costs at con-
sumption rates of 6 to 30 miles/gal is illustrated in Table 16 .

TABLE 16. TOTAL GASOLINE COST AT SELECTED FUEL CONSUMPTION

RATES IN 1973 AND DISCOUNTED DOLLARS

Cost Miles per gallon

6 10 14 18 22 26 30

Present dollars ( 1973) $ 8297.22 $4978.34 $3555.95 $2765.75 $2262.88 $ 1914.76 $ 1659.45

Present worth at
10% discount rate 5230.92 3138.56 2241.83 1743.62 1426.61 1207.12 1046.19

Fuel price: $ 0.409 per gallon , increased 5% annually.

Total cost of gasoline over a 10 -yr period at

- HOUSANDS
9

various consumption rates is shown graphically in

DOLLARS
∞

Figure 33.
▲ 1973 DOLLARS
O DISCOUNTED 10 %
The impact of various fuel consumption rates
T

on the total cost of ownership is illustrated in

Figure 34.
1

Conclusion
T

The apparent additional increment first cost

3

that the consumer can pay for fuel conserving inno-

2 vations and not increase his total ownership and
operation cost is shown in Table 17. These allowable
-

additional first costs are shown for vehicle mileage

improvement with respect to 10 , 14 , and 18 mpg.
2 10 14 18 22 26 30
MILES PER GALLON Using the data from Table 17, three examples
of the incremental additional initial purchase price
FIGURE 33. TOTAL GASOLINE COST FOR that could be paid if fuel consumption were reduced
100,000-MILE LIFETIME AT VARIOUS
FUEL CONSUMPTION RATES are illustrated in the upper section of Figure 35. The
three examples show the various incremental first
costs allowable as a function of the increased mileage with respect to initial mileage rates of 10 ,
14, and 18 mpg. For an automobile which presently operates at 14 mpg , if a fuel consumption rate
could be achieved at an initial cost to the consumer of $ 500 the total cost of automobile owner-
ship and operation would not be increased .

In the lower section of Figure 35 the composite fuel consumption for each of the six refer-
ence vehicles (A through F) is illustrated . The derivation of the composite fuel consumption data
for each vehicle is described elsewhere in this report.

44
 TABLE 17. ALLOWABLE INCREMENTAL ADDITIONAL FIRST
COSTS FOR INCREASED FUEL ECONOMY ABOVE
10 MPG , 14 MPG , AND 18 MPH

Additional Additional Additional

Non-
Vehicle Gasoline Total costs with costs with costs with
variable
mileage costs costs respect to respect to respect to
costs
(mpg) ($) ($) 10 mpg 14 mpg 18 mpg
($)
($) ($) ($)
”
10 5,566 3,138 8,704 0 ---
4822

14 5,566 2,242 7,808 896 0

18 5,566 1,744 7,310 1,394 498 0
5,566 1,427 6,993 1,711 815 317
26 5,566 1,207 6,773 1,931 1,035 537

Note: All costs are discounted to present worth at 10%.

10
- HOUSANDS
DOLLARS

9
B
T
ས6

$ 8705 7808 $ 7310 $6993

10
3
T
2

10 14 18 22
AUTOMOBILE MILEAGE - MPH

FIGURE 34. THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS FUEL CONSUMPTION RATES ON

THE TOTAL COST OF AUTOMOBILE OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION

45
 20

-HUNDREDS
18

DOLLARS
16

14

12

10
B
6

10 18 22 26

D 15.57
A 14.65
-E 13.60
-B 12.76
REFERENCE VEHICLE
C 12.59 COMPOSITE FUEL
-F 11.80 ECONOMY

10 14 18 22 26
VEHICLE MILEAGE ( MILES PER GALLON )

FIGURE 35. ALLOWABLE INCREMENTAL ADDITIONAL COSTS TO REALIZE

INCREASED FUEL ECONOMY AT CONSTANT TOTAL COST TO THE
CONSUMER WITH REFERENCE VEHICLE COMPOSITE FUEL
CONSUMPTION DATA SHOWN

46
 6. CONSIDERATIONS IN PREDICTING PREPRODUCTION LEAD TIME FOR
INCORPORATION OF FUEL ECONOMY INNOVATIONS

Introduction

Assuming that the automobile manufacturers are motivated for economic or competitive reasons
to incorporate innovations which would increase automobile fuel economy , consideration must be
given to the amount of time and effort which must be expended before these innovations could be
included in a production model. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the preproduction lead
time necessary for the incorporation of a selected group of fuel economy innovations.

Product Development Lead Time

Many of the concepts and innovations which must be considered in increasing automobile fuel
economy have not yet been developed to the point where they can be included into a production line
automobile . For this reason , when considering lead times as necessary to design , develop , and con-
struct vehicles incorporating fuel conserving innovations , it is necessary to allow time for necessary
basic research and development . Once an innovation has been developed to the point that feasibility
is assured , it can then enter into a normal product development lead time cycle of the given auto-
mobile manufacturer. Product development lead time is defined as the total time required for the
development of a product from the initial formulation of the production design concept to the pro-
duction of the first unit . This lead time is generally 36 to 48 months in duration and can be divided
into eight major steps or phases. Therefore , by including the basic R&D necessary , the total lead
time required to develop more efficient automobiles consists of nine phases with a total time dura-
tion of at least 4 yr. These nine phases are described as follows :

( 1) Basic Research and Development . Basic R& D is a continuous ongoing process in the auto-
mobile industry in which all ideas must compete for R&D funds . It is often difficult to
determine when work on a specific idea begins or how long it will take to develop this
idea to the point that it can be included in the planning for a production automobile . For
the innovations included in this paper , consideration will be given to the amount of R&D
which may be necessary to prove feasibility for a production operation.

(2) Research and Advanced Development. This phase has its inception in the infinite R&D
timespan. It can best be defined as beginning at the time products of the R& D effort
are identified as needed or desirable and are included as a part of a specifically identified
production package .

(3) Product Concept Development. This is the time at which the basic product concepts are
developed into a package , or a set of basic assumptions, which begin to look like an auto-
mobile , has specific features and dimensions , etc. , and costs . It is at this stage that deter-
minations are made on product lines , styles , performance characteristics , power plants,
and other things of that nature . This phase involves marketing people , engineering people ,
and management people.

(4) Structural Development /Preliminary Design . This is the phase in which the product con-
cepts are put into a tentative final form . The results of this phase are the models and/or
prototypes to be presented to management for approval of the program.

47
 (5) Program Approval. At this point , management must decide whether or not to continue
with the product program development . Once the decision is made , there is a full commit-
ment to detailed engineering , tooling , and resource allocation . As this approval consti-
tures a commitment to basic concepts and design , the ease of effecting the changes beyond
this point steadily decreases .

(6) Detailed Engineering . During this phase , the approved program is converted into the
necessary tools , dies , jigs , fixtures , parts , and facilities which are necessary to produce the
product . Designs are finalized and prototypes are tested . Also at this time other areas ,
such as marketing, are beginning to make their plans for selling the product .

(7) Parts Procurement/Tool Construction Installation and Testing. This phase involves making
the necessary arrangements with various suppliers and vendors for the parts necessary in
the production of the product . Arrangements must also be made with tool makers to
obtain the necessary major forming and other dies. While some of the larger companies
have tooling capabilities , all manufacturers to some extent rely on outside tooling sources
to obtain the necessary equipment . Plans are also made during this time for the manu-
facturing facilities and production lines necessary for the product production .

(8) Pilot Assembly . Pilot assembly begins when tools are received , and facilities are made
available for the construction of the necessary assembly lines . Pilot assembly determines
if the product will go together in a production operation . A few pilot models are used to
test the output of the production tooling . These models are also used to ensure that engi-
neering specifications will be met in the production model .

(9) Production Buildup . This is the final step in the product development lead time . It is
during this time that the facilities which were formerly used for the production of
earlier model products are committed to the production of the present line . This phase
is primarily concerned with the mechanics of large -scale production and rarely , if ever,
has impact on the final configuration of the product.

Product development lead time in the automotive industry has an average length of approxi-
mately 48 months. Major innovations or significant product changes , such as the development of a
new type of engine , could require a considerably longer development time . This is due mainly to
the fact that more than one product development cycle might be involved . Also , there is a rather
nebulous dividing line between basic research and development and the research and advance develop-
ment which marks the beginning of the planning of a particular product line . It must be remembered
that the phases listed above are not necessarily sequential but rather are overlapping , the amount of
overlap depending on the particular product being developed . A typical automobile development
cycle is shown in Figure 36.

48
 DEVELOPMENT
PRODUCT
RESEARCH
ADVANCED
AND TIME
LEAD
DEVELOPMENT
PRODUCTION
PROGRAM
PRODUCT
CONCEPTUAL-
IZATION PRODUCTION
LEAD
TIME
DEVELOPMENT
CONCEPT
CAR
/
DESIGN
PRELIMINARY
MANUFACTURER
APPROVAL
PROGRAM
CAR COMMITMENT
‫זזזזזזזזז‬
PRODUCTION
/
ENGINEERING PRODUCTION
TESTING
PROTOTYPE
CAR TIME
LEAD
REFERENCE

49
PARTS
PROCUREMENT
/TOOL
CONSTRUCTION
I
, NSTALL-
TRYOUT
AND
ATION
ASSEMBLY
PILOT
PRODUCTION
BUILDUP
48 36 24 12
AUG
1,1
. 975 .1,1979
AUG
MONTHS
PRODUCTION
VEHICLE
TO
FIGURE
PROCESS
ENGINEERING
INDUSTRIAL
AUTOMOTIVE
36.
 7. FUEL ECONOMY OF CARBURETED SPARK- IGNITION ENGINES

General

This section will discuss in general terms the performance and the factors that influence the
performance of the conventional automobile engine . This engine is a carbureted , spark-ignition
(S.I.) engine with multiple reciprocating pistons.

Although the consequences to engine efficiency and power of the primary effects to be dis-
cussed below are well documented in textbooks and technical papers, a brief review of these effects
is considered necessary in order to clearly delineate the characteristics of the engine , as well as to
provide a foundation for later discussions of
engine modifications.

Theoretical Cycle Efficiency

The theoretical operating cycle of the car-

bureted S.I. engine is shown in Figure 37 as a plot
of combustion chamber pressure and combustion
chamber volume .

A gas pressure at P₁ and volume V₁1 is com-

pressed by a piston to pressure P2 , volume V2 . At
2 this point , heat is added to the gas and the gas pres-
sure, consequently , increases to P3 at constant
volume. The piston is then allowed to retract while
the gas performs work on the piston as it expands
to pressure P4 and volume V₁ . The gas is then
cooled at constant volume to pressure P₁ to begin
FIGURE 37. PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM the cycle over again.

A simple thermodynamic analysis of this cycle shows that the cycle efficiency (nt) is :

k- 1
η= 1 ( 1)
(4
)*-

where r is the compression ratio (V2 /V₁ ) and k is the ratio of the specific heats of the gas being used .
Thus, for the theoretical cycle , the efficiency is dependent only upon the compression ratio and a
gas property. The power (P) developed by the theoretical engine is:

P = Qnt (2)

where Q is the heat added to the gas , per unit time.

For later reference , the effect of equation ( 1 ) is shown in Figure 38 using a mixture of fuel
and air in the combustion chamber.

Note that the efficiency first increases sharply with compression ratio , then less strongly as the
compression ratio becomes larger.

51
 0.65 Factors Affecting Actual Engine Performance
EFFICIENCY

0.60 The theoretical cycle just discussed cannot

THERMAL

be achieved in practice, and Figure 38 represents

0.55 the idealized theoretical limits of efficiency . The
CYCLE
FUEL

various phenomena that affect the efficiency of a

IR

real engine will be discussed below.

-
A

0.50
T

Actual Working Fluid

0.45
T

In the idealized theoretical cycle , the gas

0.40 was heated to increase the cycle pressure from P2
to P3 . In a real engine , the working fluid is a
I-OCTANE FUEL
0.35 INLET PRESS. 1.0 ATM. mixture of fuel and air which is burned to in-
INLET TEMP. 700 ° R crease the pressure . Equation (2 ) can be expanded
FR= 1.0
to account for the fact that the heat added (Q)
0.30
comes from the combustion of fuel :

0.25 1
10 15 20 25 30 Q = C(V₂ — V₁ ) No , Fhy (3 )
COMPRESSION RATIO
where C is a constant ; (V₂ - V₁ ) is the engine
FIGURE 38. EFFICIENCY AS A FUNCTION OF
COMPRESSION RATIO "displacement"; N is the rotational speed of the
engine in revolutions per minute ; p , is the density
0.65 of the air at the pressure P , and temperature T₁ ;
F is the weight ratio of fuel to air in the mixture ;
EFFICIENCY

0.60 1 -OCTANE FUEL and hy is the "heating value " of the fuel , i.e. , the
THERMAL

INLET PRESS. 1.0 ATM . quantity of heat released by burning a unit weight
INLET TEMP. 700 ° R
r = 8.0 of fuel. Then ,
0.55
CYCLE
FUEL
- IR

P = C(V₂2 — V₁ ) Np , Fhynt (4)

A

0.50
The very high gas temperatures attained.
0.45 during combustion cause an increase in the spe-
cific heat of the gases as well as dissociation of
0.40 some of the molecules of burnt products. Both
T

these effects limit the maximum temperature

below the theoretical temperature that would be
0.35
attained in the absence of the effects and hence
reduce efficiency . From equation (3 ) , one would
0.30 expect that a reduction in F would reduce these
effects and , therefore , improve the efficiency .
0.25 That this is correct can be seen from Figure 39 ,
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 which shows calculated efficiencies for a range
RELATIVE FUEL- AIR RATIO
of fuel/air ratios .
FIGURE 39. EFFICIENCY AS A FUNCTION OF
FUEL AIR RATIO
In a real engine , all of the products of com-
bustion are not exhausted at the end of the ex-
pansion stroke , and the fresh gases in the next cycle will include a small fraction of burned gases from
the previous cycle . The presence of this residual fraction can be detrimental to performance.
Further, the mixing of fuel and air is never complete , and the fuel is frequently not completely

52
vaporized. Thus, the actual working fluid may consist of fuel/air mixture , gas residuals , air , vapor-
ized fuel , and liquid fuel.

Incomplete Combustion

In every real engine, the combustion products passing the exhaust valve contain some compounds
that could be further oxidized to release heat. If these compounds were burnt at V₁ , the efficiency
and power output of the engine would be improved . However, even though these incompletely
reacted emissions (unburned hydrocarbons , CO , C ) are judged to be environmentally hazardous, the
quantity of these emissions is such that the engine efficiency and power is only slightly affected .
One estimate 20 is that theoretical efficiency is lowered about 1.5 percent by this cause at 40 mph
steady cruise. Note that this improvement is not necessarily gained by the addition of emission
controls , since burnup of combustible emissions may not be carried out near piston top center.

Time Losses

The theoretical cycle (Figure 37) required that burning (or heat addition) be accomplished at
constant volume or equivalently , that combustion be instantaneous . High burning rates in a real
engine cause high-frequency engine vibration and noise , as well as high stresses on engine parts, and
are , therefore , undesirable . (Diesel engines usually have relatively high burning rates. This charac-
teristic contributes to engine noise but may contribute a small amount to their increased efficiency . )

Again, the theoretical cycle calls for constant volume exhaust of the burnt products . This
characteristic is only approached by real engines due to limitations in valve opening speed and valve
port area.

These real effects will be called " time losses ," since they involve rate processes . The deviation
from the constant-volume events of the theoretical cycle reduces the area within the cycle loop of
Figure 37 ; hence the power output and efficiency are reduced . At high power outputs, these losses
may represent about a 5-percent loss in efficiency from the theoretical cycle , although this loss will
vary widely from engine to engine , as well as with speed and load.

Heat Losses

The engine structure (cylinders, cylinder heads , pistons) must be maintained at temperatures
much lower than the peak combustion gas temperature in order to preserve structural integrity , to
prevent excessive deterioration of lubricating oil , and to reduce detonation tendency . Therefore ,
the high temperature combustion gas loses heat to these components, which reduces the efficiency
and power output of the engine.

In general , percentage heat losses (heat loss compared to total heat release in the cylinder)
decrease strongly as engine speed increases. This decrease in percentage heat loss is evident even
though the thermal resistance of the heat path is reduced . The reduction occurs because the fuel
input increases with speed at a greater rate than the heat loss. Also , percentage heat loss decreases
slightly with load increase (at constant speed) , because the heat loss does not increase as fast as
the total heat input with increasing load. Heat losses have widely varying effects upon engine
efficiency, depending upon engine design and operating conditions , but a rough estimate for

20
Cleveland and Bishop , "Several Possible Paths to Improved Part-Load Economy of Spark-Ignition Engines," SAE Paper 150A,
March 1960.

53
 efficiency loss is 6 percent at midload , mis-speed conditions , compared to an engine without
heat losses.

Pumping Losses

The air that passes through the engine experiences pressure drops due to the restrictions of the
air cleaner , carburetor , throttle valve , inlet and exhaust manifolds , inlet and exhaust valves , muffler
and tailpipe . These pressure losses , when multiplied by a suitable volume flow rate , give the power
required for the pumping losses . Pumping losses increase with increasing speed and decreasing load
(the latter due to the increased loss across the throttle valve ) .

Pumping losses represent a very significant por-

tion of the overall engine friction at light loads.
Part of the fuel economy advantage the diesel enjoys
over the carbureted engine is due to the reduction of
BSFC

pumping losses .

The increase of pumping losses with reduced

load in a carbureted engine , combined with the use
of richer fuel/air mixtures at low load (see Section
C.7 . ) , can lead to some apparently inconsistent
engine behavior. Consider the curve of Figure 40
for a carbureted engine at constant speed . Assume
BHP that the engine is operating at point 1 and that the
required horsepower of the engine is reduced to
FIGURE 40. CARBURETED ENGINE BSFC AT
CONSTANT SPEED point 2 by, say, the reduction of aerodynamic drag
or rolling resistance . The engine now operates at a
higher bsfc (bsfc₂ > bsfc₁ ) . Even so , it would be expected that the fuel consumption rate ( lb/hr)
would be reduced . The fuel rate (in lb/hr) will be termed f:

ihp
fa (isfc) (ihp) α
nt

where nt is the thermal efficiency .

=
Since ihp bhp + fhp:

bhp + fhp
fα
ητ

then

f₁nt₂
= (bhp , + fhp₁ )
f2 nt (bhp2 + fhp2 )

In moving from point 2 to point 1 , throttling losses increase (fhp2 > fhp , ) , brake horsepower
decreases (bhp2 < bhp , ) , and the thermal efficiency may decrease due to richer fuel/air mixtures
(nt > nt2 ) . If the effect of the decrease in thermal efficiency and the increase in friction horse-
power is greater than the effect of reduced brake horsepower, f₂ will be greater than f₁ , and the
reduction in load will actually increase fuel consumption .

54
 This effect is not unusual at low engine loads where throttling losses are a major portion of the
total engine friction loss .

Mechanical Friction Losses

Mechanical friction losses include journal-bearing friction , piston friction , piston ring friction,
and valve gear friction . Other losses such as oil sloshing , oil pumping , and water pumping are in-
cluded . Of these , the most significant friction loss is attributed to the piston and rings . Data21
from widely diverging types of engines indicate that of the total loss attributed to pistons, rings ,
bearings, and valve gear , the piston and ring loss comprise some 75 percent over the speed range of
the engine .

All friction losses tend to become larger with increased piston speed . Losses from pistons and
rings are no exception and these losses are further influenced by cylinder pressure . As cylinder pres-
sure increases, the compression rings are forced outward with greater force , and friction losses are
higher. Thus, increases in engine power enlarge the friction losses of the piston and rings . Increases
in oil viscosity also result in higher friction losses .

The effect of engine stroke and bore is a little more involved . Piston speed (s) is defined as

s = 2NS

where N is engine speed in rpm and S is the piston stroke . Engines with the same bore but different
strokes have the same piston and ring friction at the same piston speed . At the same engine speed ,
the engine with the smaller stroke-bore ratio has the lesser friction . However, since maximum engine
speeds are limited by piston speeds for acceptable life and adequate ring performance , this distinc-
tion has little real importance .

If two engines of different size , similar in all respects , are run at the same engine speed and
imep with the same lubricant, the engine with the larger bore will have a reduced percentage friction
loss (percentage friction loss is friction horsepower divided by indicated horsepower) . The reduction
in percentage friction loss will be in proportion to the ratio of the bores of the two engines . This
effect is small in the range of cylinder bores used in automobile engines .

It should be noted that some aircraft engines have percentage friction losses that are signifi-
cantly lower than conventional automobile engines . This is primarily due to light reciprocating
parts , large piston -to -cylinder clearances , short pistons, and light ring pressure . However, these
changes result in a higher level of engine noise and possibly reduced lubricant life and higher lubri-
cant consumption .

Automotive engines typically use two " compression " rings (rings designed primarily to seal
combustion chamber pressures) and one oil control ring (a ring that limits the oil flow into the com-
bustion chamber) . Without a breakthrough in ring design , a decrease in the number of rings presently
used will lead to high blowby and oil consumption.

Fuel/Air Ratio Variations

In the section on actual working fluids , page 52 , the benetical effect of reduced fuel/air ratios
upon efficiency was discussed . In this section , some practical considerations of fuel/air ratio will be made .

21.
Taylor, C. F., The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition, M.I.T. Press.

55
REQUIRED
ENERGY

One ofthe most important phenom-

IGNITE
SPARK

ena associated with the carbureted , S.I.

TO

engine is the general relationship shown

in Figure 41 .

This curve shows that , given a cer-

LIM
LEA

IT
LIM H
tain level of spark energy in the engine

RIC
IT
N

ignition system, a certain range of fuel/air

ratios are ignitable . Higher spark energies
will ignite a wider range . At some mini-
mum spark energy , there is no fuel/air
ratio that can be ignited . It is also impor-
tant to note that different fuels have widely
DRAWN FOR A differing characteristics in this regard .
SPECIFIC FUEL
AND ENGINE For instance , hydrogen-air mixtures will
CONDITION ignite over a much broader range of
fuel/air ratios than gasoline/air mixtures .
A great many other factors influence the
FA RATIO
shape of the curve as well , and some of
FIGURE 41. ENERGY REQUIRED FOR IGNITION these will be discussed below.

Conventional S.I. carbureted engines operate in the relative fuel/air ratio range of from about
0.9 to 1.3 . (Relative fuel/air ratio , FR, is the ratio of the actual fuel/air ratio used to the stoichio-
metric fuel/air ratio . ) These limits are dictated by a number of things, other than the ignitable
limits of the mixture . Reduction in FR reduces the flame speed and thus contributes to increased
time losses (see Time Losses , page 53 ) . Carbureted multicylinder engines are troubled by problems
in obtaining even fuel and air distribution , consequently , the fuel/ air ratio varies from cylinder to
cylinder. As one tries to operate the engine on leaner mixtures , misfires will begin first on the
leanest-running cylinder. This will occur at an overall engine fuel/air ratio well above the lean limit
of ignition determined by more controlled and precise methods .

A number of other factors influence the lean limit of operation of a carbureted S.I. engine .
Increase in inlet air temperature lowers the lean limit22. An increase in charge turbulence at the
time of ignition can increase the ignitable mixture range , but has detrimental effects upon heat
losses and pumping losses . Charge turbulence tends to make the fuel/air mixture more homogeneous
and reduces the chance of misfires due to the ignition spark firing in local zones of too-rich or too-
lean mixtures .

The fuel/air ratios used in automobile engines vary with operating requirements :

At idle and low loads, a rich mixture is required for consistent engine operation without mis-
fires. This is due to the reduced intake manifold pressure ( closed throttle) which causes a portion
of the exhaust gases to expand into the intake manifold so that the "fresh " charge of fuel/air mix-
ture contains a relatively high percentage of burnt gases from the previous cycle . This " charge
dilution" affects the heat content per unit volume of the mixture so that reliable combustion
requires richer fuel/air mixtures . High valve overlap further increases the charge dilution and in-
creases the required fuel/air ratio . At mid-range or cruise conditions, charge dilution is small and
leaner mixtures can be used to improve fuel economy.

22Warren , Glenn B., "Fuel Economy Gain from Heated Lean Air/Fuel Mixtures in Motorcar Operation," ASME Paper 65 -WA/APC- 1 .

56
 At full load, the mixture is again made richer. This is done to develop the maximum power
capabilities of the engine . Qualitative explanation of this requirement can be obtained from Equa-
tion (4) and from Figure 39. From Equation (4 ) , it is seen that power is proportional to the product
Fnt. The product Fnt is maximized at a FR of about 1.1 (reference Figure 39 ) which is somewhat
richer than stoichiometric. In real engines, due to fuel distribution problems, the actual relative
fuel/air ratio used is somewhat higher.

The real engine also has a set of transient operating mixture requirements. For cold starting ,
a very rich mixture is required , since the low air temperatures produce reduced fuel evaporation and
the cold walls of the inlet manifold make the problem more severe . Fuel/air ratios of 1.0 (FR = 15)
may be needed under these conditions , and the carburetor is provided with a choke to produce this
mixture. During warmup , while the inlet manifold walls become warmer, the fuel/air ratio must be
progressively decreased .

In steady-state operation , the inlet manifold walls are covered with a film of liquid fuel . At
higher manifold pressures (higher loads) , the quantity of liquid fuel on the wall is greater because
of the greater total fuel flow and the reduced propensity for evaporation at the higher manifold
pressure . Upon acceleration by the sudden opening of the throttle , the mixture in the cylinder will
become leaner because of the relatively low velocity of the fuel film on the wall . This effect will
cause misfiring of the engine , unless provisions are made to provide a richer mixture during accelera-
tion. This is done by the accelerator pump , which throws in a quantity of fuel when the throttle is
opened . Note that the need for acceleration enrichment is greatly reduced or possibly eliminated
by fuel injection systems that introduce the fuel into the combustion chamber or into the inlet
port very near the inlet valve .

Spark Plug Effects

Spark plug design affects the mixture ratios at which ignition can occur. The so -called " quench "
distance (the distance from a cool surface within which flame will not propagate) plays a role in the
choice of sparkplug gap location , the size of the plug gap , and the detail design of the plug gap and
surrounding insulation.

The voltage at the sparkplug gap has two primary characteristics : rise time to the "breakdown "
voltage where the arc is established , and the duration of the arc. Fast voltage rise time is helpful in
firing fouled plugs . Short arc duration (at high energy levels) tends to cause higher gas temperatures
between the plug gaps without detriment to plug life . However, long arc duration has proven to be
beneficial in achieving reliable ignition of lean mixtures23 . The reason for this is found in the
previous discussion of fuel/air ratios: the actual fuel/air mixture is nonhomogeneous , and a long
arc duration has a better chance of "finding " a suitable mixture ratio for ignition . This effect is
enhanced as the fuel/air mixture becomes more fuel-lean .

As is well known , spark advance or retard has a strong effect upon engine performance . The
goal is to achieve a close approach to constant-volume combustion (see Theoretical Cycle Efficiency ,
page 51 ) , without excessive engine noise caused by high pressure rise rates . Since complete com-
bustion of the mixture requires a finite time due to the relatively slow flame speed , the spark must
occur before the piston reaches top center . The number of degrees of crankshaft revolution required
for complete burning of the fuel/air charge increases slightly with engine speed , decreases with load ,
and increases with leaner fuel/air mixtures . At every operating condition , there is a single spark

23Craver, R. J. , et al , "Spark Plug Design Factors and Their Effect on Engine Performance, " SAE Paper 700081 .

57
 1.10 timing for best power output (see Fig-
ure 42) . Since for constant speed and throt-
FRACTION
MAXIMUM

tle setting, bsfc is inversely related to bmep ,

1.00
MEP

0.98- the point of maximum bmep is also the

4.70
,OF

point of minimum bsfc. Spark timing also

B

0.95
has a strong effect upon exhaust emissions,
-11.5°-
0.90 as will be discussed later.
-16.5°-
Fuel Effects
-20.3 °

TIMING
0.80 . OWER
24°. SPARK The carbureted S.I. engine is affected
MAX

by the following fuel characteristics :

P

0.70
Volatility
Detonability
0.60 Pre-ignition characteristics
Heat of combustion
Heat of evaporation
0.50L
-30 -20 -10 +10 +20Volatility affects starting and warmup
RETARD ADVANCE
performance of the engine , with fuels of
DEGREES FROM MAXIMUM POWER
low volatility causing difficult starting and
FIGURE 42. CORRELATION FOR ALL SPEEDS AND LOADS long warmup periods (the period neces-
sary to reach the designed steady-state inlet
manifold temperature ) . Fuels of low volatility also cause crankcase oil dilution , while high
volatility fuels can produce vapor lock , evaporation losses, and fire hazard .

The detonation characteristics of fuels have been extremely influential in the development of
the carbureted S.I. engine . The compression ratio of engines has, in general , increased over the years
in response to the availability of higher octane fuels. Detonation , or engine "knock ," is a result of
the extremely fast combustion of the last of the fuel/air mixture to burn (the "end gas " ) . As the
flame moves across the combustion chamber , the end gas is compressed by the increasing combus-
tion pressures and is thereby heated . Given enough time and a high enough temperature , the end
gas will spontaneously and simultaneously explode , and this explosion produces a pressure wave in
the combustion gas that is audible as a knocking sound . The resistance of a fuel/air mixture to
knocking performance is measured by the octane number. Higher octane numbers reflect higher
resistance to knock . Given a certain octane number, the engine load at which knocking begins will
decrease with any change that increases end gas temperature or increases the time between the
induction of the fuel/air mixture and the arrival of the flame at the end gas location . Thus , the
knocking tendency is enhanced when compression ratio is increased (higher temperature ) , engine
speed is decreased (longer time ) , inlet air temperatures are increased (higher temperature ) , spark
timing is advanced (higher temperature ) , coolant temperature is increased (higher temperature) ,
fuel/air ratio is decreased (slower flame speed , therefore longer time) , and so forth . Knock is objec-
tionable, not only from the noise it produces but due to the fact that prolonged knocking operation
can seriously damage engine pistons , as well as lead to pre-ignition .

Pre-ignition is the early ignition of the fuel/air mixture before the spark . It is caused by the
presence of an overheated surface in the combustion chamber. Knocking operation tends to over-
heat surfaces of the combustion chamber, which leads to pre-ignition. Since pre-ignition has the
same effect as an overly advanced spark timing, pre-ignition further strengthens the knocking

58
phenomena. Pre-ignition is very sensitive to fuel composition but it is not a simple function of
octane number.

The product of heat of combustion and fuel/air ratio affects directly the power output of the
engine [ see Equation ( 4 ) ] . In a carbureted S.I. engine , the range of fuel/air ratios is limited to those
in the ignitable range , as already discussed . Both these factors depend upon the fuel type . However,
the product of Fchy , where Fc is the stoichiometric fuel/air ratio and hy is the lower heating value of
the fuel, has a range of only 1210 Btu/lb to 1755 Btu/lb for an extremely wide range of fuels , from
heavy diesel oils to hydrogen gas . For typical liquid fuels, the product ranges only from 1210 to
1275 Btu/lb.

The heat of evaporation of the fuel influences engine operation through the reduction of inlet
air temperature . Reduction in inlet air temperature increases inlet air density (p₁ ) and increases
power output [ see Equation (4 ) ] . This effect is defined by this relationship :

-
P₁1 =
_√(Ti — xAT) ,
P₂ √(Ti - xAT)2

where P is engine power at a given speed , T¡ is inlet air temperature , x is the fraction of fuel evaporated
in the inlet manifold , and AT is the temperature drop of the stoichiometric mixture as a result of com-
plete fuel evaporation . The subscripts indicate two cases : an engine running with fuel type 1 , and
the same engine at the same speed using fuel type 2. For gasoline , AT is about 40° F , for comparison
the AT for methyl alcohol is 300° F .

The inlet air density of Equation (4) is a direct function of the partial pressure of the air, which
is in turn influenced by the weight of fuel evaporated in the air and the molecular weight of the fuel .
The air density p₁ is thus affected by the fuel/air ratio and the fuel molecular weight , and the effect
on engine performance is:

P₁ = [ 1 + F (29/mf) ] 2
P2 [ 1+ F ( 29/mf) ] 1

where mf and F are fuel molecular weight and fuel/air ratio , respectively . This effect tends to favor
fuels with low stoichiometric fuel/air ratios and high molecular weights, although with the range of
liquid fuels used in engines today , the effect is small.

59
 8. EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF AUTOMOTIVE SPARK-IGNITION
CARBURETED ENGINES

General

Any useful consideration of engine performance and economy cannot be accomplished with-
out a simultaneous consideration of engine exhaust emissions and the desired level of emission
standards. This section provides the reader with a general background of the source of exhaust
emissions , the effect upon emission levels of variations in engine parameters , and the various con-
trol techniques . One of the major objectives in providing this description is to show the degree
to which exhaust emissions genesis and basic engine operation are connected so that later evaluations
of fuel-saving concepts , with respect to expected changes in exhaust emission levels, can be better
understood .

Source of Exhaust Emissions24

Unburned Hydrocarbons

It is generally agreed that unburned hydrocarbons found in the exhaust gases result from the
failure of the combustion flame to propagate all the way up to a wall surface. This "wall quench"
effect is explained through molecular chain-breaking reactions (reactions, made more likely by the
presence of the wall , which modify combustion-promoting molecules to reduce the activity of the
combustion process) , as well as the cooling of the mixture adjacent to the wall , which is always
cooler than the gases. Therefore , after the combustion process is ended , a layer of unburned fuel/air
mixture about 0.04 in . thick (very roughly ) is left adjacent to the walls of the combustion chamber.
During the exhaust stroke , a portion of this unburned mixture leaves the chamber through the
exhaust valve . The quench distance increases with both richer and leaner deviations from fuel/air
stoichiometry, although the quency distance increases faster with leaner mixtures (away from
stoichiometric) than it does with richer mixtures. The quench distance increases with decreasing
temperature of the fuel/air mixture , with decreasing pressure of the fuel/air mixture , and with
decreasing temperature of the wall .

A second source of unburned hydrocarbons is, of course , the unburned fuel/air mixture from
an engine with partial or complete misfires. Conditions resulting in misfires have been discussed
earlier: fuel/air ratios outside the rich or lean limits, poor fuel/air mixing, spark with insufficient
energy or a too-short duration , or excessive residual gas.

Carbon Monoxide

When hydrocarbon fuels burn , carbon monoxide is produced . If time , temperature , and oxygen
availability are adequate , the carbon monoxide reacts to carbon dioxide . Carbon monoxide emis-
sions are tied very closely to the fuel/air ratio actually existing in the engine cylinder (see Figure 43) .

Lean mixtures produce very little carbon monoxide ; that any at all are produced is a result of
fuel maldistribution (from cylinder to cylinder , from cycle to cycle , and from location to location
with the combustion chamber volume) , as well as a result of the relatively slow reaction rate of
carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide .

24H
Henein and Patterson, Emissions from Combustion Engines , Ann Arbor Science Publishers , Inc. , 1972.

61
 Oxides of Nitrogen
- ERCENT
VOLUME

The formation of oxides of

nitrogen (NOx) involves the nitrogen
CO
BY
P

and oxygen available in the combus-

tion air and requires high tempera-
tures and time for the reactions to
take place . Unfortunately , the reac-
tions producing NOx are more active
than those in the reverse direction ; so
that very little of the NOx produced
in the high-temperature part of the
cycle dissociates during the expansion
STOICH stroke or in the exhaust manifold .

Since the flame front originates

at the sparkplug and progresses to
the remote parts of the combustion
chamber, the burnt gas near the
AIR FUEL RATIO - ENGINE CYLINDER
sparkplug is hotter than in any other
FIGURE 43. CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS location in the chamber because of
the subsequent compression heating
of the first-burned gas. It has been
theoretically determined (and verified
experimentally) that the NOx concen-
tration is highest in those gases that
are first-burned , due to the higher
temperatures and enhanced reaction
rates.
PPM

Effect of Engine Variables Upon

HC
-

Emissions
STOICH
Unburned Hydrocarbons

Fuel/Air Ratio - An in-

crease in fuel/air ratio first decreases
the thickness of the quench layer,
then increases it as fuel/air ratio is
further increased . The minimum
quench layer thickness lies at a mix-
ture somewhat richer than stoichio-
FUEL-AIR RATIO metric. However, the concentration
of fuel in the quench layer increases
FIGURE 44. UNBURNED HYDROCARBON CONCENTRATION
linearly with the fuel/air ratio . The
product of quench layer thickness and fuel concentration in the layer gives the unburned hydro-
carbon concentration in the chamber. A typical curve is shown in Figure 44 .

The curve of Figure 44 begins to "hook" upward at lean mixtures due to incomplete
combustion in the chamber as the mixture approaches the lean limit. Best fuel economy occurs at

62
a fuel/air ratio very nearly equal to the ratio for minimum HC emissions. The mass emission curve
(lb/hr of HC) is similar in shape to Figure 44.

Engine Power-If fuel/air ratio and speed are held constant, while the power output of
the engine is varied , the HC emission concentration stays very nearly constant . This is due to a
balance of a number of effects . Increased power increases the airflow through the engine and exhaust
system (increasing throttle opening) and , therefore , decreases the time the exhaust gases are in the
exhaust manifold . This tends to increase HC because of the reduced burnup in the exhaust . On the
other hand , power increase increases the average cylinder pressure and reduces the thickness of the
quench layer, as well as increases the temperature in the exhaust manifold . These effects reduce HC
emissions. The net effect , as observed above , is a more or less constant HC emission concentration
with load.

Since the mass airflow rate increases with engine power (and since the mass emission rate
is a product of exhaust flow rate and concentration) , the mass HC emission rate increases linearly
with load.

Engine Speed-Increased turbulence , both in the combustion chamber and in the exhaust
manifold , tends to reduce HC concentration as speed increases. This effect is aided by higher exhaust
manifold temperatures . The reduction in HC concentration is very nearly linear with speed increase.
The mass emission rates also decrease with speed increase , but not as fast as the concentration . This
is because of the higher engine airflow due to the increased engine friction at the higher speeds .

Spark Timing-The retarding of spark timing increases the exhaust temperature (later
burning) , and thereby promotes HC burnup in the exhaust manifold . HC concentration is reduced ,
as are mass emission rates , except that at highly retarded spark timing the throttle must be opened
to maintain power and the mass emission rates start to increase .

As already noted , fuel economy is strongly related to spark timing, and retarded timings
decrease thermal efficiency .

Charge Dilution -The increase in the residual fraction of burnt gases in the combustion
chamber is connected with a reduction in HC concentration . This is because the increased residual
fraction occurs when some of the burnt gases expand into the inlet manifold when the intake valve
opens and are pushed back into the chamber on the intake stroke . These residual gases are rich in
HC because the last gases to be exhausted are those gases closest to the walls of the chamber con-
taining the quench layer. This effect is not strong , since chamber turbulence tends to even out the
distribution of HC within the chamber.

Increased residual fractions occur with increased exhaust pressure to inlet pressure ratio
and with increased valve overlap .

As residual fraction is increased further, a point is reached where poor combustion occurs.
At this point , HC increases strongly. This effect is most predominant at lean mixtures.

Carburetor and Automatic Spark Advance -In a conventional automobile engine , the car-
buretor is designed to vary the fuel/air ratio over the load range . Mixtures are rich at idle (to ensure
combustion at high residual fractions) and at full load ( to obtain maximum power output) . Spark
is retarded at idle (to reduce idle emission levels) , advanced in the mid-range loads , and may be again
retarded near full load for control over detonation .

63
 If HC concentration is measured at a constant speed from no-load to full load , a curve
similar to Figure 45 will be obtained . The mass emissions, as influenced by exhaust flow rate ,
are shown in Figure 46.
- PM

HC
HC

LBR
H
P

-
/

ENGINE POWER ENGINE POWER

FIGURE 45. HYDROCARBON CONCENTRATION FIGURE 46. HYDROCARBON MASS EMISSION

Engine Design-Since the quench layer is the primary source of HC emissions , the concen-
tration of HC can be reduced by reducing the ratio of the wall surface area to the combustion
chamber volume . This can be accomplished in a number of ways :

(a) Cause the shape of the combustion chamber to approach , as nearly as possible , the
shape of a sphere .

(b) Increase the stroke-to-bore ratio at the same displacement .

(c) Increase the cylinder displacement . For the same engine power, this is equivalent to
reducing the number of cylinders while holding the total engine displacement con-
stant .

(d) Decrease the compression ratio.

It will be obvious that all of these design changes have strong ramifications to engine and
vehicle performance , excluding emission consideration . Compact combustion chambers provide good
performance but have high pressure rise rates and , consequently, a high level of engine noise. Long
stroke engines must operate at lower crankshaft speeds and maximum performance suffers . Large
bore engines are susceptible to knock , have higher torque variation (if the cylinder number is
reduced) , and have higher inertia stresses at a given engine speed . Lower compression ratios decrease
thermal efficiency .

Other Effects-Higher combustion wall termperature reduces HC concentration by reducing

the thickness of the quench layer . This reduction amounts to perhaps 0.5 ppm HC/° F rise in wall

64
 temperature . High wall temperatures increase detonation tendency, reduce volumetric efficiency ,
and are detrimental to lubricant life.

Combustion chamber deposits increase HC concentration by increasing the effective wall

surface area and by absorbing raw fuel . Since deposits accumulate with driving , HC emissions tend
to increase with the life of the vehicle .

Carbon Monoxide

The effects of engine parameters upon CO emissions are less complex than for HC or NOx .
This is due to the mechanism of formation being primarily a function of fuel/air ratio without depen-
dence upon wall quench effects . The effect upon CO formation has been discussed in the above
section .

Engine power does not influence CO concentration . Since exhaust mass flow rate increases
with engine power , CO mass emission rates also increase linearly with power.

Speed has little effect on CO concentration , but mass emissions will increase slowly with speed
increase due to the higher exhaust flows as a result of the increased friction .

Spark timing has little effect on CO concentration , except at abnormally retarded timings
where late combustion provides insufficient time to complete CO oxidation . This increase is
enhanced when CO mass emissions are considered , since the retarded timings cause power loss
which must be remedied by opening the throttle and increasing exhaust mass flow.

The carburetor characteristics normally found in an automobile engine produce higher CO con-
centrations at both idle and full load than at mid-loads , again due to richer mixtures at these oper-
ating conditions. The curve for CO concentration is somewhat similar to that for HC.

Engine design has little effect on CO emissions , as does deposit buildup and wall temperature .

Nitric Oxide

Fuel/Air Ratio -Since both the combus-

tion temperature and oxygen content of the com-
bustion gases affect NOx concentration , the fuel/
air ratio is an important NOx parameter.
Figure 47 shows this relationship in a qualitative
fashion . Peak NOx concentration occurs at a
- PM
NOX

STOICH fuel/air ratio somewhat leaner than stoichio-

P

metric. Richer mixtures lack oxygen and leaner

mixtures have reduced peak temperatures .

Spark Timing-Spark advance increases

peak cycle temperature due to the compression
of hot burnt gases. This factor causes NOx con-
centration (and mass rate ) to increase strongly
with spark advance .

FUEL-AIR RATIO
Engine Power-An increase in engine
FIGURE 47. FUEL/AIR RATIO power is obtained with higher inlet manifold

65
pressure (lower manifold vacuum) . This reduces the residual fraction in the chamber and increases
flame speed which increases peak temperature and NOx concentration . Increased peak pressures
also cause an increase in NOx . Spark retard with increasing load reduces the strength of this effect .
The increased exhaust gas flow with higher engine power makes the rate of increase of mass emis-
sion rate much higher than the rate of concentration increase.

Engine Speed-Peak combustion temperature rises with increased engine speed because of
reduced percentage heat loss . On the other hand , as speed increases more of the combustion pro-
cess occurs on the expansion stroke at lower temperatures. For very lean mixtures , flame speeds are
low and the latter effect predominates , so NOx decreases with increased engine speed . For rich mix-
tures, flame speeds are high and the decreased heat loss effect overcomes , with the result being lower
NOx concentration with increased speed . In between , the effects cancel out and the NOx concentra-
tion is more or less unaffected by speed .

Other Effects- Reduction in heat losses by raising the coolant temperature increases NOx
concentration . Compression ratio increase causes higher peak temperatures and higher NOx levels .
Modification of the combustion process by the addition of water (or high ambient humidity) , or the
addition of inert gas (such as recirculated exhaust gas) , reduces peak temperature and NOx concen-
tration. Figure 48 summarizes the effects discussed above .

Emission Control Systems

The methods used in conventional automobile engines for emission control are briefly discussed
below.
VARIABLE HC CO NOX
EMISSION

CONCENTRATION MASS CONCENTRATION MASS CONCENTRATION MASS

SAME
SHAPE AS
INCR

FUEL -AIR RATIO CONCEN. SAME SAME

CURVE A
‫انا‬
VARIABLE
INCR
LOAD

E
CH
RICH RI
SPEED
LEAN LEAN

SPARK ADVANCE SAME

EL
POOR
COMBUSTION PC
PC PC PC
RESIDUAL FRACTION

COMBUSTION CHAMBER SAME SAME SAME

SURFACE / VOLUME RATIO

COOLANT TEMPERATURE SAME SAME SAME

-|
FIGURE 48. EMISSION TRENDS

66
 Positive Crankcase Ventilation -The blowby gases in the crankcase are rich in hydrocarbons
and were formerly vented into the atmosphere. The positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system
ducts the crankcase gases through a control valve into the inlet manifold . The PCV valve prevents
excessive flow into the manifold at idle , yet allows adequate flow at low manifold vacuum.

Lean Mixtures -The use of a mixture slightly leaner than stoichiometric reduces HC and CO
emissions but increases NOx.

Retarded Spark - This adjustment is effective for both HC and NOx (unless excessive retard
impairs combustion) . Power output and efficiency are detrimentally affected .

Reduced Compression Ratio - Again , effective for both HC and NOx , but this results in a power
and efficiency loss .

Reduced Surface- to- Volume Ratio in the Combustion Chamber- This reduces HC but may in-
crease NOx , due to a decrease in heat loss to the combustion chamber walls .

Increased Coolant Temperature - Reduces HC , but increases NOX.

Increased Idle Speed and Retarded Spark at Idle -This requires a larger throttle opening at idle ,
reduces the residual fraction , and reduces HC through a reduction in residual fraction . With these
changes, the mixture may be made leaner, which improves CO. Auto ignition at idle is more probable
by these changes which results in " dieseling ," or continued firing without spark . A solenoid is used
to close the throttle upon ignition shutoff to alleviate this problem.

Limited Vacuum Deceleration - During deceleration at high speed , manifold vacuum is high
leading to high HC . Devices to prevent complete throttle closing during these conditions improve
this situation .

Spark Advance -To obtain maximum spark retard at conditions where the full power of the
engine is not required , a solenoid valve prevents the vacuum advance from becoming operative until
the vehicle is in direct drive . This has obvious undesirable effects upon fuel economy under cer-
tain driving conditions.

Exhaust Gas Recirculation - The introduction of exhaust gas into the combustion chamber
reduces the peak combustion temperature and is effective in reducing NOx . The mechanism by
which the reduction occurs is based upon the use of an inert substance to dilute the charge ; other
gases and water have also been used for this purpose . Significant reductions in the concentrations
of nitric oxide formed during the combustion process have been observed for diluted charges that
have an increased thermal capacity by comparison with typical air/fuel mixtures. The reduction in
nitric oxide formation is attributed to the reduction in flame speed and the lower peak cycle tem-
perature . Although exhaust gas recirculation is effective as a means of reducing oxides of nitrogen ,
the lower flame speeds result in a time loss which can adversely affect fuel economy. In addition ,
the use of a richer mixture to overcome driveability problems resulting from slow burning can
lower the fuel economy .

Carburetor and Inlet Manifold Modification - Carburetor changes have had as their objective
better fuel atomization and mixing and closer control over fuel/air ratio . The latter result has been
furthered by air preheating in order to provide a constant summer and winter inlet air temperature .
In addition , a modified choke arrangement is used that reduces choking after cold starts . Quicker
warmup is achieved by manifold redesign .

67
 Exhaust Reactors - Given adequate temperature , time , and oxygen , CO and HC in the exhaust
stream can be oxidized and thereby eliminated . Exhaust reactor systems are designed to provide the
necessary requirements for this oxidation process . In general , exhaust reaction may be divided into
two categories : those requiring the engine to operate with rich fuel/air mixtures with air injection
into the thermal reactor , and those using lean mixture operation without air injection . The latter are
more difficult to operate since the quantity of combustibles in the exhaust is lower, and the problem
of sustaining the reaction is thereby increased . The former method has the disadvantages of reduced
fuel economy due to rich mixture operation , and the added cost and complexity of an air pump .

Neither method of operation reduces NOx and , in fact , may actually increase NOx if the reaction
temperature in the reactor is high enough .

The design of optimum thermal reactors is not a simple problem ; at low loads the reaction must
be maintained in spite of lower reactor temperatures , optimum air injection rates are not necessarily
the same for CO and HC , and the reaction rate is influenced by exhaust pressure , airflow rate , reactor
volume, and reactor temperature . Even so , injection of air into more or less standard exhaust mani-
folds is used and does result in significant reductions of CO and HC .

Catalytic Reactors -Certain materials act as catalysts in the oxidation of CO and HC and in the
reduction of NOx , although a single material is not necessarily the best for all three functions .
Reactions are carried out at temperatures lower than in the thermal reactors. The oxidizing reac-
tions require excess oxygen which may be supplied by lean mixture operation of the engine or by an
air pump. The reducing reaction requires rich mixtures (or at least a reducing atmosphere ) .

Tetraethyl lead , used to increase fuel octane number , has been found to cause deterioation of
the performance of the catalyst . In any event , catalyst durability appears to be a major problem.
Other problems involve heat conservation : quick warmup of the reactor upon cold starting , and
means to prevent overheating at high loads.

Fuel Evaporation Control -Equipment has been designed and installed on production vehicles
to route fuel vapors from the fuel tank into the engine during running and into a storage device
during hot soaks .

Conventional Automobile Exhaust Emissions and the Federal Emission Standards

Introduction

For the purposes of this study , the Federal Emission Standards of primary interest are the
Interim Standards for 1976 :

0.41 g/mile for HC emissions

3.4 g/mile for CO emissions

2.0 g/mile for NOx emissions

The Standards require that the vehicle pass these standards when operated on the CVS -CH test
cycle , and that it continue to pass the Standard for 5 yr or 50,000 miles, whichever occurs first.

In this part of the report , various modifications of the conventional engine to reduce exhaust
emissions will be considered . The purpose of this review is to show the direction that emission

68
reduction development has taken , with the attendant penalties in fuel economy. It is believed that
this review will be enlightening when other power plant types are investigated later in this report.

Engine with Improved Carburetion , EGR , and Air Injection

In this section, the arrangement without exhaust treatment (catalytic or thermal reactors) that
has the lowest overall exhaust emissions will be considered .

The modifications include an improved carburetor for lower fuel/air ratio tolerances , density
compensation , and early-off choke ; a quick-heat inlet manifold ; EGR ; air injection into the exhaust
manifold ; modified idling conditions ; and rich carburetion . This system has the potential25 of the
following emission levels :

HC : 1.5 g/mile

CO: 25 g/mile

NOX: 1.5 g/mile

With lean carburetion and without air injection , the engine has potential exhaust emissions of:

HC : 1 g/mile

CO: 10 g/mile

NOx: 2.5 g/mile

It should be emphasized that these values are considered to be the best potential emissions that
can be achieved without exhaust treatment and they have not been consistently demonstrated . Some
prototype systems and some control systems for small automobiles have demonstrated values lower
than those already listed at low mileage , and subsequent developments may allow revision of the
estimates. However, at the present time , the values are considered valid for the types of vehicles
considered in this study.

A fuel economy penalty of approximately 10 to 15 percent, by comparison with an uncontrolled

vehicle, will be paid by the rich-mixture version of this arrangement , due to the fuel mixture as well
as the EGR. A lesser penalty will accrue to the lean-mixture vehicle due to the leaner mixture , but
EGR will still cause fuel economy deterioration . In any event, neither of these arrangements quali-
fies for consideration as a method to improve fuel economy .

Oxidizing Catalyst System

Automobile manufacturers have concentrated on this type of emission control for 1975
Federal Standards (HC : 1.5 g/mile ; CO : 15 g/mile ; NOx : 3.1 g/mile) . It makes use of improved
carburetion, a quick-heat manifold , EGR of about 10 percent , an air pump to inject air into the
exhaust ports for HC and CO reduction , and a catalytic converter in the exhaust system to further
HC and CO oxidation . It is almost certain that such a system will be produced by 1975 that will
meet the required standards for that year. Low-lead gasoline is a requirement for adequate catalyst
durability .
25"Report by the Committee on Motor Vehicle Emissions, " National Academy of Sciences, 1973.

69
 There is some evidence that the use of catalytic reactors on 1975 model year vehicles will
result in an improvement in fuel economy by comparison with 1973 model year vehicles due to
the opportunity for changes in spark control. However, specific data concerning the magnitude
of the improvement or the implications for subsequent model years are not available .

Dual -Catalyst System

For reduction in NOx to levels considerably below the 1975 level, automobile manufacturers
are concentrating on the dual catalyst system in which the exhaust gas is first passed through a NOx
catalyst reactor under reducing exhaust gas conditions (richer than stoichiometric fuel/air mixture ) .
An air pump then adds air to the exhaust stream and the exhaust gas, now oxygen rich , passes
through the CO and HC oxidizing catalyst ; lead-free fuel is required.

At this time, the NOx catalyst suffers from durability inferior to that of the oxidizing catalyst ,
and the fuel/air ratio must be maintained within close limits to prevent ammonia formation in the
NOx catalyst.

Effect of Emission Controls Upon Fuel Economy

The emission control devices now used and those planned for future use have a strong effect on
engine performance and fuel economy. EGR reduces flame speed , increases cycle-to -cycle combus-
tion variation , and leads to poor driveability . A remedy used for this problem is an increase in the
fuel/air ratio which leads to higher fuel consumption . Reduction in compression ratio to accommo-
date lower octane gasoline causes deterioation in performance and fuel economy . Increased engine
displacement to recover lost performance further increases fuel consumption due to engine operation
at lower (and less efficient) loading.

In the discussions to follow that are concerned with engine and vehicle modifications , it is
impossible to avoid consideration of the effect of emission controls upon fuel economy of these
modifications. The base of comparison required by this contract makes the task somewhat more
comples, since all modified vehicles synthesized in this work are to meet the 0.41-3.4-2.0 (hydro-
carbons, carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides in g/mile , respectively) emission standard and are to be
compared against the standard vehicle meeting the 1973 emission standard . In this case , the standard
vehicle is a 4300-lb vehicle with a 350-CID carbureted spark-ignition engine substantially identical
to the comparable 1973 vehicles tested in this program .

In order to perform the comparison of fuel economies in a repeatable and logical manner, the
following technique will be used . The terms below are first defined :

A -- fuel economy (miles/gal ) of the synthesized vehicle meeting the emission standard of
0.41-3.4-2.0 .

B - fuel economy of the standard vehicle meeting the 1973 emission standard

C - fuel economy of the synthesized vehicle with uncontrolled emissions

Ꭰ fuel economy of the standard vehicle with uncontrolled emissions

E fuel economy of the standard vehicle meeting the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard .

70
 The desired comparison is the ratio
B

А
=
B 000
A-

The value of the C/D can be obtained by analysis of engine fuel maps, road load , vehicle weight ,
accessory load , and so forth, over a chosen driving cycle for both the synthesized vehicle and the
conventional vehicle .

The value of A/C will, in most cases , be chosen after consideration of the factors involved in
the synthesized vehicle that tend to increase or decrease the difficulty in achieving the desired emis-
sion levels and , hence , influence the fuel economy. In most cases, the factor A/C is an educated
guess since actual data for emissions versus economy frequently are either not available or are for
operating conditions widely different from those we are concerned with. In those cases where
emissions versus economy data are available and reliable , they have been used .

The value of the factor D/B is somewhat controversial in that different sources give different
values. This is not surprising in view of the widely varying test conditions (different driving cycles ,
different vehicle weights , different accessory loads , etc.) not only between different observers but
between the same observer for different model years , as well as the sometimes small samples of
vehicles tested . Based upon conversation with representatives of Ford Motor Co. , General Motors
Corp , Chrysler Corp. and from data published by the National Academy of Sciences and the EPA,
the value for the ratio of D/B was chosen to be 1.09 . Another ratio that will be used in this report
is the ratio of the fuel economy of the standard vehicle with uncontrolled emissions to the fuel
economy of the standard vehicle with emissions controlled to the level of 0.41-3.4-2.0 (D/E ) . The
value of this ratio is even less well established than the ratio D/B since fewer data are available , but
based upon the information available, we have chosen the value of this ratio to be 1.15 .

71
 9. EMISSION CONTROL HARDWARE

In order to accomplish the emission control goals specified in legislation , the vehicle manu-
facturers have employed a wide variety of devices and systems. It should be helpful to examine
the physical aspects of these devices in some detail . Emission control systems are tailored to the
individual needs of each engine-chassis combination ; therefore , an exhaustive treatment of all avail-
able systems is not possible . However, there is considerable similarity between the devices used by
different manufacturers for the same purpose ; representative examples can be selected . Because of
the extreme public interest in emission controls , most manufacturers have included comprehensive
descriptions of control systems for individual vehicles in the service manuals ; these documents are
excellent sources of detailed information on control systems and devices .

In the following paragraphs, typical examples of the various devices will be described . It should
be noted that the names of some components may vary among manufacturers , but with a rudi-
mentary background , the devices may be recognized according to function from descriptions in the
service manuals .

Positive Crankcase Ventilation

The positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system is among the oldest of emission control devices ;
installation was common in the middle of the last decade . Prior to that time , it was common prac-
tice to vent the crankcase to the atmosphere , and forced displacement of hydrocarbon laden crank-
case gases was achieved by menas of a draft tube which protruded into the airstream below the
vehicle . With the advent of the PCV system , ventilation air is supplied to the crankcase from the
air cleaner, and the resulting mixture is routed to the carburetor or intake manifold . The manifold
vacuum provides the driving force for the flow. The contaminated gases are thus subjected to the
combustion process in the engine cylinders before being released to the atmosphere . A check valve
(the PCV valve ) is installed in the system to prevent the reverse flow of combustible mixture into
the crankcase during conditions such as
CARBURETOR AIR CLEANER backfire or engine cranking . A typical
AIR INTAKE
system is shown in Figure 49. The nature
of the PCV system is such that little
CV VALVE
effect on fuel economy should be ob-
COMBUSTION served. Losses in the system should be
CHAMBER
PCV offset by the addition of combustible
VALVE material to the carburetor inlet.

Lean Mixture Operation

Considerable effect on emissions,

particularly of hydrocarbons and carbon .
monoxide , can be achieved by carefully
BLOW-BY GASES controlling the air/fuel ratio supplied to
the engine. In the past , performance was
FIGURE 49. CLOSED CRANKCASE VENTILATION SYSTEM
the main measure of mixture adjustment ;
there was considerable variation in carburetor setting , even among identical vehicle models. When
emission control achieved a high priority , it was found that more precise carburetor calibrations
were required . Current production carburetors are individually tested on a flow bench ; critical
adjustments are made and seals are applied to discourage adjustment by unqualified personnel .

73
 In general , lean mixture operation has a beneficial effect on fuel economy , hydrocarbon emis-
sions , and carbon monoxide emissions . A detrimental effect on emissions of oxides of nitrogen
can be expected .

An emission control system now being investigated by several groups for possible future use
would employ a sensor to detect the oxygen content of the exhaust stream . The output of the
sensor would be used to control the air/fuel ratio .

It should be observed that lean mixture operation places additional requirements on the vehicle
ignition system. Since lean mixtures are more difficult to ignite and have a lower flame speed , the
spark timing, spark duration , and spark intensity are all affected .

Retarded Spark

Emissions of both hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen can be controlled by retarding the
spark with respect to values common to pre-emission control engines . Traditionally , carburetors
have been designed to provide rich mixtures at idle and wide open throttle for performance and
driveability ; lean mixtures are supplied at part throttle for economy . Flame propagation character-
istics are quite different for rich and lean mixtures . It is customary to supply the spark at an earlier
time for the slower burning lean mixtures in the economy cruise mode . This spark advance is ob-
tained by changing the orientation of the contact points in the distributor with respect to a top dead
center location . An input proportional to engine speed is supplied by rotating weights in the dis-
tributor, and an input proportional to engine load is obtained from the manifold vacuum through a
diaphragm attached to the distributor . Each engine , therefore , has an "advance curve ," or a relation-
ship between the point in the cycle at which the spark occurs , engine speed , and load . In pre-
emission control applications, manufacturers ' specifications called for spark advance settings as high
as 10 deg at idle ; the speed and load advance mechanisms might cause ignition as much as 30 deg in
advance of top dead center in an economy cruise condition.

It has been determined that emission control can be effected by retarding the spark or changing
the spark advance characteristics that have been determined over a period of years, with performance
as the objective . The idle setting has been reduced , by most manufacturers , to the vicinity of top
dead center, and the "advance curve " has been modified by the addition of control devices . These
devices function during various operating modes of the vehicle where emission control is found to
be a problem. Typical examples are described in the following paragraphs .

Electronic Ignition

The conventional ignition system employs a mechanical switch (the contact points ) to supply
the signal for spark initiation . A more precise and reliable system can be assembled using noncontact-
ing magnetic omponents ; one manufacturer has adopted this technique , and the other major companies
can be expected to follow in the near future. The two systems are illustrated in Figures 50 and 51 .
The electrical signal supplied by the magnetic sensors can be subjected to various forms of electronic
logic with input from other sensors of engine operating condition . The resulting modified signal is
used to direct the timing of the ignition spark .

Distributor Solenoid

In order to provide adequate spark advance for good starting capability with carburetor settings
appropriate to good idle emissions , some vehicles are equipped with electrical solenoids to allow

74
 LUBRICATOR
additional spark advance during engine crank-
CONDENSER LEAD
ing. The solenoid may be located within the
vacuum advance diaphragm unit attached to
POINT SET
the distributor.

Vacuum Delay Valve

In some situations, such as the transi-

tion from idle to part throttle , it is desirable
to delay the spark advance characteristics of
the ignition system. A small orifice is placed
in the vacuum line to accomplish this result .
PRIMARY LEAD Most such valves are also temperature sensi-
tive ; spark advance control becomes a func-
FIGURE 50. CONVENTIONAL DISTRIBUTOR tion of ambient temperature .
PICK-UP COIL
LEADS
RELUCTOR Thermal Vacuum Switch

The distributor vacuum advance is also

controlled by engine water temperature on
CAP CLIP most vehicles. The retarded spark settings
usually used at idle for emission control can
result in excessive coolant temperatures ;
when this possibility exists , the thermal vac-
uum switch allows the spark to advance . The
switch is typically inserted in the cooling
water jacket as shown in Figure 52. On some
vehicles , a switch is located on the vehicle
transmission which controls spark advance
as a function of drive gear. Thus, the spark
may be allowed to advance when the vehicle
is in high gear, but spark retard is maintained
during first and second gear operation.
CAP CLIP PICK-UP
COIL ASSEMBLY Idle Stop Solenoid
FIGURE 51. ELECTRONIC IGNITION DISTRIBUTOR
DISTRIBUTOR During recent model years , idle speeds
have increased progressively. If the ignition
CARBURETOR is turned off with the engine at idle , there is
a tendency toward " after running" or
INTAKE MANIFOLD
"dieseling"; that is, the engine continues opera-
tion with erratic and arbitrary ignition. The
idle stop solenoid is used to hold the throttle
linkage at the desired idle condition while
the ignition is on ; when the ignition is
turned off, the linkage assumes a low idle
position and the engine stops . The solenoid
is located in the vicinity of the carburetor ;
FIGURE 52. THERMAL VACUUM SWITCH (T.V.S.) the plunger contacts the throttle linkage .

75
Choke Heating Element

On vehicles equipped with automatic chokes , a system is included to decrease the extent of
choke operation as the engine warms . On some models , the choke mechanisms have been equipped
with auxiliary electric heaters to hasten the removal of choking function after the engine is started
at high ambient temperatures . The choke heaters vary in configuration ; they are generally located
near the automatic choke linkage at the side of the carburetor .

Heated Inlet Air System

VACUUM
DIAPHRAGM THERMOSTAT It has been found that hydrocarbon emis-
AIR CONTROL
VALVE sions may be decreased by supplying air to the
engine at a temperature of about 100° F . Toward
this end , a diverter valve has been installed in the
snorkel of the air cleaner housing ; air is gathered
from the vicinity of the exhaust manifold when
COLD the underhood temperature is less than a pre-
HEATED AIR AR
ENTERS ENTERS scribed desirable value . The amount of heated
CARBURETOR
air varies with temperature . A typical system
is shown in Figure 53.

Exhaust Gas Recirculation ( EGR )

HEATED
BYAIRMANIFOLD
Exhaust gas recirculation is employed on
late model vehicles as a means of reducing emis-
sions of oxides of nitrogen . In principle, burned
FIGURE 53. HEATED INLET AIR SYSTEM
gases are removed from the exhaust system and
supplied to the engine air inlet . In practice , this function is performed by a control valve , usually
located at the carburetor , which controls the quantity of recirculated gas . The control signal for
the EGR valve is typically a vacuum , but the source of the vacuum varies among engine categories .
The vacuum signal may or may not be amplified , and ambient temperature compensation may or
may not be included . A typical system configuration is shown in Figure 54.

Air Injection

On some vehicles , a system is included for supplying air to the exhaust manifold to assist with
the oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide . The system consists of a belt-driven
air pump , a regulating valve , and a manifold for distribution of the air supply . The regulating valve
senses manifold vacuum , and serves both as a check valve to protect the pump from hot gases and
as a bypass valve to prevent backfire on deceleration . A diagram of the air injection system is shown
in Figure 55 .

Evaporative Emission Control

Federal requirements now limit the quantity of hydrocarbon emissions from sources other than
the exhaust . Fuel tanks and carburetors on new cars are vented to the atmosphere through a filter,
usually a canister containing activated charcoal . When the engine is not operating, fuel vapors are
adsorbed by the material in the canister . When the engine is operating , the hydrocarbons are removed
from the canister material by heat from the engine compartment ; the evolved vapors are conducted
to the carburetor and thence to the combustion chamber . A diagram of the system is shown in
Figure 56.

76
 CARBURETOR PORTED
VACUUM NIPPLE

FUEL TUBE

TEMPERTURE CONTROL VALVE

TEE CONNECTOR

EGR CONTROL
VALVE

VIEW IN DIRECTION
OF ARROW A

FIGURE 54. EGR SYSTEM

DIVERTER VALVE CHECK VALVE

VACUUM SUPPLY
HOSE

INJECTION TUBES
TO EXHAUST PORTS

AIR PUMP DIVERTER VALVE

• INLET • DUMP VALVE
• PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

FIGURE 55. AIR INJECTION SYSTEM (8-CYLINDER ENGINE )

77
 OVERFILL LIMITING VALVE

-VAPOR - LIQUID SEPARATOR

CARBURETOR

OVERFILL LIMITING
VALVE ON
SOME MODELS
VAPOR -VENT LINES-

CARBURETOR FUEL
BOWL VENT LINE

FUEL TANK VENT LINE

CANISTER PURGE LINE

CHARCOAL CANISTER

FIGURE 56. EVAPORATION CONTROL SYSTEM

Exhaust Reactors

The devices described above are used to limit the emissions from an engine . Another category
of systems , exhaust reactors , can be used to control concentrations of contaminant substances in the
exhaust system .

Thermal Reactors

Thermal reactors can best be described as insulated exhaust manifolds. Hot gases leaving the
exhaust ports of the engine are allowed to dwell in the manifold , and excess air is supplied with an
air injection system. Combustible materials, therefore , have an opportunity to oxidize before leaving
the exhaust . Thermal reactors must be located at the exhaust port of the engine , and they are char-
acterized by operating temperatures on the order of 2000° F . The only significant production of
thermal reactors to date has been in connection with the Mazda rotary engine.

Catalytic Reactors

Another type of reactor, which operates on a catalytic conversion principle , may be used in the
exhaust system . Exhaust gases which are capable of reacting are exposed to a suitable catalyst , and
the reaction proceeds at an advanced rate . Much of the effort expended on reactor research has been
directed toward the development of a completely suitable catalyst . Many substances are available ,
but the best performance has been obtained from noble metals such as platinum and palladium. It
should be noted that catalysts can serve several purposes, and the same material can serve as a catalyst
either for reducing oxides of nitrogen in an oxygen free atmosphere or for oxidizing hydrocarbons
and carbon monoxide in an oxygen rich atmosphere . Over a specific, very narrow range of the

78
air/fuel ratio , a single catalyst bed can be used to diminish the concentrations of all three contaminant
substances.

The previous discussion , although not exhaustive , should serve as an outline for those interested
in pursuing the specific emission control devices used on a particular vehicle model . A numerical
relationship for predicting the degree of emission control that could be expected from each device
would be desirable , but such a treatment would be enormous in scope even if sufficient data were
available. There is considerable interaction between the devices used in any emission control
strategy. The contribution of an individual device to contaminant control depends upon the specific
engine design , the other devices used , and the tuning of the entire system . Typically , a control
strategy for a particular model is determined from tests involving several devices used with that
engine, and the most appropriate combination is selected and submitted for certification .

79
I
 10. TURBOCHARGED SPARK-IGNITED , CARBURETED ENGINE

Concept

In order to provide what is considered to be adequate power for acceleration , present-day auto-
mobile engines have the capability for much higher power output than is necessary for normal
driving. Consequently, "normal" driving (without high power accelerations) requires the engine to
operate at relatively low torque levels.

On the other hand , the spark-ignition carbureted engine has its minimum brake specific fuel
consumption at high bmep (torque) . This characteristic is shown in Figure 57 and is due to the
lower percentage of friction loss as power is increased at constant speed . Therefore , the conven-
tional automobile engine operates under normal conditions at relatively high brake specific fuel
rates.

HORSEPOWER PER SQUARE INCH OF PISTON AREA

140
LO 2.0
ENGINE

800+
CID 60

TH
T

120
FB

RO
)(3
L
-

FU TT
0,64 LL LE

10아 9.50
PBMEP

200 9.51
-SI

0:52
8

9.54
9.56
TORQUE

0.68

100 0.00
40+
0.70
0.80
0.90
20 1.0
12
1.5
2.0 BSFC
1000 2000 3000
PISTON SPEED - FPM

1000 2000 3000 4000 6000

ENGINE RPM
( 3.5" STROKE )
FIGURE 57. PERFORMANCE MAP OF CARBURETED SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

The use of a smaller engine would , of course , alleviate the fuel consumption problems for
normal driving (since the operating bmep would be increased ) , but there would be no capability for
the acceleration levels previously obtained with the larger engine . Maximum vehicle speed would
also be limited .

A possible solution lies in the use of a smaller engine with a turbocharger . The reduction in
engine displacement requires that normal driving be done at a higher percentage of full power in
areas of lower fuel consumption. The turbocharger provides sufficient power boost for acceleration
and high vehicle speeds .

81
 On the other hand , higher air inlet temperature (due to the pressure boost) increases the knock
tendency of the engine . This is exemplified in the necessity for high-octane gasoline and water-
alcohol injection in turbocharged aircraft engines, and the use of alcohol fuel (with a hich octane
number) in turbocharged racing engines.

The problem of exhaust emissions is by no means eliminated by the use of turbocharging.

Since fuel-air ratios must remain substantially the same in both turbocharged and naturally-aspirated
(NA) engines , and other details of the combustion chamber , exhaust system , valving and spark ad-
vance are basically the same , one would expect that HC and CO emissions would be approximately
equal in both engines. The increased peak temperature in the combustion chamber would be expected
to raise NOx levels to some extent. (The turbocharged engine has no inherent tendency to provide
EGR automatically , since the ratio of exhaust pressure to intake pressure is very nearly unity. )

The above discussion assumes that the compression ratio of the engine is not changed when
turbocharging is added , nor is the pressurized inlet air-cooled by a heat exchanger (aftercooler) .
As will be shown later, the horsepower output of the larger NA engine can be obtained in the
smaller turbocharged engine , without knock, by several methods :

Reduced engine compression ratio - This change , of course, increases the brake specific
fuel consumption of the engine due to loss of engine efficiency.

Aftercooling, with slightly reduced compression ratio-Here the efficiency loss is mini-
mized by air-cooling , but since the aftercooler cannot be 100 percent efficient (and , there-
fore , the inlet air temperature in the turbocharged engine will be higher than that of the
NA engine ) , some reduction in the compression ratio is necessary .

Increased fuel octane number-It is considered that this step is not acceptable , due to
impending Federal limitation on the use of TEL and the far-reaching effect on the refining
industry of a requirement for large quantities of high octane fuel .

Injection of water alcohol-This mixture , injected at the high bmep's where knock occurs ,
has a powerful knock-reducing tendency.

Spark retard-Increased torque output can be obtained from a given engine by retarding
the spark and increasing the manifold pressure to the point of incipient knock.

Rich fuel-air mixtures -It is possible to use fuel as an antidetonant in order to obtain a
knock-free operation.

Performance Evaluation Procedure

To evaluate this concept , a conventional 350 -cu in . displacement (naturally-aspirated ) engine

was used as a reference . Power required for normal driving and maximum acceleration of a 4300 -lb
automobile was determined from test data , and the engine speeds at which this power was needed
were fixed .

Next, the size of the turbocharged engine was chosen . The smaller the displacement of this
engine, the higher the bmep required and the more difficulty anticipated from engine knock . On
the other hand , as the displacement of the turbocharged engine increased toward that of the NA
engine, the less the anticipated improvement in fuel economy.

82
 The engine picked was a V-8 arrangement with a stroke-to-bore ratio of 1.0 . Initially , the com-
pression ratio was maintained at 8 : 1 to prevent any losses in thermal efficiency to this cause .

Pressure boost , bmep , and bsfc were calculated from the following general relations :

bmep α ρηνFhytm (1)

where

ρ - inlet density of fuel/air mixture

ην volumetric efficiency

F - fuel/air ratio

hy - fuel heating value

ητ - thermal efficiency

nm - mechanical efficiency

bmep
nm (2)
bmep + fmep

where fmep = friction mean effective pressure

bsfc α (3)
ntnm

then ,

bmepi = P₁nvi F1 hy , nt , mi
bmep₂ P₂nv2 F2 hv₂nt2 nm 2

bsfc,
= nt2nm2
bsfc2 ntinmi

Ξηντ
Volumetric efficiency is only slightly changed by increased inlet air pressure , so v₁
=
Further, F₁ = F2 , hv , hv₂ (same fuel) , and the thermal efficiency is only affected a negligible
amount by boosting the inlet pressure if the compression ratio is unchanged . Therefore ,

bmepi mi
= Pi (4)
bmep2 P2 nm2

bsfc1 7m2
= (5)
bsfc2 nmi

for the case where the compression ratio is unchanged.

83
 The control system chosen for the turbocharger involves a "waste gate" which is a valve in the
exhaust pipe upstream of the turbocharger turbine that , when open , diverts exhaust gas around the
turbine and limits the turbocompressor speed . The motion of the waste gate is controlled by mani-
fold vacuum , so that low vacuum (high engine output ) closes the waste gate and increases inlet boost .
A secondary control limits the boost pressure to a chosen maximum to prevent excessive bmep and
possible engine destruction .

At this point, a reference "fuel map" for a naturally-aspirated engine of the same displacement
as the turbocharged engine was chosen . The maximum bmep-piston speed curve was calculated
based upon Equation (4 ) , the boost control characteristics , and the reference "fuel map . " The lines
of constant bsfc for the turbocharged engine were calculated from Equation ( 5 ) . In each case , the
two subscripts in these equations referred to the NA engine and the turbocharged engine , respectively .

As was mentioned earlier, a primary concern with this technique must be the increased knock
tendency of the turbocharged engine . To evaluate this , the technique described by Chen26 was used ,
combined with experimental data from Barber27 . In brief, this technique uses the theory that engine
knock is primarily a function of the temperature of the end gas (last gas to burn ) , and that a satis-
factory estimate of this temperature can be obtained by calculating the adiabatic compression tempera-
ture of the gas when compressed from inlet pressure to the maximum combustion pressure . Maximum
21
combustion pressures were estimated from Taylor.2

180 Results
CONSTANT BOOST- Case 1 : 250 CID Turbocharged
PRESSURE
160 Engine, No Aftercooler, 8: 1
INCREASING BOOST Compression Ratio
BSFC.51
140 The computed fuel map for
NO this engine is shown in Figure 58.
BOOST No boost pressure is acquired until
120아 a piston speed of 900 fpm is reached
BMEP

due to low turbocompressor speed.

SI

Bmep then increases linearly until the

-P

100
T

0.50 maximum bmep is reached at a piston

0.51 speed of 2040 fpm . This bmep pro-
80 0.52 vides the same power as is attained in
T

0.54 the 350 CID NA engine . As piston

0.56 speed increases thereafter, boost is
T

60
0.58 constant at a pressure ratio of 1.45
0.60 (a density ratio of 1.25 ) across the
40 compressor. The specific fuel consump-
T

0.70
0.80 tion of the engine at bmep lower than
0.90 about 100 psi is unaffected by the
20 1.0
1.2 turbocharger, since the waste gate is
1.5
2.0 BSFC open and boost is essentially zero.

1000 2000 3000 This fuel map was used to com-

PISTON SPEED - FPM pute fuel economy using the proce-
FIGURE 58. TURBOCHARGED CARBURETED ENGINE , 250 CID, CR = 8.0, dure described in Chapter 3 of this
WATER-ALCOHOL INJECTION report.
26
27Chen, T. N. and R. N. Alford , "Combustion of Large Gas Engines," ASME Paper 71 -DGP -6 , 1971 .
Barber, E. M., "Knock-Limited Performance of Several Automobile Engines," SAE Transactions, July 1948.

84
 The adiabatically-compressed temperature of the end gas at the maximum bmep point is about
1720° R. This is higher than the knock-limiting temperature of 1480° R ( calculated from the 250 CID
NA engine at maximum bmep) . The chosen turbocharged engine is without doubt above the knock-
limited power at the maximum condition , which merely serves to verify the experience of aircraft and
racing engine manufacturers .

The solution for this case is the use of water-alcohol injection in an amount of about 0.5 lb
mixture/lb fuel. Injection is into the inlet manifold and is necessary only when the engine operates
in the boosted range (above about 115 bmep) . This technique was used in limited production by
Oldsmobile in 1962 to 1963 in a 215 CID turbocharged , V-8 automobile engine put on the general
market. The technique has evident service and maintenance problems , since failure of the injection
system can be catastrophic to the engine under certain operating regimes. However, the technical
feasibility of the water-injected arrangement is not in doubt .

The fuel economy (miles/gal) of the 250 CID turbocharged engine was calculated to be 17 per-
cent greater than that of the reference 350 CID naturally-aspirated engine . Since this comparison is
based upon both engines having uncontrolled emissions , it was necessary to estimate the effect of the
required emission controls upon the fuel consumption comparison. It is desired to compare the
turbocharged engine with a 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission level against the naturally-aspirated engine with a
1973 emission level. This was done using the following equation :

А
=
B ()
A- 000

where

A - fuel economy of 250 CID turbocharged engine meeting emissions standards of 0.41-3.4-2.0
(miles/gal)

B - fuel economy of 350 CID naturally -aspirated engine meeting 1973 emission standards
(miles/gal )

C ---- fuel economy of 250 CID turbocharged engine , uncontrolled emissions (miles/gal )

D - fuel economy of 350 CID naturally-aspirated engine , uncontrolled emissions (miles/gal)

From previous calculations ,

C
D=
Ꭰ 1.172

From published information and private communications , it is estimated that the ratio D/ B = 1.09 .

From the discussions in the following section , it is apparent that the problems of reducing emis-
sions in the turbocharged engine will not be much different than with the conventional engine . From
a number of sources , it is estimated that the loss in fuel economy from the uncontrolled conventional
engine to the same engine meeting the 0.41-3.2-2.0 standards is 15 percent. Using this value for the
turbocharged comparison , A/C 1 / 1.15 . Therefore ,
A
(1.17) ( 1.09 ) = 1.11
습
B 1.15

85
 Case II : 280 CID Turbocharged Engine , Aftercooled , 7.2 : 1 Compression Ratio

Since water-alcohol injection to prevent knock is an undesirable addition to the engine, the use
of an aftercooler was investigated . The use of engine coolant in the aftercooler was found to be not
feasible , due to the relatively small difference between coolant temperature and inlet air temperature.
An air-to-air aftercooler was chosen, using ambient air for the coolant . Aftercooler effectiveness (E)
was taken as 0.7 where

Tb - Tc
E:=
Tb - Tw

Th air temperature before aftercooler

Tc - air temperature after aftercooler

Tw coolant "in" temperature

The use of an aftercooler did not reduce end gas temperature enough to preclude knock, so the
compression ratio was reduced so that knock was incipient at the maximum engine bmep . The new
compression ratio was 7.2 (reduced from 8) . The choice of engine displacement was then affected
by two parameters-the boost pressure and the efficiency loss due to decrease of compression ratio .
Calculations showed that with the same boost pressure as Case I , the displacement must increase to
280 CID to provide the required maximum power.

Figure 59 is the resulting performance map for this arrangement . This engine is not knock limited
at the maximum bmep shown on the map with regular grade fuel and does not require water injection .

160

140

120

0.56
BMEP

100
1
-PSI

0.52
で 0.53
80 0.54
I

0.56
0.58
60
1

0.60
0.62
40 0.65
0.70
0.80
20 .1.0
T

1.5
2.0 BSFC

1000 2000 3000

PISTON SPEED - FPM
FIGURE 59. TURBOCHARGED CARBURETED ENGINE, 280 CID , CR = 7.2, AFTERCOOLED

86
 Fuel economy was calculated for this engine using the standard procedure . Results showed a
10-percent improvement over the reference 350 CID , NA engine .

Using the reasoning already discussed ,

A
-=
B S () ()

where

A fuel economy of 280 CID turbocharged engine meeting the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard

B fuel economy of 350 CID naturally-aspirated engine meeting 1973 emission standards

C - fuel economy of 280 CID turbocharged engine , uncontrolled emissions

D - fuel economy of 350 CID naturally-aspirated engine , uncontrolled emissions

As calculated above , C/D = 1.10 . From the previous section , D/B = 1.09 , and A/C = 1 / 1.15 , so

A 1
= ( 1.10) ( 1.09) = 1.04
B 1.15

Case III : Turbocharged Engine with Compression Ratio Reduced to Prevent Knock, No
Aftercooling

In an attempt to eliminate the aftercooler without using water or water-alcohol injection to pre-
vent knock , the compression ratio of the engine was reduced to the point where no knock would occur
with regular grade gasoline with a boost pressure ratio of 1.45 . This compression ratio was 5.

The loss of thermal efficiency and power was so severe due to this change in compression ratio
that the displacement had to be set at 340 CID to return the engine to the 350 CID, naturally-
aspirated power output . Obviously no fuel economy gain can be expected with this arrangement, in
fact, it is certain that a loss in fuel economy will occur since the displacement is hardly reduced from
the naturally-aspirated engine , while the compression ratio has been significantly reduced .

This is hardly unexpected , since it again confirms experience and experimental data . When no
change in octane number is allowed and no aftercooling or other knock control methods are used ,
the use of turbocharging is not conducive to performance improvement in spark-ignition engines.

Exhaust Emissions

As mentioned earlier in this section , it would not be expected that turbocharging would have
any major effects upon engine exhaust emissions , when two engines of equal maximum output are
considered -one turbocharged and one naturally-aspirated . Fuel/air ratios and exhaust mass flow
rate are essentially the same in both engines ; combustion chamber geometry is similar ; and size
effects are small . The only exception is that in the turbocharged engine without aftercooling , and
with a compression ratio the same as the NA engine , peak combustion temperatures will be higher
and a slight increase in NOx would be expected .

87
 Schweikert and Johnson28 arrived at somewhat similar conclusions after testing a turbocharged
307 CID engine without aftercooling , both with and without EGR. The engine compression ratio
was 8.5 -unchanged from the standard engine . Knock was not encountered because the load did not
exceed 60 bmep . Conclusions were that without EGR , emissions are about equal in turbocharged
and NA engines with the same maximum power output . With EGR in both engines , CO is un-
changed , HC is increased slightly in the turbocharged engine , and NOx is increased about 20 percent
in the turbocharged engine . These latter results are not altogether consistent with theoretical con-
siderations and lead one to expect that other factors (poor fuel distribution , poor EGR distribution ,
back pressure effects not considered in this work, etc. ) contribute to the rather large increase in NOx.

In the turbocharged engine of Case I (unchanged compression ratio , use of water-alcohol injec-
tion ) , NOx should be less than , or at the most , equal to that of an NA engine of same maximum
power. Water injection is a powerful means for reduction of NOx.

In the turbocharged engine of Case II (reduced compression ratio , aftercooled ), all emissions
should be very nearly equal to that for an NA engine with the same maximum power output , since
maximum combustion temperatures are limited to those of the NA engine.

The conclusion to be drawn is that the turbocharged engine will require the same emission con-
trols as the NA engine to meet the same emission standards . Therefore , either of the turbocharged
engine versions will require EGR and oxidation reactors (either thermal or catalytic) , in addition to
close control of fuel/air ratio and starting and warmup improvements .

Evaluation

Engine Description

In this section , two engines will be compared to the conventional carbureted engine of equal
power. Both are turbocharged , and the first has a displacement of 250 cu in. , uses water-alcohol injec-
tion for knock suppression , and has a compression ratio of 8. It will be designated as the 250 CID-TC
engine . The second has 280 CID , employs air aftercooler , and has a compression ratio of 7.2 . It will
be designated as the 280 CID-TC-A engine .

Fuel Economy

As compared to the fuel economy of the 350 CID conventional engine with 1973 emission
levels , the fuel economies of the two engines under consideration, both meeting a 0.41-3.4-2.0 emis-
sion standard , are as follows :

250 CID-TC : 11 percent better than the 350 CID conventional

280 CID-TC-A : 4 percent better than the 350 CID conventional

Performance

Each of the turbocharged engines have the same maximum power as the 350 CID naturally-
aspirated engine , so vehicle top speeds are the same for all. However, the inertia of the turbocharger

28Schweikert , J. F. and J. H. Johnson, "A Turbocharged Spark Ignition Engine with Low Exhaust Emissions and Improved Fuel
Economy," SAE Paper 730633 , 1973.

88
wheel makes it likely that the acceleration performance of the turbocharged engines will be inferior
to the conventional engine.

Emissions

For reasons already discussed , the problem of reducing emissions is probably not much affected
either way by the addition of a turbocharger. The fuel economy estimates takes this factor into
account.

Noise

The addition of a turbocharger increases high frequency engine noise . Much of this noise can be
attenuated by sound absorption material in the engine compartment, but overall noise levels of the
turbocharged engine will be higher .

Weight and Size

Based upon considerations of engine displacement , turbocharger weight, and noise attenuation
materials , the following estimates are made :

250 CID-TC : 75 percent of conventional 350 CID engine weight , same box volume

280 CID-TC -A: 90 percent of conventional 350 CID engine weight

110 percent of conventional 350 CID engine box volume

Reliability and Maintainability

The addition of a turbocharger and the necessary turbocharger controls will have a small detri-
mental affect upon engine reliability . The further addition of an aftercooler and associated blower
will further reduce reliability.

A more serious problem may be the possible failure of the knock-suppressant systems. In the
250 CID-TC version , provisions should be made to limit engine power output upon failure of the
water-alcohol injection unit in order to prevent severe engine knock . In the 280 CID-TC -A engine ,
very high ambient temperatures or deterioration of aftercooler effectiveness (due to fouling , for
instance ) could put the engine into a knock regime leading to engine destruction . Power limiting
means based upon a maximum inlet air temperature may be necessary .

These additional devices , combined with other advanced engine systems , certainly decrease the
turbocharged engine reliability and maintainability .

Safety

No significant changes in safety considerations are foreseen as a result of turbocharging.

Fuel

The present analysis is based upon using the same fuel as is now being used by conventional
engines.

89
 Engine Related Modifications

For the 250 CID-TC engine , no significant alterations in other vehicle systems are foreseen.

The 280 CID-TC-A engine will require a blower for the aftercooler . A method to accomplish
this without adding electric motors and additional generator capacity has been used for diesel engine
aftercoolers. A portion of the hot compressed air coming from the compressor is bled off and used
to drive a very small air turbine . This turbine is coupled to a direct-drive blower that draws ambient
air over the cooling surfaces in the aftercooler. A bleed rate of 10 to 20 percent is apparently ade-
quate to accomplish this and makes it necessary to provide a slightly larger capacity turbocharger.
This technique will doubtlessly require additional development work , but it appears to be a good
approach .

Cost

For the 250 CID-TC engine , the incremental cost factors involved are :

smaller engine

higher loading on engine

addition of turbocharger

addition of water-alcohol injection

The reduction in material cost due to the engine displacement decrease is probably nullified by
the necessity for higher quality exhaust valves and added structural strength to permit operation at
generally higher bmep and consequently higher temperatures . It is estimated that the incremental
cost increase of the 250 CID-TC engine over the 350 CID carbureted engine is $ 75 to $ 150 .

For the 280 CID-TC-A engine , the incremental cost factors are :

smaller engine

higher engine loading

addition of turbocharger

addition of aftercooler

addition of aftercooler blower

The aftercooler is expected to be a significant cost item. It is estimated that the incremental cost
increase of the 280 CID-TC-A engine is $ 150 to $ 250 .

Consumer Acceptance

Consumer acceptance will be detrimentally affected by increased acquisition cost , engine noise,
possible acceleration deficiencies, and a more difficult maintainability. Improved fuel economy will
partially offset this , as will possibly the "image" associated with turbocharged engines . On the balance ,
it is expected that consumer acceptance will be more difficult to obtain with the turbocharged engine
than with the conventional carbureted engine .

90
 Demonstration by 1976

It is feasible to demonstrate a vehicle with a turbocharged engine by 1976. No new technical

problems must be solved . Emission control is expected to be the most difficult problem , but the
solution will be similar in nature to those already used in the conventional automobile engines .

Time Required for Implementation

It is excepted that limited production of a turbocharged engine in a vehicle could be accom-

plished by the 1980 model year. Suppliers at present do not produce turbochargers adequate to meet
the demand of an anticipated one million units, and only development impetus in this area would
promote expansion of facilities.

91
 11. VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT ENGINE

Concept

From previous discussions it will be clear that , at least from a fuel economy standpoint , it is
desirable to use a small displacement engine at low power requirements in order to operate the engine
in regimes of lower bsfc . To maintain vehicle performance , it is necessary to increase engine power
by some extraordinary means at conditions of high power requirement . One can premise means
to continuously vary engine displacement to achieve this result, but the mechanical complexity of
such systems is forbidding.

In an attempt to evaluate a less complex and more familiar arrangement, the following engine
was synthesized . Assume that a 350 CID , eight-cylinder engine is modified as follows :

Every other cylinder in the firing order is provided with a modified valve train , and these
four cylinders are given an intake manifold separate from the other four cylinders. The
valve train is modified so that , upon an external signal , the valves are not actuated by the
cam shaft and , consequently , remain closed . The various means used to accomplish this
include a cam shaft that is slideable along its axis to disengage the followers from the cam
surfaces ; a spacer between cam and cam follower that can be mechanically removed ; a
hydraulic piston in the push rod that can be collapsed by removal of oil pressure to the
piston ; and so forth.

Separate carburetors for each set of four cylinders .

A control system that actuates carburetor thorttle plate in response to load and activates
or deactivates the cylinders with the modified valve train.

In operation, the four unmodified cylinders would operate throughout the engine load spectrum .
At low power requirements, the modified cylinders would be inoperative with both intake and exhaust
valves closed, and the power requirements would be carried entirely by the four operating cylinders.
As the imep of the operating cylinders approached their maximum , the four modified cylinders would
be brought into operation and the engine would then operate in the conventional manner.

There are obvious questions and unresolved problems with this system involving increased
torque fluctuations on four-cylinder operation including smoothness of changeover from four- to
eight-cylinder operation and increased complexity . The consequences and relative severity of these
will be considered later .

Fuel Economy Evaluation Procedure

To evaluate this concept , a fuel map was constructed . The baseline fuel map for an uncon-
trolled emission engine was used as the basis for the new map .

To begin with, it will be clear that if the friction of each cylinder is the same whether firing
or not, and if the bhp of the engine firing on four cylinders is the same as the engine firing on eight
cylinders, then the ihp of each of the four-firing cylinders is double that of the eight-firing cylinders.
The mechanical efficiency of the two engines will be equal , and the only gains in bsfc must be due
only to the lower percentage heat losses and more favorable fuel/air ratio resulting from operation
at a higher ihp for the four cylinders .

93
 However, for the case considered , the friction of the engine with four-firing cylinders is
reduced ; therefore , gains in bsfc come from an improvement in mechanical efficiency as well as
decreased percentage heat losses and leaner fuel/air ratio .

The calculation procedure to obtain the new map was as follows : At a given piston speed an
engine bmep was chosen from the baseline map . For the engine with four firing cylinders, bmep
was defined as

bmepeng = (bhpeng)( 792,000)

(N) (Deng)

where N is engine speed and Deng is the displacement of all eight cylinders. Valve and pumping
friction were calculated 29 , and these factors were subtracted from the friction of the four inactive
cylinders to calculate a new engine fmep . The mechanical friction of both the engine with four-
firing cylinders and the original engine was then calculated . The imep of each of the four-firing
cylinders was calculated and the ratio of the thermal efficiency of these cylinders compared to the
eight-cylinder engine was computed using data from the baseline map. The bsfc of the four-firing-
cylinder engine was then calculated , knowing the bsfc for eight-firing cylinders from the baseline
fuel map :

(bsfc) = (nm ) 8 (nt)8

(bsfc)8 (nm )4 (Nt )4

where nm is mechanical efficiency and nt is thermal efficiency .

When the required imep for each of the four-firing cylinders exceeded the original maximum
imep of the engine , the engine was reverted to an eight-cylinder operation , and the bsfc of the
140 original fuel map was retained
MAX BMEP unchanged . The resulting fuel
- 8 CYLINDERS map is shown in Figure 60. Below
120 the line marked "max . bmep - 4
cylinders," the engine operates on
0.54
four cylinders as already described .
100
MEP

0.50 Above this line, the engine oper-

NG
)( SI

ates in a normal eight-cylinder

B
E
-
P

0.51
80 fashion. The specific fuel con-
MAX BMEP 0.52
0.54 sumption is considerably reduced
-4 CYL
0.56 0.58 in the four-cylinder operating
60 0.60 mode, but most strongly at low
0.70 speeds and bmep where the reduc-
0.52 9.80
40 0.90 tion of pumping losses have a
0.55 1.0, large influence on mechanical
0.60 1.5 efficiency .
20ㅏ 0.70
0.90 1.6 Emissions
1.0 1.2

1000 2000 3000 The basic change in engine

PISTON SPEED - FPM operation involved in this scheme.
FIGURE 60. VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT ENGINE is operation of the four-firing
29,
Bishop , "Effect of Design Variables on Friction and Economy," SAE Paper 812A, Jan. 1964.

94
cylinders at higher imep than normal for the given speed load conditions . Qualitatively , in road opera-
tion this will tend to increase mass emission of hydrocarbons , especially near the maximum output
of the four cylinders (compared to the conventional engine at the same bmep) . CO will be increased
but to a lesser degree , and NOx will also be increased substantially . Some reduction in HC and CO
would be expected at idle conditions because of higher cylinder imep and reduced residual fraction.
Further, the transition between the four- and eight-cylinder operation requires that four cylinders
be started . This repeated starting requirement will result in increased HC and CO . It has been deter-
mined that for the chosen engine displacement only one start -stop cycle of the four modified
cylinders is required during the LA- 4 emission cycle ; nevertheless , this characteristic will add sub-
stantially to the exhaust emissions.

Above the maximum bmep for the four-cylinder operation , emissions will not differ from the
conventional engine . Therefore , it is very nearly certain that emission control on the described con-
cept will be more difficult than on the present conventional engine .

Evaluation

Fuel Economy

The fuel economy of the variable displacement engine installed in a 4300-lb car was computed
from the fuel map of Figure 60. Compared to the baseline economy of a standard 350 CID engine ,
the variable displacement engine demonstrates a 23-percent improvement. This comparison is made
based upon both engines having no emission controls . The desired comparison is the fuel economy
of the variable displacement engine meeting 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standards against the standard
engine meeting 1973 emission standards. To estimate this , the following equation was used :

A
B-90e
)

where

A - fuel economy of variable displacement engine , 0.4-3.4-2.0 emission standard

B fuel economy of standard 350 CID engine , 1973 emission standard

C fuel economy of variable displacement engine , no emission controls

Ꭰ fuel economy of standard 350 CID engine , no emission controls

The value of C/D is 1.23 , as discussed above . D/B is estimated to be 1.09 based upon available data.
The ratio C/A must be greater than D/B for several reasons :

The 0.41-3.4-2.0 standard is more severe than the 1973 standard .

The uncontrolled emissions of the variable displacement engine are greater than those of
the conventional engine . The expected increase in NOx is especially pertinent since con-
trol of this emittant will require increased EGR and a consequent reduction in fuel
economy .

95
 These effects may require an overall increase in the piston displacement of the variable dis-
placement engine in order to maintain equal maximum power, and this will further decrease
economy .

Based on these considerations , it is estimated that the ratio C/A will be about 1.20 . Therefore ,

A 1
= ( 1.23) (1.09) = 1.12
B 1.20

The requirement for repeated starting and shutdown of four cylinders , as the vehicle accelerates
and decelerates through the transition power , will require additional fuel and will also increase CO
and HC emissions. The method chosen for the fuel economy calculation does not account for this
effect, so an additional fuel economy penalty must be assigned . It is estimated that this penalty is
about 5 percent of the factor C/D. Therefore , the final fuel economy comparison is :

A
= (0.95 ) ( 1.12 ) = 1.07
B

Performance

The maximum power output of the variable displacement engine is the same as that of the con-
ventional engine , so top vehicle speeds are equal . The problem of transition from the four-cylinder
operation to an eight-cylinder operation is difficult , since , at the transition , the valve gear of the
four-modified cylinders must be activated , the throttle opened , and the throttle for the four-unmodi-
fied cylinders adjusted to a new position so that the overall engine power is held constant . It seems
inevitable that the transition will involve a power discontinuity that may unfavorably affect accelera-
tion performance.

Emissions

As already discussed , exhaust emissions of the variable displacement engine will be greater than
those of the conventional engine due to :

Higher average imep of four of the engine cylinders .

Transition from four to eight cylinders , requiring additional startups .

Noise and Vibration

The exhaust noise of the variable displacement engine will be slightly higher than that of the
conventional engine , due to the higher cylinder pressures at low loads. Vehicle vibration will also be
increased, although it is not expected that this problem will be especially troublesome , except at idle .

Weight and Size

Inlet manifold design changes , the addition of a carburetor , and the valve control mechanisms
will have insignificant effects on size and weight .

96
 Reliability and Maintainability

The addition of a complex valve gear and transition controls will degrade the overall engine
reliability and make adequate maintenance more difficult .

Other Modifications to Engine and Vehicle

The total coolant load of the engine should not be substantially affected by the variable dis-
placement engine . However , the distribution of the engine heat will be substantially altered in that
four of the cylinders will contribute more heat to the coolant (on a time -averaged basis) than the
other four. Modifications to the cooling passages of the four more active cylinders may be
necessary .

For the same reason, valve life of the four active cylinders may suffer ; therefore , heavy duty
valves may be required.

The problem of transition controls has already been briefly discussed and is a major difficulty .

Cost

Factors that influence the incremental acquisition cost of the variable displacement engine as com-
pared to the conventional engine are :

Valve gear "deactivators " for four cylinders ;

Additional carburetor ;

Divided intake manifold ;

Carburetor and valve controls to provide transition between four- and eight-cylinder
operation; and

Possibly higher quality exhaust valves for four cylinders .

It is estimated that the cost of these items will increase the acquisition cost of the vehicle from
$ 125 to $ 175.

Consumer Acceptance

Factors that may change the degree of consumer acceptance from that now enjoyed by the con-
ventional engine-powered vehicle are :

Slightly more noise,

Engine vibration at idle ,

Power discontinuity at transition between four and eight cylinders ,

Slightly reduced reliability and maintainability,

Added acquisition cost , and

Improved fuel economy .

97
 On balance , it is expected that consumer acceptance would be significantly less for this engine
than for the conventional engine.

Demonstration by 1976

Vehicles with the variable displacement engine could be demonstrated by 1976.

Time Required for Implementation

It is believed that the variable displacement engine can be produced in limited quantities for the
1980 model year.

98
 12. ENGINE WITH REDUCED FRICTION

General

Methods to reduce engine friction have been discussed in Section 7 of this report . To summarize
these , the following changes have been found effective in reducing the friction of engines :

Light reciprocating parts ,

Large clearances between piston and cylinder,

Short pistons ,

Reduced number of piston rings, and

Smaller diameter journal bearings or increased bushing- to-journal clearance .

As was earlier discussed , some of these changes result in increased engine noise . The removal
of an additional ring from, say, a three-ring piston will increase blowby by 10 to 15 percent 30. This
will affect PCV valve design and may present other difficulties such as oil carryover requiring further
engine detail design changes. Oil degradation rates will increase , and, in some cases, piston oil control
may be made more difficult . It must be emphasized that the engine modifications listed above will
have repercussions on engine reliability , noise , life , oil consumption , oil life , acquisition cost, and
operating cost . Insufficient data are available to us to evaluate these factors precisely .

Nevertheless, production engines have been built in the past incorporating all or most of the
listed modifications . These engines were the reciprocating aircraft engines, and some of them demon-
strated remarkably low friction values.21 Figure 61 shows measured friction mep for both auto-
mobile engines and a V- 12 aircraft engine . The difference in fmep between the two types of engines
is striking.

One further method for reducing friction in a conventional engine is by the modification of the
lubricant. References 31 and 32 present test results on automotive engines showing a friction reduc-
tion through the use of about 1 percent by weight of molybdenum disulphide in the crankcase oil.
These tests indicate that , with no other charges, the fmep can be reduced by approximately 5 percent.

It is believed that a reduction in engine friction is possible with some sacrifices in increased engine
noise, increased cost, and perhaps reduced engine reliability. Quantitative data are insufficient to
evaluate these factors accurately . In view of this, the best approach is to take what seems to be a
feasible friction reduction based upon the information provided above and to compute the improve-
ment in fuel economy that would be realized by this change in friction .

If fmep is reduced to maintain the same bmep , the throttle opening must be reduced . The inlet
air density is, thereby, reduced and throttling losses increase which tend to raise the fmep . This effect

30K.R. Kamman , et al. , “Two-Ring Piston Development,” SAE Paper 690750, 1969 .
31 Ethyl Corporation, "The Effect of Molybdenum Disulphide in the Crankcase Oil on Engine Performance," Report No. RS-222 ,
Feb. 1963.
32Climax Molybdenum Co. of Michigan , "Motor Oil Tests with Climax MOS , Suspensions," Report No. RP-29-69-2 , Feb. 1971 .

99
 50 is most pronounced at low loads so that the
EXHAUST PRESSURE INLET PRESSURE measured percentage reduction in friction .
%IFFERENCE

MOTORING DATA
at full throttle becomes less as the throttle
% DIFFERENCE IN FMEP
ENGINE

40 is closed and the load is reduced . When

FMEP
FMEP

REFERENCED TO AUTO
P-SI

variations in the fuel/air ratio due to changes

DIN

FMEP
in throttle position are considered (com-
30
AUTO ENGINE FMEP bined with the resulting change in thermal
4.00 x 3.69 efficiency ) , the picture becomes somewhat
involved . For purposes of estimating a
20 AUTO ENGINE FMEP
3-7/8 x 3.00 feasible friction reduction , it is assumed
that the fmep can be reduced by 20 percent
10 -AIRCRAFT ENGINE FMEP at full load , reducing to a 10 percent
5.5 x 6
reduction at zero load by the schedule
shown in Figure 62.
1
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
PISTON SPEED - FPM Fuel Economy Analysis Procedure

FIGURE 61. MOTORING FRICTION OF

CARBURETED ENGINES For the purposes of this analysis, it is
assumed that the bsfc is a function only of
the inverse of the mechanical efficiency . Using the percent reduction in friction shown in Figure 62 ,
the reference fuel map for the 350 CID carbureted engine without emission controls was modified to
account for the reduced friction . The resulting map is shown in Figure 63 .

140

120

0.54
100
REDUCTION

BMEP
FRICTION

0.47
-PSI

20 80 0.49
0.51
%

0.53
60
1

0.55
0.60
10 40 0.70
0.80

20 1.0

1.7

20 40 60 80 100 1000 2000 3000

PERCENT OF FULL LOAD PISTON SPEED - FPM
FIGURE 62. ESTIMATED POSSIBLE FIGURE 63. ENGINE WITH REDUCED
FRICTION REDUCTION FRICTION 350 CID

The fuel economy improvement was calculated using the standard procedure, and the result was
a O-percent improvement in economy . This is a comparison with both engines (reference and low
friction) uncontrolled for emissions. The desired comparison is obtained as follows :

100
 A=
B
会合 ( ) ( )

where

A - fuel economy of a low-friction engine meeting 0.41 to 3.4 to 2.0 emission standards

B - fuel economy of conventional engine meeting 1973 emission standards

C - fuel economy of a low-friction engine , uncontrolled emissions

Ꭰ ― fuel economy of conventional engine, uncontrolled emissions

From the previous equation , C/D = 1.0 . The reduction in friction probably has a relatively minor effect
on the methods used to meet the 0.41 to 3.4 to 2.0 standards. It has been estimated (see Section 8)
that the effect on fuel economy of meeting these emission standards is a 15 -percent reduction;
therefore, A/C is 1 / 1.15 . D/B has been estimated to be 1.09 . Therefore ,

A
= ( 1.0) (1.09) = 0.95
B 1.15

This disappointing result indicates that

The driving cycle used for these calculations of fuel economy causes the engine to operate
under conditions where throttling losses are a considerable part of total engine friction , and
reductions in mechancal friction has a relatively small effect.

Friction reduction , considerably greater than those assumed , will be necessary to significantly
affect fuel economy ; however, greater friction reductions require disproportionately greater
sacrifices in noise level, blowby, cost, and reliability .

Friction reduction in smaller engines running at a higher bmep and speed than the 350 CID
engine analyzed herein will be more rewarding .

It is concluded that these results do not justify further consideration of friction reduction
methods under the restraint criteria of this effort.

101
 13. LEAN MIXTURE ENGINES

General

"Lean mixture engines" will be taken in this report to include all spark-ignited , carbureted engines
that operate on fuel-air mixtures leaner than those normally used in carbureted engines. A great many
methods have been proposed to obtain lean mixture operation including high energy ignition sources,
multiple spark-ignition sources, turbulence promoters in the combustion chamber , heated intake air ,
fuel vaporizing or dispersing devices, and so forth . The diversity of these methods, combined with
conflicting claims for improved fuel economy and a paucity of data, has led us to the following ration-
ale for analysis.

At each engine speed and load there exists a best economy fuel-air ratio . Mixtures leaner than
this best economy mixture cause a reduction in power output , and the corresponding decrease in
mechanical efficiency causes an increase in bsfc. Therefore , if it is assumed that an engine can always
be operated at the best economy fuel-air ratio , and if a fuel map for this type of operation is prepared ,
the fuel economy obtained from the map will represent an estimate of the best economy possible from
the use of lean mixtures in a carbureted engine.

Fuel Economy Analysis

Consider two engines, one with normal pre-emission carburetion and one with carburetion
arranged to provide operation at the best economy fuel/air ratio . For these two engines running at
the same speed and throttle setting:

bmep2 (Fint / F₂nt2) - ( fmep/imep₁ )

bmep₁ = 1 - fmep/imep₁

where

F₁1 - Fuel-air ratio , normal carburetion

F2 - Fuel-air ratio for best economy

bsfc2 bmepi
=
bsfc1 ( F 1) bmep2/

Since the throttle setting and engine speed are the same for the two engines, fmep , = fmep₂ = fmep.
From a fuel map of the conventional engine, values of bmep , and bsfc , can be taken (at a given speed) .
The fuel/air ratio for a conventional pre-emission engine is shown in Figure 6433. A characteristic
friction curve was chosen for the engine.34 Figure 6521 shows the product Fnt as a function of the
fuel/air ratio. From these data, F₁ , F₁nt 1, and fmep were taken, and the imep , was calculated from
the sum of bmep , and fmep₁ . Then a number of values for F₂ were chosen, and the bmep₂ and
bsfc₂ were calculated for each value of F2 . A typical result is shown in Figure 66. Note that the
minimum values of bsfc differ little from the normally used values, and that the normal and best
economy fuel/air ratio values differ by the greatest margin at the higher loads. The resulting fuel map of

33Fawkes, et al, "The Mixture Requirements of an Internal Combustion Engine at Various Speeds and Loads" Thesis, MIT, 1941 .
34Edson and Taylor, "The Limits of Engine Performance," Vol. 7 , SAE Special Publication Progress in Technology (TP7), 1964.

103
 RELATIVE

1.8 Figure 67 shows the result of the com-

FUEL
AIR

plete analysis . Each point on the map

1.6
-

represents engine operation at the best-

RATIO

1.4 economy fuel/air ratio , except near

a and b
FilFC

1.2 maximum bmep where the relative

fuel/air ratio was increased to 1.2 to
1.0 obtain the rated power output of the
0.8 engine .

0.6
O 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 AIRCRAFT Note that this method takes into
FRACTION OF NORMAL RATED LOAD TAKE - OFF account the reduction in pumping
(a) losses due to wider throttle openings
NORMAL AUTOMOTIVE
TRUCK ENGINES SET FOR BEST ECONOMY at leaner mixtures . Also , no consid-
AIR-TRANSPORT ENGINES eration is given to the actual physical
problem of igniting lean mixtures ; it
FIGURE 64. NORMAL FUEL/AIR RATIOS FOR
AUTOMOBILE ENGINES is assumed that the best economy
mixture can be ignited . Actually, only
in very few operating regimes is the
0.04
best economy mixture low enough so
that any difficulty would be expected
0.03 using normal spark ignition.

0.02 It has been shown experimentally 35

that the method described above leads
0.01 to a somewhat less-than-optimum en-
CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLES gine performance, and that the method
-LIMITED - PRESSURE CYCLES , 15, p/p=70
70 where fuel rate is held constant and
02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 engine air flow (or throttle position)
FR is allowed to vary at constant speed
FIGURE 65. PRODUCT Fη FOR FUEL/AIR CYCLES leads to a leaner , more efficient
fuel/air ratio. However, the latter
method is not amenable to calculation , since the minimum bsfc is set by the lean limit of ignition , and
this lean limit is very dependent upon engine operating conditions and is difficult to predict with any
accuracy. Further, experiments show that the difference in optimum bsfc determined by the two
methods is small and probably well within the accuracy of our calculations. Therefore , the less accur-
ate , but calculable technique is used here to approximate the more accurate technique .

Evaluation

Using the fuel economy calculation procedure standard in this report , the 350 CID lean-mixture
engine shows an 8-percent increase in fuel economy over the 350 CID conventionally carbureted engine.
This comparison is based upon both engines being uncontrolled for exhaust emissions . To correct for
this factor, the following equation is used :

A
=
B ( (

35Schweitzer, P.H. , "Control of Exhaust Pollution Through a Mixture-Optimizer," SAE Paper No. 720254 , Jan. 1972 .

104
 where
CONSTANT PISTON SPEED
60 A - fuel economy of a lean-mixture engine
50% LOAD- CONSTANT meeting 0.41 to 3.4 . to 2.0 emission
BMEP

THROTTLE SETTING standards

-PSI

40 16 % LOAD - CONST.
THROTTLE SETTING B fuel economy of a conventional engine
8% LOAD- CONST. meeting 1973 emission standards
THROTTLE SETTING
20 C - fuel economy of a lean-mixture engine
without emission controls

D - fuel economy of a conventional engine

without emission controls.

The previously discussed results show that C/D = 1.08 ,

3.0
and the ratio D/B has been estimated as 1.09 . The
NORMAL
-BSFC

MIN . BSFC BSFC comparison of the economy of the lean-mixture en-

blrbhp
-
h/

gine with and without emission controls requires con-

2.0 sideration of the method used to achieve lean
mixture operation .
MIN NORMAL
1.0- The Honda CVCC engine (a lean-mixture engine
MINI within our definition) apparently suffers only small
NORMAL losses in economy in achieving acceptable emissions,
due to its divided combustion chamber and slow burn-
.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 ing of the lean mixture. It is estimated that to reach
RELATIVE FUEL- AIR RATIO the required standard of 0.41-3.4-2.0 , the factor
FIGURE 66. EFFECT OF FUEL-AIR RATIO VARIA- A/C is about 0.95 . For this engine , then , A/B = ( 1.08 )
TION ON CARBURETED ENGINE PERFORMANCE
(0.95 ) ( 1.09 ) = 1.12 or approximately a 12-percent
improvement in fuel economy if the overall fuel/air
ratio of the Honda CVCC is held closely to the best economy value and other losses are about the
same as a conventional engine . In actual practice , it would be expected that the actual gain would be
less than this value , since always holding closely to the best economy fuel/air ratio is probably not
attained in practice.

The Honda CVCC appears to be unique in its ability to burn lean mixtures without excessive NOx
formation. As is discussed elsewhere in this report, in an engine with a homogeneous mixture of fuel
and air, maximum NOx production occurs at a fuel/ air ratio somewhat leaner than stoichiometric .
Since normal engine operation is for the most part at mixtures richer than this, leaning the mixture
will tend to raise NOx emissions. In the absence of other NOx control mechanisms, higher NOx will
require greater rates of EGR, and the benefits of leaner mixtures may be lost altogether. For homo-
geneous mixture engines (such as those relying on higher spark energy , turbulence, multiple spark, or
extraordinary fuel vaporization methods to operate at lean mixtures) , the ratio A/C may vary between
0.85 and 0.90. For this case , A/B is in the range 1.00 to 1.06 . When it is considered that this range
for A/B is optimistic , in the sense that it was assumed that all engine operation is at a best economy
fuel/air ratio, it is probable that no benefit in fuel economy will be derived by these techniques.

In order to further confirm these results, a detailed analysis was done for a particular lean-mixture
engine concept. The results of this analysis are presented in the next section .

105
 140 Intake Valve Throttling

FULL THROTTLE The concept of intake valve

120- throttling has been used to allow
stable operation of a carbureted,
spark ignition engine at extremely
lean air/fuel ratios . The basic
100
0.45 feature of this design is the reloca-
tion of the throttling mechanism
BMEP

from the carburetor to the cylinder

-SI

80 0.51 intake valve. The air supply to

P

the engine is throttled, but the

control is achieved by an adjust-
0.52
60 able valve at each cylinder rather
than by a single valve which serves
several cylinders.
0.53
40
The basic alteration required
0.60 is the installation of a mechanism
to vary the lift of the intake valve
20 .0.80
while the engine is operating. The
1.0 adjustable lift controls the size of
1.1 the intake aperture , and with
1.2
proper adjustment the combustion
1000 2000 3000
process can be affected . For any
PISTON SPEED - FPM
circumstance involving flow
FIGURE 67. LEAN-MIXTURE ENGINE 350 CID through an orifice , there exists a
minimum orifice size for which
the velocity of the fluid at the orifice is equal to the local velocity of sound. This critical orifice size
limits the flow through the orifice ; the flow rate cannot be changed if the upstream pressure is fixed .
If the intake orifice is adjusted to critical size for a given engine condition , then the sonic flow at the
valve subjects the fluid to very large shear forces. Application of these forces results in atomization of
the liquid fuel and intense , small scale turbulence in the intake charge . The turbulence promotes mix-
ing, and extremely rapid burning occurs when the charge is ignited . Thorough mixing and rapid com-
bustion allow successful use of lean mixtures.

The intake valve lift must be adjusted to produce sonic velocity in the intake orifice for each engine
air requirement (load) . Fuel may be supplied either as a premixed charge, as from a carburetor, or by
an intake port fuel injection system .

It should be noted that there are salient differences between intake valve throttled engines and
stratified charge engines. With intake valve throttling, the extreme flow conditions at the intake orifice
promote charge homogeniety and small scale turbulence. In the stratified charge engine , large scale
turbulence , or swirl , is sought, and the combustion process takes advantage of the fact that the fuel-air
charge is highly inhomogeneous . Instead of representing a difference in principle, therefore , the
intake valve throttled engine uses the variable lift valve as an accessory to approach maximum combus-
tion efficiency with a conventional , premixed charge engine.

106
 Intake valve throttled engines have been tested in single cylinder, multicylinder and vehicle
mounted configurations36 . During the multicylinder and vehicle testing reported in the reference
cited , intake port fuel injection was used . Satisfactory operation was achieved at extremely lean
fuel/air ratios without vehicle surge, but fuel economy was found to be a strong function of spark
advance (Fig. 68).
21
ECONOMY

15° BTC BASIC TIMING Evaluation-Intake Valve Throttling

20
FUEL PG

Identification of Improvement
-M0
)(6
°F

19
Intake valve throttling has been recommended as a means of
18 conserving fuel. The available data are primarily contained in
Reference36 , which is a report of tests conducted with a single
cylinder engine , a multicylinder engine , and an engine installed in
a vehicle. Although the reported information indicates that the
16 intake valve throttling mechanism may allow lean mixtures to be
burned, the fuel economy benefits remain to be confirmed .
15
Fuel Consumption Reduction
14L
30 40 50 60 70
VEHICLE SPEED - MPH The fuel consumption data, shown in Figure 68 , indicate a
FIGURE 68. FUEL ECONOMY AS A sensitivity to ignition timing but do not provide a comparison to
FUNCTION OF SPARK ADVANCE a reference vehicle. A complete engine map was not provided ,
although partial maps in the form of curves of brake mean effective
pressure versus brake specific fuel consumption were presented as shown in Figures 69 and 70. It can
be observed from these curves that the conventional and intake valve throttled engines exhibit virtually
identical fuel consumption at values of brake mean effective pressure in excess of 20 16 /sq inch. Since
these curves are cited as typical of engine performance at other speeds, it seems that a significant econ-
omy advantage is not obtained . Figures 69 and 70 are composed of a number of "fishook" curves, i.e. ,
curves of bsfc versus bmep at constant throttle opening with varying fuel/air ratio . It can be seen from

1.2
18.90

A20.8
BSFC

1.0
HP
R
/LB
-H

24.2
B

18.00
13.3
B

16.1
14.7
19.8 21.7
413.2
18.14
0.6 A15.0 013.0
16.2 17.2 Q12.2
19.9 15.4
21. 315 .6 21.3 13.1
21.0 21.3 20.7 18.9
0.4 19.9 17.8 19.6 17.0 15.0
17.3 15.5
0.3L
20 40 60 80 100 120
BMEP - PSI
FIGURE 69. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION WITH CONVENTIONAL
THROTTLING 1200 RPM , INDOLENE 30 FUEL

36Stivender, Donald L., “Intake Valve Throttling (IVT)-A Sonic Throttling Intake Valve Engine" , SAE Paper 680399 , 1968.

107
 1.2

BSFC
1.0

- HP
20.30 11.9

-H
L
/B R
B 1 8 . 9 2 3
16.9
13.8
B
11.6
21.24
12.7
22. 14.
0.6 18.74 8 41
16.4 16.9 14.9 13.6
20.4 17.6 21.3 .5
118.70 21.7 15.4a 18.816 913.1
0.4 22.8 19.5 23.2
[ 22.5 20.020.718.9 17.3 15.5
0.3
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
BMEP -PSI

FIGURE 70. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION WITH VALVE

THROTTLING 1200 RPM , INDOLENE 30 FUEL

comparison of the two figures that the best fuel/air ratios at the various loads are much the same for
the two engines .

It should be noted that this system is particularly amenable to fuel shutoff during deceleration .
If compatibility with the emission control systems can be assured , then the valve actuating mechan-
isms can be set for zero lift when deceleration conditions prevail . However, this capability is also
available with the intake port fuel injection system which would almost certainly be required on an
intake valve throttled engine .

It is possible that more comprehensive data on the intake valve throttling process exist in the
files of the automobile manufacturers. If this is the case, and a complete engine map can be obtained ,
then a numberical evaluation of the concept using the established procedure would be possible. The
more complete body of data , with evaluation , might allow a more favorable impression of the fuel
economy benefits associated with intake valve throttling.

State of Development

The procedure has been demonstrated with single cylinder and multicylinder laboratory engines ,
and some road testing has been performed . Routine development work would be required prior to
a production commitment .

Demonstration

The required engine modifications have been operated on at least one single cylinder test engine ,
one multicylinder test engine , and one vehicle mounted engine.

Reliability

The intake valve throttling process requires that a variable adjustment capability be added to
moving parts of the engine . This greatly increases the complexity of the valve system, and some

108
reliability problems are likely. In addition, an intake port fuel injection system would probably be
used ; such systems are somewhat more complex than the carburetors that they replace.

Cost

Excluding the cost of the intake port fuel injection system , which is analyzed as an entity else-
where in this report, the cost of the intake valve throttling accessories is an estimated $ 25 to the
consumer. It should be noted , however, that although the proposed engine is throttled , no manifold
vacuum is produced . Engine load signals to the ignition system and the transmission must be provided
by another means, and a separate pump would be required for vacuum operated accessories such as
power brakes.

Safety

Since the engine is basically throttled , compression braking should not be affected . There should
be no conflict between the proposed intake valve throttled design and the 1973 Safety Standards.

Emissions

Although some emissions measuring equipment was connected to the test engine described in
Reference 36, no specific values were reported. It was observed that emissions were similar to those
from conventional engines in both character and quantity , except that carbon monoxide concentra-
tions could be quite low if conditions were favorable. However, an engine operating at very lean mix-
tures, without misfire , should exhibit low values for all contaminants. Comprehensive exhaust
emission tests will be necessary before definite conclusions can be reached .

Noise

The additional mechanical components required for the intake valve throttled engine may con-
tribute to the engine noise level , but the effect is probably not significant. In addition , there may be
noise associated with the flow through critical nozzles at the valves. This is typically an extremely
noisy situation, and some noise control effort may be necessary .

Performance

Performance should not be affected by the installation of the intake valve throttling mechanisms ;
at or near wide open throttle the engine would return to the conventional operating condition.

Time Required for Implementation

Since the technique has been demonstrated , the additional testing and development should be
possible prior to the production commitment deadline for the 1980 model year.

Consumer Acceptance

Since the proposed alterations simply relocate the point at which inlet air is throttled , the average
consumer should not detect any difference in engine operation.

109
 14. INTAKE PORT FUEL INJECTION

Throughout this document , reference has been made primarily to carbureted gasoline engines
of the type supplied with the reference vehicles. In the case of diesel and stratified charge engines,
to be discussed later in this report, fuel is injected directly into the cylinder under high pressure.
Another fuel supply system, commonly referred to as port injection , utilizes a low pressure pump
which supplies fuel to nozzles located in the intake manifold in the vicinity of each intake valve.
Generally , the air supply to the engine is throttled in a manner similar to that for a carbureted en-
gine ; in fact , some systems employ standard carburetors as air metering devices. A signal from the
air metering device is used to regulate the fuel supply.

Several systems using low pressure port injection have been marketed on production vehicles.
The early Rochester system , used on some Corvette automobiles during the 1960's, allowed a
continuous flow of fuel through the nozzles.37 Later systems, such as the Bendix-Robert Bosch
system used on Volkswagen automobiles, are described as "timed" systems; but individual cylinders
do not receive an appropriately timed fuel quantity . The "timing" with these systems consists of
a timed fuel flow to each cylinder bank ; systems planned for the future can provide for timed
fuel flow to each cylinder.

Another feature of future systems is overall control of the air/fuel ratio using engine emissions
as an input to the system in addition to the traditional speed and load signals . The systems employ
a three-way catalyst in the exhaust system ; such a catalyst is capable of reducing the quantities of
unburned hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , and oxides of nitrogen as long as the engine air/fuel ratio
is maintained within narrow limits . An oxygen sensor located in the exhaust system supplies a signal
to the fuel injector for air/fuel ratio control ; it is claimed that adequate control is virtually impossible
with production carburetors , 38

In general , intake port fuel injection systems appear to offer several advantages by comparison
with conventional carburetors . For a carbureted engine , a considerable quantity of liquid fuel must
be maintained on the walls of the intake manifold as a result of the vapor-liquid equilibrium charac-
teristics of the fuel . This liquid fuel coating on the manifold walls causes a lag in throttle response on
acceleration and increased emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide during deceleration . If
the amount of liquid fuel on the manifold walls can be reduced, as it would be with port injection,
then driveability should be improved and emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide should
be reduced . Furthermore , faster warmup of the engine should be achieved because fuel is supplied
directly to the hot intake valve and vaporization capability is increased .

Evaluation -Intake Port Fuel Injection

There is some evidence that intake port fuel injection can be used to an advantage on production
vehicles. Throughout this evaluation , the system considered will be of the electronic control type,
with fuel individually metered and timed to each cylinder.

Reduction in Fuel Consumption

The primary advantage that intake port fuel injection can offer in the area of fuel economy is
precise control of the air/fuel mixture . A carburetor , once it has been assembled and calibrated , is

37Dolza, J. , E. Kehoe , D. Stoltman , and Z. Duntov, “The GM Fuel Injection System, " SAE Transactions, V. 65 , p. 739 , 1957 .
38Rivard , J.G. , “ Closed Loop Electronic Fuel Injection Control of the Internal Combustion Engine," SAE Paper 730005 , 1973 .

111
not amenable to mixture alteration except for the idle mixture , and the use of a float bowl prevents
rapid response to changing engine requirements. Some aircraft carburetors incorporate a capability
for mixture change , but the control system is not generally sensitive to engine speed and load. The
timed fuel injection system supplies appropriate quantities of fuel to each cylinder, and the electronic
control unit can be adjusted to modify the air/fuel ratio . The system could be regarded as a pressurized
carburetor with outlets at each cylinder and a sophisticated control system. Carbureted engines tra-
ditionally exhibit difficulty with uniform fuel distribution to all cylinders; this problem is diminished
with fuel injection because the fuel is supplied to each cylinder rather than to a central location .
Another feature of the fuel injection system which can be used advantageously is the possibility of
fuel shutoff during deceleration . There is some indication that excessive quantities of fuel would be
required to restart the engine , and possible detrimental effects on emission control equipment will
be treated later , but the possible gain of about 5 percent in fuel economy provides sufficient motiva-
tion for further study.

Claims for reduced fuel consumption through the use of timed fuel injection may be found in
the literature , but none may be regarded as completely definitive38,39 . A thorough test program
using standardized procedures will be required before conclusions can be drawn .

Fuel Consumption - Urban Cycle and Road Load

The fuel economy calculation procedure outlined elsewhere in this study was performed using
the engine map presented in Reference 39 for a 283 cu in . engine equipped with fuel injection (see
Figure 71) . The calculation procedure resulted in an estimated 6-percent improvement in average
fuel economy (urban plus road load) by comparison with the reference vehicle . This result should
not be regarded as conclusive, since there were weight and displacement differences between the
two vehicles. An engine map for the carbureted version of the vehicle was also presented in Ref-
erence 39 , but it is not clear that the carburetor and the engine were well matched even though the
configuration was stock. There is no accessible direct comparison between fuel injection and car-
buretion for the same modern vehicle .

Calculations were also performed for the reference vehicle based on the assumption that the
fuel flow to the engine could be stopped entirely during deceleration . An electronic engine speed
restart sensor would also be required . The result was an increase of 5 percent in fuel economy for
the reference vehicle for the combined urban and road load calculation procedure .

Stage of Development

Electronic fuel injection systems have been under development for several years , and numerous
European production vehicles have been equipped with modified versions of the system considered
here. The Cosworth-Vega , to be introduced in limited production in 1974 , will be equipped with the
two-group injection .

Some development will be required on the feedback control , three-way catalyst system . Although
such systems have been demonstrated , the oxygen sensors are notoriously short lived , and considerable
effort is being devoted to development in this area .

39Freeman, J.H., Jr. and R.C. Stahman , "Vehicle Performance and Exhaust Emission, Carburetion Versus Timed Fuel Injection, "
SAE Paper 650863 , 1965.

112
 VEHICLE SPEED , MPH

55
15 20 35 40 45 5 0 55 60 65
20
25 30

25

8
75 0.745
75

70 0.705
70

0.520 BSFC
0.665
0.5
40
0.625

60
0.585
55

55
0.545

0.570
0.505

PISTONAREA
50
0.
60 0.465
0
BMEP

45
,PSI

0.425
0.6
25
0.385

SQ IN
BHP .
35

0.7 0.345

/
00

30 0.750 0.305
0.8
00
0.265
25
0.870
0.225
0.940
20 1.11 1.020
1.2 0 ROAD LOAD 0.185
10
1.320
15
1.4 0.145
30

10 0.105
0.025 0.065

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

I | PISTON SPEED FPM

1
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
ENGINE SPEED, RPM

FIGURE 71. PARTIAL PERFORMANCE MAP OF VEHICLE C EQUIPPED WITH COMPLETE GASOLINE
INJECTION SYSTEM (Automatic Metering Control Provides an Essentially Constant Air/Fuel Ratio
of 14.5 : 1 at All Speeds and Loads.)

113
 Demonstration by 1976

Electronic timed injection systems have been demonstrated . The remaining development
problems will , in all probability , succumb within sufficient time to allow demonstration by 1976
of a system suitable for the useful life of a vehicle.

Reliability

The reliability of the timed fuel injection systems should be no worse than that of a conven-
tional carburetor once the oxygen sensor durability problems are solved . In the area of pumps
and injection nozzles , a wealth of diesel engine information is available and fuel handling and
filtering procedures will be quite similar to those for diesel service . The control systems and sen-
sors are well within the state-of-the-art , and their durability has been demonstrated on production
vehicles.

It should also be noted that the electronic control systems are much more amenable to
diagnosis by sophisticated electronic procedures than are carburetors. This factor is significant
in the light of current trends toward automatic engine diagnosis.

Cost

The cost to the consumer of a basic timed injection system , without catalysts or oxygen sen-
sor and with the two-group injection , has been estimated at $ 75 for the relatively small production
quantities treated in this study. This cost is expected to drop with high volume production .

Any discussion of cost must include the effect of elimination of the carburetor . Carburetors,
and the additional devices that accompany them , are becoming increasingly complex ; the assump-
tion that fuel injection systems are too expensive must be reexamined in the light of contemporary
systems.

Safety

There should be no safety problems with the fuel injection systems that do not exist with
carburetors. Although the fuel in the system is subjected to moderate pressure (~ three atmospheres) ,
the injection nozzles provide a positive shutoff. Control of carburetor evaporative emissions is
unnecessary .

Emissions

There appears to be general agreement that fuel injection systems allow better emission control ,
primarily because of enhanced ability to control air/fuel ratio . Also , since a warmup condition can
be approached more quickly, the emissions following a cold start can be reduced . Prototype systems
using a three-way catalyst with feedback (oxygen sensor) control , ignition timing control , and
exhaust gas recirculation have met the most stringent Federal Standards with the exception of the
requirement for 50,000 mile durability38 . While this prototype system is presently a high risk item ,
and less complex systems are specified for the designs synthesized in this report, the example does
serve to illustrate the potential of fuel injection systems. Other tests have also indicated that emissions
can be controlled more readily with fuel injection ; one of the main reasons cited in the uniformity
of fuel distribution .

114
 The use of fuel shutoff during deceleration was mentioned previously as a possible economy
measure . In emission controlled engines, the possibility exists that reactors could cool during
periods of fuel shutoff; a warmup period would be required after the vehicle returned to an
acceleration or cruise mode . Emissions in this circumstance could conceivably be increased by a
substantial amount, and all the fuel economy benefits of deceleration shutoff would not be
available.

Noise

The noise levels of fuel injected engines should not be significantly different from those of
carbureted engines.

Performance

The fuel injection system, because of the possibility of precise air/fuel ratio control , offers
the possibility of good economy with minimum performance degradation. Performance of a vehicle
with a fuel injected engine should be better than that of an equivalent vehicle with a carbureted
engine for the same economy and emission levels.

Time Required for Implementation

Since prototype systems of the closed loop , feedback control type have been demonstrated ,
and since systems without feedback control are now in production , there should be no difficulty
in providing fuel injection systems for 10 percent of the 1980 production volume. Accelerated
implementation should be possible , particularly with the experience to be gained from the Cosworth-
Vega production.

Consumer Acceptance

Fuel injection systems have been in demand for years from the "enthusiast" segment of the
driving public; acceptance by this group should be immediate . Most drivers have no interest in the
details of vehicle operation , but they do compare new vehicles with those that they have owned
previously. If the fuel injection system can allow improved performance by comparison with a
similar, carbureted vehicle , then there should be no problem with acceptance.

115
 15. STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINES-SPARK IGNITION

The concept of a stratified charge engine has received considerable attention in most discussions
of automobile economy . Since this engine concept differs from the familiar design used in conven-
tional automotive engines, some explanation of the operating principles and pertinent terminology
is appropriate .

Modern automobile engines are almost universally of the carbureted, spark ignition type . Fuel
and air are mixed in the carburetor , and this mixture is conducted to the engine cylinders through
the intake manifold . The process which occurs in the carburetor results in a mixture of air and fuel
droplets. The fuel vaporization begins at the carburetor and continues throughout the passages of
the intake manifold . When the air/fuel mixture is delivered to the cylinder, approximately 60 per-
cent of the fuel is in the vapor state¹ . It is important to note that liquid fuel is present in the intake
manifold ; the conditions of liquid-vapor equilibrium prohibit the operation of a "dry" manifold
unless all of the fuel is in the vapor state . The liquid deposited on the walls of the intake manifold
will, in subsequent discussion , be connected with excessive hydrocarbon emissions during deceleration.

The mixture of air , liquid fuel, and fuel vapor is allowed to enter the cylinder at the appropriate
time during the cycle through the intake valve . The valve usually opens when the piston is near the
bottom of its stroke , and fuel vaporization continues during the compression process . In addition , a
stirring motion is provided to the mixture by passage through the valve. After compression , at the
time when the sparkplug fires, there is a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel throughout the com-
bustion chamber; if the mixture is chemically correct, then combustion proceeds across the cylinder.
It should be observed that there is a thin region adjacent to the cylinder walls into which the flame
cannot propagate ; the mixture in this quench volume is chemically altered but not consumed.

In order to provide a quantity of fuel appropriate to the load , the conventional engine is equipped
with a throttle. The throttle is basically a valve which regulates the amount of air supplied to the
engine ; increasing airflow increases the pressure drop in the carburetor venturi , and more fuel is
supplied .

The primary difference between conventional and stratified charge engines may be recognized
by comparing the mixtures present in the cylinder at the time of ignition . In the above discussion,
it was observed that the conventional engine utilizes a homogeneous mixture of fuel and air ; however ,
in the stratified charge engine , the carburetor is eliminated . Air alone enters the combustion chamber
through the intake manifold and is compressed . A short time before ignition , an amount of liquid
fuel appropriate to the load is sprayed into the combustion chamber. Instantaneously , therefore ,
there is a region of the combustion chamber which is occupied almost entirely by fuel ; the remaining
volume is occupied by air. This idealized geometric configuration provides the origin of the term
"stratified" in the description of the engine concept.

The above description is obviously oversimplified . There is actually a pronounced motion of

the air in the combustion chamber, and usually this motion has the form of a swirl or vortex induced
by the flow through the valve . Since the injection of the fuel requires some time , the fuel-rich region
of the combustion chamber may more accurately be described as a cone , with the apex at the injec-
tion nozzle , which follows the swirling flow. Ignition occurs at the sparkplug, and successful combus-
tion requires that fuel and air both be present at the plug when the spark occurs. Furthermore , since
liquid fuel will not burn , some vaporization of the fuel must occur prior to ignition . The vaporization

117
of fuel actually commences as soon as fuel enters the chamber and continues throughout the
combustion process .

It may be observed that the combustion process in a stratified charge engine is quite similar
to that in a diesel engine . This is in fact the case , except that the compression ratios are much
lower in the stratified charge engine ( 10 : 1 or less ) , and combustion is initiated by a spark rather
than by the high temperature which results from compression in the diesel engine . The stratified
charge engine concept allows diesel efficiencies to be approached with a spark-ignition , multifuel
engine . These are the main characteristics which motivate the proponents of the stratified charge
concept.

Experiments with stratified charge engines have been conducted since 1920, and there are
several modern engine designs that are in the stratified charge category for which a considerable
body of test data are available . It will be worthwhile to devote some attention to the details of
these experimental systems. A listing of the various types is shown in Table 18.

Considerable attention has been devoted in the popular press to the Compound Vortex
Controlled Combustion (CVCC) engine developed by Honda . The engine is equipped with a car-
buretor and precombustion chambers designed to allow burning of lean mixtures; a diagram is shown
in Figure 7340. The Honda design is quite similar to an earlier Russian design41 and to a retrofit
device investigated by an American firm early in the 1960's42 . Since the engine employs a carburetor
rather than fuel injection , load control is achieved by variation in the position of a throttle valve
located in the air inlet . This is the same load control method used by conventional carbureted
engines, and, therefore , the CVCC design does not realize the full potential of the stratified charge
concept. Furthermore , the vehicles which have been tested were adjusted to meet 1975 emission
standards , and an economy penalty of 10 to 20 percent, by comparison with 1973 certification
vehicles , was observed ( Reference 40) . There may be some evidence of reduced power output .
Engine displacement for the CVCC engine is substantially greater than that of the conventional
engine for the same vehicle ( 71 CID vs 119 CID) . A report of more recent conversion of a Chevrolet
350 CID engine to CVCC operation is encouraging; 160 horsepower was achieved at 3700 rpm for
the stock engine , and 4000 rpm for the CVCC conversion43 . The same report also suggests fuel
economy values competitive with those of other vehicles in the same class during operation on the
LA-4 cycle. Emission test results for the 350 CID conversion were also favorable . Configuration
similar to the Honda design has been investigated by Fiat44 and by Volkswagen45 . In the latter
case , experiments were also conducted using a fuel injection system to provide enrichment . During
the Volkswagen experiments, it was also observed that performance and emissions at light loads
could be improved through the use of a throttle.

Several stratified charge engines have been designed which employ precombustion chambers
but minimize the throttling of intake air. An example of this type is the Broderson Engine , which
has been examined at intervals over the past 30 yr40 . In this design , shown in Figure 73 , a carbureted
(but unthrottled) fuel/air mixture is supplied to the main chamber ; fuel injection is used to provide
the rich mixture required for ignition in the precombustion chamber. The reported results indicate

40Bascunana , J. , “ Divided Combustion Chamber Gasoline Engines -A Review for Emissions and Efficiency,” APCA , 66th Annual
Meeting, 1973.
41 Gussak, L.A. , Izvestiga ANNSSSR, Energertika i Transport, Nr 4 , ( 1965) .
42Rhodes, K.H. , " Project Stratofire," SAE Paper 660094 , 1966 .
43Anon, " An Evaluation of a 350 CID Compound Vortex Controlled Combustion (CVCC) Powered Chevrolet Impala," Environmental
Protection Agency Report 74-13 DWP, October 1973.
44 Tienert, R.M. , "Automotive News,” 4 June 1973 .
45Heitland , H., "A Status Report on the Pre-Chamber Injection Volkswagen Stratified Charge Engine," First Symposium on Low
Pollution Power System Development," October 1973.

118
 TABLE
-NIR
SYSTEMS
ENGINE
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
18.
-H
/A
FUEL
MIXTURES
OMOGENEOUS
ON

Category admitted
Fuel Load
Example Stratified
by ignition
before
Mixing ignition
after
Mixing
by controlled
by

chamber-
Open diesel
D.I. Injection volatility
fuel
Low Interaction
injection
fuel
of of
effects
Continued -input
Fuel
compression
ignition and
details
injection motion
air
with
)(swirl ,thermal-
injection
effects
centrifugal

sys N
MAtem Injection Similar
to
diesel
;in Similar
bdiesel
, ut
to cThermal
- entrifugal Fuel
i- nput
injected
is
fuel
addition lesser
amuch
due
degree
combustion
to
parallel technique
injection
to
chamber
with
wall
high
swirl

chamber-
Open Texaco Controlled
air
motion Interaction
injection
fuel
of of
effects
Continued -input
,sFuel
ome-
ignition
spark Ford fuel
and
precise (swirl
motion
air
)with , hermal-
tinjection times
air-
also
/SwRI
Witzky Injection injection effects
centrifugal throttled
Hesselman

Divided
chamber- I.D.I.
diesel Injection into
injection
Fuel mixing
complete
Fairly
in -input
Fuel
burning
of
Expansion
compression
ignition pre
-combustion ombustion
c-chamber
pre contents
of
pre-
chamber due
swirl
high
to chamber
combustion
chamber
main
the
into

119
chamber-
Divided Brode
eng
. rson into
injection
Fuel in
mixing
complete
Fairly Expansion
of
pre- iFuel
- nput
spark
ignition SwRI
pInject ss
" umpleion cpre
- ombustion chamber
cpre
- ombustion chamber
,contents
"
gas chamber due
turbulence
&
swirl
to due
inflow
/outflow
to
motion
piston

CVCC
Honda ,rCarburetion
stratified
Not
icher Premixed Expansion
pre-
of fuel
of
Throttling
mixture
cpre
-inhamber air
and
into
contents
chamber
serve
to
high
as
energy main
chamber
main
source
for
ignition
chamber

series
71
SwRI Injection Not
stratifie
pre-
in d Complete
in
mixing
pre- Expansion
of
pre- Fuel
i- nput
conversion chamber
.Stratified turbulence
to
due
chamber contents
chamber
into
chamber
main
in
by main
chamber
dswirl
&ensity
differen
betweence
gas
air
and
 HONDA a high thermal efficiency over the
CIVIC CVCC ENGINE
entire load range during operation at
two speeds ; more data obtained during
variable speed operation would be
helpful.

The stratified charge engine con-

cept, which has received the most com-
prehensive attention , is the open cham-
ber design typified by the Texaco (TCCS ) ,
Ford (FCP , PROCO) , and Witzky /SwRI
engine 46-58 . These designs differ pri-
marily in geometric detail ; all employ
direct fuel injection , and all rely on mo-
tion of the air charge induced by flow
OVERHEAD through the valve to produce charge
CAMSHAFT stratification . Figure 74 depicts a typical
open chamber stratified charge design.
Engines of this type are usually operated
either without throttling of the intake
SPARKPLUG- air or with throttling at very low (idle)
loads only . It is apparent that successful
PRECHAMBER INLET VALVE ignition depends upon the presence of an
appropriate mixture at the sparkplug
when the spark occurs. The assurance
of this condition over the entire operating
PRECHAMBER range has been one of the primary prob-
lems in the development of the open
chamber engine . Performance data obtained
from engine tests indicate favorable fuel
economy, and typical engine map is shown
FIGURE 72. HONDA CIVIC CVCC ENGINE
in Figure 75. Fuel maps of this type are
46Coppoc , W.J. , E. Mitchell and M. Alperstein, " A Stratified Charge Multifuel Engine Meets 1976 U.S. Standards, ” 38th mid-year
meeting of the API Division of Refining, May, 1973.
47Davis, C.W. , E.M. Barber, and E. Mitchell, "Fuel Injection and Positive Ignition -A Basis for Improved Efficiency and Economy,"
SAE Paper 190A, SAE Summer Meeting, 1960.
48Mitchell , E. , J.M. Cobb , and R.A. Frost , "Design and Evaluation of a Stratified Charge Multifuel Military Engine," SAE Paper 680042,
1968.
49Mitchell , E. , M. Alperstein, J.M. Cobb , and C.H. Faist, "A Stratified Charge Multifuel Military Engine-A Progress Report," SAE
Paper 720051 , 1972.
50Cobb , J.M. and E. Mitchell, " Performance Development and Evaluation of the Multifuel Texaco Combustion Process Model 2A042
Military Standard Engine," Final Technical Report to U.S. Army Mobility Command , Contract No. DA-44-009-AMC-991 (T) Mod 1 ,
1967.
51Witzky, J.E. , "Stratification and Air Pollution," Institution of Mechanical Engineers Paper C136 /71 , 1971 .
52 Hussman , A.W. , F. Kahoun , and R.A. Taylor, " Charge Stratification by Fuel Injection into Swirling Air," Presented at 1962 SAE
Combined National Fuels and Lubricants, Power Plant, and Transportation Meeting, 1962.
53Witzky , J.E. , and J.M. Clark, Jr., “ A Study of the Swirl Stratified Combustion Principle," SAE Paper 660092 , 1966 .
54Willis , D.A. and W.E. Meyer, " Investigation of a Stratified Charge Engine Employing the Air Swirl Induced Stratification Principle,"
Pennsylvania State University Interim Report to U.S. Army Mobility Command on Contract No. DA-36-034-ORD-3638T, 1964.
55Witzky, J.E. , "Stratified Charge Engines," ASME Paper 63-MD- 42 , 1963.
56Bishop , I.N. , and Aladar Simko, “ A New Concept of Stratified Charge Combustion -The Ford Combustion Process (FCP), ” SAE
Paper 680041 , 1968.
57BBishop, et al, U.S. Patent 3,315,640,1967.
58Simko , A.M. , Choma & L.L. Repko , "Exhaust Emission Control by the Ford Programmed Combustion Process ," SAE Paper 720052,
1972 .

120
 apparently not available for emission
controlled engines, although the features
of the combustion process indicate that
low emissions are characteristic of the
stratified charge design . For example,
combustion occurs in a richer than
stoichiometric mixture, but the overall

I
mixture in the chamber is lean . The
rich mixture in the combustion zone
tends to inhibit formation of NOx ,
while the excess air tends to promote
complete oxidation of hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide . Furthermore, the
fuel is consumed as it enters the combus-
tion chamber, and the hydrocarbon con-
centration in the quench volume is much
smaller than that which is considered
typical of an engine operating with a
homogeneous charge .

In summary, the stratified charge

engine has several desirable features
which warrant further investigation and
development. Foremost among these
advantages is a significant improvement
in thermal efficiency . In addition, the
stratified charge concept offers a de-
crease in the complexity of emission
control procedures and, in some versions ,
FIGURE 73. BRODERSON ENGINE COMBUSTION a multifuel capacity not available with
CHAMBER CROSS-SECTION conventional designs.

DIRECTION OF
AIR SWIRL
NOZZLE

SPARK PLUG

I FUEL SPRAY
2 FUEL-AIR MIXING ZONE
3 FLAME FRONT AREA
4 COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
FIGURE 74. TEXACO CONTROLLED-COMBUSTION SYSTEM

121
 Stratified Charge Engines- Evaluation
30-
.490 LBS/BHP,470HR
120 4501 Identification of Improvements
.4301
.420 510
110 .410
,400)
.390 Stratified charge engines, particularly
100
the open chamber variety , offer a substantial
decrease in fuel consumption by comparison
with conventional engines having the same
.390 displacement. Specifically, the available test
PMLP
PSI

-$50-
data indicate that thermal efficiencies char-
400 600 acteristic of diesel engines can be attained
410 at lower compression ratios with spark-igni-
420 tion , stratified charge engines. Table 19 , from
430
401 Reference 46 shows the results of some tests.
.450
470
301 .490
.510
.530
.550
201 600 Fuel Consumption Reduction
.650
.700
.750
800-
201 The fuel consumption for several engine
1000 2000 3000 sizes and two vehicle sizes was estimated ,
ENGINE SPEED RPM
according to the procedure outlined previously
FIGURE 75. BSFC ISLAND CURVE (430 CID FCP ENGINE) in this document , for engines having an open
chamber design . The source of fuel consump-
tion data was the FCP engine map (Figure 75 ) , and for engine sizes other than 430 CID , the abscissa
was interpreted in terms of piston speed . The results of the calibration are compared to the results for
the baseline vehicle in Table 20. The fuel consumption at idle was assumed to be equal to that of the
reference vehicle rather than reduced to values characteristic of diesel engines. It may be observed
from the table that a pronounced decrease in fuel consumption occurs upon reduction of engine
displacement, even at constant vehicle
TABLE 19. OVER-THE-ROAD FUEL ECONOMY -M- 151 VEHICLE
weight . This feature is a consequence of
Fuel economy, the shape of the contours on the engine
Avg speed, mpg ( 1/100 km) Percent map. As shown in Figure 75 , the brake
Course Naturally
mph (km/h) Standard improvement specific fuel consumption contours in the
aspirated
gasoline TCCS lower left quadrant have a small positive
slope , in contrast to the same lines on the
1(a) 21(33.8) 12.5(18.8) 21.6(10.9) 72.8
2 25(40.2) 16.6(14.2) 24.8(9.5) 49.4 conventional spark-ignition engine map
3 33(53.1) 17.5(13.4) 24.4(9.6) 39.4 (Figure 3 ) . Other maps for open chamber
stratified charge engines are similar to
(a)Includes high portion of idle time.
Figure 75 ; this line shape is assumed to be
characteristic of the engine design.
TABLE 20. FUEL ECONOMY IMPROVEMENTS OF OPEN
CHAMBER STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINE The effects of emission controls on
Emissions fuel economy were taken into account
Engine Uncontrolled emissions effects as follows:
Inertia considered
displace-
ment weight Urban Road A
Composite Composite
load (%) =
cycle (%) (%) (%)
B - (0
) (
)
430 4500 12.6 23 17
350 4500 27 31 29 34 where
300 4500 45 46 45.4
300 4000 51 52 52 A - fuel economy of stratified charge
meeting 0.41-3.4-2.0 emissions

122
 B fuel economy of conventional engine meeting 1973 standards

C - fuel economy of stratified charge, no emission controls

D fuel economy of conventional engine , no emission controls.

Since all previous comparisons have been on the basis of equal performance , only the 350 CID engine
was analyzed for emission effects. For this engine , from Table 20 , C/D = 1.29 . The ratio D/B has
been assumed to be 1.09 . The ratio A/C is primarily affected by the NOx requirement . The subsequent
discussion on emission control in the stratified charge engine and Figure 76 indicates that the economy
loss for 2.0 g/miles of NOx is roughly 3 to 5 percent. It is assumed that A/C = 0.95 . Therefore ,

A/B = ( 1.29)( 1.09)( 0.95) = 1.34

This result is shown in Table 20.

It should be noted that the tests reported in Reference 43 indicate that the fuel economy for
the Honda CVCC design, in the 350 CID configuration , is competitive with that of other vehicles
in the same class.

Stage of Development

The stratified charge engine , in one of its various configurations, has been tested at intervals
since 1920 when Ricardo performed the first experiments. The concept has apparently been resurrected

NOx , % REDUCTION
CONSUMPTION

700 30 50 70 80 90 95
INCREASE
FUEL

60
%
IN

50

40

30

20

10-
Δ

.8 .6 .4 .2
NOx , GMS/ MILE ( CVS PROCEDURE )
FIGURE 76. EXPERIMENTAL STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINES

123
at times when change was imminent within the industry , probably as one of several alternatives
available at the time . The fact that the decision was always made against final development and
production can probably be attributed to increased cost of the engine . High efficiency stratified
charge engines require fuel injection pumps similar to those on diesel engines, and this cost has
been regarded as prohibitive for automobile engines. At the present time , however, required per-
formance in the areas of economy and emissions may allow the evaluation to swing in the other
direction. It should also be pointed out that conventional engines have evolved over a period of
half a century ; the engines of today bear only a family resemblance to those of the 1920's, and no
candidate engine system has had the benefit of the practice obtained from production runs amount-
ing to millions of engines. The most recent reports 46-58 indicate that considerable progress has
been made in stratified charge engine design within the last 5 yr ; hence , further development
should be encouraged .

Demonstrable by 1976

In addition to the Honda tests for carbureted engines , open chamber stratified charge engines
have been demonstrated in vehicles capable of road operation46,56 . Furthermore , at least one
program is presently underway which involves conversion of a fleet of military vehicles to stratified
charge operation . Results will be available by 1976 .

Reliability

The basic engine block of a stratified charge engine is identical to that of a conventional engine ,
however, the engine heads are different . The open chamber engine requires the addition of a fuel
injection nozzle , and the divided chamber engine generally requires an extra valve . Reliability for
the carbureted stratified charge engine , except for the extra valve , should be equivalent to that of
a conventional engine . In the case of an open chamber engine , a fuel injection pump is added but
the carburetor is eliminated . Considerable experience has been obtained from the manufacture of
diesel fuel injection pumps. The only obstacle to very high reliability is the cost trade-off which
will occur when injection pumps are placed in passenger car service . Fuel processing for a fuel in-
jection system must be performed carefully ; filtration techniques common to diesel service must be
employed. After the procedural details are specified for production engines, the system reliability
should be equivalent to that of present engines.

Cost

In the case of the open chamber stratified charge engine , the cost of the basic engine should
not exceed that of conventional engines. However , the cost of the fuel injection system is offset
only by the cost of the present carburetor. Fuel injection pumps and nozzles are notoriously
expensive because of the precision which must be maintained in their manufacture , but they have
never been produced in quantities appropriate to passenger car service . One proponent of stratified
charge engines has devoted considerable attention to cost reduction , and further reduction is
possible in planning for production 56 .

The completion cost situation cannot be considered without some attention to the conse-
quences of conversion to a different concept of engine operation . The emission control philosophy ,
which has prevailed until the present time , has employed standard reciprocating engines with minor
design changes. The performance of these engines has been modified with accessories in order to
meet emission standards. Thus, a 1973 vehicle typically has a conventional engine with modified
ignition , fuel, and exhaust systems. By all indications , this trend will continue throughout most of

124
this decade ; the quantity of added control equipment will simply be increased to accommodate the
prevailing emission standards . If, however, a change in basic engine design is assumed , and if the new
engine has inherently low emission properties, then the amount of accessory control equipment is
reduced . The reduction in cost as a result of unnecessary control equipment may be applied to the
additional cost of engine conversion .

Another additional cost factor may be encountered for some stratified charge engines. The
open chamber engine operates without an air throttle ; it produces no manifold vacuum . If designers
of various auxiliary systems, such as climate control , persist in the use of vacuum for the per-
formance of tasks such as valve opening , it will then be necessary to equip the engine with a vacuum
pump . In every case except the engine load signal to the automatic transmission and the ignition
system , however, there is presently an equivalent method of performing routine control functions.

The net additional initial cost for an open chamber stratified charge engine should not exceed
$ 150 to 200 per vehicle . After experience has been obtained by service and aftermarket personnel,
maintenance and repair costs should be equivalent to those for the conventional carbureted engine.

Safety

The safety aspects of the engine are identical for both conventional and stratified charge
engines. The stratified charge system could be regarded as somewhat safer if its capability for
burning fuels other than gasoline was utilized . A heavier fuel , such as diesel oil, is much less
hazardous than gasoline in the event of an accidental spill.

Another safety feature revolves around the basic engine operating principle . Because the
open chamber engine is unthrottled , "compression braking," or use of the engine to slow the rate
of descent on a grade , is not available . This problem would be overcome by the use of an idle-only
throttle , and , in fact , this feature has been used in several of the candidate engines for idle fuel
control. If a completely unthrottled engine is ultimately used, then the problem of retardation on
grades would be transferred to the vehicle braking system .

Emissions Standards

Most of the development work on stratified charge engines was performed prior to the current
interest in vehicle emissions ; therefore , the quantity of emission test data obtained with modern
instrumentation is not large . Although certification testing is not complete , the fact that the Honda
CVCC engine performed well during EPA tests received wide attention in the popular press , and
some comprehensive data are available43 . For open chamber engines, which generally exhibit
better economy, some emission data are available in References 46 and 58. As mentioned above ,
the open chamber engine is an inherently low emission design by virtue of the nature of the com-
bustion process. It should also be noted that the direct fuel injection and positive ignition allow
good cold starts without the need for fuel enrichment during warmup , and fuel cutoff during
deceleration is readily obtainable . The authors of Reference 46 have reported the results of emission
tests in which a 141 CID military engine , turbocharged and converted to open chamber stratified
charge operation , was compared to its unmodified counterpart. These results are reproduced in
Table 21. It should be noted that neither vehicle was tuned for optimum emission control . Also
included in Table 21 are test results obtained after the addition of an oxidation catalyst to the
vehicle exhaust system. An effort to achieve maximum emission control through the use of catalytic
reactors, exhaust recirculation , and optimum tuning resulted in compliance with the most stringent
Federal regulations, as shown in Table 22 ; however , a severe fuel penalty was incurred , as shown in

125
 TABLE 21. EXHAUST EMISSIONS - TURBOCHARGED TABLE 22. EXHAUST EMISSION
TCCS M - 151 LEVELS -CONTROLLED TCCS
M-151
CVS NAPCA Data Cold Start
3000-lb Inertia LA4-S3 Cycle Fuel-Gasoline 1975 CVS C/H Lead-Free Gasoline
2750-lb Inertia

Emissions Std M-151 TCCS M- 151 (gm/mi)

w/o catalyst with catalyst Mass emissions (gm/mi)
(gm/mi) Laboratory HC CO NO (a)
HC 6.40 3.85-4.58 1.74-1.97
Texaco 0.25 1.17 0.33
CO 76.22 9.08-9.62 2.29-2.69 0.28 0.62 0.32
Техасо
NOx (a) 3.39 1.74-1.92 1.81-2.23 Техасо 0.30 0.79 0.29
EPA 0.40 0.26 0.30
(a)As NO₂ determined by fuel cell type instrumentation . EPA 0.33 0.15 0.31
EPA 0.37 0.30 0.31

1976 Standards 0.41 3.4 0.40

(a)NOx by chemiluminescent analyzer.

TABLE 23. EFFECT OF EMISSIONS CONTROL ON Table 23. In addition , the table indicates the results
FUEL ECONOMY -M- 151 TCCS of a reduction in the rate of exhaust recirculation ;
1975 CVS CIH Lead-Free Gasoline some of the economy decrease can be recovered at
2750-lb Inertia
the expense of slightly higher emissions. The extent
Test site Mass emissions Fuel to which emission controls affect fuel economy is
and engine (gm/mi) economy graphically illustrated in Figure 76, which depicts.
Configuration HC CO NOx (mpg) increase in fuel econsumption compared to extent
Texaco -std. of NOx control.
Configuration (a) 0.36 0.61 0.31 16.2
In another series of experiments , other investi-
Texaco -reduced
EGR(b) 0.48 0.57 0.45 17.6 gators concluded that an open chamber stratified
charge engine could satisfy the most stringent emission
EPA- std . requirements, but the fuel economy benefits of the
Configuration (a) 0.37 0.24 0.31 15.8
stratified charge operation were diminished in the
EPA -reduced process58
EGR(b) 0.50 0.14 0.70 21.9
The data associated with the above discussion
(a)Average of three determinations.
(b)One determination. indicate that hydrocarbon emissions present the most
severe control problem when the 0.4-3.4-2.0 standards
Note : Fuel economy of standard, uncontrolled, are considered . Qualification of the system under
carbureted vehicle emitting at levels shown in Table
these standards will probably require light EGR and
21: 13-14 mpg.
substantial catalytic treatment of the exhaust . It has
been found that throttling devices can be used to
assist in the maintenance of appropriate catalyst temperatures; however, the presence of a throttle
diminishes the fuel economy benefits. A series of catalytic reactor elements, arranged parallel
and connected to an appropriate exhaust system, should allow the attainment of a proper catalyst
temperature over the entire load range of the engine .

The open chamber stratified charge engine does not offer the entire solution for both economy
and emission control , but the basic concept appears to have advantages from both viewpoints.
Given the benefits of further development and the experience gained with emission control of other
spark-ignition engines, the open chamber design appears to be a viable candidate for a low emission ,
low fuel consumption replacement for the conventional engine .

The stratified charge engine is subject to the same odor considerations as in the diesel engine .

126
 Noise

Some investigators, particularly the author of Reference 40, have reported extreme combustion
noise during the operation of some stratified charge engines. However, the noise seems to be sensitive
to the geometric arrangement and dimensions of the combustion chamber, and reduction to accept-
able levels is possible with proper design.

Performance

In general , it has been observed that the performance of open chamber stratified charge engines
is improved by comparison with baseline vehicles. The apparent decrease in performance of the
Honda carbureted , divided chamber engine can be attributed to the throttling of the intake air and
the efforts of the manufacturer to comply with emission standards without using additional control
devices.

Time Required for Implementation

As mentioned previously , a fleet of military vehicles is presently being converted to open chamber
stratified charge operation ; the testing program will continue through 1977. If the tests are entirely
successful, it is possible that some production engines could be available by 1980. A need for further
development determined as a result of this program , however, would delay the commitment to
produce the engine . The probability of engine availability by 1980 would be greatly enhanced by
concurrent development programs beginning in 1974.

The carbureted , divided chamber engine may enter production as early as 1975. However,
advantages of this engine in the area of fuel economy have not been clearly demonstrated .

Consumer Acceptance

As demonstrated by the results from Reference 46 , an open chamber stratified charge engine
should be virtually indistinguishable from a conventional engine from the viewpoint of the operator.
There have been problems , during the development programs, with combustion harshness , but it
is thought that these problems can be minimized as experience is gained . The transient response is
regarded as excellent and the driveability as very good46 . The implications of an unthrottled engine
in the area of safety have been discussed ; some driver education may be necessary if completely
unthrottled engines are used . The engine is capable of providing power for accessories using any of
the schemes currently available or proposed . As previously mentioned , an accessory vacuum pump
may be required in order to supply traditionally vacuum power devices.

127
 16. DIESEL ENGINE

General

In discussing the general characteristics of diesel engines, it is convenient to consider the dif-
ferences between the diesel and the spark-ignited carbureted engine and the consequences of these
differences.

The major characteristic of the diesel is its method of obtaining fuel ignition . The fuel is
ignited by compression of the fuel-air charge to a temperature where self-ignition of the fuel occurs.
This phenomenon is not only controlled by temperature but by the duration of time the fuel is
maintained at temperature , so that both short time -high temperature and long time -low temp-
erature will cause self-ignition . The required engine speed sets the time duration available for this
process, and the engine compression ratio is used to control the temperature .

It is not necessary in this report to consider the complex interrelationships of fuel cetane
number, ignition delay, injection duration , injection timing, and engine compression ratio. It
is sufficient to point out that years of development have led to the present method of operation
in which a diesel fuel with a relatively short ignition delay (high cetane number) is used , combined
with fuel injection into the combustion chamber shortly before ignition is desired , using com-
pression ratios considerably higher than carbureted engines.

Thus, the diesel engine is

24 without a spark-ignition system , and
ignition timing is controlled by fuel
injection timing. Figure 77 shows
22 compression ratios of production
diesel engines versus engine bore
diameter. The trend of increasing
COMPRESSION

compression ratios with decreasing

20
bore is a strong one and is important
RATIO

to this discussion . Compression

ratios of diesel engines are set, in
practice, by the requirement for
cold-starting. The trend of com-
pression ratio with bore size is due
to two primary factors:
6

. In similar engines, the per-

centage heat loss is greater
14
in the engine with the smaller
bore, hence air temperatures
are lower than those in
12
larger bore engines .

The use of prechambers is

10 common with the small
2 8 10 12 14 diesel engines, and heat losses
BORE - INCHES
are greater in prechamber
FIGURE 77. CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTION
engines than in other diesel
DIESEL ENGINES
designs .
129
 Very large bore engines are frequently operated within heated enclosures, so there are
no requirements for low air temperature starting.

The high compression ratios found in small diesel engines are generally undesirable, since
the rather small increase in thermal efficiency obtained from a compression ratio increase from
say, 16 to 21 is small compared to the added friction losses, increased starter motor power require-
ment, and higher stresses imposed by the increased compression ratio.

From a fuel economy viewpoint, it may be desirable to utilize a method to vary compression
ratio so that cold starts could be achieved at a high compression ratio , and the compression ratio
could then be reduced to a lower value for normal operation . Means to do this add complexity
and cost to the engine , and the real economic gain obtained by this strategem is probably very marginal.

In the short time period after liquid fuel is injected into the combustion chamber, the individual
fuel droplets evaporate and provide a wide range of fuel-air ratios at different points within the com-
bustion chamber. Ignition is believed to occur in regions slightly leaner than stoichiometric , but,
regardless of the quantity of fuel injected , there are always local regions where the conditions for
ignition are correct . Therefore , there is no need to maintain an overall fuel-air ratio within a specific
range , as with the carbureted engine . This allows the diesel to run unthrottled . The engine power
is controlled by fuel input and the fuel-air ratio is very nearly proportional to engine power ( at a
given speed) .

It has been pointed out ( see Section 7) that thermal efficiency increases as the fuel-air ratio is
decreased . Since the carbureted engine runs within a narrow range of fuel-air ratios (in the general
vicinity of stoichiometric) and the diesel runs from very low
TABLE 24. COMPARISON OF WEIGHTS fuel-air ratios up to a fuel-air ratio of about 0.6 of stoichiometric,
AND VOLUMES -AUTOMOTIVE DIESEL the thermal efficiency of the diesel is superior to that of the
VS. AUTOMOTIVE CARBURETED*
(Cylinder bore 3 in. to 4 in.) carbureted engine . At low loads, the effect is significantly
enhanced by the absence of throttling losses . The higher
Characteristic Carbureted Diesel compression ratio of the diesel also contributes to a gain in
thermal efficiency .
Engine weight (lb/in.³)

Displacement 1-1/2-3 3-4 The increased compression ratio of the diesel leads to
higher combustion pressures and requires a heavier and stronger
Engine weight (lb/hp) engine construction , as compared to the carbureted engine ( See
Max BHP 2-5 4-9 Table 24) . Due to the characteristics previously discussed ,
the diesel engine is a natural candidate for supercharging.
Engine "box " volume (in.³ /in.³) Increased inlet air pressures and temperatures reduce ignition
Displacement 30-50 70-90 delay and improve combustion characteristics . The only
limits to the level of supercharging achieved are set by structural
61 Data from Taylor , " The considerations ( due to increased combustion pressures) and
Internal- Combustion Engine in Theory
thermal considerations (due to increased power output, and
and Practice, " Vol II, MIT Press,
1968. hence, increased heat rejection to the coolant) . Supercharging
is widely used in diesel engines and is most commonly affected
by a turbocharger in which the air compressor is driven by an exhaust gas turbine . Turbocharger
technology is well advanced . Turbochargers represent a considerable improvement over the use of
a direct engine- driven blower because :

Higher overall engine efficiencies are obtained because the loss in engine power , due to
increased exhaust pressure , is less than the power required to drive a compressor from the
engine crankshaft .

130
 Installation is relatively simple because only inlet and exhaust plumbing must be altered .

The turbocharger is a mechanically simple device .

Drawbacks of turbochargers, compared with direct drive compressors , are :

• There is usually an acceleration lag due to the inertia of the turbine and compressor wheels.

• The cost of the turbocharger may be higher than a direct-driven blower.

The unique method of fuel delivery and ignition give the diesel its own special exhaust emis-
sion characteristics . In a well-designed engine, CO is very low due to the overall lean mixture in
the chamber. HC emissions are also lower than those for the carbureted engine and not due to a
wall quenching effect but to extremes of fuel-air ratios impairing combustion . NOx formation
is also reduced in the diesel partially due to lower gas temperatures at partial loads. When con-
sidering only HC , CO , and NOx , the diesel presents a very favorable emission prospects .

However, the diesel has its own special emissions problem . At high loads, some of the injected
fuel has difficulty in finding sufficient air for complete combustion and carbon particles are formed,
which emerge from the exhaust as visible black smoke.

Through combustion mechanisms not fully understood , the diesel also produces a characteristic
exhaust odor which is partially due to unburned fuel but also involves a number of other combustion
products. Both diesel smoke and diesel odor are widely held to be objectionable, primarily from
esthetic considerations, 59 although improvements can be made in both areas.

An effective strategy for reduction of diesel exhaust emissions involves the use of supercharging.
At a given power output , supercharging results in a lower fuel-air ratio which reduces HC , CO,
odor , and smoke . The increased power output gained from supercharging allows a retardation of
injection timing that is very effective in the reduction of NOx. The net result is reduced emissions
at the expense of a lower gain in power than would be expected from the effects of supercharging
and a slightly reduced fuel economy from the effects of injection retard .

The diesel engine , due to its combustion process, has a noise level higher than that of the
carbureted engine . Subsequent to start of combustion , the diesel has higher rates of pressure rise
in the combustion chamber than the carbureted engine , and these relatively high pressure rise
rates produce audible combustion knock . This noise is most apparent at engine idle , due to increased
ignition delay with higher pressure rise rates and to the absence of other vehicle and engine noises
associated with high speed operation.

To summarize , the diesel engine is characterized by the following factors , in comparison to

the spark-ignited carbureted engine:

• Improved fuel economy

• Greater weight and size

59Springer , K.J. , "An Investigation of Diesel Powered Vehicle Odor and Smoke," Final Report , Automotive Research and Develop-
ment Section, National Center for Air Pollution Control, Dept. of Health , Education and Welfare , 1968.

131
 • Reduced CO , HC , and NOx emissions

• Increased particulate emissions ( smoke)

• Increased exhaust odor

• Increased noise

Fuel Economy Analysis Procedure

Naturally-Aspirated Diesel Engine

The first case considered was that of a naturally-aspirated engine with a maximum power output
equal to that of a 350 CID carbureted engine . The first objective was to produce a fuel map for such
an engine and to determine engine displacement .

A complete engine fuel map for a 128 CID automotive diesel was available . This engine has
a compression ratio of 21 and uses a "Comet" combustion system consisting of a swirl-type pre-
chamber containing about 75 percent of the total combustion volume. In its present configuration,
this engine meets the 0.41-3.4-2.0 gaseous emission level . Preliminary calculations showed that the
required diesel engine would have a displacement of about 400 cu in . , so it was deemed necessary
to reduce the percentage friction losses of the required engine below those of the 128 CID engine .
A friction power loss for the required engine was estimated based upon a range of friction data for
various diesel engines. 21 This assumed engine friction is shown in Figure 78. The reduction of
80
friction of the required engine below that of the
FRICTION OF 218 CID engine is necessary to properly reflect
128 CID the probable reduction in the compression ratio
DIESEL
60 of the larger engine due to its larger bore and
reduced heat losses.
FMEP
-PSI

40 The available map for the 128 CID engine was

then modified to account for the friction reduc-
ASSUMED FRICTION tion. A maximum bmep of 115 psi was obtained
OF REO'D ENGINE with this naturally-aspirated engine, which led to
20
a displacement requirement of 378 cu inches .
The complete map is shown in Figure 79. Idle
fuel flow was computed from SwRI data on similar
engines.
1000 2000 3000 4000
PISTON SPEED -FPM
FIGURE 78. DIESEL ENGINE FRICTION The weight of this engine (under the present
state-of-art) was estimated to be 1000 to 1100 lb,
based on the data of Table 24 and the actual weights of a range of Mercedes-Benz diesel engines of
similar design . Engine "box" volume (the product of overall width, depth, and length) is estimated
to be from 40 to 60 percent greater than the 350 CID carbureted engine .

Using the standard fuel economy calculation procedure , the 378 CID naturally-aspirated engine
shows an improvement of 24 percent in fuel consumption over that of the 350 CID carbureted
engine of same maximum power in a vehicle of 4300 lb curb weight. Since the fuel consumption of

21Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice, Volume I , MIT Press , 1968 .

132
 150
NORMALLY ASPIRATED DIESEL IDLE FUEL FLOW 1.7 LB /HR
SWIRL CHAMBER
378 CID
125

100
BMEP
PSI
-

75

50 -43
0

48
53.
25 56
.6
64
68

1000 2000 3000 4000

PISTON SPEED -FPM

FIGURE 79. PERFORMANCE MAP NORMALLY ASPIRATED DIESEL SWIRL CHAMBER 378 CID

the carbureted engine is that without emission controls, and since the increase of displacement
of the 378 CID diesel (over that of the 128 CID engine that meets the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission
standards) alters its emission characteristics, this base fuel economy improvement was modified
to account for these factors. This was done using the following equation :

A
=
B B

where

A — fuel economy of 378 CID diesel meeting the ( 0.4-3.4-2.0) emission standard .

B — fuel economy of 350 CID carbureted engine meeting 1973 emission standard .

C fuel economy of 378 CID diesel , as calculated above .

D - fuel economy of 350 CID uncontrolled carbureted engine .

From the above analysis ,

C
= 1.24
D

The factor A/C involves the effect of the required change in the degree of emission control
in a diesel engine when the engine displacement and vehicle weight is increased , since the 128 CID

133
diesel ( in a 2800 lb vehicle) meets the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard and the design of the 378 CID
diesel is similar , except for decreased compression ratio. The equation describing the relative power
outputs of the two engines is:

P₁ =(DNnvpFhyntnm ) 1
P₂ ( DNnvpFhytm ) 2

For equal nv , P, and hy and nt in both engines, the equation reduces to

P₁ = (DNF7m ) ı
P₂ (DNF1m )2

Estimates of the relative power requirements of the two engines in their respective vehicles ,
the relative mechanical efficiencies due to a reduced compression ratio in the larger engine , and
the known displacement and speed ratios ( assuming equal piston speeds) yield the estimated
average fuel-air ratio required by the larger engine in the same operating cycle to be 20 to 40
percent less than that required by the smaller engine . Thus, assuming good design , the 378 CID
engine will also meet the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standards , will probably have a lower level of
gaseous emissions and odor , and will certainly have reduced smoke levels. The factor A/C is ,
therefore , not less than 1.0 , and , for the sake of conservatism , 1.0 will be used .

As previously discussed , the ratio D/B is estimated to be 1.09 . Therefore , the estimated
fuel economy improvement of the 378 CID naturally -aspirated diesel in a 4300 lb curb weight
vehicle , as compared to a 350 CID carbureted engine in the same vehicle with the same maximum
power, is given by

A
= (1.24)(1.0)( 1.09) = 1.35
B

The above value is a comparison of miles per gallon . Since diesel fuel and gasoline have different
heating values per gallon , the same comparison based on miles/Btu is 1.26 .

Turbocharged Diesel Engine

The turbocharging of diesel engines , as explained above , leads to improvement in performance

and emissions as well as to lighter and more compact engines. The engine map of the 378 CID
naturally-aspirated diesel was modified to represent the performance levels to be expected from
turbocharging. First , a maximum turbocharged bmep of 175 psi was chosen . This is a relatively
high bmep but is considered to be reasonable in view of the infrequent operation of automobile
engines at maximum output . An engine with this bmep requires a displacement of 260 cu in.
to match the maximum power of the 350 CID carbureted engine . A boost pressure ratio of about
1.5 is required to achieve this bmep level . It was assumed that the fuel-air ratio in the turbocharged
engine would be 0.9 that of the naturally-aspirated diesel engine at full load as a further means
to reduce smoke and odor. This provided a 3-percent gain in thermal efficiency at full load com-
pared to the naturally-aspirated engine. The friction of the 260 CID engine was assumed to be
equal to that of the 378 CID diesel. From this information , the curve of maximum bmep for the
260 CID turbocharged engine could be calculated from the data of Figure 79 for the 378 naturally-
aspirated engine .

134
 At part loads, the transition from naturally-aspirated to turbocharged was made on the
following equation :

bmepi Fhyntnm )1
= (pny
bmep2 (pnyFhvntnm )2

The subscripts refer to the 378 CID naturally-aspirated engine and the 260 CID turbocharged engine,
respectively. At equal fuel-air ratios, ntint2 . It was also assumed that nv₁ = nv₂ and hy₁ = hv2 .

Then

bmepi Pi mi = P1 1 + fmep2 /bmep2

=
bmep2 P2 nm2 P2 1 + fmep₁ /bmep₁ /

Further,

bsfc₁ 7m2 1 + fmep2 /bmep2

= =
bsfc2 nm1 1 + fmep₁ /bmep₁

From these two equations, the performance map for the turbocharged engine could be
calculated from that for the naturally-aspirated engine . The result of these calculations is shown
in Figure 80.

240
TURBOCHARGED DIESEL PRESSURE RATIO 1.5
SWIRL CHAMBER IDLE FUEL FLOW 1.12 LB / HR
250 CID
200

160
BMEP
PSI
-

120

.37
80 .38
.40

.45
40
.50
.65

1000 2000 3000 4000

PISTON SPEED -FPM

FIGURE 80. PERFORMANCE MAP TURBOCHARGED DIESEL SWIRL CHAMBER 250 CID

135
 Using the standard calculation procedure , the improvement is fuel economy of the 260 CID
turbocharged diesel is 55 percent over that of the 350 CID (uncontrolled emission ) carbureted
engine. In order to obtain a fuel economy comparison based upon the desired level of emission
control, the following equation was used, as before:

AB
Α
=
B

where

A fuel economy of 260 CID turbocharged diesel meeting the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard

B - fuel economy of 350 CID carbureted engine meeting 1973 emission standards

C fuel economy of 260 CID turbocharged diesel, as calculated above

D ― fuel economy of 350 CID carbureted engine , uncontrolled emissions

From the preceding analysis, C/D = 1.55

At equal power outputs, the 260 CID turbocharged engine will operate at fuel-air ratios
slightly leaner than the 378 CID naturally- aspirated diesel , and hence it would be expected that
the gaseous emissions levels will be lower. Since the latter engine is expected to meet the
0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard , the ratio A/C is set at 1.0. From an earlier discussion , the ratio
D/B 1.09 . The expected fuel economy improvement for the 260 CID turbocharged diesel
meeting the 0.4-3.4-2.0 emission standard , in comparison to the 350 CID carbureted engine
meeting 1973 emission standards is

A/B = ( 1.55 )( 1.00 )( 1.09 ) = 1.69 , based upon miles per gallon of fuel . Since fuels are dif-
ferent ( diesel vs gasoline ) , a comparison on the basis of fuel Btu value is A/B = 1.57 .

Evaluation

378 CID Naturally-Aspirated Diesel

General Engine Description -The engine for which this evaluation is made is a 378 CID
naturally-aspirated diesel , using a swirl-type precombustion chamber. The compression ratio is
in the vicinity of 17 , and glowplugs installed in the prechambers are required for cold start . Fuel
injection is accomplished by an engine-driven "jerk" pump with individual injectors for each
cylinder.

The use of a precombustion chamber is based upon the reduced sensitivity of this type
of combustion chamber to the quality of the fuel spray which eases somewhat the precision
requirements for fuel pump and injector performance . At this time , evidence available within
the industry suggests that a certain level of emissions can be obtained easier with the pre-
combustion chamber engine than with the direct-injection open-chamber arrangement . However,
the prechamber engine pays a slight penalty in fuel economy due to increased heat and friction
losses, and cylinder head design is somewhat more complicated than the open-chamber engine.

136
 Reduction in Fuel Consumption-The naturally-aspirated diesel will increase the fuel
economy of an automobile above that of a 1973 conventional carbureted engine , based upon
equal vehicle weight and performance . Using a LA-4 cycle combined with steady road load
driving, it is estimated that this improvement is 35 percent on a mpg basis and 26 percent on a
Btu basis. This value is based upon the diesel meeting the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard with
the carbureted engine meeting the 1973 standards.

Performance-The diesel engine displacement of 378 cu in . has been chosen to ensure that
the engine will produce the same maximum power as a 350 CID carbureted engine. In the same
weight vehicle , the acceleration and top speed performance of the vehicle will be the same with
either engine .

Emissions-The fuel economy and performance of the diesel engine as described here
can be obtained while meeting the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standards for HC, CO , and NOx.

It is well within the present state-of-art to limit the exhaust smoke to the barely visible
level . At present , there are no standards for maximum mass particulate emission rate for auto-
mobiles. However, it should be strongly emphasized that if such standards are set in the future,
the diesel engine will lose a good deal of its present attractiveness. Table 25 shows typical diesel
engine mass particulate emission rates. Carbureted engines
TABLE 25. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS- produce 1/2 to 1/3 this amount with leaded gasoline , and
MERCEDES 220D DIESEL ENGINE60
about 1/10 to 1/20 this amount with unleaded gasoline .
Sample Mass Note that the particulate rates for the diesel were measured
Filter type
flow (cfm) (gpm) under a condition where there was no visible smoke . The
diesel emissions are composed mainly of carbon particles
Fiberglass 0.66
Fiberglass 0.80 formed in the combustion process , and to reduce or eliminate
Fiberglass 0.75 this material from the exhaust is a difficult undertaking .
Anderson + Millipore 0.73
Average 0.73
The characteristic diesel odor undoubtedly
60Springer, "The Low Emission Car for presents a problem in the wide spread use of automotive
1975 -Enter the Diesel", Paper No. 739133, diesels. The writers of this report are , however, optimistic
8th Annual Intersociety Energy Conversion
about the possibility of significantly reducing odor levels.
Engineering Conference , 1973.
The solution to this problem is made more difficult by the
difficulty of odor measurement and the generally poor
understanding of odor formation mechanisms. As understanding improves, it would be expected
that gains will be made in this direction. It is not expected , however, that diesel odor will be
eliminated, although levels may be reduced to levels acceptable for dense urban concentrations of
diesel vehicles.

It is concluded that the naturally-aspirated diesel is satisfactory with respect to HC , CO ,

NOx and visible smoke and that the odor levels can be reduced to an acceptable value . Possible
future standards on mass particulates may offer considerable difficulty .

Noise-Noise levels of the naturally-aspirated diesel engine are acceptable as far as hearing
damage criteria and standards are concerned . Further noise considerations will be discussed under
the subsection " Consumer Acceptance . "

Weight and Size -The weight of present naturally-aspirated diesels is about twice that of
a carbureted engine of equal power, on the average . The size is about 40 to 60 percent greater. This
is a strong disadvantage since the additional engine weight plus the weight of necessary added vehicle

137
structure for engine support could be as much as 600 to 900 lb. If this weight penalty must be
accepted, it obviously puts the previous assumptions concerning fuel economy (equal vehicle
weights for carbureted and diesel engines) into jeopardy, since it is doubtful that the additional
engine weight can be offset by an overall reduction in vehicle weight while maintaining equal pas-
senger and luggage space and handling requirements. With this magnitude of weight penalty , it
is obvious that a complete vehicle redesign is mandatory with a successful outcome ( successful in
the sense that all criteria are met) somewhat in doubt.

Weight reductions in the diesel engine are certainly possible . The diesel has never been
subjected to the exhaustive design studies for automobile uses that have been applied to the car-
bureted engine . Such design work will result in weight reduction through better understanding of
stress patterns and more efficient use of load carrying structure . Stronger materials can be used
with cost penalties . Better control over the initial phase of combustion can reduce peak pressures
to some extent . Variable comparison ratio could provide the high compression ratios necessary
for starting but reduce the compression ratio used for engine running .

Engine structural failures are usually of the fatigue-type caused by a large number of
repeated stress cycles, even though the maximum stress in each cycle is well below the fracture
strength of the material. The maximum cycle stress is a function of the engine load . All engine
designs are to a large extent empirical in this respect , since a particular engine in different appli-
cations will accumulate a different spectrum of stress level-number of cycles, and an accurate
analytical analysis of these factors is very difficult . Thus engine structural design is to some extent
a matter of evolution requiring trial and error with a good deal of operating experience under con-
sumer conditions . With an ( assumed ) committment to diesel engines, it would be expected that
the weight of the engine could be reduced further for this reason.

It is estimated that with a concerted effort , the weight of the naturally-aspirated diesel
engine can be reduced to a value 40 percent greater than a carbureted engine of equal power output.
It should be possible to reduce the engine box volume to 20 percent greater than the equal-powered
carbureted engine .

However, the naturally-aspirated diesel will remain a relatively large and heavy engine ,
and this factor must count against it.

Reliability-The diesel engines used in truck and bus service have a good record for long
life and reliability . Present- day diesel engines in automobiles have , in general , acceptable reliability
and maintainability .

The carburetor and spark-ignition system of the carbureted engine are replaced by a fuel
injection system . Although the fuel injection system is a close tolerance , precision device , it
apparently shows reliability equal or better than the replaced components.

The absence of the proliferation of emission control devices now required for the car-
bureted engine should increase the probability that emission levels are maintained at the zero-mileage
level.

It is concluded that with a modest amount of familiarization on the part of service tech-
nicians, the diesel engine will demonstrate reliability at least equal , and perhaps better, than the con-
ventional carbureted engine .

138
 Safety-The use of diesel fuel, with its reduced volatility , should decrease to some extent
the collision fire hazard experience with gasoline .

Fuel-The diesel engine is primarily sensitive to the "ignition delay" of the injected charge
of fuel, i.e., the duration between the start of injection and the commencement of combustion.
Excessive ignition delay leads to harsh combustion with high pressure rise rates, excessive engine noise ,
and structural stress. Diesel fuel has a short ignition delay . Gasoline on the other hand , has a long
ignition delay and is a very unsatisfactory fuel for conventional diesel engines . For a given fuel,
ignition delay can be decreased by an increase in compression ratio . In fact , diesel engines with very
high compression ratios have been used as multifuel engines capable of using a wide range of fuels,
from diesel fuel to gasoline . The MAN combustion system is another method by which a diesel engine
can be made to burn fuels of poor ignition quality . In this system , the fuel is sprayed onto the wall
of a cavity in the piston crown and the evaporation of the fuel from the hot piston surface controls
burning rates and reduces pressure rise rates.

In general practice to date , the development of multifuel diesel engines has received
relatively little attention and diesel fuel is the primary energy source . However, the ability to use
a wider range of fuel types may assume new importance , and it is believed that this characteristic
of the diesel will be emphasized more in future designs.

Several problems of using fuels of poor ignition quality in diesel engines should be noted .
First , of course , is the harsh combustion and the degree to which this is minimized is a measure of
the success of the multifuel design . Fuel economy is not affected in a successful design . Since
gasoline is less dense than diesel fuel, provisions must be made to increase the fuel pump (volume)
delivery rate when switching from diesel fuel to gasoline , otherwise a power loss will be sustained .
Gasoline is an extremely poor lubricant, and for this reason some types of conventional diesel fuel
pumps fail when pumping gasoline. Fuel pumps with their own lubricating system are a solution
to this problem.

Accessories and Controls-The diesel engine , with a compression ratio higher than the
carbureted engine , requires a larger starter motor, increased battery capacity , and possibly increased
generator capacity .

The close tolerance of the fuel injection pump and injector nozzles demand clean fuel,
and adequate fuel filtration must be provided .

The absence of air throttling has some effect on accessories. Automatic transmission
shift signals provided by predetermined manifold vacuum levels in carbureted engines must be
provided by other means. A possibility is the position of the fuel delivery control rod on the
injection pump. The average airflow rate through the engine is greater in the diesel than in the
carbureted engine , and the capacity of inlet air cleaners should be slightly increased . Inlet air heat-
ing to promote fuel vaporization is not required . Carburetor icing is eliminated .

The precise effect on the required capacity of the cooling system is difficult to assess.
Average combustion gas temperature will be decreased due to the lean mixtures of the diesel, but
airflow rates through the engine are higher. The first effect tends to reduce heat losses to the coolant ,
and the second tends to increase these losses. In any event , any change in cooling requirements will
be small, and it is sufficient to note that the diesel engine cooling system will be essentially the same
as that for the carbureted engine .

139
 Cost-The heavier weight of the diesel will increase the cost of the basic engine over that of
the carbureted engine . It is generally conceded that the cost of the diesel fuel system and starting aids
are greater than the cost of the carbureted engine's ignition system and carburetor. On the other hand,
the cost of emission controls found on the 1973 automobile are , in the main , not applicable to the
diesel. The diesel will require additional noise absorption material in the engine compartment . Weight
reduction efforts may lead to the use of more expensive materials.

Carbureted engines are presently manufactured in very large quantities, and the cost of
these engines is from $ 3 to $ 5 per rated horsepower. Diesel engines designed for trucks and buses
cost perhaps six times this amount, and it is estimated that present-day diesel engines designed for
automobile use cost from $ 6 to $ 15 per rated horsepower. Much of the disparity between diesel
and carbureted engines is due to the difference in volume of production.

However, assuming equal production quantities, the diesel cost will be higher due to the
factors already mentioned . It is estimated that this increment of cost will be 30 percent. For the
engine under consideration , the incremental cost will be from $ 160 to $ 270.

Consumer Acceptance -Consumer acceptance of the diesel engine is influenced by the

following factors :

• Fuel cost

• Vehicle acquisition cost

• Exhaust odor

• Engine noise

• Vehicle handling

Vehicle performance

• Subjective considerations , such as " image", appearance , vehicle styling as influence by

engine size and weight , etc.

The diesel engine has been chosen in this study to provide the same performance as the
carbureted engine . It has been assumed that the vehicle can be designed to provide equivalent
handling qualities and that passenger space is not changed . It is now assumed that the subjective
factors can be made equivalent to those of conventionally-powered automobiles , and it is recognized
that these factors are of major importance to consumer acceptance .

Added vehicle acquisition cost is not expected to be a significant detriment to consumer

acceptance in view of increasing fuel costs.

Engine noise also will not appreciably reduce consumer acceptance if it is presupposed
that the noise levels are controlled by the best presently available techniques. The small con-
ventional automobiles are now relatively noisy compared to full-size autos , and it is expected that
the diesel noise level can be maintained at a level comparable with present compacts.

The effect of diesel exhaust odor upon consumer acceptance is difficult to evaluate. We
tend to believe that it will not affect an individual's decision to own a diesel automobile unless the
concentration of such autos is very high and odor has not been adequately controlled so that diesel
odor becomes a widespread nuisance .

140
 With these assumptions, it is concluded that customer acceptance for the
naturally-aspirated diesel engine would be good.

Demonstration by 1976-The demonstration of a naturally-aspirated diesel engine in a

full-size vehicle with power comparable to the carbureted engine version , by 1976 , is feasible .
However, it would not be feasible to expect that the problems of engine weight, diesel odor, noise,
and engine packaging would be completely solved by this time. Of these , the problems of engine
weight and odor are considered to be the most difficult and constitute the factors with the highest
risk.

Time Required for Implementation-The primary problems of engine weight and exhaust
odor might be expected to be greatly reduced by 2 yr of concerted effort. In that event, production
of full-size vehicles powered by naturally-aspirated diesel engines could begin in 1980 .

260 CID Turbocharged Diesel

General Engine Description -This engine employs a swirl-type combustion chamber, with
a compression ratio of about 18 and glowplug starting aid. Jerk pump injection is used. A turbo-
charger contributes the major equipment difference between this engine and the 378 CID naturally-
aspirated engine previously discussed .

Reduction in Fuel Consumption - Based upon a 4300 lb vehicle weight and 0.41-3.4-2.0
exhaust emission levels, the turbocharged diesel should provide a 69-percent increase in fuel
economy over that of a 1973 carbureted engine in a vehicle of equal weight, based upon mpg and
a 57-percent improvement based upon fuel heating value.

Performance-The maximum power of the turbocharged diesel is equal to that of a

350 CID carbureted engine . However, the inertia of the turbocharger wheel may reduce the
response of the engine and penalize acceleration performance even though the maximum speed of
the vehicle is unchanged.

Emissions-Since the naturally-aspirated engine has a demonstrated capability to meet the

0.41-3.4-2.0 standards, and since the effect of turbocharging on emissions is generally favorable,
it was assumed that the gaseous emissions of the turbocharged diesel meet the 0.41-3.4-2.0 standard .
Exhaust smoke is in the barely visible range . Exhaust odor is less than in the naturally-aspirated
diesel, but with the present knowledge of engine design still presents a problem. Mass particulate
emissions are also less than the naturally-aspirated diesel , but are still much higher than in carbureted
engines. If mass particulate emission standards are set based upon carbureted engine particulate
emission levels , the ability of the diesel to meet such standards is very doubtful.

Noise-Due to the increased temperature of the compressed charge at top center, reductions
in ignition delay have been experienced after turbocharging with consequent reduced combustion
noise . The turbocharger itself is a source of high frequency noise , but this noise is more easily
attenuated by sound absorption material than the combustion noise . With suitable noise attenuation
design, the turbocharged diesel should have an overall noise level about equal to that of the naturally-
aspirated diesel but greater than that of the carbureted engine .

Weight and Size-The weight of the turbocharged diesel , with present design knowledge,
will be about 40 percent greater than a carbureted engine of the same maximum power. Engine box
volumes will be approximately equal . With design studies, consumer operating experience and perhaps

141
material changes , it should be possible to decrease the weight of the turbocharged diesel to about
10 percent greater than the carbureted engine .

Reliability-Even with the addition of a turbocharger , the high reliability of these devices
indicates that the overall reliability of the turbocharged diesel will be about the same as that of the
naturally-aspirated version , and equal or better than that of the carbureted engine .

Safety-The addition of a turbocharger has no appreciable affect on the hazards posed by

the engine . The use of less volatile diesel fuel should improve overall vehicle safety.

Fuel-All of the fuel considerations made previously for the naturally-aspirated diesel also
apply to the turbocharged version.

Accessories and Controls-Again , earlier comments on the naturally-aspirated diesel apply

to the turbocharged engine .

Cost-As compared to the naturally-aspirated diesel of the same power, the cost of the
turbocharged diesel will benefit from the reduced engine weight and will be penalized by the cost
of the turbocharger. It is estimated that the result will be a higher cost for the turbocharged version
with an incremental cost increase over the carbureted engine of equal power of from $ 200 to $300.

Consumer Acceptance-The increase in acquisition cost for the turbocharged diesel is

expected to be acceptable in view of the fuel cost savings.

As earlier discussed with regard to the naturally-aspirated diesel , engine noise and exhaust
odor are not expected to be a serious detriment to consumer acceptance , unless the latter becomes a
widespread problem .

The owner of the turbocharged diesel powered vehicle will probably experience reduced
acceleration performance due to turbocharger lag. This acceleration degradation is not expected
to be serious but may reduce consumer acceptance .

Demonstration by 1976-The demonstration of the turbocharged diesel in a vehicle by

1976 is feasible . Because of the reduced problem of engine size and weight (compared to the
naturally-aspirated diesel) , the risk of this undertaking is less than that of the naturally-aspirated
version . It is also considered to be more worthwhile from a technical viewpoint since the effort
would provide a larger amount of now unavailable data .

Time Required for Implementation- Engine weight and exhaust odor probably must be
reduced before production could be anticipated . With 2 yr of effort devoted to these activities,
and with normal lead time for production , production could begin in 1980 .

142
 17. DRIVE TRAINS

Current Practice

Because of the characteristic operation of an internal combustion engine, it must be kept

running when the vehicle is brought to a stop and must have a means of amplifying its torque
capability at low engine speeds when accelerating . The engine is normally disconnected from the
driving wheels when the vehicle is stopped by the clutch or by shearing of fluid in a hydraulic
coupling or torque converter. Gear reductions in the transmission and driving axle provide the
necessary torque multiplication of the low engine torque at low speeds for accelerating the vehicle.

Except for some developmental types, transmissions in use on passenger cars today are three-
or four-speed , manual shift , sliding gear types utilizing a mechanical, friction clutch , or three- or
four-speed , planetary gear, automatic shift , hydraulic torque converter or hydraulic coupling types.

Literally hundreds of designs of transmissions have been patented and thousands have been
conceived, this being perhaps the most prolific area of automotive innovation and invention.
Two of the more recent of these innovative types, representative of many , were considered for
this study because they have progressed to the vehicle application stage and have been or will
shortly be tested in normal road operating conditions.

One of these is a traction drive (Tracor) in which a wide range of drive ratios can be obtained
with continuous rather than stepped variation by varying the radii of the points of contact on power
transmitting rollers between the driving and driven elements of the mechanism . Traction drive ,
"infinitely variable " transmissions are not new, dating back to as early as 1903 in the Cartercar
(Reference 62) , but early versions fell into disfavor because of slippage and wear of the drive
elements when engine power increased to meet user demands for better acceleration and per-
formance . The transmission has been periodically reexamined due to analytical (and demonstrated )
fuel economy improvements; however , development problems and costs have always shelved this
type of transmission in favor of the present planetary gearset torque converter transmissions. Improved
materials and better design of the drive elements in this latest development are credited by the designer
with providing low slip , high efficiency , and satisfactory durability in configurations up to 150 hp.

The other (Orshanksy) is also a continuously-variable type of transmission embodying two

power transmitting paths, one hydraulic and the other mechanical. The hydraulic elements ,
positive displacement pump , and motor whose functions are interchangeable , provide a controllable ,
continuous variation between the stepped ranges of the planetary gear mechanical elements to pro-
duce a smooth torque multiplication changeover the full output range.

Both of these developmental types of transmissions have been designed to cover a torque
multiplication range from some 5 : 1 down to 0.5 : 1 , thus providing high starting torque for initial
acceleration demands and an ultimate overdrive range for the higher speed cruising range .

The selection of drive training gear ratios for a particular vehicle configuration must provide an
optimum balance between the power required to drive the vehicle and the power output characteristics
of the engine to be used . Obviously , all three of these factors, vehicle , engine , and drive train gear
reduction, are interdependent and all may be considered as variables in the overall performance
equation .

62Ellis, J. R. , “ Performance Prediction -A Comparison of Various Methods of Estimating the Performance of a Vehicle," Automobile
Engineer, Mar 1958.

143
 180
DRIVE TRAIN GEAR ROAD LOAD
RATIO REQUIRED HP
LOW RANGE *
FMX 4.5:1 3.0 :1 2.56 :1 2.0:1
160
ENGINE HP
ENGINE
140 TORQUE
LB FT AIR
RESISTANCE
HP
120-
---
L.5
HP
- B
FT
0T
X
80

80

60

40
MAXIMUM SPEED
FOR RATIO
20
ROLLING RESISTANCE
HP

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

ROAD SPEED - MPH

* VARIABLE FROM 13.53 TO 6.6 : 1 DEPENDING ON CONVERTER TORQUE RATIO

FIGURE 81. VEHICLE-ENGINE PERFORMANCE WITH VARIOUS DRIVE

TRAIN GEAR RATIOS

To illustrate this relationship , performance characteristics for several drive train gear ratios
for a given engine/vehicle configuration are shown in the attached Figures 81-82 . The ratios
indicate the overall reduction between the engine and the driving wheels and are achieved by the
combined reduction ratios of the transmission , which may also include a torque converter, and
the axle gearing. The power required to drive the vehicle under road load conditions, with no
grade or ambient wind velocity , is plotted for a standard-size vehicle with two passengers and
three-quarters of a tank of fuel . The " wide-open-throttle" engine power and torque characteristics
are plotted as separate curves for each selected gear ratio in terms of the vehicle speed . The
intersection of each engine power curve with the road load power-required curve defines the
maximum vehicle speed obtainable for that gear ratio . Further , at any given speed , the difference
between the engine power curve and the road load power-required curve defines the power
available for acceleration or grade climbing. Maximum acceleration will be obtained at the peak
torque point for each ratio .

Some characteristic performance aspects of these gear combinations should be considered .

(1) Assuming maximum performance in low gear is desired (the automatic transmission is
held in low range) , the engine power is depicted in the left-hand curve and shows for

144
 180
DRIVE TRAIN GEAR
RATIO
LOW RANGE
FMX 4.5: 1 3.0:1 2.56:1 2.0 : 1
160

ENGINE
HP
140ㅏ

120
L.5
0HP
FT
B

ROAD LOAD
T
-X

100 REQUIRED HP

80

60
MAXIMUM SPEED
FOR RATIO
40

20

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

ROAD SPEED - MPH
* VARIABLE FROM 13.53 TO 6.6 : 1 DEPENDING ON CONVERTER TORQUE RATIO
AT VARIOUS SPEEDS

FIGURE 82. VEHICLE-ENGINE PERFORMANCE WITH VARIOUS DRIVE

TRAIN GEAR RATIOS

speeds up to 52 mph. , the greatest availability of power for acceleration of any of the
gear ratios indicated . The power curve peaks at 44 mph but falls off rapidly thereafter.
The vehicle would reach its maximum speed at 60 mph at an engine speed of 5200 rpm.
In this case , which represents an actual vehicle configuration , the manufacturer specifies
a maximum low-range speed limit of 40 to 52 mph. This is seen to include the peak point
of the engine power curve and limits overspeeding of the engine .

(2) The other cases represent arbitrarily selected gear ratios to illustrate the characteristic
performance resulting when the peak horsepower point is before , at and beyond the
intersection with the road load power-required curve.

The 4.5 : 1 ratio curve, e.g. , representative of a second-gear transmission ratio of 1.64 with
2.75 : 1 axle ratio , shows considerable power available for acceleration up to 65 mph
and a peak speed of 87 mph at 5100 rpm of the engine. Because of the difficulties of
providing satisfactory life , axle ratios below and 2.5 : 1 are seldom used and should not
be considered for normal passenger cars.

145
 • The 3.0 : 1 ratio curve might represent an axle ratio alone , with the transmission in high
gear ( 1.0 : 1 ) or it might be considered as a 1.20 : 1 third gear in a four-speed transmission
with a 2.50 : 1 axle ratio . This ratio approaches the typical configuration generally
considered to be optimum for an engine/vehicle match , wherein the peak vehicle speed
is obtained slightly after the peak horsepower point. Good acceleration power is
available in the normal driving range of 60 to 18 mph with relatively good acceleration
even up to almost 100 mph . Peak speed is reached at 111 mph at an engine speed of
4370 rpm which is not considered excessive as would be those described above for the
low gear and 4.5 : 1 ratio peak speeds.

• The 2.56 : 1 ratio was selected to bring the maximum speed point to the peak power
output point of the engine . It could be considered also in the form of a 0.85 : 1 over-
drive system in conjunction with a 3.00 : 1 axle ratio . This represents the maximum
speed capability for this engine/vehicle combination . It will be noted , however, that
although this is only marginally higher ( 113 versus 111 mph) , the power available for
acceleration at midrange speeds is considerably lower, hence passing and hill climbing
performance would be measurably inferior. Fuel economy, on the other hand , would
be improved because of the higher load factor (power available/power required ) . Used
in its overdrive configuration , the 2.56 : 1 ratio might be selected above 45 to 50 mph
with a "kick down" to lower direct drive ratio , such as represented by the 3.0: 1 example,
for improved passing or hill climbing performance .

• The 2.0 : 1 ratio system , which could be obtained as a 0.73 : 1 overdrive with the 2.75 : 1
axle ratio, indicates an overmatch of the vehicle for the engine power available. The
maximum vehicle speed of 108 mph , reached at an engine speed of 2800 rpm , is not
very different from the two previous cases, however, passing performance , i.e. , power
available for acceleration in the normal driving range , is much inferior. Again , as in
the above paragraph , in the normal overdrive mode , improved fuel economy would be
expected because of the higher power factor. On the other hand , similar or perhaps
even better performance might be expected from a considerably smaller engine of
similar characteristics, having a peak power output of about 140 hp at 3600 rpm with
a 2.8 or 3.0: 1 drive train ratio , particularly if coupled with a 0.9 : 1 overdrive .

It will be further noted that, if maximum speed capability of 90 to 100 mph is accepted
as a design limitation , engines of 95 to 120 hp can provide adequate acceleration , passing
and hill climbing performance with drive train ratios of 3.0 : 3.3 : 1 , even in vehicles of
4500 lb. Because of higher loading factors, even greater fuel economy than in the previously
discussed configurations would be expected .

(3) The curves in Figure 82 also illustrate the overall performance through the gears of a
transmission , although the ratios here are not precisely the proper progression which would
normally be chosen for a given transmission . With such a transmission, with shift points
at A and B for a three-speed of A, B , and C for a four-speed configuration , it is seen that
acceleration power comprises all of the area between the combined available power curves
and the road load power-required curve . In a specific case , the shift points would perhaps
be moved somewhat to the left , closer to the peak power point for each gear ratio or the
peak torque point , if maximum tractive force is desired .

146
Evaluation

Most vehicle operation is essentially at constant speeds in which the " road load" performance of
the engine with its characteristic fuel consumption is paramount in the total fuel consumption picture.

The current engine/transmission/axle configuration for most standard size vehicles tends to
result in a relatively low "power-factor" during most operation in favor of a large reserve of power
available for acceleration , particularly for safe passing at higher road speeds. At low rates of acceleration
and at road loads this results in engine performance in the higher specific fuel consumption regions
as illustrated in Figure 83.

HORSEPOWER PER SQUARE INCH OF PISTON AREA

140
1.4 2.0 t
ENGINE

300
80
CID

120 TH
FB T

RO
)(3
L
-

FU TT
0,54 LL LE
100
9.50
BMEP

9.61
-SI

200
P

80
T

0.52
9.54
0.56
T
TORQUE

80

9.58

100 0.60
T

40
T

0.70
0.80
0.90
1.0
1.2
1.8
2.0 BSFC
1000 2000 3000
PISTON SPEED -FPM

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

ENGINE RPM
( 3.6" STROKE )

1. ROAD LOAD MANUAL TRANSMISSION 5. LA4 FMX TRANSMISSION

2. LA 4 MANUAL TRANSMISSION (CONSTANT SPEED)
3. ROAD LOAD FMX TRANSMISSION 6. ROAD LOAD CVD TRANSMISSION
4 LA4 FMX TRANSMISSION 7. LA 4 CVD TRANSMISSION
(ACCELERATING) (ACCELERATING)
8. LA4 CVD_TRANSMISSION
(CONSTANT SPEED)

FIGURE 83. PERFORMANCE MAP OF CARBURETED SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

As an illustration of the effects on fuel consumption of a variety of transmission concepts,

estimates were made for a full-size reference passenger car , having a 350 CID engine and 2.75 : 1 axle
ratio ( 4500 lb inertia weight - 19 hp at 50 mph) . Three transmission variations were considered , a
three-speed manual shift transmission , an automatic , torque converter transmission , and a develop-
ment type , continuously variable transmission , as well as other drive train configurations including
overdrive and a converter lock-out system for automatic transmissions. Finally , an optimum com-
bination of these configurations, which could be considered as readily available , was made for
comparison. (See Table 26. )

147
 TABLE 26. DRIVE TRAIN COMPARIONS

First gear Second gear Third gear Fourth gear

Туре Overall Overall Overall Overall
Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio
ratio ratio ratio ratio

Manual
transmission 2.5:1 6.88 :1 1.5 : 1 4.125 :1 1.0 : 1 2.75:1 0.7 : 1 1.92 : 1

Automatic 13.5(a).
transmission 2.4 : 1 6.60 : 1 1.47: 1 4.04 : 1 1.0 : 1 2.75 :1

Continuously
variable 5.0 : 1 variable to 0.5 : 1 ; overall 13.75 : 1 to 1.375 : 1

Optimum
drive train(b) 2.6 : 1 8.3: 1 1.6 : 1 5.1 : 1 1.0 : 1 3.2:1 0.7 : 1 2.24:1

(a)Converter ratio at stall- 2.05 : 1.

(b) 302 CID engine, 3.2 : 1 axle.

The selection of the optimum vehicle drive train components is , in reality , only an initial
arbitrary estimate of an optimum configuration based on preliminary calculations of range of
available acceleration performance , economy , and speed. In a normal design situation , such pre-
liminary studies would covet a range of engine and transmission characteristics and would
ultimately be built up on vehicles and run to determine the limits of road performance and
operator acceptance . Such optimization must be considered as an iterative process involving many
factors other than speed , acceleration performance , and fuel economy alone .

TABLE 27. ESTIMATED FUEL ECONOMY Comparative fuel consumption was estimated
IMPROVEMENT WITHOUT EMISSION
for the urban Driving Cycle and for Road Load
CONSIDERATIONS
Operation. (Table 27)

Drive train type LA-4 Road Composite

(%) load (%) (%) The ability of the CVD transmission to main-
Manual tain engine operation at higher power factor , i.e.,
13.5 9 11.3
to achieve relatively high vehicle speed at low
Continuously variable engine speeds and higher torque levels, is evident
(Tracor CVD) 8.9 41 21.1 at the 5.00 : 1 maximum ratio selected here . The
advantage in fuel economy is more pronounced
Lock-up clutch
(on reference automatic) 5 3 at the selected maximum engine speeds of 850 to 900
-

rpm than if the engine speed is allowed to increase .

Overdrive and lock-up
2.3 This low speed is not recommended , however, with-
(0.70 to 1) 9 5.3
out considerable redesign of the engine to provide
Optimum design (for improved low-speed mixture distribution . Changes
economy) 13.3 17 15.1
in valve overlap, manifolding , and carburetor flow
Hydro mechanical(a) characteristics can be anticipated . These are not
(Orshansky) 17 insurmountable problems, but they do involve
changes in engines which have been designed for
(a) Data from Reference 63.
high performance at high-speed rather than low-speed.

63Orshansky Transmission Corp. , "Hydromechanical Passenger Car Transmission," Report No. 403 , May 1973 .

148
It also suggests the use of a smaller engine with relatively lower maximum output performance ,
since the low and medium road speed performance would not be materially affected .

The performance of the manual transmission reflects the better efficiency of this type of
drive over the torque converter (baseline ) system . It could provide improved fuel economy by
decreasing the rear axle ratio further and providing four gear ratios in the transmission or, by
what amounts to the same effect , using an overdrive. This, again in combination with a smaller
engine which could then operate in its lower speed , higher power factor mode , would provide
better fuel economy than shown in the above comparison .

Both the manual and CVD transmissions require the inclusion of a clutch to allow engine
operation when the vehicle is stopped . The automatic transmission does not , since it slips readily
at engine idle speeds. On the other hand because it still slips to some extent at high engine speeds ,
lock-up clutches have been considered for the automatic transmission , to be engaged when the
converter coupling point ( 1 : 1 torque multiplication) is reached . Since this point is normally in
the region of 1600 to 2000 rpm (engine) , the lock-up clutch shows little improvement in fuel
economy even under road load operating conditions , until operating speeds are above 45 to 50 mph.
At highway speeds, above 50 mph, the torque converter efficiency would typically be about 90 per-
cent for vehicles with rear axle ratios below 3.0 : 1 . This factor must be combined with another
efficiency , on the order of 95 percent , associated with the gears and other driveline components.
The use of a lock-up clutch effectively eliminates the inefficiency due to the torque converter,
but the other components must still be considered .

It should be noted that the percentage change in overall driveline efficiency may not be
translated directly into the context of fuel economy . If the torque converter slip is reduced , then
a lower gross engine horsepower is required , and the engine speed is reduced . The brake specific
fuel consumption at which the lower horsepower is obtained , and the resulting fuel economy ,
depends upon the details of the engine map for the particular vehicle . Furthermore , the fuel
economy improvement depends upon the specific characteristics of the torque converter and the
operating point at which the lock-up clutch engages.

In the example selected for this study , it was assumed that the lock-up clutch engaged at the
operating point where the torque ratio was unity . Large improvements in fuel economy , on the
order of 15 to 20 percents, can be predicted for a narrow range of speeds immediately above this
lock-up point, but the percentage improvement diminishes as the vehicle speed increases. It is
probable that the overall improvement could be enhanced by assuming either different torque
converter characteristics or a different lock-up point .

It is possible to envision a lock-up clutch that would operate in all gears and would engage at
some preset speed ratio during operation . In the limiting case , such a system would approach the
conventional manual transmission , but a considerably greater quantity of hardware would
be involved. For example , both a clutch and a torque converter would be necessary , and
the shifting control system would be required to assume the function and the logic of clutch
operation. Such transmissions are used in heavy - duty vehicles , but the adaptation to
passenger cars has yet to be effected . Furthermore, if the clutch is used to maximum
advantage from a fuel economy standpoint , then serious questions of cost and driveability
remain to be resolved .

149
 Other transmission design concepts are of some interest and should be discussed particularly
in regard to their potential for improving fuel economy 64,65,66,67 . Among these are variants in
torque converter transmissions , four or more speed ratios in transmissions, and fluid couplings .

In general, variants in torque converters affect the torque multiplication performance at low out-
put speeds and are primarily to improve initial acceleration capability of the vehicle64 . Numerous
designs having multistaged turbines and stators can raise the initial torque ratio in the converter and
ahead of the transmission mechanical gearing to as high as 3.5 : 1 as compared with 2.0 to 2.2 : 1 for the
usual passenger car single stage torque converter. Because the torque ratio drops rather quickly to the
1.0 : 1 level (coupling point) in the range of 1600 to 2000 rpm or less , depending on torque being trans-
mitted, there is little effect on overall fuel consumption since only the acceleration periods are affected .
However, such converters generally have lower maximum efficiencies than the less complex single stage
converters to that overall fuel consumption will be greater unless converter lock-up devices are
employed above the coupling point.

Considerable modification of the torque available for acceleration in starting up from a

stopped position can be obtained by changing the hydraulic path diameter of the converter . 68,69,70
This changes the power absorption capacity of the converter pump or impeller, driven by the engine ,
so that as the diameter is decreased the stall speed of the impeller/turbine combination increases.
This increase in engine speed allows the engine to develop greater torque to increase the initial
tractive force available for acceleration . As in the multistage turbines, the smaller diameter con-
verter has greater slip and , hence , lower maximum efficiency after reaching the coupling point. A
minor reduction in fuel economy will result even though initial acceleration may be better.

The Model T Ford transmission was a mechanical clutch and planetary gear transmission .
Modern planetary transmissions could also be operated with a mechanical clutch . Such configurations
have recently been used in drag racing (Reference 68 ) to provide high input torque , "jump" starts.
The engine can be run up to high speed to provide a high inertia impact engagement for initial
breakaway acceleration . Such operation is extremely hazardous to the drive train , however, and
would be completely unacceptable for the normal passenger car driver. Further, unlike the torque
converter, no torque multiplication is provided by the clutch . A better solution involves the use of
a fluid coupling, and the earliest applications of hydraulic drives were of this type.

Fluid couplings (no torque multiplication ) have been used extensively in the past 71 , particularly
in combination with three- or four-speed planetary transmissions. Their principle advantage is their
ability to transmit torque at higher vehicle speeds with relatively small slip , but being able also to
disconnect the engine from the drive train ( 100 percent slip) at low-engine speeds without operator
action ; i.e. , to act as an automatic , hydraulic clutch . Because it is a 1.0 : 1 torque transmitter, all of
the torque multiplication requirements must be incorporated in the transmission and axle mechanical
gearing. The transmission gearing and control mechanisms, disc and band clutches become more
complex and it was generally for this reason that the fluid coupling transmissions were supplanted
by torque converter types incorporating less complex gear trains . Although vehicle operation is

64Walker, F. H., "Multiturbine Torque Converters," SAE Paper 359C, 1961 .

65Greer, J. W. and G. W. Schulz , “ A New Ford 3- Speed Automatic Transmission," SAE Paper 660075 , Jan 1966.
66Fuchs, J. , "350 Turbo Hop-Up ," Hot Rod , Sep 1972 , p 114-5 .
67
Anonymous, "Overdrives for 4-speeds and Automatics," Popular Hotrodding, Jan 1973 , p 42-44, 97 .
68B & M Automotive Products , " 1973 Technical Journal and Catalog, " 9152 Independence Ave. , Chatsworth , Cal. 91311 .
69Fairbanks Racing Automatics, "Converters by Fairbanks, " 336 Elm , Stamford , Conn. 06902.
70A- 1 Automatic Transmissions, "Catalog," 7239-1 /2 Woodley, Van Nuys , Cal . 91406 .
71 Chrysler Corp. , " Transmissions," Chrysler Institute of Engineering Graduate School Lecture Notes, August 1957 .

150
more simple and drive train shock loads are damped by the hydraulic coupling , it has little effect on
fuel consumption , except possibly a very minor degradation from mechanical clutch or locked drive
systems because of slight slippage at cruising speeds.

The use of a fluid coupling or a manual clutch can result in an improvement in idle fuel con-
sumption since the load transmitted during idle ( brakes locked ) could be considerably reduced .
At the idle speeds of present torque converter equipped vehicles, the torque absorption in the con-
verter is about 35 ft-lb . At idle speeds of 700 rpm this represents about 4.7 hp that could be virtually
eliminated . The power requirement could also be reduced by decreasing the idle speed ; however ,
emission control of 1973 model automobiles (no aftertreatment) requires that the higher loads be
obtained to reduce mass emissions during idle . With the use of catalytic converters, more design
flexibility is available in that idle emissions could be allowed to increase and the resulting "dirty"
effluent "cleaned up" in the catalyst.

The consumer acceptance of manual clutches is anticipated to be minimal, however , a fluid

coupling and a lock-up could be incorporated to substitute for the present converter. On the whole ,
however, there is considerable latitude available in the design of torque converters. A decrease in
the stall torque ratio can be incorporated by a design compromise that will improve the efficiency
of the unit as a coupling . On the whole , it appears that redesign of torque converters with some
penalty in torque multiplication (loss in performance) can be effected .

Transmissions with greater than three-forward gear ratios are generally used in passenger vehicles
with small engines (low power-to-weight ratios) to provide a greater range of torque multiplication
for starting acceleration , while avoiding excessive engine speed variations in each individual gear
range. They, thus, provide some of the added gear mutliplication by itself, while providing better
acceleration performance , will not appreciably affect fuel consumption . If, however, the axle
ratio is low, resulting , in effect , in an overdrive mode when the transmission is in direct drive, fuel
economics can be obtained without sacrificing passing and hill climbing performance in lower
transmission gears.

Typical small car drive train gear ratio configurations, which may be compared with the ratios
stated in Table 26 would be:

MG VW
Gear Overall Overall
Transmission Transmission
(drive train) (drive train)

First 3.640: 1 15.65: 1 3.80: 1 15.68 : 1

Second 2.214: 1 9.52: 1 2.06: 1 8.49: 1
Third 1.374: 1 5.91 : 1 1.32 : 1 5.45: 1
Fourth 1.000: 1 4.30: 1 0.89: 1 3.67: 1
Axle 4.30: 1 4.13: 1

Stage of Development

The optimum drive train concept described in the previous section is comprised of engine , trans-
mission, and axle components which are currently available , although perhaps not presently entirely
optional as far as the vehicle manufacturer is concerned . The overdrive is marketed as a low produc-
tion, "after-market" device primarily for drag racing customers to enable them to use their vehicles
in normal traffic .

151
 Other drive train concepts than the normal three-speed automatic, torque converter transmission ,
are less readily obtained . Various diameters of converters to provide stall speed modifications are
available from the stock car racing equipment industry . Developmental types of transmissions could
be made available within approximately 2 yr in some quantities but would require at least 4 to 5 yr
for large scale production for the automotive industry with , perhaps , many problems to be overcome
in legal, patent , and contractual areas.

Reliability

Transmission and drive train components now in production are comparatively long lived, highly
reliable devices requiring relatively little operator maintenance beyond occasional lubricant level
inspection and long-interval lubricant replacement. Some types of automatic , planetary-gear type
transmissions are subject to long-interval friction clutch (band ) adjustment ; and , manual shift,
sliding gear transmissions normally require clutch facing replacement at 30 to 50,000 mile intervals.

Other alternative or ancillary elements, such as overdrives or torque converter lock-up clutches,
have the same maintenance and reliability characteristics .

Specific details of operating life and reliability of development type transmissions such as the
Orshansky hydromechancial and Tracor CVD traction drive are not considered to be substantiated
as yet, however, prototype and paper studies conducted by the developers have indicated comparable
performance to production transmissions.

It may be stated that the service life of drive train components will be extended if the general
public becomes measurably conscious of the problems of fuel economy , since driving practices which
achieve best economy avoid excessive acceleration , high speeds, and other high-load operating
conditions which adversely affect drive train mortality .

Cost

Costs of concern in transmission and drive train elements relate primarily to initial purchase
inasmuch as operating and maintenance costs are essentially insignificant over the life of the vehicle .

The manual shift transmission with a manually operated friction clutch is the least expensive
of the configurations studied , however, a detailed breakout of costs of individual components of the
complete system as a part of the vehicle base selling price could not be obtained . Detailed costs of
the component as replacement parts are obtainable , but these are not representative of initial
vehicle costs. It is possible to determine price differentials between the manual transmission costs
and costs for other transmission variants . Available costs for overdrives and torque converter
transmission variations are not representative of normal passenger vehicle acquisition costs inasmuch
as currently available units are in low production, specialty
TABLE 28. COST ESTIMATE FOR DEVELOP- markets. Costs are estimated for development- type units
MENT TYPE UNITS
on the basis of their comparative manufacturing complex-
Estimated Cost
Transmission in Production ity in relation to current production types (Table 28 ) .

Standard, 3-speed manual Base Safety

4-speed manual $200 added
Automated, 3 speed, torque conv. 210-300 added
Overdrive 50 added The principal influence of the drive train design , with
Hydro-mechanical, CVD 250 added regard to safety , concerns the ability of the vehicle to
Traction CVT 150 added
accelerate and pass expeditiously at highways speeds of

152
50 to 70 mph. Hence , those drive train designs which provide greater power availability for acceleration
in this speed range may be considered safer. Such design , however, may be considered normally to
result in increased overall fuel consumption since greater availability of power for acceleration means
proportionately less of that power is used for road load (no acceleration ) driving . The engine will be
operating at a lower power factor , with the characteristically higher specific fuel consumption inherent
in such operation.

In the overall goal of improving vehicle safety , much emphasis is placed on those factors which
provide occupant protection after an accident has occurred . It is suggested that those factors which
assist the driver in avoiding the accident in the first place, such as good acceleration , are even more
important in the overall safety picture . It is, thus, extremely important that the ultimate com-
promise between acceleration and fuel economy not markedly degrade acceleration performance and
should not be much below 2 mph/sec for the 50 to 70 mph speed range .

Too low an axle ratio , or the use of an overdrive which results in a too low drive ratio , would
reduce this acceleration performance below the requisite level. The overdrive is, however, designed
to be disengaged when high acceleration is necessary to avoid such an unsafe passing problem and
automatic transmission can be "down shifted " from third to second gear at speeds below 70 mph
when high acceleration is desired .

Effects of Transmissions on Engine Exhaust Emission

At a given vehicle operating condition ( speed and acceleration) , the transmission sets the torque
(bmep) and speed of the engine . Further, the means of gear shifting affects transient engine speed
and load. Therefore , the transmission has important effects upon the level of exhaust emissions
produced by the engine.

In this discussion , changes in emission levels due to transmission effects will be referenced to a
conventional three-speed automatic transmission . First , consider a manual shift three-speed trans-
mission. On the operation of this type of transmission , there are more engine speed transients than
with the automatic transmission due to the difficulty in coordinating manual operation of clutch,
throttle , and shift lever. These speed transients may lead to higher CO and HC emissions because
of acceleration -deceleration effects on fuel-air ratio and residual fraction in the combustion chamber.
However, if to meet the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard an oxidizing exhaust catalyst is used , it is
expected that the possible increase in HC and CO due to manual shifting will be insignificant. For
this reason, no strong effects upon exhaust emissions are expected from a change to manual trans-
mission when the emissions are measured on the LA-4 cycle with specified shift points.

The effect upon emission levels from the use of a continuously variable transmission (CVT)
are more significant. The purpose of the CVT is to increase the average load at which the engine
operates. For this reason it would be expected that levels of NOx would increase . To meet the
0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard using a conventional carbureted engine , EGR would necessarily
be increased to counteract the increase in NOx , and this would lead to a fuel consumption increase .
A quantitative estimate of the magnitude of this effect is, without actual development test data ,
little better than an intuitive guess.

The operation of a conventional spark-ignition engine at low speeds and high bmep (~ 80) ,
as specified by the anticipated operating schedule , will require adjustment of spark timing (retard)
to prevent knock, probably readjustment in EGR schedules and, additionally , redesign in carbureted
and valve gear system to maximum the performance of the engine transmission system. Data available

153
from independent sources (Ref. 63 ) indicate small improvements in critical emissions (NOx) on
the order of 10 percent by analysis of the performance schedules of a CVT and a conventional
three-speed torque converter transmission with respect to the same engine emissions maps . As
stated above , design changes for life and performance and emission control are anticipated . In the
absence of any good data at all, the authors guess that the ratio of the fuel economy of a vehicle
operated with an emission controlled engine and CVT to the fuel economy of the same vehicle
with CVT calculated without regard for increased emissions is about 0.90 , reflecting our concern
for the ability to maintain NOx control . If emissions of NOx can be controlled by some device
which would allow turning of the engine without regard for the control system , then this factor
could be increased to unity.

As a result of emission considerations, it is necessary to modify the economy improvement

percentages earlier calculated for new transmission types . Although the fuel map used to obtain
the change in fuel consumption is a map for an engine without emission controls, it is assumed that
the same percentage improvements will pertain with any engine . However, the change in trans-
mission type will affect the emission level produced by the engine and will require an engine modifi-
cation (and fuel economy change) if the transmission increases the difficulty of achieving a particular
emission standard . To explain the method used to provide fuel economy comparisons accounting
for emission controls, the following terms will be defined in the same manner as before :

A - fuel economy of the vehicle with modified drive train meeting the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission
standard

B - fuel economy of the standard vehicle meeting 1973 emission standards

C fuel economy of the vehicle with modified drive train with uncontrolled emissions

D ---- fuel economy of the standard vehicle with uncontrolled emissions

E - fuel economy of the standard vehicle meeting the 0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standards

The following equation was then used to compare vehicle fuel economies under different
emission standards :

A C DA E
=- X X X
B Ꭰ EC D B

The value of C/D is taken fromTable 27. E/D and D/B are 1 / 1.15 and 1.09 ( see Chapter 8) . The ratio
(D/E) (A/C) is a measure of the difficulty in making the vehicle with the modified drive train meet the
0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standard , as compared with that of the standard vehicle . Values for this ratio
are tabulated below:
Emission factor
Drive train type . (D/E) (A/C)

Manual 0.97
Continuously variable 0.90
Lock-up clutch 1.0
Overdrive and lock-up 0.97
Optimum design (for economy) 0.95

154
 A summary of the fuel economy improvements , based upon the various emission standards , are
listed below:

From Table 27
Drive train type C/D % Improvement A/B % Improvement

2323
Manual 1.113 11.3 1.023
Continuously variable 1.211 21.1 1.033
Lock-up clutch 1.03 3.0 0.976 -2
Overdrive and lock-up 1.053 5.3 0.968 -3
Optimum design (for economy) 1.153 15.3 1.038 4

Noise

In only one instance in these alternatives for drive train components is there any question of
excessive noise generation or any question of essential differences in generated noise levels. This
question arises only in the case of the hydromechanical, continuously variable transmission because
of the use of positive displacement hydraulic pumps and motors in the liquid drive path. Hydraulic
pressures as high as 6000 psi may be generated with attendant noise generation characteristic of such
positive displacement hydraulic systems. It is anticipated by the developers that much can be done
to attenuate or damp out this vibration and thus eliminate or at least greatly reduce the noise .

It should also be recognized that in the case of the optimum configuration embodying the smaller
engine and higher axle ratio , some minor increased noise may result at any given road speed from the
higher engine speed.

Performance

As discussed in the introduction to this section , vehicle performance , i.e. , acceleration , is deter-
mined by the excess of tractive effort available from the engine through the drive train over that force
required to keep the vehicle moving at a constant speed. Thus, a transmission which can keep the
engine operating as near as possible at its maximum torque point while the vehicle speed increases
steadily will produce the maximum acceleration .

Only the truly continuously variable transmissions can meet this requirement precisely. All
other types of transmissions can only approximate such a match with the torque converter types
next best in performance and four-speed and three-speed , manual shift transmissions in order
behind them .

Smaller diameter, high-stall speed torque converters can be adapted to the automatic transmissions
to allow the engine to approach its maximum torque capability while the vehicle is standing still, if
maximum torque is desired at this point . This is frequently done in drag racing vehicles 68,69,70
however, normal passenger vehicles use considerably lower-stall speed converters with less slip and
improved efficiency at the higher vehicle speeds in road load operation , as previously discussed in
relation to fuel economy.

Consumer Acceptance

Except for a small, elite class of motoring buffs who want to "shift for themselves," the public
prefers automatic transmission systems. The average motorist is neither sufficiently skilled nor does
he ever desire or need to use the maximum performance capability of his vehicle, which might be

155
achieved with a manual transmission . Transmission systems for the general public should , therefore ,
provide the optimum of driver skill and equipment maintenance and servicing.

Although cost considerations may be important from a manufacturer's competitive point of

view, they are not particularly important insofar as buyer convenience is concerned. That is, the
public willingly pays more for automaticity and avoidance of personal effort .

For these reasons , all of the automatic transmissions, including the development types
discussed , can be considered to be essentially equally acceptable . The manual shift trans-
missions are less acceptable, probably in direct relation to the buyer's concern for economical
transportation , unless he is one of the previously mentioned purists.

156
 18. TIRES

Background

Although automobile manufacturers have begun to stress reduction in tire rolling

resistance 72, other characteristics have traditionally been considered more important. In the fore-
front have been treadwear and durability: long mileage to bald ; and resistance to tread groove
cracking, ply and splice separation , puncture , ozone degradation , atmospheric oxidation, and impact
and other road hazards. More recently, antiskid , antihydroplaning, and noise factors and the tire's
contribution to vehicle ride , handling, road holding characteristics, and compatibility with vehicle
suspension systems have become important . Raw material and manufacturing costs, also , have had
strong influence .

Traditionally, the automobile tire has been of bias ply construction in which the carcass is so
constructed that the cords of alternate plies of tire fabric cross one another at an angle . A modifi-
cation makes use of partial plies, or breakers ; plies extending only across the tread area, either
between full plies (bead to bead) , or on top of them , under the tread area . More recently the belted
bias play has come into prominence , its distinguishing feature being conventional bias full plies
surmounted by circumferential fabric belts under the tread. A still later development is the steel
belted radial in which the cords of full plies lie in radial planes through the geometric center of the
tire, with a belt ply made of steel wire.

Until World War II , natural rubber was, essentially , the sole elastomer available in sufficient
quantities for tire production on the scale required by the automobile population . With that supply
cut drastically by the war in the Pacific, the synthetic rubber industry developed , using petroleum
as feedstock. Early synthetics suffered from extremely high hysteresis losses and overheating and ,
probably high rolling resistance , but progress in polymer development and selection , and rubber
compounding have combined to yield car tires of essentially 100 percent synthetic with performance
nearly equal to that of natural rubber tires, and in some respects , superior to them. Approximately
80 percent of the total rubber used in all manufacturing in 1973 will be synthetic 73.

Current Practice

A majority of original equipment tires on current new cars is of belted bias construction , although
radials are standard on luxury and some specialty models . Original equipment tires on the Continental
and Capri , for example, are Michelin steel belted radials. Original equipment on the large Mercurys
is a domestic steel belted radial . On the remainder of the Mercury line , with the possible exception
of the Cougar , original equipment is bias belted . Bias ply, bias belted , and radials are all available
in the replacement market , with both the belted bias ply and radial available with either fabric or
steel belt 74.

As indicated, although some vehicle manufacturers are emphasizing reduction in tire rolling
resistance 72 , it has not been a primary goal , and today's production tire represents a balanced com-
bination of optimum qualities. Improvement in one characteristic generally results in degradation
of others. Bias, bias belted , and radials are all in production today , and efforts to improve rolling
resistance will affect each construction differently, or to a different degree . Some possibilities for
improvement are outlined following.

72Robert Wilds, Highway Safety Research Institute, Ann Arbor , Michigan 10-9-73 .
73"Record for 1973 : 200 million tires hipped for Autos," Automotive News, 12-3-73 .
74Telephone Contact , Mickey Smith , Main Lincoln Mercury, San Antonio, Texas, 12-7-73.

157
 Inflation Pressure

Tests and observations document possible improvement in tire rolling resistance with increase
in inflation pressure 75,76 . Laboratory investigation indicates that tire rolling resistance decreases with
increasing inflation pressure 75,76 . The relationship for a bias ply tire is indicated in Figure 84, for

18 24 PSI
/1-L000
LBS
BS

17
Rr

28 PSI 16
16 185-14

LBS BS
03
LOAD 1160 LBS

/1Rr
-L
32 PSI 24 PSI
14
13 13- 28 PSI
12 6.95-14 12
LOAD 1050 LBS 32 PSI

10
20 30 40 50 60 20 30 40 50
SPEED -MPH SPEED -MPH
FIGURE 84. BIAS TIRES FIGURE 85. RADIAL TIRES

a radial in Figure 85 , and for a belted bias tire in Figure 86 for an inflation pressure range of 24 to 32 psi
and a speed of 20 to 60 mph for the bias and radial , and for a range of 17 to 60 psi at 30 mph for the
belted bias. Figure 87 summarizes the general relationship between inflation pressure and tire rolling
resistance , from which can be derived a relationship of about 5 percent change in rolling resistance for
each 2 psi change in inflation pressure within the 24 to 32 psi range77 . On this basis, tire rolling
COEFFICIENT
RESISTANCE

resistance could be decreased as much as 20 percent by increasing inflation pressure from 24 to 32 psi .
ROLLING

G78-15 BELTED BIAS

]

SPEED- 30 M.P.H 12 아
LOAD- 1380 LBS. 116-
RELATIVE
00
1000
.)(LBS
PER
LBS

11 라
Rr-

108-
%

104
100
SPEED RANGE 20-60 MPH
96
92
88-
84
(10) 20 (30 (40 (50) (60 80
20 24 28 32 36 40
COLD INFLATION PRESSURE ( P.S.1.) INFLATION PRESSURE - PSI
FIGURE 86. BELTED BIAS TIRES FIGURE 87. GENERAL RELATIONSHIP-
INFLATION PRESSURE VS. ROLLING
RESISTANCE

Tread Mass

Tire rolling resistance consists of two components, one independent of speed , the other speed
dependent which varies as the square of the tire mass per unit tread area 76. Experimentation has

75Elliott, D. R. , W. K. Klamp , and W. E. Kramer, " Passenger Tire Power Consumption," Paper No. 710575 , SAE Transactions 1971 ,
pp 1885-1898 .
76Stiehler , R. D. , M. N. Steel, G. G. Richy, J. Mandel, and R. H. Hobbs, "Power Loss and Operating Temperature of Tires," Proceedings,
International Rubber Conference , November 8-13 , 1959. Washington , DC pp 73-83.
77Curtiss, W. W., "Low Power Loss Tires," Paper 690108.

158
 shown that by buffing the tread of a new tire to the bottom of the tread grooves, rolling resistance
decreases for both bias ply and radial ply tires , Figure 8878. For the bias ply, rolling resistance
decreases approximately 50 percent at 20 mph and about 70 percent at 70 mph. Rolling resistance
of the radial is affected similarly , but not to the same degree , ranging from about 45 percent reduction
at 20 mph to about 25 percent at 70 mph . At a given speed , reduction is almost linear with tread
removal77. For 50 percent worn, rolling

30 resistance of a bias ply tire can be expected to

decrease about 25 to 30 percent, and a radial
about 10 to 25 percent. Current passenger car
tires worn to wear indicator tread depth are
approximately 15 percent better for power loss
NAL
NTIO

than they were when new79.

RESISTANCE

25
E
COANSV
BI

Compounding
D
BEDLITAEL
/1000
LBS

RA

The rubber component of a tire accounts for

60 percent of the hysteresis loss76, which trans-
20 lates into rolling resistance and power loss, and
T

offers an opportunity for improvement in rolling

resistance by use of low hysteresis compounds,
which have high resiliency characteristics. Use
of such compounds, however , will normally
involve penalties against other performance char-
ROLLING

L
RADIA

acteristics; and treadwear, traction , weathering,

T
G

and cracking must be carefully considered before

1
་

drastic changes in rubber components are incor-

13

12 porated in a tire77.

Construction
10
❤

The radial tire is much in the forefront

•

of tire news because of its contribution toward

7 TREAD REMOVED
improved vehicle handling, superior treadwear,
and often-attributed contribution to fuel economy.
The consensus is that fuel economy improves if
20 40 60 80 100 ૨૦
radials are substituted for bias ply or belted bias
SPEED- MPH
tires, but the reported extent of improvement
FIGURE 88. EFFECT OF TREAD REMOVAL
varies considerably depending upon the source
of information . Almost all data obtained concerning comparative rolling resistance and power
loss, however , confirm the reported superiority of the radial tire in this respect 80,81 . The data
reported in Figure 89 support radial tire superiority .

Reduced Deflection

Rolling resistance can be reduced by minimizing deflection of the tire as it rolls under load. For
the same tire porfile , outside diameter, and section width, rolling resistance decreases with increase in

78Clark , Samuel K. ed . , "Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires," National Bureau of Standards.

79Floyd, C. W. , "Power Loss Testing of Tires," Paper 710576.
80John Abbott , Staff Engineer, Tire Design , Plant 1 , Dept. 460G , Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. , Akron , Ohio , 10-26-73.
81 Dr. Marion G. Pottinger , Section Manager, Advanced Tire Dynamics, Goodrich Research & Development Center, Brecksville , Ohio,
10-15-73.

159
 rim diameter, although the improve-
ment is quite small if the change is from
14 to 15 inches. A change from 12 to 16 in.
45

45 can be significant. Rolling resistance

can also be reduced by increasing rim
RESISTANCE

width, thereby reducing tire deflection,

ROLLING

40 although the improvement varies with

LOAD
000
1/LBS
LBS

tire construction , and is fairly small in

any case and does not increase steadily
with increase in rim width77 .

Evaluation

30
Effect of Reduced Rolling Resistance
on Economy

25
The effect of reduction of rolling
resistance on fuel economy , generally ,
has been regarded as marginal compared
20 to effects of other vehicle and operating
BIAS factors72,75-77,79-93, yet its reduction
BIAS- BELTED is important to the overall subject of
15 10 % fuel economy. The road power con-
RADIAL sumption attributable to rolling fric-
tion (principally the tires) is dependent
10 on road speed . Figure 90 illustrates
о 20 40 60 80 100 120 a typical road load curve for one of
SPEED , MP4 the reference vehicles and the curve
FIGURE 89. EFFECT OF TIRE CONSTRUCTION ON fit equation used to represent the
ROLLING RESISTANCE experimental results. Below 30 mph
the dominant portion of the road load
is attributable to rolling resistance . In fact, the aerodynamic load component does not become
equal to the rolling resistance until about 55 mph .

82Dr . Tomkins, Firestone Tire and Rubber Co. , 1200 Firestone Parkway, Akron , Ohio , 1-24-73 .
83Roberts, G. B. , "Power Wasteage in Tires," Proceedings, International Rubber Conference, November 8-13 , 1959 , Washington, DC
pp 57-71.
84Greenshields, R. G. , "150 Mpg is Possible," SAE Journal, March 1950, pp 34-38.
85Don Ball, Tire Evaluation, Chelsa Proving Ground , Chrysler Corporation, Chelsea, Michigan , 10-15-73 .
86Joseph Callahan , Editor, Automotive Industries, 8-3-73.
87R. R. Love , Assistant Chief Engineer, Engineering Office, Chelsea Proving Ground, Chrysler Corporation , Chelsea, Michigan
10-15-73.
88Robert Yeager, Group Leader, Tire Design Research & Development , Plant 1 , Dept. 460G , Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. , Akron,
Ohio 10-26-73.
89Dr . J. D. Walter , Division Manager , Central Research Laboratories, Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. , 1200 Firestone Parkway,
Akron , Ohio.
90Dr . R. H. Snyder, Director, Product Development Division, Uniroyal Co., 6600 E. Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Michigan 8-1-73 ,
Letter 8-6-73
91 Peterson, K. G. , and R. E. Rassmussen , "Mechanical Properties of Radial Tires," Paper 730500.
92Goodenow, Gary, Thomas R. Kolhoff, and Fraser D. Smithson, "Tire-Road Friction Measuring System -A Second Generation,"
Paper 680137.
93 Kelly, Kent B. and Henry J. Holcomb , "Aerodynamics for Body Engineers," SAE Paper No. 649A.

160
 50

P.22 V + .655 x 10
HORSEPOWER

40

TOTAL
AERODYNAMIC

20

10
ROLLING
RESISTANCE

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPEED MPX
FIGURE 90. VEHICLE RESISTANCE

Based on the discussion presented in this section , it is reasonable to evaluate the economy
improvement due to steel belted radial ply tires. For this calculation a 30-percent reduction in the
rolling resistance component of road horsepower was considered .

As previously discussed in this report , the fuel consumption characteristics of carbureted spark-
ignition engines are strongly dependent on load especially at the low torque ( bmep) levels where
considerable energy is also required to overcome friction and pumping power . This is reflected in
the shape of the characteristic curves of the reference engine map used in the study .

The reduction of rolling resistance (for road load) reduces the torque output requirement of
the engine, and the engine operates at a point of higher brake specific fuel consumption . The effect
of power reduction is thus partially reduced (Figure 91 ) , and at some speeds, the fuel consumption
will be increased . At 20 mph, for example , the mileage is worsened . At higher speeds and torque
outputs engine characteristics are such that specific fuel consumption is less sensitive to changes,
and significant improvement in fuel economy can be noted as power demands decrease . At increasingly
higher speeds, aerodynamic loads decrease the percentage influence on economy . Table 29 illustrates
the above discussion . In reviewing the above table it must be remembered that the characteristic
fuel economy of a vehicle is such that the mileage at 20 mph is significantly less than the mileage
at 30 to 40 mph; consequently, this adverse lowering of mileage of 20 mph reduces the overall
benefit to fuel economy based on the fuel economy evaluation considered in this study . It should
also be noted that vehicle operation at 20 mph is associated with an extremely sensitive region of
the engine map where small changes in brake mean effective pressure can result in large changes in
brake specific fuel consumption.

Fuel economy during an urban driving cycle is also affected by a decrease in rolling resistance
when actual road operation is considered . Use of the standard calculation technique described
earlier resulted in the following percentage improvements :
Urban Cycle Road Load Composite

4% 4% 4%

161
 HORSEPOWER PER SQUARE INCH OF PISTON AREA
140
0.6 1.0 1.4 2.0

ENGINE
300

)CID50
120 TH
FBT
RO
(3
L
- FU TT
0,64 LL LE
100-
9.50
200 BMEP
-SI
P 9.51

T
0.52

9.56
T
TORQUE

80

TED 9.58
W/BEL -BIAS 60- L
2. IA
100 W/RAD
T

40
070
0.80
0.90
20 1.0
12
1.5
2.0 BSFC

20 30 401000 60 70 2000 3000

PISTON SPEED -FPM

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

ENGINE RPM
( 3.5" STROKE )
FIGURE 91. PERFORMANCE MAP OF CARBURETED SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

TABLE 29. PERCENT If reduction in tire rolling resistance is to be exploited for achievement of
CHANGE IN MILEAGE
improved fuel economy, it must be accompanied by engine operation in
WITH VEHICLE SPEED
higher bmep ranges, where specific fuel consumption changes less drastically
Vehicle Percent change with changes in bmep .
speed in road
(mph) load mileage
Stage of Development
20 -10
30 +8
40 +8 The state-of-the-art in tire engineering and construction , polymer develop-
50 +9 ment, and compounding , and known materials are such that rolling resistance
60 +7 of a radial tire can be reduced 30 percent from that of a current belted bias
70 +5 tire.

Demonstration by 1976

Steel belted radials are currently marketed . Specific data are not available on the rolling
resistance characteristics of different makes/models of tires. Several different tires would have
to be screened from manufacturers test data to obtain tires that will attain a range of rolling resistance
consistent with a 30-percent reduction with respect to the baseline bias ply type tire.

Reliability

The principle disadvantageous effects of further measures suggested to improve rolling resistance
are slightly harsher ride , lower permissible speed , high susceptibility to impact damage and other road
hazards and punctures , and reduction in miles to replacement. Higher inflation pressure and reduction

162
in aspect ratio would result in reduced spring rate and somewhat harder ride with present vehicle
suspension systems. Increasing the inflation pressure to rated pressure in a steel belted radial will
not adversely affect the life and will reduce rolling resistance although the "harsher" ride penalty
will be evident . Reduction in tread mass and lower hysteresis rubber compounds would result in
reduced treadwear mileage , reduced protection against punctures, cuts, and carcass impact
damage . Significant decrease in the tread mass would result in reduced treadwear mileage , reduced
protection against punctures, cuts, and carcass impact damage . Significant decrease in the tread
mass would result in a cooler running tire , but would require significant change in tire construction
to yield performance equivalent to current production tires.

Cost

Present cost per mile for bias, belted bias, and radial tires varies with specific price quotation
and service mileage experience ; however, cost of a belted bias tire is estimated at about 55 percent
of that of a radial , and mileage about 60 percent94,95 that of a radial . Optional radial ply tires
are approximately $ 75 higher than bias ply tires, including special suspension tuning requirements.

Safety

Safety is increased with a steel belted radial due to increased damage resistance of the tire.

Emissions

The present emission test procedure specifies values for dynamometer resistance in terms of
loaded vehicle weight . In order to take advantage of reduced rolling assistance during the emission
test, a manufacturer would be required to petition for a reduced dynamometer setting on the basis
of data acquired for a particular vehicle design (as allowed in the regulation).

Noise

With the principle sources of tire noise being contact with the road surface and air disturbance ,
there appears no reason for sound intensity or frequency spectrum to change significantly as a
result of use of lower rolling resistance tires.

Performance (Acceleration )

The reduction in rolling resistance will increase the margin between road load power require-
ments and WOT, thus making more net power available for vehicle acceleration .

Time Required for Implementation

Industry radial tire production capacity , as well as inherent characteristics of the radial, will
bear on possible large scale fuel economy effects if national use of the radial tires is advocated . Radial
tire production in 1972 was estimated at 7,500,000 units, or about 3.5 percent of the year's car
tire total, and was expected to increase to 8 percent in 197395. Estimates for radials in 1976 to 1977
by various sources are 25 to 30 percent of original equipment tires and 65 to 70 percent are replace-
ments 95,96 . Estimates for 1982-1983 are for 60 to 80 percent of total car tires to be radials 97.

94Charles Martyn, Manager, Blue Ribbon Tire Co., San Antonio, Texas 11-16-73.
95Vila, George R., "Impact of the Radial-Ply Tire on U.S. Passenger Replacement Market," Rubber Age, September 1972 , pp 61-67 .
96Tire Dealer, March 1972 , p 37.
97"Rubber Industry: A Glimpse of the Future, " Chemical & Chemical Engineering News, April 17, 1972 , p 10 .

163
It is further estimated that by 1980 U.S. tire production will be exceeded by Japan's and Europe's
combined , and that the latter will be almost entirely radial98 . In this light , domestic production
will be supplemented by imports. Michelin , of France, has just announced an investment of $ 175 mil-
lion in two plants in North Carolina to begin production of radial tires in 197599.

Consumer Acceptance

Suspension systems tuned to the characteristics of radial ply tires are in production ( at increased
cost) . Ride characteristics are not compromised . If higher inflation pressures are used to maximize
benefits of radial ply tires some consumers may object to the ride harshness.

98"Radials Reshuffle Tire-Cord Lineup," Chemical Week, January 31 , 1973 , p 31 .

99Rubber Age, October 1973.

164
 19. AERODYNAMICS

Current Practice

The literature includes studies of aerodynamics as applied to cars over a span of years, with vary-
ing objectives. In the early 1930's in the U.S. , and in England in the 1940's , improved fuel economy
was the primary objective 100-110 . One source at this time cites development of the Chrysler Airflow
for which maximum initial speed was 84 mph and fuel consumption 11.3 mpg at 80 mph. Through
successive aerodynamic improvements, maximum speed was increased to 99.4 mph and fuel consump-
tion to 17.7 mpg at 80 mph 107. In the 1950's emphasis seemed to have shifted to gains in speed
through aerodynamic applications111 . The overall result was a reduction in aerodynamic drag between
the years 1930 and 1950112. In the late 1960's emphasis returned to fuel economy 113-116.

One source 117 cites typical drag coefficients of 0.4-0.5 and frontal areas of 22-30 sq ft as of
1957. Another 118 cites coefficients of 0.45-0.70 for standard sedans as of 1965. Today's cars
appear " aerodynamically cleaner" than models of 10 to 15 yr ago, yet neither drag coefficients nor
frontal areas appear to have decreased appreciably . The increasing popularity of stock car and sports
car racing , popular in Europe for many years and more recently in this country, has undoubtedly
influenced body design and styling of some of the specialty cars. In full-size sedans, efforts toward
more luxurious interiors , reduction of obstacles to driver vision , and elimination of blind spots may
have some responsibility for departure from cleaner aerodynamic design. Little effort has been
expended on underbody cleanup such as use of belly pans because of complexities introduced for
servicing the vehicle . A European import several years ago required about one hour for removal of its
belly pan and another hour for reinstallation on an ordinary lubrication job119. The automobile in-
dustry is presently working toward aerodynamic improvement of passenger cars119.

Drag coefficients , frontal area , and the product CdA (product of drag coefficient and frontal
area) , for four of the reference vehicles are listed in Table 30. The data acquired during the road test
phase of the project did not allow precise separation of rolling and aerodynamic components ; the

100
McCain, George L., "Dynamics of the Modern Automobile ," SAE Journal (Transactions) July 1934 , pp 248-250.
101 Zierer, W.E. and Macanlog, J.B., Jr. , "Tank Mileage," SAE Journal (Transactions) January 1939 , pp 29-34.
102Andreau , J. , "European Streamlining Slashes Air Resistance," SAE Journal (Transactions) April 1939, p 350.
103Tietjans, O.G. , " Economy of Streamlining the Automobile," SAE Journal (Transactions), March 1932 , pp 150-152 .
104Lay, W.E. , " Is 50 Miles Per Gallon Possible with Correct Streamlining?" Part 1 , SAE Journal (Transactions) April 1933 , p 144-356.
105Lay , W.E. , " Is 50 Miles Per Gallon Possible with Correct Streamlining?" Part 2, SAE Journal (Transactions) May 1933, p 177-186 .
106 Horine, M.C. , Altman , P. , Winter , H.G. , Reid, E.G. , and Upson, Ralph , "Differences Between Wind-Tunnel and Road Load
Conditions," SAE Journal, August 1933, pp 261-267.
107Wilkins, Gordon, "Next Steps in Drag Reduction," Part 1 , Autocar, March 5 , 1948, pp 214-216.
108Wilkins, Gordon, "Next Steps in Drag Reductions," Part II, Autocar, March 12, 1948, pp 240-241 .
109Reid, John P.M. , "Aerodynamics of Motoring," Part 1 , The Autocar, June 8, 1951 , pp 656-659.
110Reid, J.P. Milford, "Aerodynamics of Motoring," Part 2, The Autocar, August 3 , 1951 , pp 904-907.
111 Reid, J.P. Milford, " Aerodynamic Fallacies," The Autocar, September 11 , 1953 , pp 322-323.
112 Hoerner, Sighard F., "Chapter XII , Drag of Land-Borne Vehicles," Fluid-Dynamic Drag 1965 , Dr. Ing. S.F. Hoerner, 148 Busteed
Drive, Midland Park , New Jersey, 07432 , pp 12.1-12.10.
113Costin, Frank, "A Dozen Years of Aerodynamics," Autosport, December 27 , 1968.
114"How Much is Air Drag Costing You?" Heavy Duty Trucking, October 1969 , pp 25-28.
115 Cutting Wind Drag With Airshield," Heavy Duty Trucking, October 1969, pp 28-30.
116Wyss, Wally, "The Flying Brick," Car Life, February 1970, pp 28-30.
117Taborek, Jaroslav J. , "Resistance Forces, Mechanics of Vehicles-6 ," Machine Design, August 8 , 1967, pp 101-102.
118"The Automotive Assembly, Automotive Series, Engineering Design Handbook ," AMC Pamphlet AMCP 706-355 , February 1965,
HQ, USAMC , pp 5-16.
119Tel. Contact, Mr. Kent B. Kelly, Staff Project Engineer, Advanced Project Engines, Engineering Staff, General Motors Corp. ,
General Motors Technical Center , Warren, Michigan (313 ) 575-1093.

165
figures in Table 30 were obtained from the sources listed . Frontal area for both Chrysler cars is the
true area rather than the modified product of width and height listed below.

TABLE 30. AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS Vehicle Aerodynamics

OF REFERENCE VEHICLES

Make Drag Frontal Road load horsepower consists of two major

Coefficient Area CaA
components: power required to overcome rolling
Chevrolet Impala ( 118) (a) 0.573 24.44 14 resistance or mechanical drag, and air resistance ,
or aerodynamic drag. Mechanical drag includes
Chevrolet Camaro (118)(b) 0.503 20.68 10.4
tire rolling resistance , which is covered in the sec-
Dodge Challenger( 119)(c) 0.45 25.6 11.5 tion on tires. Aerodynamic drag has external and
internal components, that is, features that affect
Plymouth Fury(119) 0.527 20.70 10.9 airflow through and inside the vehicle . One
source121 breaks down aerodynamic drag
(a)These data are for a 1973 two-door Impala, which is the
only vehicle in this line for which wind tunnel data were (Figure 92 ) as follows:
available.
(b)These data are for a 1971 model, and were the only data
(1) Form drag- Drag due to body shape.
available for this body style . The 1971 and 1973 differ only
in minor features such as trim, and are essentially the same
(2) Lift drag -Induced drag due , also , largely
aerodynamically. Both models were wind tunnel tested and
CdA was determined . Frontal area was assumed as 80% of to body shape . It does not necessarily
the product of maximum width and maximum height, from oppose forward motion , but its generation
which Ca was calculated. absorbs energy .
(c) These data are for a 1970 model without air
conditioning ; otherwise, the car is aerodynamically the (3) Surface drag-Drag due to frictional
same as the 1973 model.
resistance between body surfaces and
air passing tangentially over them . It
increases as the exterior area of the car
body "wetted" by the airflow increases.

(4) Interference drag-Drag due to disturb-

ances of the airflow over the body shape ,
caused by appendages and protuberances
projecting from the basic form into the
FORM airstream . Such features as door handles ,
55 % rain gutters, radio antenna mast, hood
ornaments , outside rear view mirror ,
body columns, body trim , and roof lug-
LIFT gage rack contribute . Projections under
INTERFERENCE
17 % 7% the vehicle such as engine pan , suspension
SURFACE members, exhaust system, and differential
INTERNAL 9 % and rear axle housings also contribute to
FLOW
interference drag on the vehicle underbody.
12%
(5) Internal flow drag-Drag due to the flow
FIGURE 92. DISTRIBUTION OF VEHICLE of air into , through , and out of the engine
AERODYNAMIC DRAG cooling system and passenger compartment.

Horsepower required to overcome aerodynamic resistance is a function of drag coefficient, frontal

area, and the third power of the relative velocity between the car and air passing it . The drag coefficient

120 Tel . Contact , M. William B. McNulty, Section and Development Supervisor , Performance Analysis Department, Chelsea Proving
Ground, Chrysler Corp. , Chelsea, Michigan ( 313 ) 475-8651 , ext. 215 .
121 Kelly , Kent B. , and Holcomb, Harry J., " Aerodynamics for Body Engines," SAE Paper 649A, January 1963 .

166
is a composite of the five forms of drag enumerated above. In the usual wind tunnel determination
of vehicle aerodynamic drag, the product of drag and frontal area, CaxA, is determined . Frontal
area is measured , and the drag coefficient is calculated . Should there be an error in measurement of
frontal area , density or velocity of airflowing in the tunnel , or other test variables , the calculated drag
coefficient will be in error. If this coefficient is applied to some other frontal area, the error will
carry over into the result. So long as the corresponding frontal area and drag coefficient are used
together, however, error will not be introduced .

Reduction of drag coefficient is the only means of reducing aerodynamic drag if vehicle size
(width, height, frontal area) is to be maintained. Of the components of drag coefficient, form drag
constitutes the largest segment, 55 percent. Interference drag, 17 percent , can be interpreted as
including underbody drag in addition to projections along the sides , top , and front and rear ends.
Internal flow drag represents about 12 percent of the total. Together, these make up about 84 per-
cent of total drag. Effort in these areas should be most productive .

Effect of Aerodynamics on Fuel Economy

Because aerodynamic horsepower increases as the third power of the air velocity , it is of little
consequence at low speeds. ( See Figure 91 ) . For the same reason , road load horsepower increases
appreciably with headwinds and decreases with tailwinds. For full size cars of current design moving
in still air, aerodynamic resistance becomes a significant factor in road load horsepower at about
50 mph, where it represents about one-half of the total.

The aerodynamics contribution to road load horsepower varies directly with the drag coefficient
and frontal area. A reduction in either of these quantities, or their product CdA, would result in a
reduction of fuel consumption . The degree of fuel consumption reduction would vary with vehicle
speed; several estimates are available from the literature . If aerodynamic drag were reduced 10 percent
and engine and drive train characteristics remained the same , fuel consumption would be reduced
3.5 percent at 40 mph and 6.5 percent at 80 mph. Results to these extents are not achieved in prac-
tice because engine specific fuel consumption increases with decrease in road load , and changes in
mechanical characteristics of the vehicle are necessary to realize potential gains from aerodynamic
improvement 105,109 . For an intermediate size vehicle and no change except aerodynamics, a 10 per-
cent decrease in aerodynamic drag results in an actual increase in miles per gallon of about 4.3 percent
at 70 mph 122

Evaluation -Aerodynamic Improvement

Target Coefficient-The British Motor Industry Association has developed a method of esti-
mating drag coefficients 123 which appears reasonably accurate . Although it is not a substitute for
wind tunnel measurements, it does provide guidelines for preliminary design. It places primary em-
phasis, apparently, on form drag and interference drag , yielding a coefficient for a vehicle with the
radiator and grille blanked off. Experience has shown results thus determined agreeing within 7 per-
cent of those derived from wind tunnel tests. The expression for calculating drag coefficients is:

Ca = 0.16 0.0095 X drag rating,

122Huebner, G.J. and Gasser, Donald J. , “Energy and the Automobile -General Factors Affecting Vehicle Fuel Consumption ," SAE
Paper 730518.
123White , R.G.S. , " Rating Scale Estimate Automobile Drag Coefficient , SAE Journal, June 1969 , Vol . 77 , No. 6 , pp 52-53, also SAE
Transactions 1969 , pp 829-835.

167
where the drag rating is determined by reference to a table of numbers assigned to various configura-
tions of each of nine zones of a vehicle (Table 31 ) . The drag rating becomes the numerical sum of
these numbers. Comparison of the drag coefficient so determined with a known coefficient for a
vehicle provides a measure of the resulting change in fuel economy.

For estimating a reasonably achievable drag coefficient , the following ratings in each cate-
gory were chosen from Table 31 :

Category 1. Front End Plan Outline - Numerous current model U.S. cars are best described
by rating " 6", described as " squared constant-width front ,” or “ 4 ”, “ rounded
corners with protuberances." Rating "2", "well rounded outer quarters," is
selected for this category as representing effectiveness consistent with styling
acceptable to the U.S. public. ( 2 )

Category 2. Front End Elevation - Numerous 1973 model U.S. cars , particularly the luxury
lines, are considered as corresponding to a rating of "5", "high squared front,
with horizontal hood . " Rating "3", "medium height rounded front, sloping
up," is selected as representing some 1974 models , and a probable future trend
as vehicle front ends are styled to accommodate massive shock absorbing
front bumpers. (3 )

Category 3. Windshield/Roof Junction ( Cowl and fender cross section) -A rating of "4",
"Hood flush with square edged fenders, " is considered representative of many
current U.S. production cars, particularly the Impala and Galaxie reference
vehicles. A rating of " 1 ", "Flush hood and fenders, well-rounded body sides ,"
is considered practical , and consistent with the ratings for Categories 1
and 2. ( 1 )

Category 4. Windshield Plan - A rating of “ 2” “ Wrapped-round ends , " is selected as a prac-

tical compromise between undistorted vision , satisfactory wiper blade sweep ,
and reasonably good aerodynamic effectiveness . It has been used extensively
in U.S. vehicles in the past. (2 )

Category 5. Windshield Peak - A rating of " 1 ", " Rounded ", is selected as representative of
most current production U.S. vehicles. ( 1 )

Category 6. Roof Plan -A rating of "2 ", "tapering to front and rear (max . width at BC
post ) or approximately constant " width ", is selected as consistent with U.S.
styling to accommodate three people in both front and rear seats. ( 2)

Category 7. Rear Roof/Trunk-A rating of " 1 ", "Fastback (roof line continuous to tail)",
is chosen as consistent with some current U.S. styling , and with Category 6. ( 1 )

Category 8. Lower Rear End - A rating of “2", "Small taper to rear or constant width ," is
selected as consistent with the Category 6 conformation and with provision of
reasonable trunk space. (2 )

Category 9. Underbody -A rating of " 1 ", "Integral , flush floor, little projecting mechanism,"
is selected as a realistic objective in spite of some unsatisfactory experiences
with belly pans. ( 1 )

168
 RATING
SYSTEM
DRAG
31.
TABLE

Table
)2(cont'd
Table
?rag
Rating
DSystem Rating )(ont'd
c3.Category 4.(cont'd
)Category
-edged
squared
with
flush
Hood Flat
Rating Outline
1.Plan
Category Elevati
)(b ryon
2.Catego fenders
high
,with
hood
Depressed
FRONT
:
END 3 fenders
edged
squared
C rounded
(a)Low
slop-
front peak
Windshield
5.
Category plan
6.Roof
Category
semicircular
Approximately up
ing
‫عم‬ → Rounded -tWell-
ormedium
apered ←
hood
rounded
tapered 1 torear
(b)High
or
flanges
(including
Squared rear
and
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Tapering
rWell
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ow 2 )
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)oatBC ax
.wm(ridth
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approximately

ପ୍ରଶ
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at
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4d 4d 4d
Rounded
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without .
front
rounded
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Rear
(d)/7.runk End
Rear
Lower
8.Category 9.
Category
protuberances sloping
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Underbody
(a)Medium
height , lush
fIntegral
with
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Rounded squared continuous
toline
(roof
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orD
-tWell-
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,ittle
lpro-
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,uploping 1 torear mechan-
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iam
front
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,wb)H( ith
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Semi
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totail width
stant

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tapering
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Squared squared
edge (2)
mechanism

169
fender
and
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lust wrap
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 Using the numerical sum of 15 from the above 9 categories as the total drag rating , the drag
coefficient becomes :

Cd = 0.16 0.0095 X 15 = 0.16 + 0.14 = 0.30

This drag coefficient should be considered to be the minimum theoretically possible. It was
arrived at mechanically by the formula from the reference quoted and does not consider the impact
on the vehicle design and styling to achieve this end . It is plausible that a substantial alteration of
frontal area would also follow as a result of an attempt to minimize the drag coefficient .

Design of an automobile to achieve the lowest aerodynamic drag for a given package size
would not be concentrated in the area of the drag coefficient but would also include consideration of
alteration in the vehicle external size, i.e. , the form of the car- fender lines, wheel openings , etc.

The aerodynamic component of reference vehicle road load horsepower characteristic was
reduced by 10 percent to reflect the potential power demand reduction , and fuel consumption calcula-
tions were made. The result of these calculations is summarized below:

Maximum Aerodynamic Improvement

Urban Cycle Road Load Composite

1% 2% 1.5%

Stage of Development -The state-of-the-art in aerodynamics is such that cars with lower
drag coefficients could be designed and built. Frontal area could also be reduced , achieving a reduc-
tion of about 10 percent by reducing height and width to approximately the height and width of the
current intermediate size models. For example , the 79.8 in . width and 56.1 in . height of the Fury
yield a block area of 4480 sq inches. The current Malibu's width of 76.6 in. and Gran Torino's height
of 53.0 in. give a block area of 4060 in . , approximately a 10-percent reduction . It is reasonable to
achieve a 10-percent drag reduction by adopting the current technology of slightly reduced car size.
Achievement of the objective of maximum drag reduction would require experimental determination
of drag coefficients for initial models, and experience from field use for evaluation of passenger
comfort, wind noise , vehicle servicing, and vehicle handling characteristics. Application of aerodynam-
ic improvements is also visualized as involving formability of materials and development ofjoining
techniques and would , accordingly, be related to weight reduction measures.

Demonstration by 1976– Even if given immediate priority , the lead time necessary for
design, experimental testing, and production layout would make a 1976 demonstration date very
critical . Any demonstration models would have to be handmade because of drastic departures from
current body contours, production methods, finishing details, and changes in materials and joining
methods.

The variability of aerodynamic drag factors as evidenced by Table 30 suggests that various
1973 or 1974 production models be assessed to determine shapes ( or specific vehicles) having the
greatest immediate potential of reduced aerodynamic drag with respect to the full-size reference ve-
hicle . This vehicle then could serve adequately as the demonstration vehicle. In addition to the deter-
mination of an adequate demonstration vehicle, substantial data on the variability of vehicle design
factors would be available .

170
 Reliability-Changes in airflow for engine cooling and air-conditioning system functioning,
and passenger compartment ventilation could result in problems in both areas for early prototypes,
although sufficient lead time for investigation of such possible problems would minimize their effects.
An indirect effect on reliability would be the influence of aerodynamic improvements such as belly
pans on accessibility of mechanical components for maintenance and repair.

Cost-Changes in cost have not been assessed at this time. Additional body components
such as belly pans would result in additional material and forming costs and , depending on specific
underbody measures employed , maintenance costs would be increased somewhat by repair of severe
dents and tears in a belly pan , or replacement of it. The incorporation of reduced frontal area
(10 percent) by a small decrease in car dimensions will not change costs since cars of this size are
already in production.

Safety-Possible effects of aerodynamic improvement on dynamic braking and directional

stability would require investigation . The reduced aerodynamic drag at high speeds would result in
higher loads on the vehicle brake system for equivalent stopping capability in these speed ranges,
with attendant needs for corresponding dissipation of heat generated . Directional stability at higher
speeds would be influenced by the relative locations of center of drag and center of gravity of the
vehicle.

Emissions-Aerodynamic alterations resulting in a lower road load would affect emissions

only as a result of reduced dynamometer power absorption settings during the EPA test. Power settings
are currently specified according to loaded vehicle weight, although modifications are possible on the
basis of an application , supported by test data, from the manufacturer to the EPA.

Noise -Until specific body conformations are worked out , it is difficult to estimate noise
intensities or frequencies resulting from aerodynamic improvement . Certainly, improved airflow and
reduction of eddies and other air disturbances should result in an improved noise environment in the
vehicle.

Performance (Acceleration) -Reduction in road load resistance would not affect normal
vehicle acceleration at low speeds, and would improve it at high speeds, assuming no engine changes
are incorporated . Substantial lowering of aerodynamic loads would also allow a reduction in the
installed horsepower requirement .

Time Required for Implementation -The Mustang was introduced in 1965 on the Falcon
chassis, so that it was at that time primarily a new body concept on an existing chassis. The Camaro ,
introduced in 1967 following the demonstrated popularity of the Mustang, was an almost entirely
new design, conceived probably 3 yr earlier. Achievement of a low-drag coefficient vehicle would
require a minimum of 1 yr of engineering development. Considering the lead time for the auto indus-
try, it is estimated that readying a low-drag coefficient vehicle would be accomplished by the 1980-
model year. The extent of the possible drag reduction would depend upon the outcome of wind
tunnel tests conducted during the development program.

171
 20. WEIGHT

Current Practice

The three full-size reference vehicles , Fury , Galaxie , and Impala , are from 400 to 600 lb heavier
and from 6 to 14 in . longer than corresponding 1960 models. For the Fury , 58 percent of the
430-lb weight increase came between 1960 and 1967 models, while only 26 percent of the 14 in.
length increase came during the same period . For the Galaxie , all of the 600 -lb weight increase
and all of the 6.5 in . length increase came between the 1967 and 1973 models . For the Impala,
83 percent of the 580-lb weight increase and 53 percent of the length increase came between the
1967 and 1973 models 123,124,125 . Weights of the three full-size reference vehicles are plotted
against model year in Figure 93 , and for the lighter vehicles in Figure 94. The 1970 models of all
the full-size reference vehicles were almost equal in weight . It is obvious that weights of the Galaxie
and Impala increased dramatically during the 1967 to 1973 period , but data for previous years plus
Figure 93 indicate a fairly uniform weight increase for the Fury between 1960 and 1973. Widths of
the three vehicles remained essentially constant during the 1960 to 1973 period while heights
decreased slightly , probably accompanied by decreased ground clearance .
4400

4300

GALAXIE

4200
WEIGHT

4100
- BS
L

4000
IMPALA

3900

FURY

3800

3700

3600
1967 68 '69 '70 72 '73
YEAR
FIGURE 93. WEIGHTS OF VEHICLES BY YEARLY MODEL
FULL-SIZE VEHICLES

123Statistical Issue, Automotive Industries, March 15 , 1960.

124
1967 Almanac Issue, Automotive News, April 24 , 1967.
125
1973 Almanac Issue, Automotive News , November 19 , 1973.

173
 3600

3500

CAMARO
3400

WEIGHT
3300
- BS

CHALLENGER
L

3200

3100

3000 MUSTANG

2900

2800
1967 '68 '69 70 ' ‫וז‬ 72 '73
YEAR
FIGURE 94. WEIGHTS OF VEHICLES BY YEARLY MODEL
LIGHTER VEHICLES

In Table 32 , total vehicle weight , length , and weight per inch overall length are tabulated for
each of the full-size vehicles.

It is interesting to note that the 19.5 lb/in . unit weight of the Galaxie , applied to the overall
1967 length , would result in a 150-lb lighter 1973 car. Similarly , if the 19.3 lb/in . unit weight of
the 1973 Impala was applied to the 213.2 in . overall length of the 1967 model, a weight decrease of
160 lb would result . The weight of the Fury per unit length has remained fairly constant over the
period, but if the 1973 value of 17.8 lb/in . was applied to the 1967 overall length, a weight decrease
of 180 lb would result. Admittedly , federally mandated safety features and components of emis-
sion control systems have added some length and weight , but it appears that the mere increase in
car length has also been responsible.

TABLE 32. LENGTH/WEIGHT RATIOS FOR REFERENCE VEHICLES

Year Galaxie Fury Impala

Weight Length lb/in. Weight Length lb/in. Weight Length lb/in.

1967 3700 213.0 17.4 3800 213.1 17.8 3700 213.2 17.4
1968 3700 213.0 17.4 3780 213.0 17.8 3700 213.2 17.4
1969 3780 213.3 17.7 3808 214.5 17.8 3800 214.7 17.7
1970 3820 213.9 17.9 3844 215.3 17.9 3888 215.9 18.0
1971 4100 216.2 19.0 3900 215.1 18.2 4010 216.8 18.5
1972 4260 218.4 19.5 3960 217.2 18.2 4170 219.9 19.0
1973 4300 219.5 19.5 3980 223.4 17.8 4280 221.9 19.3

174
 TABLE 33. MATERIAL BREAKDOWN For a 1973 Fury with a V-8 engine , automatic
FOR 1973 FURY transmission , power steering, power brakes , and
radio , but not air-conditioning, the following weight
Material Weight (lb)
breakdown by materials is reported in Table 33.26
Carbon steel 2105 Of this total, approximately 3000 lb is steel or iron,
Galvanized steel 75
31 the majority of which is in stressed components
Aluminized steel
95 where structural integrity is a primary requirement .
Alloy steel
Stainless steel 13
Iron, cast, malleable, Another source 127 estimates about 300 lb of
nodular 651
Aluminum 75 rubber in 1974 cars , of which tires account for less
Fluids & lubricants 216 than half. Some of the rubber parts, on the average
Rubber 201 are shown in Table 34.
Glass 96
Plastics 125
Plastics use is increasing at a rate of 10 to 15 lb/
Soft trim, composition,
and similar 110 yr128, and it is being used to varying degrees in dif-
Paint and protective dips 26 ferent cars.
Sound deadeners, sealers 77
Lead and body solder 27
Zinc 65 Oldsmobile is using acrylic modified low pro-
Copper 26 file sheet molding compound in the energy-absorbing
Total weight 4014
front bumper system, and in 1972 all 88 and 98 panels
were tooled only for SMC129 .

TABLE 34. RUBBER PARTS IN THE AVERAGE 1974 CAR "Soft face" applications of plastics are being
investigated in bumpers , fenders , and door panels 130,131
Part Weight (lb)
although weight reduction appears to be an objective
Seat cushion and crash pads 30 concurrent with reduced damageability rather than a
prime one .
Engine mounts, body insulation , bumper parts 15

Hose 10 Aluminum use appears to be primarily for trim

applications and other purposes where its corrosion
Belts, strips, tubes, grommets, etc. 95
resistance and appearance rather than strength/weight
ratio are important. Recent exceptions are the Vega
engine block and Vega and Camaro bumpers132.

High strength, low alloy steels are being investigated by the steel companies and the auto makers
as means of reducing weight , but they have not as yet been used extensively in automobiles 133,134

Weight Reduction Potentialities

Potentialities for weight reduction lie basically in using less of present component materials or
lighter materials for the same components. The first may be accomplished by reduction in gage or

126"What are cars made of?", Automotive News, September 10, 1973.
127Wolf, Ralph F. , "Rubber Use in 1974 Autos," Rubber Age , October 1973 , pp 36-44.
128Waddell, Richard L., " How Ford Decides on Plastics -or Not," Ward's Auto World, September 1973 , p 71 .
129Williamson, Don, "Materials men stress reducing car weight," Automotive News , March 26 , 1973 , pp 29-30.
130Remarks by Edward N. Cole , General Motors Corporation at the Society of Plastics Engineers, Detroit, Michigan, September 10 ,
1973.
131"GM tests 'friendly fenders' and plastic door panels," Automotive News , September 24, 1973 , pp 10, 16.
132Waddell, Richard L., "How They're Battling the Bulge-Aluminum - Bumpers Now, Body Parts on the Way," Ward's Auto World,
September 1973, pp 42-43.
133Waddell , Richard L. , "How They're Battling the Bulge-Steel- 'High Strength Low Alloy' Sums it Up," Ward's Auto World,
September 1973, pp 40-41 .
134Thompson, Donald B. , "Auto's Weight Reduction Push is Challenge for Steelmakers," Industry Week , September 10 , 1973 , pp 26-29.

175
dimension, redesign to reduce size or volume or to combine several components in one. For example ,
thickness of body sheet metal may be reduced , lightening holes may be incorporated in door, hood ,
or deck lid inner panels , and thickness of walls and webs of castings may be reduced . Use of lower
density materials such as aluminum , magnesium , and plastics is an alternative method being pur-
sued. A third avenue is a combination of the two approaches, such as redesign of the brake master
cylinder to replace the integral cast iron fluid reservoir with plastic .

Use of aluminum and plastics is being investigated . Substitution for currently used steels , how-
ever, must take into account other properties such as formability , tensile strength , modulus, aging,
temperature effects, paint and other coatings receptivity , etc.

Unreinforced polypropylene and polyethylene compounds weigh only about 15 percent as much
as steel , but they have tensile strengths of around 4000 psi . With glass reinforcement , tensile may be
increased to 12,000 to 15,000 psi for injection or blow molding . Tensile strengths of around 50,000 psi
to as high as 250,000 psi are attainable with low-pressure , molded phenolics, polyesters , and epoxies ,
using glass mats , woven fabric , and filament winding . The polyesters , using glass mat or woven fabric
reinforcing , are the most widely used plastics , one use being in car bodies 135. Stampable , glass-
reinforced , sheet molding compounds can , reportedly , be processed in existing sheet steel stamping
presses with a minimum of modification, avoiding formability problems encountered with high strength.
steels and aluminum alloys and added expense for dies appropriate to their properties 136,137,138 .
Additional thickness to achieve suitable tensile and modulus prevents gage for gage substitutions , but
overall weight reductions of better than 65 percent are claimed 137 ,

Plastic wheels are one plastics application , offering not only weight reduction , but also conse-
quent reduction in unsprung weight and rotational inertia . A Citroen SM with plastic wheels won the
1971 Morocco road rally, and Michelin Tire in France has been experimenting with them. A recently
developed filament wound plastic wheel weighs half as much as magnesium and has eight times the
tensile strength 139. On this basis , wheel weight should be only 2 to 3 lb as compared to 21 lb for a
steel production wheel , or nearly 100 lb difference for five wheels.

Technical problems bearing on use of plastics in high volume include ability of the industry to
produce raw materials in sufficient quantity , recycling scrap , paintability of the formed product ,
and production rates per piece .

The many proprietary plastics formulations lead to questions of substitution and interchange-
ability, and influence the possible availability of assured supplies of raw materials on a large scale .
Statistics and projections for plastics production are in terms of billions of pounds, which must be
broken down into types to determine suitability for auto industry needs . For example , United States
production was one billion pounds in 1946 , 20 billion pounds in 1971 , 24 billion pounds in 1972 ,
and 227 billion pounds by the year 2000130 is forecast . The portions of these quantities that could ,
or would , be used by the auto industry is dependent on a number of factors. Certainly , different
formulations are useful in different applications within the same vehicle . One estimate is 200 to
300 lb of plastics per vehicle by 1980 , provided raw material feedstocks are available .

135"Materials in Design Engineering," Materials Selector Issue , Mid-October 1966-67 , Vol. 64 , No. 5 , pp 231-33 .
136 Plastics Big Savings are in the Plant," Industry Week, October 29 , 1973 , p 81 .
137 "Reinforced Sheet Turns Detroit into Stamping Ground for Thermoplastics," Plastics World , November 1971 , pp 204-5 .
138Waddell , Richard L. , "How They're Battling the Bulge-Plastics - Versatility , Weight , Cost Are the Keys," Ward's Auto World,
September 1973 , pp 44-45.
139
Norbye, Jan P., "Plastic Auto Wheel - Stronger Than Steel," Popular Science , October 1973 , p 18.

176
 Shortages of plastic parts are affecting delivery of current model cars , and questions concerning
future petroleum supplies and division of those supplies between using industries as affecting plastics
feedstocks raise further questions regarding the availability of plastics in the kind and quantities
necessary 140

Pontiac had trouble with painting and porosity problems in 1971 with its "T-37" front-end
assembly, which experience reacted unfavorably to sheet molding compounds for some time there-
after 141. Plastic gravel shields between new energy absorbing bumpers and front-end grilles, how-
ever, are apparently accepting paint to match car colors without trouble. Still , plastics with thermal
properties to accommodate higher ambient or paint-oven temperatures are desired 140 .

Present production rates for auto components range from 250 to 500 pieces per line 142 to
600 pieces/hr133. Cycle time for one sheet molding compound operation is 15 sec, or 260 pieces/hr,
comparing favorably with the lower rates 137. Injection molded , or sheet layups , undoubtedly have
slower cycle times, working to their disadvantage . To some extent , lower production rates are com-
pensated for by the facility with which plastics lend themselves to consolidation of a number of parts
into a single unit as compared with present sheet metal practices of welding together several formed
sheet metal components to produce a single completed unit136,137.

Aluminum weighs only one-third as much as steel, and , in some alloys , is equal to mild steel
in tensile strength . Its elastic modulus , however , is only one-third that of steel133 , which affects its
application and weight advantage . Gage for gage , it tends to flutter and dent excessively and ,
accordingly , is usually 15 to 30 percent thicker in similar applications, with the result that the weight
reduction in substituting it for steel is only 50 to 60 percent 143. Experience of the French Panhard
with aluminum is cited as an example of weight reduction achievement . The aluminum body shell
of the Panhard Dyna 54 weighed 1474 lb as compared to a weight of 2470 lb in steel. The reported
cost differential was $ 200 for aluminum over steel129.

The following weights for aluminum as compared to steel body components are reported in
Table 35 by an aluminum company. The weight reduction for each component and the total for all
is about 60 percent. Comparative weights reported by one auto manufacturer for hoods and rear deck
of two of the reference vehicles are shown in Table 36. 145 The

TABLE 35. COMPARATIVE ALUMINUM weight reduction for aluminum in this case is about 50 percent .
AND STEEL WEIGHTS144
From 1961 through 1963 , Buick and Oldsmobile produced
Weight (lb)
Component Aluminum Steel a 215 cu in. V-8 with aluminum block and heads , Buick with
9.0 : 1 and 11.0 : 1 compression ratios and Oldsmobile with 8.25: 1
Hood 35 90
and 10.25 : 1 . One problem with the V-8 heads was stripping of
Trunk lid 30 75
Doors (4) 100 250 sparkplug holes when plugs were changed frequently. Reportedly,
Front fender (2) 60 140 the engine was satisfactory , but public acceptance was not good.
Bumpers (2) 50 130 Many are still in service, and tooling and manufacturing rights
Miscellaneous 30 70
have been assigned to the Rover Company in England . Compli-
Total 305 755 cations of the all aluminum design include the necessity of steel

140"Oil Shortage Spinoff-Automakers run short of Plastic Parts," Industry Week , November 26 , 1973 , p 85.
141 "RP Innovations vie for Auto Market,” Plastic World, November 1973 , p 204.
142Callahan, Joseph, "Chrylser's Weight Watchers," Automotive Industries , October 15 , 1972 , pp 27-31 .
143Telephone communication August 1 , 1973, with Donald J. Funk, Automotive Specialist, Reynolds Metals Co. , 16000 Northland
Drive, Southfield, Michigan.
144Cochran, C. Norman, "Aluminum-Villain or Hero in Energy Crisis?" Automotive Engineering, June 1973 , pp 57-61 .
145Telephone communications , October 1 , 1973 , Mr. Harry T. Tillotson, Manager, Body Safety Engineering Department, Ford
Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan.

177
TABLE 36. HOOD AND DECK WEIGHTS valve seat inserts. The Vega engine uses a die cast aluminum
IN STEEL AND ALUMINUM 145 block and cast iron head 146.
Weight (lb)
Component (Actual) (Calculated) An opinion in opposition to the above is that an aluminum
Steel Aluminum
alloy suitable for an engine has not been found . Aluminum is
4500-lb Inertia weight vehicle not suitable for casting difficult shapes ; corrosion in water jacket
passages can be a problem, as can galvanic corrosion where dis-
Hood 73.9 33.9
similar metals are in contact , such as valve seat inserts, cylinder
Deck 37 19
head , and manifold bolts or studs, etc. 147
3500- lb Inertia weight vehicle
The automobile makers are working with aluminum in
Hood 32.7 16.4
Deck 23.1 10.8body components as a means of reducing weight. Bolt-on com-
ponents such as hood , doors , deck lid , and station wagon tail-
gates are the principal candidates. The hood is of greatest
interest because it is the lowest stressed . The formability of aluminum is a problem because it does
not have drawing characteristics of presently used steels . Bend radii will have to be increased ,
which body stylists do not like 145. Spring back in forming is different from steel , requiring
changes in die design 142. Stresses in bolt -on body shell components are principally wind loads and
will be the same for either steel or aluminum . Accordingly, door hinges , locks , and other hardware
will still be made of steel . Problems of joining have not been solved ; welding is slow and expensive ,
and combinations of steel and aluminum will encounter galvanic corrosion in contact areas 145 .
Adhesives and metal stitching are being investigated 142,145 . Inplant repair techniques are not yet
satisfactory to the auto makers and an acceptable filler material for dents has not yet been found .
Paint booths must be developed that will handle both steel and aluminum 148 .

Claims are made that costs for aluminum use will be reduced because stamping plants generate
scrap equal to 30 to 50 percents of the total material used , and aluminum scrap brings 0.19/lb as
compared to steel's 0.02 /lb . The automobile manufacturers want assurance that aluminum from
scraped cars can be recycled into a pure product . Aluminum alloys currently proposed for exterior
and interior body panels pose recycling problems. Types 2036 and 5182 are not compatible and
would have to be segregated . Technology necessary for doing so does not exist 148 .

TABLE 37. ALUMINUM USE Current industry thinking regarding use of aluminum , in-
PROJECTION 1973-1980
creasing from around 80 lb per car in 1973 to 200 lb in 1980 , is
Year Body Component indicated in Table 37132. If a 50 -percent weight reduction through
substitution of aluminum for steel is assumed , the projected 120-lb
1973-74 Front bumper systems
1974 Rear bumper systems increase in weight of aluminum used would reduce net weight only
1975 Hood 120 lb. Presumably, the items listed are exterior shell only , except-
1976 Trunk lid ing the bumper systems . If inner panels , brackets , stiffeners , etc. ,
1976-77 Doors
1980 Fenders and rocker panels are included , the weight change becomes much more significant .

The aluminum companies say there will be no supply difficulties 145 , yet a severe national
shortage of aluminum was reported near the end of November 149 .

146Telephone communication, December 4 , 1973 , Mr. Donald Dunlap, Chief Salesman, Control Foundry Division, General Motors
Corporation, Saginaw, Michigan ( 517) 754-9151.
147Telephone communication , December 3, 1973 , Dr. D. C. Williams , Professor of Metallurgical Engineering, Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio 43210 (614 ) 422-5770.
148 More Aluminum in Autos Seems Certain , but Recycling is Hurdle ," Industry Week, December 3 , 1973 , pp 24-26 .
149 "Aluminum Work Cut, " Washington (AP) dateline, San Antonio Express Newspaper, November 29, 1973.

178
 High strength , low alloy (HSLA) steels offer a potential 15 to 20 percent weight decrease through
reduction in gage for body panels from 0.027 in . to 0.035 in . common today , with yield strengths of
45,000 to 80,000 psi as compared to carbon steel averages of 32,000 to 35,000 psi currently used.
Some HSLA steels are being used in front door side guard beam assemblies and others are being
developed with improved fabrication properties 151 .

HSLA steels currently have yield points of about 50,000 psi . At higher levels , ductility deteri-
orates so that forming becomes difficult . As the thickness of the material decreases, particularly
for body panels , tendencies to flutter increase 152. Fisher Body is moving from 40,000 to 60,000 psi
yield strength stock for front door outer panel bars (guard beams) on a trial basis , and it is investi-
gating the manufacturability of steels in the 80,000-psi range . So far, mills have not been able to
produce , or have not produced , 80,000-psi sheet in the thickness associated with auto body panels
and do not produce a cold -rolled sheet in this class with any formability . Use of high-strength steels
of this order appears to be limited to structural component applications 134 .

TABLE 38. VEHICLE LENGTH AND WEIGHT, 1967-1973 The auto industry hopes to reduce the weight
of a full-size car from an average of 4300 lb to
Make Length (in.) Weight (lb)
1967 1973 Incr. 1967 1973 Incr. 3500 lb by 1979136, and a Detroit slogan is "A
thousand pounds out of the ' B' body by 1980 " 153.
Impala 213.2 221.9 8.7 3700 4280 580
One avenue is reduction of car size using conven-
Galaxie 213.0 219.5 6.7 3700 4300 600 tional materials, another is use of lighter materials
with no reduction in car size .
Fury 213.1 223.4 10.3 3800 3980 180

Average increase 8.9 453 Table 38 shows the growth of the three
reference vehicles in size and weight from 1967 to
1973.
TABLE 39. COMPARATIVE DATA FOR 1973 FULL -SIZE
AND INTERMEDIATES
Table 39 compares the sizes and weights of
Length Width Height Weight the 1973 full-size reference vehicles with their inter-
Model
(in.) (in.) (in.) (lb)
mediate versions.
Full-size
These data indicate that the growth in size
Impala 221.9 79.5 54.5 4280
Galaxie 79.5 and weight of the 1973 reference vehicles , on the
219.5 54.3 4300
Fury 223.4 79.8 56.1 3980 average, is about the same as the difference be-
tween the intermediate and corresponding full-size
Intermediate vehicles, approximately 9 in . in overall length and
Malibu 213.3 76.6 53.8 3695 450 to 500 lb in gross weight . Differences in height
Torino 212.0 79.3 53.0 3838 and width are not of consequence . In other words ,
Satellite 213.3 78.6 53.7 3720 if the 1973 intermediates were to become con-
sidered full-size cars and the current full-size cars
Differences
were dropped or were to be considered " luxury"
Impala/Malibu 8.6 2.9 0.7 589 cars, the current intermediates would be equivalent
Galaxie/Torino 7.5 0.2 1.3 454
2.4 to the 1967 full-size cars in size , and their weight
Fury/Satellite 10.0 1.2 355
would be reduced approximately 500 lb from
Average 8.7 466 present full-size cars.

151 "Auto's Weight Reduction Push is Challenge for Steelmakers,” Industry Week, September 10 , 1973 , pp 26-29 .
152 Telephone communications , October 5 , 1973 , Don Horan , Automotive Marketing, U. S. Steel Corp. , Detroit , Michigan
(313) 354-4511.
153
3Telephone communications with Stephen Sikes , General Manager, G.R.T.L. Co. , Southfield, Michigan (313) 352-3935.

179
 Adherence to present vehicle sizes dictates redesign to use lighter weight materials : aluminum ,
various plastics , and high-strength , low alloy steels.

Engine-The engine and transmission make up the highest concentration of mass in the vehicle .
Components such as crank and camshafts , valves , lifters, followers, connecting rods , gears , and
chains are steel and probably will continue so . Others, formerly of iron or steel , have advantageously
made use of aluminum. Pistons are now almost universally aluminum alloy , and automatic transmis-
sions are changing from steel and iron castings to aluminum . Iron generator housings have been
replaced by aluminum alternator housings . The engine block, heads, and intake manifold , how-
ever, are cast iron in almost all American -built cars , but they are adaptable to aluminum construction
provided suitable alloys are used , and inserts incorporated for valve seats , sparkplug holes, etc.

Body Shell - Front and rear-end body shell components are currently being made of plastic , some
rigid , some soft . Large components are adaptable to aluminum , plastics , and combinations , including
retention of steel components . Some of these are hood , deck, front fender, quarter panel , and doors .
In some cases , outer skin may be aluminum and inner panels plastic , with either aluminum or steel
brackets and other supports. Simplicity of manufacture and joining favors all-aluminum .

Wheels-Magnesium , aluminum , and plastic wheels are available, each with weight saving advantages.
Aluminum is considered most practical in large-scale production.

TABLE 40. WEIGHT REDUCTION, 4500-LB Body Framework- The body framework
INERTIA WEIGHT VEHICLE
is subject to major stresses, and high-strength ,
Weight, Material low alloy steels are presently most applicable .
Item
Present Proposed Among these applications in a unitized body
construction are the two side panel assemblies ,
Engine block, Chev. 350 163 (C.I. ) 82 (Al)
Engine heads (2) 86 (C.I.) 43 (Al) shelf and deck assembly, dash-cowl assembly ,
Intake manifold 46 (C.I.) 23 (Al) floor pan assembly , and roof154.
Hood (Galaxie) 74 (St.) 34 (AI)
Deck (Galaxie) 37 (St.) 19 (Al) Bumpers-Many types of energy absorbing
Front fender assy (2) bumpers are in production and under develop-
(AMF) 123 (St.) 62 (Al)
ment . Aluminum , steel , plastics , rubber, and
Quarter panel assy (2)
(AMF) 198 (St.) 99 (Al) hydraulics are all being used , and combinations
Doors (4) (AMF) 175 (St.) 88 (Al) of this type offer good compromises between
Wheels (5) (SwRI) 105 (St.) 53 (Al) satisfactory functioning and weight reduction.
Radiator support assy (AMF) 28 (St.) 14 (Al)
Side panel assy (2) (AMF) 184 (St.) 156 (HSLA) Other Rear axle housing and drive shaft
Shelf & deck assy (AMF) 98 (St.) 83 (HSLA)
Dash-cowl assy (AMF ) 40 (St.) 34 (HSLA) contribute significantly to vehicle weight and
Floor pan assy (AMF) 250 (St.) 212 (HSLA) are adaptable to aluminum construction . Others ,
Roof (AMF ) 52 (St. ) 44 (HSLA) lightly stressed or unstressed , such as rocker
Front bumper (estimated) 150 (St. ) 100 (Al, plastic, HSLA) covers, timing gear and chain covers , air filter
Rear bumper (estimated) 100 (St.) 70 (Al, plastic, HSLA)
Total 1909 1216 housing, fan , fan shroud , etc. , in aggregate ,
are significant weight constituents and are
Notes: 1. 693 LB Reduction adaptable to either aluminum or plastics.
2. C.I. Cast Iron
Al - Aluminum
St - Steel Possible changes in materials and weight
HSLA High Strength Low Alloy reduction for various components are indi-
cated in Table 40. The suggested aggregate

154 Tradeoff & Integration Systems Studies," Final Report, Contract DOT-HS-257-2-514 , Section 12 , Producibility Document
No. ASL-TIS- 103 , 30 June 1973 , for U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 400 Seventh
Street, S.W., Washington , D.C. 20590 , by AMF Incorporated, Advanced Systems Laboratory , Golota, California 93017.

180
weight reduction does not include the additional compounding effect which reduces overall vehicle
weight an additional 30 to 50 percent of each pound of weight removed 136,144,153 .

Review of the discussion on alternative methods of weight reduction reveals that there are
several avenues of approach to achieving weight reduction , and the magnitude also varies . Based on
the considerations of Table 40 , it appears that an extensive materials change could result in a weight
savings of about 700 lb , including a change to an aluminum engine. Table 35 estimates the poten-
tial at about 450 lb. It is our conservative opinion that a 500 -lb weight reduction is feasible for the
4300-lb curb weight vehicle. This results in a final vehicle weight of 3800 lb with size unchanged .

Alternately , the vehicle size can be reduced to the intermediate level with existing technology
to achieve the same 3800 lb.

Effect of Weight on Fuel Economy

Rolling resistance , acceleration , and hill climbing (grade) capability are all functions of vehicle
weight and affect fuel economy. The extent to which they do varies with engine and other vehicle .
characteristics, which is indicated in following paragraphs.

Evaluation -Weight Reduction

Reduction in Fuel Consumption

Weight reduction can reduce the rolling resistance of tires and , hence, the horsepower required
for equivalent road load performance . It can also reduce the horsepower required for accelerating
and hill climbing , hence , engine size for equivalent performance .

Fuel Consumption - Steady-State and Road Load

The weight reduction proposed are ( 1 ) to lower the curb weight to 3800 lb with a reduction to
intermediate size and ( 2 ) to lower the curb weight to 3700 lb with the vehicle size unchanged . Both
of these weight change options will result in a vehicle inertia test weight , based on EPA regulation , of
4000 lb (a 500-lb test weight decrease) .

As a means of demonstrating the effect of weight change on fuel economy , calculations were
performed according to the standard procedure for a vehicle having a curb weight of 3600 lb. The
road horsepower was modified by comparison to that for the reference vehicle in order to account
for the effect of weight on tire rolling resistance . The results of the calculations showed the follow-
ing percentage improvements :

Urban Cycle Road Load Composite

7% 6% 7%

In the event that the proposed weight alteration is affected , then it would be possible to reduce
engine displacement without changing the performance characteristics of the vehicle. This step
would allow operation of the engine in a more favorable region of the engine map, and the fuel
economy benefit would be enhanced.

181
 Stage of Development

The first option , that of making the current "Intermediate " car the "Full Size " is, essentially,
in production by all the major U.S. auto builders.

All the major auto manufacturers are working with aluminum, plastics, and high-strength , low
alloy steels and are developing forming, joining , repair, and finishing techniques and have little experi-
ence with serviceability and public acceptance . It is doubtful that any have firm plans and proce-
dures for specific materials and fabrication techniques in total .

Demonstration by 1976

The first option is demonstrable immediately and could undoubtedly be improved and refined
by 1976.

Several automobiles, including the Kissel in the 1920's and the Panhard Dyna 54 more re-
cently 129, have had aluminum body shells, and Reynolds Metals Co. currently exhibits an “all
aluminum" car on its showroom floor132 . The extent to which it is built of aluminum and whether
or not it is entirely functional are not known. The technology exists to build a car , lightened in the
manner proposed , and at least demonstrate its fuel economy characteristics . The necessity of doing
so, however, due to the cost of the prototype and the moderate benefit , appears to be only of aca-
demic interest to the subject of the fuel economy potential .

Reliability

The first option , the "Intermediate" size vehicle, is on the road today and has demonstrated
its reliability for several years.

The second option , replacement of current materials to achieve a lighter car of the same size ,
lacks experience in long-term strength , fatigue , corrosion resistance , and other service factors to war-
rant production except on a step-by-step basis until the concept and fabrication methods and tech-
niques are proven.

Cost

For the first option , car costs will remain stable except for inflationary trends and further modi-
fications to meet safety and emission control requirements with additional add-on components. The
cost of the vehicle of the " smaller" lighter weight can be expected to be less.

For the second, all alternative materials are more expensive than the commercially used counter-
part materials on the basis of cost per unit weight . For example , prices for mild steel , high-strength ,
low alloy steel , and aluminum are given as $ 0.07 , $ 0.15 , and $ 0.54/lb , respectively , by a steel pro-
ducer 133. Another source cites hot and cold rolled sheet mild steel in various grades and finishes
used in the auto industry at $ 0.08 to $0.10/lb . Aluminum sheet and structural stock is estimated at
3-4 times that cost of cold rolled steel155,156 . Prices for sheet molding compounds of the grades
and types of interest to the auto companies are quoted in the range of $ 0.40 to $0.60/lb . Others are
considerably higher priced . Relative weights , however , offset to some extent the price differential .

155Telephone communication with John R. Newell , Newell Salvage Co. , San Antonio , Texas.
156Conversation with Frank Vitiello, Southwest Research Institute Machine Shop, San Antonio , Texas.

182
With aluminum weight approximately one-third that of steel, gage for gage , its price is competitive
with steel. Similarly, with plastics weights only one-seventh to one-eighth that of steel, prices are
also competitive . To meet strength and stiffness requirements, however, gage for gage substitutions
are generally not feasible , so that resultant material costs will be higher. Similarly , HSLA steels are
some 15 to 20 percent above mild steels in yield point and can provide about that weight reduction.
Resultant material costs , however , will be about 90 percent above costs for currently used materials
in like applications , involving approximately 600 lb of a 4200-lb car. Assuming base material cost
represents 10 percent of total finished product cost , the resultant increase in material cost will be
about 1.3 percent . Significant increases in labor costs are not anticipated . The increase in cost for
substitution of aluminum will be of about the same order. Use of plastics and combinations of
materials entail costs largely indeterminate at this time because of limited experience with forming,
joining, and finishing such materials. Production rates with the suggested materials are another inde-
terminate factor for the same reason. Unless current rates are maintained or improved , costs will
increase.

Several indeterminate possible cost reductions are involved . For one , the scrap value of
aluminum is reported to be 0.19/1b as compared to 0.02 for steel148 and aluminum recycles with
less energy expenditure than steel144 . For another, the overall cost of fabricating some plastics
parts in short runs ( 20,000 to 600,000) is less costly than the same production in steel137 . And ,
as previously stated , components formerly composed of multiple steel stampings requiring welding
and grinding into a finished single piece are now being molded of plastic as a single piece , finished
and ready for painting. In one case, one plastic front end now replaces 15 to 18 metal parts128.
The net result is reduced labor costs.

TABLE 41. WEIGHTS AND PRICES OF Broadly , new car factory list prices for a considerable
1973 AUTOMOBILES time have followed a "dollar per pound" rule of thumb ,
Vehicle Price ( $) Weight (lb) Price/lb and prices for 1973 reference full-size vehicles and their
intermediate counterparts are very close to this rule,
Impala 4222 4379 0.96 including such options as air-conditioning, power steer-
Malibu 3820 3790 1.01
4245 4387 0.97 ing, and power brakes. Table 41 indicates this correspond-
Galaxie
3847 3933 0.98 ence .
Gran Torino
Fury 4151 4075 1.02
Satellite 3759 3720 1.01 It is believed that, ignoring inflation pressures, prices
Average 0.99
would tend to adhere to the rule of thumb , however, a
minimum increase of 2 to 3 percent is indicated due to
more expensive materials.

In summary , the extensive use of alternate materials and construction will result in a cost increase
of $ 150 to $200 for the "full-size " car with a lowered weight of 3800 lb. Reduction of car size within
presently demonstrated production technology through a size change (intermediate body style) will
also result in a car of 3800 lb , but at present prices this car will be $ 400 to $ 500 cheaper than the
reference vehicle . Although the consumer may prefer a 1 -ft longer car at a higher price , the reduc-
tion in cost by using conventional technology could offset to a degree some of the proposed increases
due to the refinement of engine technology discussed in earlier sections of this report .

Safety

The current "Intermediate " size vehicle , the first alternative , complies with 1973 Safety
Standards and has a service and performance record of 7 to 8 yr.

183
 The second option can be built to comply with 1973 Safety Standards but will require extensive
prototype test and development before release to production .

Emissions

Automobiles are in production in the displacement and weight ranges discussed . No further
problems are anticipated in meeting emission standards by the reduction in vehicle weight to achieve
better economy .

Noise

For the first option , noise characteristics would not be different from present .

Reduced gages and lighter materials in body skin and panels would probably result in flutter
and noise characteristics different from current production vehicles , but more annoying than harm-
ful. Such conditions could be corrected as experience developed .

Performance (Acceleration)

For the first alternative , performance would be no different from present production vehicles .

For the full-size , lighter car, acceleration capability could be enhanced by the reduced vehicle
mass ; however, displacement reductions would be possible so that performance would remain at
1973 levels .

Time Required for Implementation

For the first option , no time lapse would be involved .

For the second , to the usual 3 yr lead time for model change , should be added 1 to 2 yr for
development of fabrication procedures, 1 yr for test and development , and 1 yr for field test and
determination of public acceptance , or a total of 5 to 6 yr for complete implementation . The cur-
rent energy situation bears to an indeterminate extent on availability of both plastics and aluminum ,
plastics because of their dependence on petroleum feedstocks and aluminum because of the enormous
electrical demands for bauxite reduction .

Consumer Acceptance

For the first alternative , public acceptance has been established .

For the second , the association of aluminum with aerospace , recreational vehicle , and marine
industry would probably enhance consumer acceptance . Conversely , the general public attitude
toward plastics in the automotive field connotes " cheapness ," which would detract from consumer
acceptance of the use of plastics on a large scale . A concentrated public relations effort would be
necessary to educate the consumer to the merits , advantages , and acceptance of plastics.

184
 21. ACCESSORY DRIVES

Many accessories, to perform properly at low vehicle and engine speeds , have drive ratios greater
than one , i.e. , the ratio of accessory speed to engine speed is greater than one . Typical ratios are the
following:

Accessory Ratio

Water pump and fan 1.25

Alternator 3.12

Power steering 1.18

Air pump 1.25

Air conditioning
compressor 1.4

When directly coupled by V-belt to the crankshaft , these accessories often operate at speeds
higher than is necessary to perform their respective functions . This increased speed of an accessory
results in increased horsepower consumption , higher noise levels , and reduced accessory life .

To improve this engine/accessory speed ratio , accessory drives which limit the maximum speed
of the accessories and/or reduce the ratio of accessory speed to engine speed can be used .

Accessory drives can consist of one or more of the following types :

(a) Viscous drive with temperature control

(b) Viscous drive with torque limited speed

(c) Gear or pulley change to obtain two or more speeds (Discussed in Air-Conditioning Section)

(d) Hydrostatic transmission

(e) Friction drives speed limited or temperature controlled .

Items (a) , (b) , (d) and (e) are discussed in this chapter. In general , the effect on fuel economy of each
device is quite small .

Present Usage

Fan clutches are presently in widespread use to control and limit the speed of engine fans.
In addition , electrically controlled friction clutches are used to engage air-conditioner compressors.
These are the only drives, other than direct gear or belt drives, currently used to drive automobile
accessories.

Fan Clutches

To adequately cool engines at idle with high ambient temperatures and with air conditioning ,
large fans with up to seven blades and pitches to 2.5 in. are used . These fans generally are driven at

185
approximately 1.25 times engine speed . These large fans, if run at high speeds , require a large power
input (fan horsepower requirements increase as the cube of fan speed) . Fortunately , however, the
high airflow capacity of these fans is not all needed for cooling . Two methods can be used to
"unload" the fan at high engine speed . One method is to use flex-blade fans which have flexible
blades that flatten or reduce their pitch at high speed . The pitch reduction tends to limit the fan
airflow and , thus, fan power requirements are controlled to acceptable limits. The second method
used to "unload" a fan when the engine is running at high speed is to use a fan clutch which reduces
the ratio of fan speed to engine speed .

Fan clutches are used extensively on automobiles , especially those cars that are equipped with
air-conditioning . Although some friction drive clutches are used , the viscous-drive type dominates .
Generally, a temperature sensitive control is used with the viscous drive clutch. This control senses
the air temperature in front of the fan and partially disengages the fan when the temperature is
less than a specified design value (approximately 140°F).

A viscous fluid shear principle is applied to the fan clutch design in the following manner.

A drive plate totally enclosed within the clutch housing is attached directly to the clutch input
shaft (assembled to the water pump shaft and pulley) . A predetermined clearance between the drive
plate and the inner surfaces of the clutch housing is established at assembly .

The clutch housing and the fan blade assembly are mounted to the input shaft by a sealed
bearing and are free to rotate independently of the drive plate and input shaft.

The interior chamber of the clutch housing is filled with a given amount of silicon base oil .
Centrifugal force resulting from the rotation of the clutch, coupled with the constant pumping action
designed into the unit forces the silicon base oil evenly about the inner surfaces of the clutch in the
close clearance or drive area . The drag between the driving and the driven members is thus increased
by the presence of the oil , causing the clutch action .

A control valve (operated by a temperature-sensitive bimetal coil or strip in the airstream on the
front of the clutch) regulates the amount of oil pumped in or out of the close clearance (drive) area.
This action determines the fan speed in relation to the drive pulley and the radiator core airflow
temperature (Figure 95).

Effect of Fan Drive on Fuel Economy

Using a viscous-drive type of fan clutch , the power requirement variation between the clutch
engaged and disengaged conditions will be appreciable ; however, the actual difference during a
driving cycle will depend on the cooling requirements (heat load and vehicle speed) .

Under the disengaged condition , there is a small measurable difference in power consumption
between the declutched solid fan/viscous drive and the flex fan . Water pump and fan power require-
ment are illustrated in Figure 96 ; further data are located in Appendix B. The power savings are not
appreciable , particularly when compared to the high power requirements of the rigid fan, shown for
reference in the same figure . It may be observed that the power savings potential of either fan drive
is appreciable when compared to the solid mount fan . It should be emphasized that the rigid fan
without viscous drive is not used on factory air-conditioned cars , and that factory air-conditioned
cars only were considered during this study. It is recommended that further consideration be given
to the application of viscous clutches to nonair-conditioned cars as a method of improving economy .

186
 3000

2500 FAN AIR TEMP

GREATER THAN
165 °F
SPEED

2000
FAN
-RPM

1500
FAN AIR TEMP
LESS THAN 130 °F
1000

500

O
1000 2000 3000 4000
ENGINE SPEED - RPM
FIGURE 95. FAN CLUTCH OPERATION

8.0

7.0
WATERPUMP & CLUTCH FAN
(CLUTCH LOCKED FOR
TEST EVALUATION )
6.0
HORSEPOWER

WATER PUMP
5.0 AND FLEX FAN
00

3.0

2. 아

WATER PUMP
AND VISCOUS
1.0 CLUTCH FAN
(DISENGAGED )

1000 2000 3000

ENGINE - RPM

FIGURE 96. POWER REQUIREMENTS -WATER PUMP AND FAN

187
 Since the power savings of a viscous drive rigid fan compared to a flex fan are not large at low
engine speeds, no improvement in urban mileage would be measurable . It is expected , however, that
road load fuel economy at 70 mph would be increased by about 1 percent .

State of Development

The state-of-the-art of fan clutches is well developed and clutches are factory equipment on most
air-conditioned cars.

Demonstration by 1976

Fan clutches have been demonstrated in use.

Reliability

Reliability is well established on cars in service .

Cost

Costs of fan clutches are not a deterrent to their usage ; mass production tooling has been
developed to assure low production costs.

Safety Standards

Department of Transportation Safety Standards are not compromised .

Emissions

Emissions will not be affected .

Noise

Engine noise is reduced through the use of a fan clutch . In fact , the reduction of engine fan
noise was a motivating factor in original development work on fan clutches . If engine speeds are
increased , such as by a change to a smaller engine , engine noise during acceleration can be reduced
by the use of the viscous drive to limit fan speed . The difference is noise between flex fans and
viscous clutch and rigid fan was not investigated .

Performance

Performance will not be appreciably affected .

Time Required for Implementation

Fan clutches are presently a production item, and presumably could be installed on all air-
conditioned cars with a minimum of lead time.

Friction Type Speed Limiting Accessory Drives

Development work has been done by one manufacturer on a speed limiting accessory
drive which allows slippage of friction-drive plates whenever a present output speed is

188
 EVALUATION OF SPEED - LIMITING reached.157 The system was designed
18 ACCESSORY DRIVE
to provide an output speed that will
POWER SAVED
provide improved accessory performance
16 at low engine speeds. If the slip speed
MAXIMUM ROAD of the drive is designed to be relatively
LOAD ENGINE
14 SPEED low, say 1200 rpm, accessory power
consumption will be low, but the life
HORSEPOWER

COMPOSITE POWER of the drive friction surfaces may be

12 CURVE ALL
ACCESSORIES short . The slip speed must be chosen to
POWER DISSIPATED
IN DRIVE provide satisfactory accessory perfor-
10
mance and would probably be chosen to
be about 1800 rpm for most vehicles.
Tradeoffs between required speed for
good accessory performance , power
6 savings , and drive durability are required.
Limiting drive speed to excessively low
TRIAL LIMITING speeds will reduce the capacity of the
SPEED
ACCESSORY POWER cooling system and the air-conditioning
CONSUMPTION system .
2 WITH DRIVE

Power Savings/Fuel Economy

Improvement
1000 2000 3000
ENGINE RPM
As stated above , the choice of
FIGURE 97. EVALUATION OF SPEED-LIMITING ACCESSORY DRIVE
drive limiting speed is a factor in evalua-
tion of fuel consumption . As a "best"
case of fuel economy improvement evaluation , a limiting speed of 1200 rpm was considered . Figure 97
illustrates that the power savings through the use of such a drive are small. This is primarily due to
two effects , first the drive slips at a preset speed , but slips at the torque obtained at that speed . The
torque requirements of accessories are virtually constant throughout the speed range of 1000 to
2000 rpm (typical of reference vehicle operation) ; consequently , the power consumption is about
the same with or without the limiting speed . Power savings accrue only at higher speeds where
accessory torque increases rapidly. The fuel economy benefit would be about 1.5 percent at 70 mph
road load. At about 60 mph road load no advantage would exist .

In view of this maximum benefit in comparison with the disadvantage of loss of cooling capability
and air-conditioning system capacity , such drives are not recommended for fuel consumption improve-
ments.

State of Development

The technology is available for speed limiting accessory drives . Experimental units have been
tested for performance and durability , 158

Demonstration by 1976

Experimental units have been tested .

157Hann, M. M. , “Design Considerations when Applying Hydraulic Drives to Vehicles, " SAE Paper No. 670740 , Society of Automotive
Engineers, New York, New York.
158"Speed Limiting Accessory Drive,” Descriptive Bulletin from Borg Warner, Spring Division.

189
 Reliability

Reliability would be a function of the amount of slip that the drive would have , i.e. , low design
output speeds would require high slippage at high engine speeds. Reliability of other components
such as air-conditioner compressors would be improved because these units would operate at lower
speeds.

Cost

Initial cost of the drive has not been determined . Some cost benefits would accrue because of
the elimination of some pulleys , fan clutch , steering pump oil cooler, etc.

Safety

Speed limiting drives present no apparent safety hazard .

Emissions

No change in emissions is anticipated through the use of speed limiting drives.

Noise

A reduction in accessory noise will be achieved because high speeds will be eliminated . This is
particularly true for the cooling fan .

Performance

No significant change in vehicle acceleration is expected .

Implementation

It is expected that a friction speed limiting clutch could be introduced within 2 yr of its
approval by an automobile manufacturer.

Due to the low potential effect on fuel economy , this type of drive is not recommended for
further consideration.

Hydrostatic Drive

Current Technology

Hydrostatic transmissions are presently in common usage in garden tractors , riding mowers ,
and light industrial applications . The hydrostatic transmission offers infinitely variable speed con-
trol without shifting gears.

In design, the hydrostatic transmission usually combines a variable displacement pump with a
fixed displacement motor. Axial piston pumps are generally used because of the ease in controlling
the fluid flow to the motor through a variable pitch swash-plate 157,159 . Other components of a
159,
Moyer, D. W., "A Simple Transmission for a Deluxe Estate Tractor," SAE Paper 660586 , Society of Automotive Engineers,
New York, New York.

190
 hydrostatic transmission are an auxiliary pump , check valves, pressure regulator, and filter. Total
weight of a typical transmission capable of transmitting 6 to 7 hp is approximately 35 lb.

Application to Automobile Accessory Drives

An accessory drive running at a constant speed , say 1500 rpm, would provide good performance
of accessories such as air-conditioner compressor , alternator , power steering pump and air pump.
Good low speed cooling would be assured by including the cooling fan and water pump . These latter
items, however , might require higher operating speeds at high engine speeds combined with high
ambient temperatures.

The application of a hydrostatic drive to obtain a constant speed accessory drive has been
OUTPUT
TORQUE

reviewed .
-INCH

810
LBS

INPUT SPEED -3600 RPM The hydrostatic drive speed control

720
TEMPERATURE
IN - 170°-180°F which is normally used to provide an infinitely
18 HP PU
630 T variable output speed could be used to pro-
IN
14 HP PU vide a nearly constant output speed as the
540 T
T

input speed (engine speed) varies . An auto-

450 IN
T

10 HP PU matic means of regulating the output speed

T
would have to be developed .
360
IN
PU
270 6 HP T Figure 98 shows a performance map of
180 one manufacturer's hydrostatic transmission .
Using 1500 rpm as a desirable output speed
90
and an output load requirement of 8 hp
(required by the reference vehicle at 1500
400 800 1200 1600 2000 engine rpm and including air-conditioner) ,
OUTPUT -RPM the output torque would be 336 in. lb.
FIGURE 98. OUTPUT TORQUE VERSUS OUTPUT SPEED Approximately 12 hp input would be re-
MODEL 10 LIGHT DUTY TRANSMISSION
quired. This is an output efficiency of
67 percent based on an input speed of
3600 rpm. Assuming the 67-percent efficiency holds for all input speeds (an optimistic assumption) ,
then at all engine speeds, the accessory load would be 12 hp . However , without accessory speed
control, the reference vehicle accessory load does not exceed 12 hp until about 2250 rpm .

If 1000 rpm is selected as the accessory speed, then the accessory power required will be
5.3 hp and the transmission input requirement will be approximately 9 hp , an efficiency of 59 per-
cent. The reference vehicles accessory power requirement does not exceed 9 hp until 1700 rpm .
Since most of the LA- 4 cycle and one-half of the road load fuel consumption calculations are made
at less than 1700 rpm , it is apparent that the hydrostatic transmission does not offer any fuel mileage
improvement when applied at a constant speed accessory drive .

Evaluation Summary

Reduction in Fuel Economy -The efficiency of a hydrostatic drive will affect any gains
made by driving accessories at an adequate but reduced speed . Major breakthroughs in design
(especially for high volume , inexpensive units suitable for automotive application) would be neces-
sary before such a system could be considered .

191
 Fuel Consumption - Fuel consumption , by comparison to that of the reference vehicle ,
is not expected to show an improvement . Mileage calculations were not made because specific data
on a suitable hydrostatic drive unit are not available for the range of input speeds of interest.
Explicitly , such hardware is not in existence at present.

State of Development-Although hydrostatic drives are fully developed for vehicle pro-
pulsion, the application of these drives to accessory requirements would require further development ,
especially in output speed regulation .

Demonstration by 1976- SwRI has not learned of any hydrostatic accessory drive develop-
ment work that will be demonstrable by 1976.

Reliability- Reliability would not be a deterring factor. Reliability of hydrostatic drives

has been demonstrated on garden tractors and similar vehicles.

Cost-Present hydrostatic units for garden tractor applications cost approximately $ 75.00
for a 10-hp capacity unit . This cost would be reduced if designed and mass produced for the auto-
motive market. Accessory costs and maintenance might eventually be reduced if operating speeds.
were reduced and made constant.

Safety-Hydrostatic accessory drives present no apparent safety hazard .

Emissions-Since the engine loading would be increased at low speed due to the ineffi-
ciency of the drive , it is expected that some slight increase in gaseous emissions would be observed .

Noise -Hydrostatic drives are noisy . Noise levels of 80 DBa at 50 ft during drive -by tests
have been reported . Mounting the drive to isolate this noise from the passenger compartment would
be difficult.

Performance-There would be no significant change in vehicle performance .

Time Required for Implementation -If an anticipated fuel savings provided a development
incentive, the implementation of a hydrostatic drive would probably be achieved prior to 1980.

192
 22. AIR -CONDITIONING

In this section, both operation and performance of automotive air-conditioners are discussed .
Possible modifications to conventional systems, such as constant speed drives and load dependent
drives, are considered ; and several popular alternative refrigeration schemes are listed . It is con-
cluded that , within the framework of this study, major changes in cooling systems for automobiles
are not likely. However, several modifications to the present systems show promise for decreasing
the fuel economy penalty associated with air-conditioning.

Air-conditioning has become an accepted feature of the modern automobile ; in some sections
of the country the majority of new cars are so equipped . It could be argued that the proper approach
to fuel economy would be the elimination of air-conditioning as an option , but consumer acceptance
of such a move would be minimal . The desire of consumers to be "cool" in warm climates is as valid
a consideration as the desire for "warmth" in cold climates . The direct energy penalty of the air con-
ditioning system in comparison with a coolant waste heat heating system is not valid , since in cold
ambients, the fuel consumption of the vehicle during normal driving is also significantly increased
above that required in warm climates . (See Appendix G. ) A reasonable approach would involve
optimization of air-conditioning systems to provide comfort while reducing the present fuel economy
penalties . Although it is possible that many owners would accept some compromise in air-condi-
tioner performance in order to realize fuel savings , this factor has not been carefully evaluated , and
it must be assumed that operation of future systems must result in a level of comfort at least equal
to that of the 1973-model year.

Automotive air-conditioning systems operate on the vapor compression cycle ; a schematic

diagram is shown in Figure 99. In operation , a refrigerant (usually R- 12 , or dichlorodifluoromethane )
is transformed from a liquid to a vapor in the evaporator . This boiling process absorbs energy from
the air entering the passenger compartment of the vehicle . In order to dispose of this excess energy,
the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant are raised in the compressor, and the refrigerant is
allowed to flow into the condenser. The condenser is typically located in front of the vehicle
radiator; the energy absorbed by the refrigerant in the passenger compartment is transferred to the
outside air. During this process , the refrigerant condenses and the resulting liquid is directed back
to the evaporator. At the evaporator inlet, the pressure of the refrigerant is reduced by the expan-
sion valve , and the cycle is repeated .

A complex control system allows the air-conditioner to operate in the sophisticated manner to
which modern consumers have become accustomed . When automotive air-conditioners were first
used , the system was turned off or on by the signal from a thermostat located inside the vehicle ; the
controlled element was a magnetic clutch which engaged the compressor . The load changes as a
result of compressor cycling were frequently discernable to the operator of the vehicle , and a per-
ceived consumer demand caused the adoption of the suction throttling valve as a component of the
system in the more expensive vehicles . In some systems controlled by a suction throttling valve ,
the compressor is engaged by the magnetic clutch in some control positions , such as “ defrost, " that
do not require passenger compartment cooling . The flow of refrigerant is continuous ; if the thermo-
stat indicates that there is no demand for passenger compartment cooling at a given moment , then
the refrigerant is evaporated outside of the duct containing passenger compartment air. This tech-
nique greatly decreases the load variations caused by compressor cycling , but the result is a con-
siderable quantity of unnecessary cooling. It should be noted that some vehicles are equipped with
elaborate control systems which require only the specification of a desired temperature by the
operator. Basic system operation with these control systems is identical to that outlined above.

193
 HIGH PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR SERVICE VALVE

HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID

1
LOW PRESSURE LIQUID

HIGH PRESSURE GAS

LOW PRESSURE GAS

CONDENSER LOW PRESSURE

SERVICE VALVE

SUCTION
THROTTLING
VALVE

EVAPORATOR

RECEIVER

EXPANSION VALVE
FIGURE 99. AIR -CONDITIONING SYSTEM

It should also be observed that the air-conditioning system provides a function other than cooling ;
moist air passing through the evaporator is dehumidified . Some vehicles are equipped with control
systems which allow dehumidification at moderate ambient temperatures ; incoming air is cooled
below the dew point and then reheated to an acceptable level for occupant comfort. The refrigera-
tion system , therefore , may be in operation even when outside temperatures are not excessive.

Air-Conditioner Performance

Automotive air-conditioners are designed to provide acceptable comfort levels while the
vehicles are idling or moving in stop-and-go traffic . In addition , the systems are expected to begin
producing a substantial flow of cool air immediately after the engine is started , and vehicles which
have been soaking in the sun are expected to cool rapidly . It should be observed that some unique
conditions prevail ; in a vehicle an individual may preferentially direct a stream of chilled air directly
at his body, although it is unlikely that this condition would be considered comfortable in a com-
mercial or residential setting.

The design load for an automobile air-conditioning system at idle , after a comfortable interior
temperature has been attained , is about 11,000 Btu/hr ; during "pulldown , " or attainment of a

194
 comfortable condition , the load is about 23,000 Btu/hr160 . At highway speed , the heat transfer
coefficient at the outer surface of the vehicle may be ten times that for a motionless vehicle. In addi-
tion , the infiltration rate at highway speed is larger than that for a stationary vehicle ; the net result
is an approximate doubling of the load . The continuous highway load is , therefore , about equal in
magnitude to the "pulldown " load ; in usual refrigeration practice , the load would be regarded as
about two tons . Although the above values for refrigeration load were estimated from values
reported in the literature and not obtained from direct measurements, they appear to be appropriate
for considerations of contemporary vehicles .

The amount of work required to produce a given quantity of refrigeration , say one ton , is strongly
dependent upon the characteristics of the refrigeration system . Some large , stationary air-conditioning
systems approach the theoretical efficiency , in terms of horsepower per ton , dictated by the refrigerant
and the operating temperatures ; but in automotive units the horsepower requirement is much higher
because compromises have been made to assure large capacity with small size and variable speed
capability . Available information indicates that current automotive systems operate in the range
from 2 to 5 hp/ton161 . In terms of refrigeration efficiency , a 1 -hp/ton rating would correspond to
a coefficient of performance of about 4.7 . By comparison , the automotive system would operate at
a coefficient of performance of 1 to 2.

Measurements have been made of the actual power required to operate the compressor of an
automotive air-conditioning system; the data are shown in Figure 100. In addition , Figure 101 depicts
the change in fuel economy that can be attributed to
air-conditioning . It should be noted , however, that
8 65 these data were obtained at a particular system oper-
HORSEPOWER
ating condition . The input power to an air-conditioner
H.P

60- depends upon the thermal load applied to the evaporator

and upon the ambient conditions ; a change in either load
O

55
or ambient temperature would alter the power curve .
100 50- This feature of the system has particular implications
with regard to proposed test cycles for fuel economy.
90 45
000 If the test is to be conducted with the air-conditioner
R88
EFFICIENCY

80 40 in operation, then the test specification must include

H000
BTU
R

details of the operating conditions. For example , a

-
/
1

dº 70 35- VOLUMETRIC
reproducible test would require designation of the
%

60 30 ambient temperature , blower speed , and refrigerant

-

temperature and pressure at the evaporator and con-

50 25
CAPACITY denser . Fuel economy numbers for several air-con-
40 20+ ditioned vehicles can be compared only if the tests
are conducted under the same system load conditions.
LB

30 15
-FT

TORQUE The capacity of an automotive air-conditioner

20 아
is a function of the compressor speed . A system
10
57

designed to provide for idle load and "pulldown" can

have a capacity of about 40,000 Btu/hr ( more than
1000 2000 3000 three tons) at a compressor speed of 3000 rpm
COMPRESSOR SPEED - RPM (Figure 102 ) . Since this capacity is considerably in
FIGURE 100. AIR -CONDITIONING COMPRESSOR excess of the load at highway speed , it represents an
CHARACTERISTICS area in which economy could be realized by better
160Zahn , Willard R. , "Factors Influencing Automotive Air Conditioner Evaporator Optimization ," SAE Paper 690131 , 1969 .
161Akerman, Joseph R., "Automotive Air Conditioning Systems with Absorption Refrigeration," SAE Paper 710037 .

195
 24
A-C OFF

MPG 22

20

18
A-C ON

16-
VEHICLE D

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SPEED ( MPH )

24

22 -A- C OFF
MPG

20ㅏ

18

16 A-C ON

VEHICLE A
14
10 20 30 40 50 60 80
SPEED ( MPH )

FIGURE 101. ROAD-LOAD FUEL ECONOMY

matching of the compressor speed to the load . It should also be mentioned that the standard com-
pressor is designed for high volumetric efficiency (~80 percent) at low speed ; this efficiency deteri-
orates to about 50 percent at highway speed 162. Since the difference in efficiency may be attributed
to the necessity for variable speed (and high speed ) operation , a further advantage of more precise
load matching is apparent.

Numerous alternatives can be proposed that will fulfill the basic function of passenger com-
partment cooling while offering economy of operation by comparison with conventional systems .
Although many of the possible systems are impractical at the present time , their potential attractive-
ness and advancing state -of-the-art require that they be reconsidered periodically. The following

162Moore , G. H. , Jr. and K. B. Bjorkman, "The Automotive Air Conditioning Compressor -A Design Challenge," ASHRAE Journal,
May 1964.

196
 sections contain a summary of a number
40 40 of possible automotive air-conditioning
systems; each is considered in the context

TEMPERATURE
of technological practicality and fuel
HOUSAND

EVAPORATOR
CAPACITY

36
economy .

30
30
32
.BTU
-TR

Vapor Compression System

/H

28
The conventional vapor compres-
20
sion automotive refrigeration system
24
could be modified in several ways to pro-

20 duce an enhancement of operating econ-

omy. In the following paragraphs the
16 implications of various changes are dis-
cussed .

12
Elimination of Suction Throttling
Valve
8

120° F. CONDENSING TEMP In the systems which employ suction

65° F. RETURN GAS
15° F. SUBCOOLING throttling valves , the compressor operates
REFRIGERANT,-12 whenever the operator selects any form of
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 climate control other than fresh air ventila-
COMPRESSOR SPEED - RPM tion . Refrigerant that is supplied to the
FIGURE 102. COMPRESSOR CAPACITY evaporator in excess of the amount re-
quired by the thermostat is evaporated
outside the passenger compartment . The use of a thermostatically controlled magnetic clutch allows
compressor operation only when cooling is actually required ; depending upon operating and environ-
mental conditions, a substantial saving should be possible . The thermostatically controlled clutch is
still used on some systems installed in less expensive car lines. Clutch engagement is occasionally
noticeable to the operator , but the minor annoyance can , in most cases, be offset by benefits in the
economy area. A more serious problem might occur in vehicles equipped with cruise controls ; the
response of those systems to sudden changes in load would require careful evaluation .

Change in Refrigerants

The capacity of a refrigeration system can be increased by changing the refrigerant . For example ,
Refrigerant 500 is sometimes substituted for Refrigerant 12 as a means of increasing the capacity of
marginal stationary systems . The performance increase, however , is not sufficient to warrant this
action for automotive systems . Ammonia could be used as a refrigerant with excellent results , but
it is not compatible with copper , and it is thought to be more dangerous than Refrigerant 12.
Although Refrigerant 12 has a reputation for being completely inert and nontoxic, some possible
detrimental effects have recently been reported 163 .

Changes in Compressor Efficiency

As shown in Table 42 , the volumetric efficiency of a compressor drops dramatically as the speed
increases. This is in part due to the design , since inexpensive reed valves are used . However, the

163 Taylor, G. J. , and W. S. Harris, "Cardiac Toxicity of Aerosol Propellants, " Journal American Medical Association, 214 : 1 , p 81 ,
1970.

197
 TABLE 42. COMPRESSION VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Car mph Typical Conditions Volumetric
Compression (1.15 to 1 Compression efficiency
pressure (psig) ratio
rpm drive ratio) Suction Discharge (%)

2200

0555
1200 30 135 3.0 78
1200 15 195 7.0 65
1925 40 10 165 7.2 57
2730 60 6 155 8.1 50

compressor is also required to operate over an extremely wide speed range, and high volumetric
efficiency would be difficult to maintain with any valve system. Because of the changes in rear axle
ratios during the past few years , the difference in engine speed between idle and highway cruise has
decreased ; this fact should allow more efficient compressor design. If necessary , a speed limiting
control might be used to disconnect the compressor at high speeds ; such a control would serve the
dual purpose of preserving the compressor and making more power available when very high speeds
were required .

It should also be possible to design a variable displacement compressor using many of the
features of current products. Many compressors presently in service are of the swash plate design ;
hydraulic motors having variable displacement and this same design have been manufactured for
years . If the displacement could be varied as a function of the load on the system , then a high volu-
metric efficiency could be maintained .

Constant Speed Drive

It has been suggested that overall refrigeration system efficiency could be increased through the
use of a constant speed accessory drive . In this configuration , the compressor would operate at a
single speed independent of engine speed , and the compressor efficiency could be optimized . Selec-
tion of the appropriate speed is difficult , however , since compressor capacity is proportional to
speed, and the system load is not a direct function of speed . System loads are almost equivalent at
highway speeds and during " pulldown " at idle ; a reduced load occurs between these conditions.
Adequate operation at a single constant speed , or even at two separate constant speeds , would be
difficult to provide . It should also be noted , parenthetically , that a good constant speed drive has
not been located ; those that are available are characterized by either high cost or low efficiency .

A constant-speed drive system could be designed if some provision were included for refrigerant
storage. During periods of reduced demand , the system would store liquid refrigerant in an appro-
priate vessel ; this accumulated liquid could be used to meet " pulldown " loads. There are several
disadvantages ; the stored refrigerant could be depleted by several short trips , some loads at high
speeds could probably not be accommodated , and the storage vessel would be large and heavy .
Ammonia would be , by far , the best refrigerant for this application , and its toxic and corrosive
properties have previously been enumerated .

Variable Speed , Load Dependent Drive

It is possible to envision an air-conditioning system driven by a power source which is sensitive

to the demand on the system . For example , an electrically driven compressor could be thermo-
statically controlled to operate at a speed , and therefore a refrigerant capacity appropriate to the
load on the system. Improvement in compressor efficiency could be expected , since the compressor

198
would not be required to tolerate the very high speeds and shock loads associated with belt drive ,
magnetic clutch operation . The load on the vehicle electrical system would be substantial during
operation of the system at high loads ; some increase in electrical system capacity would be required .
However, the load on the vehicle would amount only to the weight of the system unless the occu-
pants expressed a demand for cooling.

Other Refrigeration Systems

Although the vapor compression cycle is used more extensively than any other means of
cooling, there are several other techniques which might be considered for automotive use . The fol-
lowing sections contain a brief description of various alternative cooling methods .

Thermoelectric Cooling

A thermoelectric cooling device is characterized by junctions between dissimilar metals ; upon

application of current to the circuit , a low temperature location and a high temperature location may
be observed . At present , such devices operate at very low efficiencies , and the quantity of hardware
required to satisfy an automotive load would be enormous.

Constant Volume Heating

A device capable of heating a refrigerant at constant volume could be used to operate a refrigera-
tion system with heat that would otherwise be wasted in the exhaust . However , such devices are bulky
and not readily adaptable to flow processes. It is possible that some developments from Stirling
Cycle heat exchanger research may be useful in the future , but adequate hardware is not presently
available .

Air Cycle Cooling

Air cycle, or reversed Brayton cycle cooling is commonly found on aircraft equipped with gas
turbine engines . The system requires large quantities of compressed air ; in an automotive installa-
tion, this air could be supplied by an engine-driven compressor or by cylinders of the engine dedi-
cated to the compression function . The compressed air is directed through an aftercooler and a
turbine ; the work output of the turbine could be used to drive other engine accessories . The low
temperature air at the turbine exhaust can be blended with ambient air and supplied to the passenger
compartment. With the proper control system, this arrangement offers excellent opportunities for
load matching, and it could easily serve as a heater for the passenger compartment . The refrigerant
compressor , evaporator , heater core , and fan could be eliminated ; the condenser would be retained
as an aftercooler, and the air compressor and turbine would be added . It should be noted that the
quantity of air required is substantial ; calculations indicate that even at somewhat reduced cooling
system capacity , about one-fourth of the engine displacement should be used in the form of a
double-acting compressor to supply the air. At least one system of this type , consisting of a com-
pressor and turbine on a single shaft , is being tested , but specific results are not available 164 .

Absorption System

From an overall viewpoint , the absorption cooling cycle is quite similar to the vapor compres-
sion system. The difference may be ascribed to the use of a chemical process and heating instead

164.
Automotive News, " July 30 , 1973 , p 16.

199
of mechanical compression as a means of raising the pressure of the refrigerant. The following steps
outline the process :

(a) Refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator is dissolved in a liquid in the absorber.

(b) The pressure of the liquid is increased by a pump . This requires less input work than the
compression of vapor.

(c) The refrigerant vapor is driven out of solution through the application of heat in the
generator.

(d) The vapor is routed to a condenser which is virtually identical to that for a conventional
vapor compression cycle .

On the whole, the absorption system is much less efficient than the vapor compression cycle . How-
ever, a majority of the energy input occurs in the form of heat supplied to the generator. Thus, if
a large quantity of thermal energy is available at low cost , the absorption system is economically
attractive. Since an automobile exhaust system is a source of thermal energy which is usually
wasted, the absorption system has been considered repeatedly for this application.

A thorough study of the thermodynamic feasibility of absorption cycles for automobiles has
been reported 161. The results indicated that an average engine would support only about one ton of
absorption refrigeration at idle and low speed ; this quantity would not adequately satisfy the pull-
down load. There are further disadvantages ; absorption systems typically require large tanks and
considerable quantities of liquid . Liquid storage in the confined space of a passenger car would pre-
sent a problem , and liquid sloshing in the tanks might prove to be a nuisance or a safety hazard . The
only acceptable refrigerant at the present time is ammonia, which has been discussed previously and
eliminated on the basis of safety. Furthermore , the removal of energy from the exhaust may not be
compatible with exhaust emission controls .

The absorption refrigeration cycle , particularly in a system that incorporated a refrigerant storage
capability for transient response , offers attractive possibilities for mobile environmental control. How-
ever, a considerable quantity of development effort would be required before a competitive system
could be realized .

Evaluation -Air-Conditioning

It would be possible to decrease fuel consumption by eliminating air-conditioning as an option

for passenger cars , but this would not be consistent with the huge demand for air-conditioning which
exists across the country as a whole . There will always be some expenditure , or some decrease in
economy , when air-conditioning systems are operating. However, it should be possible to identify
design changes in the air-conditioning systems which will decrease the present penalty .

Identification of Improvements

Sophisticated techniques, such as thermoelectric cooling , do not appear to be sufficiently ad-

vanced at the present time for use in automotive systems . However, several modifications to existing
systems can be envisioned which would increase efficiency without appreciable degradation of
performance. The basic alteration involves control ; the system can be disconnected when it is not
specifically required to provide passenger compartment cooling . This alteration would compromise

200
the dehumidification capability of the system , which is important in some parts of the country. If
the system controls include the dehumidification function , then an effort should be made to com-
municate to the operator the cost penalty associated with system operation in this mode.

It would appear that considerable improvement is possible in the area of compressor efficiency.
The reed valves employed on current designs are not amenable to operation over a wide speed range;
volumetric efficiency could be enhanced by more attention to this area. Also , as mentioned pre-
viously, the swash-plate design seems applicable to a variable displacement capability ; if the displace-
ment were controlled by load then increased system efficiency should result .

One of the most desirable systems would be composed of the conventional components with
a compressor drive which was not dependent upon engine speed . For example , if the compressor was
connected to an electric motor , then it could be operated at a speed appropriate to the required capa-
city regardless of the engine speed . Independent control could be achieved , and the compressor
design could be revised to take advantage of lower speeds and more uniform loading . Actually, such
an arrangement would require substantial changes in the vehicle electrical system , since the loads
(1 to 2 kW) are far in excess of any existing loads except the starting motor. As a compromise , a
two-speed belt drive could be used . This arrangement would allow one engine speed to compressor
speed ratio for low loads and another for high loads ; the system controls would be required to
select the appropriate ratio . At least one manufacturer is presently developing such a drive , but
exhaustive data are not yet available . Another feature that should allow enhanced compressor per-
formance would be a limit on compressor maximum speed . The air-conditioning system could be
disconnected at speeds greater than , say , 3000 rpm ; this would make more engine power available
for emergency use and remove some of the constraints associated with compressor design.

Reduction in Fuel Consumption

Fuel consumption calculations were performed according to the procedure outlined previously .
The calculations were precisely the same as those for the baseline vehicle (4500 lb , 350 CID) except
that an extra 5.25 hp was added to the accessory loads at 2000 rpm ; this figure was obtained from
the measured values of compressor horsepower . The fuel economy
TABLE 43. AIR-CONDITIONING penalty associated with this increased load is shown in Table 43.
PENALTY
These figures are representative of the effect of an air-condition-
Driving mode Percent decrease in mpg ing system on the fuel economy for the baseline vehicle. It is
highly improbable that any air-conditioning technique would
LA-4 4.8
Road load 8.5 allow fuel consumption figures lower than those for the reference
Average 6.1 vehicle ; the intent of the modifications proposed herein is the
reduction of the penalties cited in Table 43 .

Stage of Development

The two-speed accessory drive previously mentioned is allegedly in the development stage in
the laboratories of one of the automobile manufacturers . Other systems, such as absorption cycles
and thermoelectric devices , are in mature stages of development for certain applications , but none
are appropriate for automotive use for the reasons outlined previously .

The variable displacement compressor would be quite similar in design to existing hydraulic
pumps and motors , which have been in production for quite some time. Improvements in com-
pressor volumetric efficiency could be obtained by redesign of the valve system.

201
 Status by 1976

The two-speed drive can easily be demonstrated by 1976 if, in fact, demonstration units have
not already been assembled . The variable displacement compressor , because of its similarity to exist-
ing devices , should also be capable of demonstration by 1976.

More exotic systems , such as the absorption cycle , would require substantial development work
prior to demonstration in mobile applications.

Reliability

The two-speed drive is mechanically more complex than a simple magnetic clutch ; this additional
complexity will require more attention to component selection and manufacturing. However, the use
of such a drive would relieve some of the most severe stresses on the compressor , and fewer problems
should occur with that portion of the system .

Cost

Considering the drive and the compressor as a single unit , the hardware, maintenance, and repair
costs should be equivalent to those observed for current systems . The increased costs for the drive
should be offset by reduced costs for the compressor. If, on the other hand , a serious attempt is
made to increase the efficiency of the compressor , then the system cost might be increased by $ 10
to $ 15 per unit .

Safety

The air-conditioning system has no direct effect on the safety standards , although it could be
argued that a connection exists between driver comfort and safety.

If a change to a substance such as ammonia for the refrigerant is contemplated , then serious
points concerning safety are raised . The halocarbon refrigerants have the advantage of being accepted
by the industry, but many questions regarding refrigerant safety have yet to be resolved .

Emissions

The presence of an air-conditioning system has little effect on engine emissions. It is remotely
possible that the operation of the system could change the operating characteristics of some very
small , underpowered vehicle on the LA- 4 cycle , but such vehicles must be considered marginal in
any case .

Noise

Air-conditioning systems generally have the effect of reducing noise levels insofar as vehicle
occupants are concerned because the vehicle is operated with the windows closed . The noise
emitted by a properly operating compressor is inconsequential. The main source of additional noise
from air-conditioned vehicles is the larger cooling fan required by the system ; this noise is not re-
garded as excessive in existing designs.

Vehicle Performance

The trend in American vehicle design has been toward vehicles which can support air-condition-
ing systems with no noticeable change in performance level . If an effort is made to increase fuel

202
economy through , for example , reduction of engine size , then the presence of an air-conditioning
system will become a more important factor in vehicle design. It may be practical to supply vehicles
with different engines depending upon whether or not they are air-conditioned , and the performance
of vehicles equipped with retrofit or aftermarket air-conditioning systems may be degraded .

Implementation Time

The design changes suggested in this discussion , two speed drives , variable displacement com-
pressors, and valve improvements, could be implemented by the 1980-model year. Accelerated
implementation to , say, the 1978-model year would be possible at increased cost to the manufacturers .

The absorption system does show promise for vehicle application , but an exhaustive development
and design program would be required prior to implementation . The 1980-model year would be a
good target for demonstration of such a system .

At least one firm is presently engaged in a demonstration program for air cycle cooling164 .
Depending upon the results , the system may be scheduled for production by the 1980-model year.

Consumer Acceptance

The air-conditioning system is perhaps unique in that it is installed in a vehicle purely for con-
sumer comfort ; it serves no purpose associated with mobility of the vehicle . However, in many parts
of the country, air-conditioning is regarded as essential , and consumers who have become accustomed
to it would not take deprivation lightly . The vehicle operator uses the environmental control sys-
tem daily; any attempt to conserve fuel by degrading air-conditioning system performance would
probably result in more consumer complaints than would a similar change to another vehicle system.
It is quite likely that many drivers will continue to insist on high performance air-conditioning , and
effort should be directed toward minimization of the economy penalty.

203
 23. COOLING SYSTEM

Current Practice

Engines are characterized by thermal efficiencies no higher than 25 percent ; this figure implies.
that less than one-fourth of the energy contained in the fuel is converted into work during the com-
bustion process . The remainder of the energy liberated during combustion is transported away from
the engine by: ( 1 ) the cooling system ; (2) the exhaust ; and (3 ) direct heat transfer processes (con-
duction, convection , radiation ) . The quantity of energy transported by the cooling system can be on
the order of 40 percent of the energy content of the fuel¹ . This portion of the energy liberated during
combustion flows through the metal parts of the engine to either the cooling jacket or the outside
surface ; with some small engines it is possible to extend the outside surface , with fins , by an amount
sufficient to accommodate the required heat transfer. Typical automotive engines, however, utilize
a liquid cooling system to assist the energy transfer.

An automotive cooling system contains several components which play a vital role during opera-
tion. Flow passages are formed in the major engine components during the casting process ; these
passages allow close proximity between the coolant and critical engine parts such as exhaust valve
seats. A thermostat , located at the point where the coolant leaves the engine block , is used to regu-
late the coolant flow and , thereby, control engine temperature . A compact , liquid-to-gas, convective
heat exchanger, commonly termed the radiator, is used to transfer the energy liberated within the
engine to the atmosphere. Airflow through the radiator is maintained by a fan , and coolant circula-
tion is maintained by a water pump . Typically , the fan and the pump impeller are powered by the
engine from the same belt-driven hub .

The traditional coolant for engines , by virtue of availability and heat transfer characteristics,
is water. However, water freezes at a temperature common to automotive use , is incompatible with
some common materials, and will not function as a lubricant for the coolant pump . All of these
inadequacies can be alleviated by the addition of another substance to the water ; in recent years'
ethylene glycol has achieved virtually universal acceptance for this purpose . The usual mixture ,
recommended by most manufacturers for all-season use , requires 40 to 50 percent ethylene glycol
in the system .

As engines became larger and horsepower outputs increased over a period of years , the loads on
vehicle cooling systems increased while available space decreased . More recently , emission controls
have required still higher loads and higher engine operating temperatures. Designers were faced with
demands to increase the heat transfer capability of the system, particularly the radiator, and the
universally accepted solution was temperature increase through pressurization . Operation ofthe
system at a pressure higher than atmospheric provides a higher boiling point for the coolant accord-
ing to Figure 103 ; therefore , the engine can operate at higher temperature and the radiator exhibits
increased effectiveness as a result of the increased temperature difference between the coolant and
ambient .

It should be noted that the use of pressurized cooling systems has caused somewhat restrictive
attitudes to develop within the industry and the public . For example , boiling in the cooling system
is synonymous with catastrophic failure . This is generally true for a pressurized system, since boiling
either causes or results from a loss of coolant. The usual result of continued operation is complete
loss of coolant and engine failure . Despite the adverse image , however , there are features of the
boiling process which can be used to advantage in a properly designed system .

205
 280 The power requirements associated
270 with the cooling system have been obtained

TEMPERATURE
44% GLYCOL by direct measurement ; typical values for
260
the coolant pump and fan combined are pre-
250
sented in Figure 104. The road load power
240 (70 mph) is on the order of 2 to 2.5 hp for
°F

230 the standard system ; the associated coolant

-WATER
220 flow rate is on the order of 40 to 80 gal/
min 165. In general, cooling systems which
210
consume 4 to 5 percent of gross engine
200
power are considered good .
190
180 Ebullient Cooling Systems
170
15 10 5 As an alternative to the system described
160 ‫لسلسيليسيا‬
៖

ALTITUDE in the preceding paragraphs , it is possible to

THOUSANDS
OF FEET 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 cool the engine by taking advantage of the
PRESSURE PSIG properties of a boiling liquid . This method
FIGURE 103. BOILING POINT OF WATER AND is far from new ; it was used in some of the
44-PERCENT GLYCOL AT VARIOUS earliest automobiles and has been re-evaluated
PRESSURES 165
at intervals throughout automotive history 166 .
Basically, an ebullient cooling system employs
a pure substance or an azeotropic (fixed boil-
7.0 ing point) mixture as the coolant. The coolant
is supplied to the engine from a standpipe ; the
geometric arrangement is such that the level
6.0
of liquid is maintained above the top of the
engine block . After an initial warmup period ,
cooling is affected by local boiling of the
5.0 AIR COND.
coolant with attendant bubble formation.
POWER
HORSE

The bubbles rise to a separator directly above

4.0 the engine ; liquid coolant is routed back to
T

the inlet to the engine block , and coolant

WATER PUMP vapor passes to a condenser. The condenser
AND FAN
3.0 is physically similar to the conventional
radiator; in order to maintain a reasonable
POWER
STEERING size , a fan would be rquired to stimulate air-
2. 아 flow. The condensed coolant is returned to

ALT 30 AMP the standpipe either by gravity flow or by

a small pump for supply to the engine block .
1.0
A diagram of the basic system is shown in
WATER PUMP Figure 105 .
ONLY
1000 2000 3000 The ebullient cooling system has
ENG. RPM
several distinct advantages by comparison
FIGURE 104. ACCESSORY POWER REQUIREMENTS with conventional systems. First , the system

165,
Beatenbough, P. K. , “Engine Cooling Systems for Motor Trucks," SAE - SP-284 , 1966.
166Herfurth, W. R. , "Twenty Years Fleet Experience with Engine Temperature Control," SAE - SP-194, 1961.

206
 need not be pressurized ; engine operating
VAPOR A. VAPOR LIQUID
LIQUID LINE temperature is specified by the composition
B. SEPARATOR of the coolant . Operation at atmospheric
C. CONDENSER pressure lowers the stress on cooling system
D. AIR VENT components, particularly flexible hoses, and
the atmospheric pressure system is much
more tolerant of small leaks .
LIQUID
In addition , the ebullient system mini-
SCHEMATIC OF EBULLIENT COOLING SYSTEM mizes the temperature differences in the
WITHOUT A CONDENSATE RETURN PUMP
FIGURE 105. SCHEMATIC OF EBULLIENT COOLING SYSTEM engine block ; the nature of the boiling pro-
WITHOUT A CONDENSATE RETURN PUMP cess dictates that the transition from liquid
to vapor will occur at the same temperature
throughout the engine . For the ebullient system , a given quantity of energy transferred to the coolant
supplies the heat of vaporization (latent heat) rather than increasing the coolant temperature . The
boiling process allows energy to be transferred at lower values of the temperature difference be-
tween metal and coolant ; the result is increased uniformity of the metal temperatures throughout
the engine .

It should also be noted that the driving force for coolant circulation in the ebullient system is
purely thermal ; circulation does not require a pump . The circulation of coolant , therefore , continues
after the engine is shutdown ; this feature prevents the excessive temperatures which can occur when
engines are suddenly stopped after operation at heavy loads.

Several investigators have converted conventional truck and automobile cooling systems to
ebullient systems ; the comparisons are discussed in the literature 166,167 . In most cases , these tests
have been conducted with conventional engine blocks and radiators , and good results have been
reported . This indicates that it is possible to convert existing engines to ebullient cooling without
CONSUMPTION

extensive redesign of the passages in the engine block . Furthermore , the existing radiator will serve
as an adequate condenser , although an optimum system would employ a somewhat different design.
SPEC
. UEL

Effect of Cooling System on Fuel Economy

HR
H
/,L
F P
B

Several areas of possible improvement in cool-

ing system design offer advantages from the stand-
600
point of fuel economy. The three most prominent
560 -1000 RPM- 17 HP alterations , which are consistent with the use of an
T
1500 RPM - 50 HP ebullient cooling system, are as follows :
-2500 RPM- 100 HP
520 (1) Operation of the engine at higher temperatures
ST
S
48044 Reduction of warmup time
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 (2)
AVERAGE WATER JACKET TEMPERATURE , °F
PASSENGER CAR V8 ENGINE
(3) Reduction of fan and water pump power
FIGURE 106. EFFECT OF WATER JACKET
TEMPERATURE ON SPECIFIC FUEL The effect of engine operating temperature on
CONSUMPTION
fuel economy is well documented as a consequence
of basic thermodynamics, and documentation for operating engines is available from several
sources 167,168,169 . Figure 106 , from Reference 169 , is representative . Engine cooling is required
167Tacchella, A. A. , J. S. Fawcett, and A. N. Anderson, “ Dual-Circuit Ebullition Cooling for Automotive Engines," SAE Paper 887B,
August 1964.
168p
Brabetz, J. C., and D. S. Pike, "Engines Like to be Warm," SAE Paper 891A, August 1964.
169Kazlauskas, P. P. , "Coolant Temperature Effects on Engine Life and Performance," SAE - SP-194 , 1961 .

207
 for the purpose of avoiding structural problems in metal engine parts and preventing breakdown of
lubricants ; the traditional operating coolant temperatures have evolved by virtue of the necessity
to prevent boiling in the conventional cooling system . Modern engines and lubricants are quite
capable of operation at coolant temperatures in excess of 200° F . Such temperatures may be readily
achieved with ebullient cooling systems by proper selection of the coolant mixture , whereas
elaborate pressure systems are required for high temperature operation with conventional cooling
systems. At present , the most readily available azeotropic mixture is " Dowtherm 209 " having a
boiling point of 209° F . It should be noted , however, that suitable fluids for higher temperature
have yet to be developed. Thermostats of the reference vehicles are set at about 200° F ; however,
these could also be changed to achieve an equivalent 209° to 210° F or higher . 170

The time required for an engine to reach operating temperature appears to have a pronounced
effect on fuel consumption ; economy is generally poor for cold engines. The primary factor in
warmup economy is the extent of vaporiza-
24 tion of the fuel , and a thorough discussion of
ECONOMY

this aspect is located elsewhere in this report .

2 2 2 2 2 87

23
,MPG

Figure 107 , taken from Reference 1 , indicates

22
that considerable time may be involved in the
21 attainment of fully warmed-up economy after
20 a vehicle is started . It should be noted that
19 Figure 107 pertains to the vehicle as a whole
and not simply the engine . Furthermore ,
18
although the figure may not be quantitatively
17 accurate for 1973 -model year vehicles , it does
16 illustrate the effect of vehicle warmup on fuel
0 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
economy. The thermal response of the cylinder
TIME AFTER STARTING ENGINE , MIN
block plays an important role in the warming
FIGURE 107. WARMUP TIME FOR AUTOMOBILE IN 20°F process ; the thermostat found in conventional
ATMOSPHERE AT A CONSTANT SPEED OF 30 MPH
cooling systems is used to restrict coolant flow
when the temperature is below some specified value . However, most vehicle cooling systems are
equipped with a thermostat bypass which allows some coolant circulation while the engine is cold .
This bypass is not necessary with the ebullient cooling system ; coolant flow occurs as a result of
thermal effects only , and the result is a more rapid rise in cylinder block temperature . Since pump-
ing power would no longer be expended , water passage could be made smaller to reduce the mass
of water contained in the block for more rapid warmup.

It has previously been pointed out that the fan and coolant pump consume 4 to 5 percent of
the gross engine power output . In the ebullient system , the main coolant circulation pump is elimin-
ated , although a small pump (probably an intermittently used electric pump) is used in most systems
to change the elevation of the liquid coolant . With careful design , maximum advantage may be ob-
tained from gravitational and thermal effects, and the pumping requirements can be minimized . If
the condenser (radiator) can be adequately sized , then the fan can be eliminated from the ebullient
system. However , cost and styling considerations will probably dictate a configuration similar to
that in current use , and a fan will be required for high cooling system loads . Instead of continuous
operation as a result of belt drive from the engine , it should be possible to operate the fan on demand
from the cooling system . Demand operation could be achieved with an appropriate sensor and an
electric clutch, similar to the air-conditioning system clutch ; the fan should be allowed to free-wheel
when not engaged .

170,
" Geschelin, J. , "Dow Chemical Fills Cooling Gap ," Automotive Industries , August 15 , 1970.

208
 Evaluation -Ebullient Cooling System

Reduction in Fuel Consumption - The use of an ebullient cooling system can reduce fuel
consumption by reducing the power required for the coolant pump and fan , by allowing operation at
somewhat higher temperatures, and by reducing warmup time . With proper system design , a reduc-
tion of 4 percent in gross engine horsepower should be possible .

Fuel Consumption-Steady State and Road Load - Reduction of warmup time and opera-
tion at higher temperatures are not amenable to direct analysis by the standard method adopted for
fuel economy calculations in this report . However, some experiments were conducted ; Figure 108
shows the temperature response at two locations in the cooling system of a test vehicle during an
LA-4 cycle . It can be observed that the engine warms rather quickly with the conventional cooling
system ; decreasing the warmup time would require changing the slope of the ascending portion of
the curve. The ebullient system could accomplish this to the extent that bypass flow during warmup
is eliminated .

400
TEMPERATURE

300
-F

BLOCK ( BEFORE THERMOSTAT )

200

пиши

100
LOWER RADIATOR HOSE
75

8 12 16 20 24
MINUTES
FIGURE 108. TEMPERATURE RESPONSE - LA-
4 CYCLE

Calculations were performed using the standard fuel economy calculation procedure for a
reduction in reference vehicle accessory horsepower by an amount equal to the fan and water pump
loads. The result of this reduction in load was an increase in fuel economy amounting to about
3 percent. It should be observed , however, that vehicle operation during the LA- 4 cycle and road
loads occurs at relatively light engine loads. Specific engine map data will be required in order to
accurately assess the impact of the cooling system on fuel economy.

Stage of Development-The technology required for ebullient cooling systems is available ;

experimental systems have been constructed using standard components. A commitment to this
form of engine cooling would allow redesign of the engine block coolant passages for optimum
effect, but investigations cited in the literature indicate that conversion of most existing engines is
feasible .

Demonstration by 1976-Ebullient cooling systems have been demonstrated , and the results
have been reported .

209
 Reliability-The ebullient system should be more reliable than current pressurized systems .
A small leak in a pressurized system results in accelerated loss of coolant ; loss of coolant from a sys-
tem at atmospheric pressure would occur at a much lower rate . Furthermore , the system is virtually
exempt from engine failure as a result of belt or pump failure ; thermally induced circulation can
maintain an appreciable coolant flow in a properly designed system. The ebullient system should
also contribute to the reliability of other engine components, since the thermally induced flow
allows coolant circulation after the engine is stopped . The danger of component damage due to
overheat after engine shutdown is, therefore , minimized .

Cost-The hardware cost of the ebullient system should not exceed that of the conven-
tional system . The radiator is retained , and a tank or standpipe is added . However, the use of low
pressure hose and the elimination of the thermostat and water pump should provide cost reduc-
tions . The cost of the small condensate pump and the magnetic clutch and sensor to activate the
fan should offset the savings due to the thermostat and water pump. The coolant solutions , which
may or may not be mixed with water, should be available at approximately the same cost as conven-
tional antifreeze liquid .

The maintenance costs for the system should be equal to those for pressurized systems ;
system cleaning and coolant replacement would occur at the same intervals.

The repair costs should not exceed those for conventional cooling systems. Hoses should
be less expensive , and the other components, such as tanks , will not be appreciably different from
those in current use .

Safety-There should be no conflict between the 1973 Safety Standards and the ebullient
cooling system. In fact , because of the tendency toward coolant loss inherent in pressurized systems ,
the ebullient systems should be more amenable to adequate protection.

In addition , the ebullient system should be less hazardous than conventional systems in
ordinary service . With existing pressurized cooling systems, violent boiling and steam emission can
occur if the radiator cap is removed from a vehicle which has been stopped after a period of operation .
Since the ebullient system would operate at atmospheric pressure , the danger to operators and
service personnel should be minimized .

Emissions-The effect of the cooling system on contaminant emissions may be observed

in the areas of engine operating temperature and engine warmup time . During the recent model
years, when emphasis on emission control has been intense , the loads on vehicle cooling systems have
increased steadily. The increased loads have occurred as a result of retarded spark used for emission
control, and higher coolant temperatures and system pressures have been observed . With ebullient
cooling systems , the coolant temperature is fixed by the composition of the coolant mixture , and
increased loads cause an increase in the quantity of vapor generated . The condenser (radiator) must
have a capacity appropriate to the maximum expected load , but within the design limits the coolant
temperature will not vary after the warmup period . This feature should allow more precise adjust-
ment of other emission control systems .

The time required for an engine to attain operating temperature is important to emission
control technology ; fuel vaporization in carburetion systems and threshold temperatures in control
devices are related to engine temperature . In most conventional cooling systems , a thermostat
bypass allows circulation of coolant during warmup ; in the ebullient system , the coolant is passive
until thermal effects induce a flow. More rapid attainment of design operating temperature should

210
be possible with the ebullient system , and this trait has been observed in reports of experiments.
Decreased warmup time should allow better control of cold start emissions .

Noise-There should be no difference between the sound levels of ebullient systems by

comparison with conventional systems . The main source of noise is the cooling system fan , and a
fan will be present in the proposed ebullient system. Operation of the fan only at high loads , how-
ever, should provide a reduction in noise level during most vehicle operating conditions. There is
occasionally a sound output associated with the boiling process , but this should be effectively
muffled by the walls of the cylinder block.

Performance (Acceleration) -No degradation of acceleration capability is expected with the

ebullient system . In fact, acceleration performance during periods when the fan is not operating
should be improved .

Time Required for Implementation -Studies reported in the literature indicate that conver-
sion to ebullient cooling should be possible for most existing engines. It should be possible to test
various current production vehicles to determine the applicability of ebullient cooling ; models which
show promise might be equipped with ebullient systems if they are produced in subsequent model
years. Satisfactory history of use in customer service would motivate optimized design of engine
block coolant passages for other models .

Consumer Acceptance -The cooling system is one segment of the vehicle with which most
operators have some contact ; cooling system failures, which usually occur without warning , are
responsible for a large percentage of incompleted trips and roadside incidents . Any increase in cool-
ing system reliability would be desirable.

Generally , the heater for the vehicle interior uses engine coolant as a source of thermal
energy. An auxillary electric pump would be required to convey 209° F liquid from the block to the
heater. The net effect of the heater function would not be altered by the use of an ebullient system.
Furthermore, a decrease in engine warmup time would allow faster heating of the vehicle interior;
this would be a desirable feature from the consumer standpoint. The auxiliary pump would have
a very small capacity by comparison with conventional coolant circulation pumps , and the impact
on overall system economy should be small .

Manufacturers typically offer , as options, heavy-duty cooling system for service at high
speeds or heavy loads such as trailer towing. This option would be available with the ebullient sys-
tem , and the increased system capacity would appear in the form of a larger condenser.

One of the main reasons for the delay in adoption of ebullient cooling systems is probably
the impact of cooling system design on vehicle styling . System capacity is not a primary issue ; some
experiments show that the quantity of coolant can be reduced with the ebullient system , and the sys-
tem volume is not significantly greater than that of a conventional system. However , optimum system
design would require location of major components above the engine . This region is presently
crowded, and the required compromises between engineering design and vehicle design have probably
been regarded as unacceptable.

211
REPORT NO . DOT - TSC - OST - 74-39.IIB

TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS
TO AUTOMOBILE FUEL CONSUMPTION

Volume IIB : Sections 24 and 25 , and Appendixes A through I

C. W. Coon et al

MEN

POR

TRAN
ART

TAT

OF SF
DEP

ION
CA
RI
UN

ME
IT

FA
ED

STATES Of

DECEMBER 1974
FINAL REPORT

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF

DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON , D.C. 20402

Prepared for

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Systems
Development and Technology
Washington DC 20590
and

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Ann Arbor MI 48105 DAVIS

MAY 15 1975

U.S. DEPOS.
GOV'T. DO LIBRARY
 NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of

the Department of Transportation and the Environmental
Protection Agency in the interest of information
exchange . The United States Government assumes no
liability for its contents or use thereof .

NOTICE

The United States Government does not endorse products

or manufacturers . Trade or manufacturers ' names
appear herein solely because they are considered
essential to the object of this report .
 Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
DOT -TSC - OST - 74-39.IIB

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS TO AUTOMOBILE December 1974
FUEL CONSUMPTION 6. Performing Organization Code
Volume IIB : Sections 24 and 25 and
Appendixes A through I 8. Performing Organization Report No.
7. Author's)
C. W. Coon et al DOT -TSC - OST - 74-39.IIB

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
Southwest Research Institute * OS514 /R5523
Energy Conversion Systems Section 11. Contract or Grant No.
Department of Automotive Research
DOT -TSC - 628
San Antonio TX 78284 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
12. JOINTLY SPONSORED BY- Final Report
U.S. Department of Transportation
Office of the Secretary U.S. Environmental June 1973 - January 1974
Office of the Assistant Secretary for and Protection Agency
Systems Development and Technology Ann Arbor MI 48105 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Washington DC 20590
15. Supplementary Notes U.S. Department of Transportation
Transportation Systems Center
* Under Contract to : Kendall Square
Cambridge MA 02142
16. Abstract
This report is a preliminary survey of the technological feasi-
bility of reducing the fuel consumption of automobiles . The study
uses as a reference information derived from literature , automobile
industry contracts , and testing conducted as part of the program
requirements . The design changes , which are recommended for the pur-
pose of maximizing fuel economy , have been derived after lengthy review
against a series of constraints including regulatory requirements ,
technical feasibility , and cost effectiveness .

Several possible technological improvements are identified ,

documented , and evaluated with respect to fuel economy . Results are
reported as percentage improvement in fuel economy by comparison with
1973 model year vehicles . The effect of vehicle emission control
systems is considered in the evaluation procedure .

The most promising individual improvements are incorporated into

improvement for these vehicles is reported .

The status of the technology reported is that available in the

time period of July 1973 to January 1974 .
Volume II consists of two parts , Volume II A and Volume II B.

17. Key Words Automobiles , Fuel Economy , 18. Distribution Statement

Powerplants , Transmissions , Drive
Trains , Tires , Accessories FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF
DOCUMENTS , U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING
Aerodynamics , Weight , Fuel OFFICE , WASHINGTON , D.C. 20402
Consumption , Innovations

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 198

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS , U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D. C.
STOCK NO . 050-000-0094
 PREFACE

The transportation sector of the U.S. economy accounts for approximately 25 percent of the
total energy demand , predominately in the form of petroleum fuels. The Government has been
actively engaged in reviewing the technological and institutional actions that can be taken to reduce
our transportation energy demand . One such effort is the preliminary study covered in this report
on the technological feasibility of improved fuel economy in automobiles.

The work described in this report was performed by Southwest Research Institute for the
U.S. Department of Transportation and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . The project
was monitored by the Power and Propulsion Branch , Mechanical Engineering Division , Transportation
Systems Center , U.S. Department of Transportation . The technical monitor for the project was
H. Gould.

The authors recognize the timely significance of this study , and despite warnings to the con-
trary, information may be taken out of context . For these reasons , the report has been written in
an instructive fashion to acquaint the uninitiated reader with facts about automobile design . Hope-
fully, this instruction will nullify the majority of misconceptions and provide insight into an exceed-
ingly complex issue.

This work does not address the overall automobile transportation energy problem, but it is
directed to one of the major components of the American automobile market-the "large " automo-
bile. Specifically, this study is concerned with cars of the 4300- and 3300-lb curb weight classes .
These vehicles are frequently identified by Federal Test Procedure inertia weight class with cor-
responding values of 3500 and 4500 lb.

The status of the technology reported is that available in the

time period of July 1973 to January 1974 .

iii
 The work covered in this report represents approximately a three-man year level of effort and
was conducted over a six-month period . The goals of the project are ambitious , and the effort of
each member of the project team was vital to the final product . Space does not permit the listing of
all participants , but major efforts were contributed by:

Dr. C. W. Coon , Senior Research Engineer

B. C. Dial , Senior Research Engineer
Roger Hemion , Institute Scientist
R. W. Hull , Senior Research Engineer
R. J. Mathis , Research Engineer
Carlton Morrison , Technician
Lynn Rhymes , Research Engineer
C. D. Wood , Manager , Energy Conversion Systems
S. W. Seale , Research Analyst
Tom Stettler, Technician
Clifford Reeh, Technician
H. O. Woller, Senior Technician
John W. Colburn , Jr. , Project Manager

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume IIA

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS :

INTERRELATIONSHIPS INFLUENCING ECONOMY . 5

3. COMPUTATION OF VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY 13

4. TEST PROGRAM DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS 19

Accessory Power Tests . 19

Road Tests .. 21
LA-4 Chassis Dynamometer Tests 26
Engine Load/Speed BSFC Tests 32

5. THE COST TO OWN AND OPERATE AN AUTOMOBILE 37

Methodology for the Analysis of the Cost to Own and Operate an Automobile . 37
Analysis of the Estimated Cost to Own and Operate an Automobile 41

6. CONSIDERATIONS IN PREDICTING PREPRODUCTION LEAD TIME FOR

INCORPORATION OF FUEL ECONOMY INNOVATIONS . 47

Introduction 47
Product Development Lead Time 47

7. FUEL ECONOMY OF CARBURETED SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 51

558
General 51
Theoretical Cycle Efficiency 51
Factors Affecting Actual Engine Performance . 52

8. EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF AUTOMOTIVE SPARK- IGNITION

CARBURETED ENGINES . 61

General 61
Source of Exhaust Emissions 61
Effect of Engine Variables Upon Emissions . 62
Emission Control Systems 66
Conventional Automobile Exhaust Emissions and the Federal Emission Standards . 68
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Page

9. EMISSION CONTROL HARDWARE 73

Positive Crankcase Ventilation . 73

Lean Mixture Operation 73
Retarded Spark 74
Idle Stop Solenoid 75
Choke Heating Element 76
Heated Inlet Air System 76
Exhaust Gas Recirculation ( EGR ) 76
Air Injection 76
Evaporative Emission Control · 76
Exhaust Reactors . . 78

10. TURBOCHARGED SPARK- IGNITED , CARBURETED ENGINE . 81

Concept 81
Performance Evaluation Procedure 82
Results . 84
Exhaust Emissions · 87
Evaluation 88

11. VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT ENGINE . 93

Concept 93
Fuel Economy Evaluation Procedure 93
Emissions . • 94
Evaluation 95

12. ENGINE WITH REDUCED FRICTION 99

General 99
Fuel Economy Analysis Procedure 100

13. LEAN MIXTURE ENGINES 103

General 103
Fuel Economy Analysis 103
Evaluation . 104
Intake Valve Throttling 106
Evaluation - Intake Valve Throttling 107

14. INTAKE PORT FUEL INJECTION 111

Evaluation - Intake Port Fuel Injection 111

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Volume IIA ( Cont'd )

Page

15. STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINES-SPARK IGNITION 117

Stratified Charge Engines- Evaluation . 122

16. DIESEL ENGINE 129

General 129
Fuel Economy Analysis Procedure 132
Evaluation . 136

17. DRIVE TRAINS . 143

Current Practice 143

Evaluation 147
Stage of Development 151
Reliability 152
Cost . 152
Safety 152
Effects of Transmissions on Engine Exhaust Emission . 153
Noise 155
Performance 155
Consumer Acceptance . 155

18. TIRES .. 157

Background . 157
Current Practice • 157
Inflation Pressure . 158
Tread Mass 158
Compounding . 159
Construction 159
Reduced Deflection . 159
Evaluation 160

19. AERODYNAMICS 165

Current Practice 165

Vehicle Aerodynamics . 166
Effect of Aerodynamics on Fuel Economy 167

20. WEIGHT 173

Current Practice • 173

Weight Reduction Potentialities 175
Effect of Weight on Fuel Economy . 181
Evaluation -Weight Reduction . 181

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Volume IIA ( Cont'd ) Page

21. ACCESSORY DRIVES 185

Present Usage 185

Fan Clutches 185
Friction Type Speed Limiting Accessory Drives 188
Hydrostatic Drive 190

22. AIR-CONDITIONING . 193

Air-Conditioner Performance 194

Vapor Compression System . 197
Other Refrigeration Systems 199
Evaluation-Air-Conditioning 200

23. COOLING SYSTEM 205

Current Practice 205

Ebullient Cooling Systems • 206
Effect of Cooling System on Fuel Economy • 207
Volume II B
24. SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL IMPROVEMENTS 213

25. SYNTHESIS OF DESIGNS FOR MAXIMUM FUEL CONSUMPTION

REDUCTION . * 219

Introduction 219
Conventional Spark - Ignition Engine Design . 220
Evaluation 222
Stratified Charge Engine Design 226
Evaluation . 226
Turbocharged Diesel Design . 228
Evaluation 229

LIST OF REFERENCES . 231

BIBLIOGRAPHY 241

APPENDIX A-Specifications of Reference Vehicles 245

APPENDIX B-Accessory Power Test Data . 253

APPENDIX C- Road Test Data • 261

APPENDIX D- LA-4 Chasis Dynamometer Test Results . 283

APPENDIX E - Installed Engine Power/BSFC Data . 315

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
Volume II B ( Cont'd )
Page

APPENDIX F-Calculations of Fuel Economy 355

APPENDIX G- Ambient Effects on Economy . 359

APPENDIX H-Comment by Reviewers . 363

APPENDIX I - REPORT OF INVENTIONS

387

ix
t
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Volume II A
Figure Page

1 Vehicles Used During Test Program . 2

2 Generalized Torque Characteristics of An Internal Combustion Engine • 5

3 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine 7

4 Comparison of Maximum Performance and Road Performance 7

5 Portion of Driving Cycle . 9

6 Motive Power Requirements (4300-lb Vehicle) 10

7 Motive Power Requirements ( 3300-lb Vehicle) 11

8 Warmup Economy 11

9 Elements of Calculation Procedure . 13

10 Horsepower for Calculation Procedure 14

11 Accessory Power Test Apparatus . 20

12 Typical Accessory Power Test Results . 21

13 Vehicle Instrumentation . 22

14 Vehicle Instrumentation . 22

15 Road Load Fuel Consumption . 23

16 Road Load Fuel Consumption . 23

17 Road Horsepower Requirements . 24

18 Road Horsepower Requirements . 25

19 Road Horsepower Requirements . 25

20 Chassis Dynamometer Test . 27

21 Torquemeter 28

22 Engine Parameters 29

23 Vehicle Parameters 30

xi
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)
Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Figure Page

24 LA-4 Cycle, 350 CID V8 2.73 to 1 Rear Axle , 3500-lb Inertia Weight 31

25 Results of Analytical Prediction · 32

26 Engine Test Apparatus . 33

27 Data From Three Engines 34

28 Alteration of Exhaust Gas Recirculation . 35

29 Comparison of Estimated Cost to Provide Repair and Maintenance for Full

Size Automobile Adjusted to 1973 . 39

30 Present Worth of Total Cost of Automobile Ownership at Selected

Discount Rates 42

31 Cost of Gasoline by Year for Three Pricing Alternatives ( 1973 Dollars) 43

32 Effect of Gasoline Pricing on the Total Cost of Automobile Ownership and

Operation 43

33 Total Gasoline Cost for 100,000-Mile Lifetime at Various Fuel

Consumption Rates . . 44

34 The Effect of Various Fuel Consumption Rates on the Total Cost of

Automobile Ownership and Operation 45

35 Allowable Incremental Additional Costs to Realize Increased Fuel Economy

at Constant Total Cost to the Consumer With Reference Vehicle Composite
Fuel Consumption Data Shown 46

36 Automotive Industrial Engineering Process 49

37 Pressure-Volume Diagram 51
T

38 Efficiency as A Function of Compression Ratio • 52

39 Efficiency as A Function of Fuel Air Ratio . 52

40 Carbureted Engine BSFC at Constant Speed 54

41 Energy Required for Ignition 56

42 Correlation for All Speeds and Loads 58

43 Carbon Monoxide Emissions 62

xii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Figure Page

44 Unburned Hydrocarbon Concentration 62

45 Hydrocarbon Concentration 64

46 Hydrocarbon Mass Emission 64

47 Fuel/Air Ratio . 65

48 Emission Trends 66

49 Closed Crankcase Ventilation System . 73

50 Conventional Distributor . 75

51 Electronic Ignition Distributor 75

52 Thermal Vacuum Switch (T.V.S.) 75

53 Heated Inlet Air System 76

54 EGR System 77

55 Air Injection System ( 8 -Cylinder Engine) 77

56 Evaporation Control System 78

57 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine 81

888

58 Turbocharged Carbureted Engine , 250 CID , CR = 8.0, Water-Alcohol

Injection 84

59 Turbocharged Carbureted Engine, 280 CID , CR = 7.2, Aftercooled 86

60 Variable Displacement Engine . 94

61 Motoring Friction of Carbureted Engines 100

62 Estimated Possible Friction Reduction 100

63 Engine with Reduced Friction 350 CID 100

64 Normal Fuel/Air Ratios for Automobile Engines . 104

65 Product Fη for Fuel/Air Cycles 104

xiii
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Figure Page

66 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio Variation on Carbureted Engine Performance 105

67 Lean-Mixture Engine 350 CID . . · 106

68 Fuel Economy as A Function of Spark Advance . 107

69 Specific Fuel Consumption with Conventional Throttling 1200 rpm ,

Indolene 30 Fuel . . 107

70 Specific Fuel Consumption with Valve Throttling 1200 rpm, Indolene

30 Fuel · 108

71 Partial Performance Map of Vehicle C Equipped with Complete Gasoline

Injection System (Automatic Metering Control Provides an Essentially
Constant Air/Fuel Ratio of 14.5 : 1 at All Speeds and Loads. ) . 113

72 Honda Civic CVCC Engine • 120

133

73 Broderson Engine Combustion Chamber Cross- Section 121

74 Texaco Controlled-Combustion System · 121

75 BSFC Island Curve (430 CID FCP Engine ) . 122

76 Experimental Stratified Charge Engines 123

77 Characteristics of Production Diesel Engines 129

78 Diesel Engine Friction . 132

79 Performance Map Normally Aspirated Diesel Swirl Chamber 378 CID 133

80 Performance Map Turbocharged Diesel Swirl Chamber 250 CID . 135

81 Vehicle-Engine Performance with Various Drive Train Gear Ratios . 144

82 Vehicle-Engine Performance with Various Drive Train Gear Ratios . 145

83 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine 147

84 Bias Tires . 158

85 Radial Tires . 158

86 Belted Bias Tires · 158

xiv
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Volume II A ( Cont'd ) Page

Figure

87 General Relationship - Inflation Pressure vs. Rolling Resistance 158

88 Effect of Tread Removal . • 159

89 Effect of Tire Construction on Rolling Resistance . 160

90 Vehicle Resistance 161

91 Performance Map of Carbureted Spark Ignition Engine 162

92 Distribution of Vehicle Aerodynamic Drag . 166

93 Weights of Vehicles by Yearly Model Full-Size Vehicles 173

94 Weights of Vehicles by Yearly Model Lighter Vehicles 174

95 Fan Clutch Operation . 187

96 Power Requirements-Water Pump and Fan 187

97 Evaluation of Speed- Limiting Accessory Drive 189

98 Output Torque Versus Output Speed Model 10 Light Duty Transmission 191

99 Air-Conditioning System . 194

100 Air-Conditioning Compressor Characteristics 195

101 Road-Load Fuel Economy 196

102 Compressor Capacity 197

103 Boiling Point of Water and 44-Percent Glycol at Various Pressures 206

104 Accessory Power Requirements 206

105 Schematic of Ebullient Cooling System Without A Condensate Return

Pump . 207

106 Effect of Water Jacket Temperature on Specific Fuel Consumption 207

107 Warmup Time for Automobile in 20° F Atmosphere at A Constant Speed

of 30 mph 208

108 Temperature Response - LA-4 Cycle 209

XV
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Figure Volume II B Page

109 Performance Characteristics Reference Vehicle 222

110 Performance Characteristics - Candidate Vehicle . . 223

xvi
 LIST OF TABLES

Volume IIA :
Table Page
t
1 Typical Road Load Power Requirements for A Full-Size Reference
Vehicle 8

2 3-Percent Grade Power Requirements for 4300-lb Vehicle 8

3 Auto Trip Statistics . 12

4 LA-4 Cycle Data 14

5 Typical Road Load Values for Vehicle B . 26

6 Results for A 4500-lb Inertia Weight Vehicle 30

7 Modal Fuel Use 30

8 Comparison of Inertia Weight Effects on LA-4 Economy 31

9 Influence of "Cold " Starts Versus "Hot " Starts . 31

10 Categorization of the Various Cost Components of Automobile Ownership

and Operation . • 37

11 Distribution (%) of 100,000-Mile Lifetime Over 10-yr Interval 38

12 The Original Cost for Reference Vehicles in 1973 Dollars 38

13 Non-Variable Costs to Own and Operate A 1973 Reference Vehicle- By

Year .. 41

14 Effects of Discount Rates on Evaluating Total Cost of Automobile

Ownership 42

15 Total Gasoline Costs at Selected Fuel Costs 43

16 Total Gasoline Cost at Selected Fuel Consumption Rates in 1973 and

Discounted Dollars · 44

17 Allowable Incremental Additional First Costs for Increased Fuel Economy

Above 10 mpg, 14 mpg , and 18 mph • 45

18 Internal Combustion Engine Systems -Non-Homogeneous Fuel/Air

Mixtures • 119

19 Over-the-Road Fuel Economy - M- 151 Vehicle 122

xvii
 LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)

Table Volume II A ( Cont'd ) Page

20 Fuel Economy Improvements ofOpen Chamber Stratified Charge

Engine . . 122

21 Exhaust Emissions -Turbocharged TCCS M- 151 . . 126

22 Exhaust Emission Levels- Controlled TCCS M- 151 . 126

23 Effect of Emissions Control on Fuel Economy - M- 151 TCCS . 126

24 Comparison of Weights and Volumes -Automotive Diesel vs. Automotive

Carbureted · • 130

25 Particulate Emissions -Mercedes 220D Diesel Engine . 137

26 Drive Train Comparisons . 148

27 Estimated Fuel Economy Improvement Without Emission Considerations . 148

28 Cost Estimate for Development Type Units . 152

29 Percent Change in Mileage with Vehicle Speed 162

30 Aerodynamic Characteristics of Reference Vehicles 166

31 Drag Rating System 169

32 Lenth/Weight Ratios for Reference Vehicles • 174

33 Material Breakdown for 1973 Fury . 175

34 Rubber Parts in the Average 1974 Car .. 175

35 Comparative Aluminum and Steel Weights . 177

36 Hood and Deck Weights in Steel and Aluminum . • 178

37 Aluminum Use Projection 1973-1980 . 178

38 Vehicle Length and Weight, 1967-1973 • 179

39 Comparative Data for 1973 Full-Size and Intermediates 179

40 Weight Reduction , 4500-lb Inertia Weight Vehicle 180

41 Weights and Prices of 1973 Automobiles . 183

xviii
 LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
Volume II A ( Cont'd )
Table Page

42 Compression Volumetric Efficiency 198

43 Air-Conditioning Penalty . 201

Volume II B
44 Comparison of Individual Improvements . 214

45 Road Load Horsepower Requirements 221

xix
 24. SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL IMPROVEMENTS

Table 44 summarizes the results of the analyses of the various candidate methods for the
improvement of fuel economy. Such a table is, in one sense, a source of confusion to the reader
because the terse comments regarding the various points of comparison deal with complex engineer-
ing trade-off situations, the thorough evaluation of which was not possible under the scope of this
project. For most of the individual improvements, a thorough evaluation would include actual
tests on experimental equipment. It is hoped that the table will serve as an incentive for the reader
to refer to the individual sections of this report for the discussion of each individual improvement
and the reasoning (and assumptions) used to arrive at these results.

The comparison of fuel economy is presented on the table in two ways. The base number,
calculated in the appropriate section of the text, deals with the increase in fuel economy of a
vehicle incorporating the improvement by comparison with a standard vehicle. Neither vehicle is
assumed to have emission controls. The standard vehicle has a curb weight of 4300 lb ( 4500 lb
inertia weight for LA-4 test) and uses a 350-CID carbureted engine. This comparison , which is an
assessment of the capability of the individual improvement without regard for emission controls,
is presented in the first column of Table 44.

By means of appropriate ratios, the basic fuel economy increase for each individual improve-
ment was modified to account for emission controls. The quantities used in formulating the ratios
were as follows:

A = fuel economy of a vehicle, with modifications for improved economy, that meets the
0.4-3.4-2.0 emission standards.

B = fuel economy of the "standard " vehicle meeting 1973 emission standards.

C = fuel economy of a vehicle, with modifications for improved economy, that has uncontrolled
emissions.

D = fuel economy of the " standard " vehicle with uncontrolled emissions.

E = fuel economy of the "standard" vehicle that meets the 0.4-3.4-2.0 emission standards.

The modified fuel economy increase was then expressed as, for example,

=
合 () (
) ()

As described in the text, values for the ratios were obtained by calculation or by consultation . This
procedure includes a factor for control of the reference vehicle to the 1973 standards as well as a
factor which describes the effect of the individual improvement on emission control. Accordingly,
the figure presented in the second column of Table 44 is a comparison of the fuel economy of the
improved vehicle meeting the 0.41−3.4–2.0 emission standards to the reference vehicle meeting
the 1973 emission standards. In each case, it is assumed that the individual improvement is the
only change in the vehicle, except that the engine modifications necessary for compliance with the
0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standards are assumed.

213
 TABLE 44. COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL IMPROVEMENTS

DEMONSTRATION
OTHER DISADVANTAGES
UNCONTROLLED

ADDITIONAL

PERFORMANCE
MODIFIED
VEHICLE

R( EPLACED

PRODUCTION
VEHICLES

RELIABILITY
PERCOST
VEHICLE

CHANGE
0.41-3.4
EMISSIONS

ITEM
WEIGHT
VEHICLE
VEHICLE

SIZE
CHANGE
CHANGE
STD

AND

CHANGE
20
STDS
1973

NOISE
INDIVIDUAL
IMPROVEMENT

1976

1980
BY

BY
'

'
TURBOCHARGED 17% 112
TOP SPEED75 150 INCREASED 25% ENGINE
CARBURETED ENGINE SAME SAMELESS
BOXWT DECREASED TO FUELMORE SENSITIVE
QUALITY DECREASED YES YES
250 CIO, WATER
ALCOHOL INJECTION OF ACCELLOSS
SLIGHT
PERFORM
VOLUME INLET AIR
WATER TEMP. PROPER
ALCOHOL
INJECTION
TURBOCHARGED 10% 4% 150 250 TOP SPEED INCREASED 10% LESS WT
10% MORE SENSITIVE TOKNOCK,
CONDITIONS SLIGHTLY YES YES
CARBURETED
280 CID COOLEDENGINE SAME ENHANCING DECREASED
AFTER OF ACCELLOSS
SLIGHT
PERFORM
BOXVOL. BUT NOT TO EXTENT
OF 250 CID ENGINE
VARIABLE 23% 7% 125 175 TOP SPEED NONE NONE DECREASED COMPLEX YES
DISPLACEMENT
ENGINE SAME
PROBABLE DIFFICULTVALVE
PROBLEM
GEAR-
CONTROL SIGNIFICANTLY
DECREASED YES
LOSS OF
ACCEL
ENGINE
REDUCEDWITH
FRICTION 0% 5%%% NOT
EVALUATED NONE
SIGNIFICANT
INCREASE NONE DECREASED SAME YES YES
LEAN
ENGINEMIX FURF 8%
MAX 12% NOT
MAX EVALUATED NONE NONE NONE DECREASED SAME NOT NOT
EVALUATED EVALUATED
NATURALLY ASPIRATED 24% (MPG) 35 MPG) 160-270 NONE SIGNIFICANT 40% MORE WT EQUAL EXHAUSTREDUCTION
ODOR A POSSIBLE DECREASED NO DOUBTFUL
DIESEL 378CID 16% (BTU) 26 (BTU) INCREASE BOXMORE
20% VOL. OR
BETTE WEIGHT
MAJOR EFFORT CAPABILITYMULTIFUEL
R EXHAUST PARTICULATES
REDUCE
TURBOCHARGED
DIESEL
260 CID
55%
44% (MPG)
(BTU) 5769% (MPG)
BTUI 200-300 ACCEL M.D
PERFOR
SIGNIFICANT 10%
INCREASE SAME MORE
BOXVOL.
WT. EQUAL
OR EXHAUST
THAN ODOR BUT
NA DIESEL LESS
WEIGHT POSSIBLE
CAPABILITYMULTI FUEL DECREASED YES YES WITH
MAJOR
BETTER REDUCTION EXHAUST
PARTICULATES EFFORT
CONTINUOUSLY
VARIABLE 21% 3% NONE NONE UNKNOWN NONE UNKNOWN CHANGES
MODE OPERATING
OF ENGINE POTENTIAL
REDUCTION EXISTS FOR SAME
IN ENGINE DOUBTFUL NO
TRANSMISSION REQUIRES
REDESIGN ENGINE DISPLACEMENT
HYDROMECHANICAL 0:5% NONE CHANGES FOR SAME DOUBTFUL NO
TRANSMISSION 17% NONE INCREASED NONE UNKNOWN OPERATINGENGINE
MODE
TRANSMISSION
POTENTIAL
REDUCTION EXISTS
IN ENGINE
DISPLACEMENT
LOW EFFICIENCYHAS
LOCK-UP
CLUTCH 3% 2% 20.30 NONE NONE 25% INCREASE SLIGHT CAN BE USED SAME YES YES
INCONVERTER
TORQUE DECREASE WITH OVERDRIVE
WEIGHT
OVERDRIVE 5% -3% 50 NONE ENGINE 40POUND T
SLIGHEASE POTENTIAL EXISTS FOR SAME YES YES
SPEED INCREASE DECR DISPLACEMENT
8

(AND NOISE)
REDUCED REDUCTION
RATIO WITH AXLE
CHANGE
MANUAL 11% 2% -100 SLIGHT NONE REDUCED SLIGHT DECREASED YES YES
TRANSMISSION LOSS OF
ACCEL DECREASE
PERFORM
4SPEED NOT EVALUATED 50 IMPROVED NONE SLIGHT NONE SAME YES YES
AUTOMATIC
TRANSMISSION SEPARATELY INCREASE
INTAKE PORT NOT EVALUATED 75 IMPROVED NONE
SLIGHTLY NONE SLIGHT POTENTIAL FOR BETTER SAME YES YES
FUEL INJECTION SEPARATELY DECREASE FUEL AIR RATIO
CONTROL
CATALYSTFOR
SYSTEMS
STRATIFIEDCHARGE 29% 74% 150 200 SAME OR NONE NONE DECREASED POSSIBLE EXHAUST POTENTIAL EXISTS OSAME YES YES
ENGINE (NOT SLIGHTLY UNLESS
IS MADE ENGINE
LESS ODOR PROBLEM
EXHAUST HIGH
PARTICULATES FOR MULTI FUEL
OPERATION
CARBURETED) IMPROVED ENGINE
SENSITIVE TO
INJECT & TIMING INJECTION & TIMINGTO
SENSITIVE
AIR CONDITIONING 24% 15 SLIGHTLY
IMPROVED DECREASED NONE NONE SAME YES YES
IMPROVEM NIS MAX
STEEL 4% 75 NONE NONE NONE INCREASED RELIABILITY NOT SAME YES YES
RADIALBELTED
TIRES PLY DECREASEDBY
INCREASEDTIRE
PRESSURE
7% 200MATERIAL NONE NONE NONE SAME
WEIGH: HEDUCTION CHANGE
400 SIZE FOR MATL YES
DOUBTFUL
CHANGE
REDUCTION RED FOR
YES SIZE
AERODYNAMIC NONE NONE NONE SMALL CHANGE NONE
IN WEIGHT SAME YES YES
DRAGREDUCED
CJA DECREASE10%
REFERENCE 0% 5%
VEHICLE

214
 During the preparation of Table 44 , it was assumed that control of hydrocarbon and carbon
monoxide emissions, when necessary for the attainment of the 0.41-3.4-2.0 standards , would be
achieved with a catalytic reactor. In addition, it was assumed that NOx emissions would be
controlled with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). It should be noted that a different set of assump-
tions would alter the numbers presented in the table . For example, the development of a truly
effective aftertreatment process (reactor) for NOx control, which would not impose a fuel
economy penalty on the engine , would allow a more complete realization of the fuel economy
benefit associated with the individual improvements . In this case, the numbers in the second column
of Table 44 would be closer in magnitude to those in the first column. However, it was felt that
EGR would be the primary control method used during the time frame specified by this study, and
its use was assumed in applicable portions of the calculations for each individual improvement.

In some cases, such as the diesel and stratified charge engines, the percentage fuel economy
benefit is greater for the emission controlled vehicles than for the uncontrolled vehicles. The impli-
cation of this result is that the improved vehicle incurs a smaller fuel penalty in attaining the
0.41-3.4-2.0 emission standards than the standard vehicle pays in meeting the 1973 standards .
No comparison of absolute fuel economy figures is appropriate on the basis of the results presented
in different columns of Table 44.

When individual improvements are considered for inclusion in a vehicle, an evaluation involving
more than fuel economy must be conducted . Although the advantages and disadvantages of each
option are discussed comprehensively in the text, a review of the salient characteristics would be
appropriate .

The turbocharged carbureted engines, both 250 CID and 280 CID with aftercooler and reduced
compression ratio, are not considered to be satisfactory choices for the vehicle powerplant . The
concern lies mainly with the knock limit of the engines and the sensitivity of the engine to variables
which affect knock limit. To obtain fuel economy increase , both engines must be frequently
operated under conditions where slight variations in the functioning of the knock control devices
will result in severe , and possibly damaging, knock. It is not believed that the type of maintenance
service available is adequate to prevent serious difficulties with this engine.

The variable displacement engine is eliminated on the basis of the complex valve gear and the
sophisticated controls necessary to transfer from four- cylinder to eight-cylinder operation. Idle
roughness and high loading on four cylinders are also detrimental .

The reduction of engine friction , if performed according to the constraints specified for this
study, has little effect on fuel economy. During most of the specified test procedures, the reference
vehicle engine operates in a regime where pumping losses , rather than mechanical friction , dominate
the friction horsepower loss. The fuel economy benefit as a result of reduced friction would be
somewhat larger for a small, heavily loaded engine.

The operation of an engine at lean air-fuel ratios can have some effect on fuel economy. The
value cited in Table 44 is somewhat optimistic ; it was assumed during the calculation that close
adherence to the best economy mixture could be maintained throughout the operating range of
the engine . Furthermore, it was assumed that most of the required NOx control could be achieved
by combustion chamber design.

The naturally-aspirated diesel engine has the overriding problem of high weight, along with the
usual considerations of odor and exhaust particulates. It is believed there is considerable risk in the

215
assumption that the weight of the NA diesel can be reduced sufficiently to be suitable for automo-
tive use ( under the restrictions of performance used in this report) . The demonstration of a suit-
able NA diesel by 1976 is, therefore , considered very doubtful .

The turbocharged diesel reduces considerably the problems cited above for the NA diesel.
The fuel economy gains are also larger. It is felt odor can be reduced to acceptable levels. If strict
particulate emission standards are not set, no difficulty will be encountered in this area. Increased
noise, reduced acceleration performance , and a still-significant weight problem temper the other
advantages. On balance, however, the belief is that the turbocharged diesel offers considerable promise
as an automobile powerplant , and it plays a major role in one of the synthesized vehicle designs to
be discussed later.

The continuously variable transmission and the hydromechanical transmission are , at the
present time, only in the concept or early development stage . It is believed there is considerable
risk in the assumption that the devices will work as well as the design estimates ( which we used for
fuel economy estimates) , and that the economy improvement is not such to warrant this risk .

The evaluation of the lock-up clutch, overdrive, manual transmission, and four-speed auto-
matic transmission involves complex interactions with other vehicle components ; it is difficult
to visualize the practical application of these devices as " individual" improvements. In Chapter 25
of this study, a detailed consideration of the vehicle transmission is provided during the synthesis
of a vehicle design . The total effect of the transmission on fuel economy may be more clearly
understood after an examination of that portion of the report.

Intake port fuel injection seems a worthwhile improvement, although the fuel economy gain
is not large . The flexibility of the fuel/air ratio control obtained warrants serious consideration.

The stratified charge engine has the advantages of good fuel economy and ongoing develop-
ment work . For the emission standards used in this report ( 0.4-3.4-2.0) , there is evidently not a
major economy penalty . The exact degree of sensitivity of the present engines to injection and
spark timing is not known , but there is no doubt that such sensitivity exists and will serve to
decrease reliability and increase maintenance . Nevertheless, the stratified charge engine is, in our
opinion, a power plant worth serious consideration .

Improvement in the air-conditioning system, consisting of clutch controls for the vapor
compressor and improved volumetric efficiency , appear to be a worthwhile change . The maximum
improvement is not large and , of course, depends on the use factor of the air- conditioning system,
but very little cost penalty is paid for the increased economy.

It is probable that steel-belted radial tires will be widely used in any event for reasons of safety
and long life , and an increase in economy will be gained . Advantages of the tires are much enhanced
when incorporated with other system components.

Weight reduction , by auto size reduction , is a logical step . One of the synthesized vehicles
employs this improvement.

The reduction of drag by reducing the product CdA by 10 percent seems to be an improvement
that can be domonstrated within the restraints of this study by 1976 , and the fuel economy gain is
obtained without a cost penalty.

216
 Throughout the evaluation of the individual improvements, the emphasis has been upon a
standard size vehicle as the baseline for comparison. However, there is considerable interest in the
effect of the improvements as applied to intermediate or compact vehicles. Detailed prediction of
the effect of each improvement would require a specific definition of an intermediate size reference
vehicle. The intermediate vehicles for which data were obtained during this study should not be
regarded as truly representative ; each had the same engine as its larger counterpart. The effect of
vehicle weight and size are considered during the synthesis of a vehicle design in Chapter 25 ; the
details presented in that discussion illustrate the effect of some of the suggested improvements on
an intermediate vehicle .

217
 25. SYNTHESIS OF DESIGNS FOR MAXIMUM FUEL
CONSUMPTION REDUCTION

Introduction

The review of various automobile design factors resulted in the conclusion that it is feasible to
provide some individual methods for improving fuel consumption . In many cases, the magnitude of
the fuel consumption reductions could only be targeted to be beneficial when accompanied by other
design changes, such as smaller engine and transmission changes , etc.

As discussed in the previous section, certain design components emerge as suitable for incor-
poration in synthesized designs . In this section we will consider the following basic system
components .

Engines (Including Displacement Reduction)

Fuel injected spark-ignition

Open chamber stratified charge
Turbocharged diesel

Weight Reduction ( 4300 lb reference)

Slight size reduction only - 3800 lb

No size reduction - 3800 lb

Radial Ply Tires

Three Speed Automatic and Axle Change

Reduced Aerodynamic Drag

Improved drag coefficient

or
Reduced frontal area - 10- percent drag reduction with respect to baseline vehicle

Accessories

Clutch -fan

All of the above can be combined in various ways to achieve improved fuel consumption . The
two nonhomogeneous mixture engines listed provide significant improvements on their own merits.

These engines also have the additional advantages that the characteristic BSFC curves (Figures 75
and 81 ) do not degrade as rapidly with decreasing bmep and piston speed as does the S.I. engine
( Figure 2 ) . These advantages will further accentuate the benefits of reduced rolling resistance and
aerodynamic drag reduction.

219
 In the design of a vehicle for improved fuel economy, a number of interacting factors must be
considered . Of particular importance are :

(1) Compliance with regulatory requirements ,

(2) Performance,

(3) Production economics,

(4) Reliability,

(5) Cost to the consumer , and

(6) Consumer acceptance .

A manufacturer , attempting to produce a vehicle for market, would not use the same analysis
procedure of individual technological changes that has been employed by the authors of this report.
Instead , the manufacturer is motivated primarily by economics ; secondary considerations are the
comfort , convenience , and other features demanded by the American public. Production of
economical vehicles will occur in response to market pressure ; automobiles will be produced that
will, hopefully , increase the income and market share of a particular manufacturer .

A vehicle design has been synthesized by the authors of this report with attention to both the
market philosophy outlined above and the constraints placed on the study by the sponsor . Although
the manufacturer must consider many other facets of vehicle design, the synthesized product appears
to accommodate many of the fuel economy improvements which are compatible with one another.
Furthermore , the design was evolved with the attitude that the adverse effect on consumer acceptance
should be minimal.

During the synthesis of the design , copious use was made of the preceding analyses ; the indivi-
dual studies of system components served as a source of design information and philosophy . During
the selection process , serious consideration was given to minimizing both the incremental cost to
the consumer and the development risk .

As is the case with any design process , various trade- offs were made by the authors during the
evolution of the synthesized design . It should be recognized that any other design team, especially
one whose members advocate a particular subsystem , might obtain a different result from the
application of the same process .

Conventional Spark- Ignition Engine Design

The characteristics of the proposed vehicle are as follows :

(1 ) Engine - 260 CID V- 8 , aluminum block, spark ignition

(2) Engine accessories

a. Electronic fuel injection with fuel shutoff during deceleration

b. Catalytic reactor in exhaust system
C. Spark advance control similar to 1973 models
d. Exhaust gas recirculation

220
 (3) Vehicle size - intermediate ; styling similar to 1973 models

(4) Tires - Radial ply, steel belted

( 5) Vehicle weight-Curb , 3600 lb ; fuel and one occupant, 3900 lb ; emission test inertia
weight, 4000 lb

(6) Transmission - Coupling biases converter or lock-up clutch with planetary gearset ; four-
speed automatic, gear ratios 2.5 : 1 , 1.5 : 1 , 1 : 1 , 0.7 : 1

(7) Rear axle ratio - 3.23 : 1

The change from full-size to intermediate size will provide a reduction of about 10 percent in
the aerodynamic drag, primarily, due to the reduction in frontal area. The radial ply tires and
reduced weight allow a substantial reduction in rolling resistance ; these
TABLE 45. ROAD LOAD
two factors can be combined as
HORSEPOWER RE-
QUIREMENTS
Speed Road 0.7 (3600)
(mph) horsepower 4300

20 3.1
30 5.5 The vehicle weight can be reduced to 3600 lb, which is below the
40 9.0 target weight of 3800 lb discussed in the section on weight reduction,
50 13.9
through the use of an aluminum engine block. The aluminum block,
60 20.5
70 29.3 along with redesign of the front bumper and some chassis modifica-
tion , should allow a weight reduction at the front end of the vehicle
sufficient to permit removal of the power steering. The weight saving
due to removal of the power steering and redesign of the chassis and bumper should amount
to about 100 lb ; a further step toward attainment of the 3600-lb curb weight could be made
by substitution of a " Space-Saver" spare tire for the standard spare .

A viscous clutch will be incorporated on the engine fan ; this unit will affect a slight power
saving and a substantial decrease in engine noise during acceleration .

The section of this report devoted to transmissions indicated that a manual transmission with
overdrive would maximize the economy potential of a smaller engine in the 4300-lb vehicle. How-
ever, considerations of consumer acceptance and emission control dictate the use of an automatic
shifting device . It should be noted that EPA regulations require that overdrive units be locked
out of operation during certification testing, probably due to the fact that the overdrive unit might
not be used in customer service . However, a four-speed automatic transmission having a fourth
gear not subject to operator control should be permissible ; this type of system has been selected
for the synthesized design . The transmission will utilize a large diameter torque converter or a
lock-up clutch ; the internal design will be modified to reduce the converter action and emphasize
the coupling mode . The selected gear ratios are consistent with existing automatic transmissions,
and the fourth speed is consistent with the availability of an add-on overdrive currently on the
market. The net result would be an automatic overdrive transmission with which the proper gearing
for any given speed and load could be established . In operation under road load conditions, the
transmission would probably shift into fourth gear ( 0.7 : 1 overdrive ) at a speed of about 30 mph .

The engine displacement and rear axle gearing for the synthesized design were selected to allow
equal acceleration performance for the 3600 -lb vehicle and the 4300-lb reference vehicle ; the

221
criterion was 0 to 50 mph in 10 sec , or 0.238 g. The power requirement for the design vehicle is
115 hp at 4000 rpm .

Evaluation

Performance

Figures 109 and 110 illustrate the approximate performance characteristics of the power
plant/drive train combinations of the reference vehicle and the candidate vehicle respectively. During
first gear acceleration , the synthesized design will produce approximately the same power as the
reference vehicle at the same road speed ; consequently , due to the lower mass , the performance level
will apparently increase . The power delivery of the reference vehicle is higher than that shown due
to the use of a good torque converter ( ~2 to 1 stall torque ratio) ; however, when balanced with the
greater mass of the reference vehicle , the performance of the synthesized design will still be better.
Due to this margin , it is reasonable to redesign the torque converter by reducing stall speed and stall
torque ratio to provide coupling performance and idle torque reduction . The displacement reduc-
tion itself will reduce idle fuel consumption and the benefits of idle torque reduction can also
accrue .

In addition to standing start performance, passing performance is also of interest . Here again ,
the performance is determined by the net power available to accelerate the vehicle mass . With the
synthesized design , the passing performance can exceed that of the reference vehicle from 50 to

120

110 MAX
POWER
100 3400 2 ND
RPM GEAR MAX
1

POWER
3 RD
HORSEPOWER

90 GEAR
1

80

70 54 RPM / MPH FOR

SECOND GEAR
60
00

50

40 (4600 LB ROAD WEIGHT )

J

30
94 RPM / MPH
FOR FIRST
20 GEAR
ROAD HP
10
1

O
20 40 60 80 100 120
MPH

1500 2500 4000 N /V = 36 RPM /MPH

FIGURE 109. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS REFERENCE VEHICLE

222
 120
110 RPM/ MPH FOR
110 FIRST GEAR

100
4000 RPM
HORSEPOWER

90
00

80 HP IN 3RD
GEAR
70

60 HP IN 4 TH
GEAR
80

60

40 (3900 LB ROAD WEIGHT )

30

20
-ROAD HP
10

20 40 60 80 100 120
MPH

2100 3000 N/V 42 RPM / MPH

1500 2100 3000

N/V 30 RPM/ MPH

FIGURE 110. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS-CANDIDATE VEHICLE

70 mph if a downshift to third gear is made ; passing performance will be lower (although probably
acceptable) with the vehicle in fourth gear. It should be pointed out, however, that the reference
vehicle with a downshift to second gear (passing kickdown) will have much better performance than
the synthesized design.

Fuel Economy

The standard calculation procedure was employed , resulting in the following improvements in
mileage:

LA-4 Road Load Composite

31.6% 34.9% 33%

These calculations do not include the warmup benefits which can be obtained by the use of fuel
injection.

The increase in fuel economy of the synthesized vehicle as calculated above must be modified
to account for the different emission standards. The calculated comparison is for both

223
vehicles - synthesized and reference - having no emission controls. The desired comparison is the fuel
economy of the synthesized vehicle meeting the 0.4-3.4-2.0 emission standard against the reference
vehicle meeting the 1973 emission standards. To make this comparison, the following equation is
used :

A
=
B (

where

A = fuel economy of synthesized vehicle meeting the 0.4-3.4-2.0 emission standards

B = fuel economy of reference vehicle meeting the 1973 emission standards

C = fuel economy of synthesized vehicle , uncontrolled emissions

D = fuel economy of reference vehicle , uncontrolled emissions

The ratio C/D has been calculated and is equal to 1.33 . D/B is 1.09 from estimates made previously .
The ratio A/C has been previously estimated to be 0.85 for the conventional engine . The engine in the
synthesized vehicle should be easier to modify in order to satisfy the 0.4-3.4-2.0 emission standards
than the conventional engine because of its reduced displacement, approximately equal bmep levels ,
port fuel injection and deceleration fuel shutoff. Therefore , A/C is estimated to be 0.90 . Then

A/B = 1.33 ( 1.09) (0.9)

A/B = 1.305 or 30 Percent Improvement in Fuel Mileage

Cost

The cost of a vehicle as described is evaluated as follows :

Aluminum engine +150 Basic size change -400

Electronic fuel
injection +75

Radial ply tires +100

Four speed automatic +50

Clutch fan +10

+335

Based on previous rough cost estimate , it can be concluded that the cost of this synthesized design
will be approximately the same as that of the 1973 full-size reference vehicle .

224
 Consumer Acceptance

Cold start and driveability will be much enhanced due to the use of fuel injection.

The noise level during acceleration will be somewhat higher due to the higher N/V ratio
obtained as a result of the selected gearing. At high speeds, the noise level will be decreased due to
slower engine speeds.

The vehicle will not be capable of pulling loads as heavy as those which the reference vehicle
can accommodate unless the road speed under heavy load is obtained by operating the vehicle in
third gear. The noise level would be increased in this mode of operation . When the vehicle is
loaded with the rated occupant capacity, it is conceivable that cyclic shifting between fourth and
third gear would be encountered during slight elevation changes in order to maintain vehicle speed .
Transmission and engine matching is an area which will require some development , but it is felt
that satisfactory resolution of the problems can be achieved .

Reliability and Maintenance

Although the engine operates at a high bmep while in the fourth gear under road load , it is
reasonable to expect as long a life as current production vehicles. Accessory life and belt life,
although presently not a problem, would be increased .

Safety

The vehicle can meet the 1973 Safety Standards, since it is considered to be basically a
modification of the intermediate chassis.

Demonstration by 1976

The development of the power plant is straightforward ; however, design studies to optimize
the system by considering perturbations in displacement, bore , stroke , etc., should be conducted .
The displacement recommended was available in the early 1960's , but designs were short stroke
types unsuited for the proposed gearing. In this regard it is forseeable that a tolerance of perhaps
15 CID will be probable on the synthesized design displacement.

A special casting would be required for the aluminum block ; however, the primary criterion
for the demonstration vehicle will be verification of fuel economy through reduced weight .

Development of the emissions system can be accomplished on the engine dynamometer and
the chassis dynamometer. It is only necessary that road load testing be accomplished with a vehicle
of "adjusted" weight but correct aerodynamics.

In the area of transmission design, gear ratios could also be modified. For example , depending
on engine fuel consumption characteristics, a 0.83 overdrive ratio and a 3.08 rear axle might also
provide substantial benefits although performance would suffer.

Production

The design considered here can be implemented by 1980 ; the longest lead time item will be
the lightweight engine development.

225
 The approach taken to maximize the economy potential of a spark-ignition engine powered
vehicle could also be considered valid for the incorporation of diesel or stratified charge engines ,
i.e. , reduced power output and gearing to obtain the torque necessary for acceleration of a lighter
vehicle.

Stratified Charge Engine Design

The characteristics of the proposed vehicle are as follows :

( 1) Engine - 300 CID ( open chamber, stratified charge) V- 8 , cast iron block

(2) Engine accessories (additional)

a. Vacuum pump for supply of functions presently produced by manifold vacuum ;

engine will be throttled at idle only
b. Catalytic reactor in exhaust

(3) Vehicle size -Full ; aerodynamic drag reduction of 10 percent

(4) Tires - Radial ply, steel belted

(5) Vehicle Weight - Curb , 3800 lb ; fuel and one occupant, 4100 lb inertia test weight,
4000 lb

(6) Transmission - Conventional three-speed torque converter design with modified shifting
controls (ratios are the same as the reference vehicle )

(7) Rear axle ratio - 3.08 : 1

The necessity for a four-speed transmission for this stratified charge design is eliminated. The
dominant reason for the overdrive ratio used with the spark-ignition engine was to elevate the bmep
for a substantial change in BSFC . The benefits do not accrue as rapidly with a stratified charge
engine due to the less dramatic change in BSFC with load . Consequently , the desired performance
can be obtained through the use of a three-speed automatic transmission , rear axle ratio of 3.08,
and engine displacement of 300 CID . Power output of 115 hp at 4000 rpm will also be adequate.
This output was attained from 260 CID on the S.I. engine , but a lower specific output from the
stratified charge engine is considered likely due to the potential of a smoke limit setting for the
injection system .

The synthesized design consists further of a full-size vehicle with weight reduction to
3800 lb. Steel belted radial tires are incorporated as is a drag rediction of 10 percent. This design
has a somewhat higher road load than the previous design . In addition , accessory power was assumed
to include the reference vehicle power steering and an equivalent amount for a vacuum pump .

Evaluation

Fuel Economy

The fuel economy calculations for this design result in a composite improvement of 55 percent
in mileage after correction for emission controls.

226
 Cost

Based on the results of other sections of this report the following total costs will accrue :

Weight reduction 150

Stratified charge engine 150

Steel belted radials 75

375

A review of Section 5 indicates that this increased initial cost can be offset by the fuel use
savings.

Development Risk

The only aspect of the design which merits concern is the development risk factor with the
stratified charge engine. Present designs exhibit high hydrocarbon emissions even with aftertreat-
ment, but there is considerable optimism within the industry for compliance with the standards
through improved reactor design and operating schedule. In addition , considerations such as odor
must be evaluated and satisfactorily resolved before commitment to production .

In addition , the precision of coordinated timing of spark and fuel delivery presents a production
tolerance control problem that probably could not be resolved until pilot production was incor-
porated. For this reason it would be expected that commitment to approximately one million
units/year would not be attempted by 1980 , although some smaller production quantities could be
introduced on a limited basis.

The principal deterrent to the development of the stratified charge engine is that when it is
fully emission controlled ( 0.4 g/mile -NOx) , in most cases, the fuel economy suffers severely to the
point that it is virtually no better than a conventional carbureted engine in terms of fuel economy.
Its complexity is increased due to injection requirements and add-on devices that are also required .

In the opinion of the authors, the development of the full potential of this power plant will not
be achieved unless emission control regulations are frozen at a sufficiently high level for the fuel
economy advantages to be exploited . If more stringent standards are ultimately proposed , develop-
ment will not occur.

In addition to the basic fuel economy advantages of the stratified charge design , it is worthy to
reiterate that such a design has a multifuel capability. With the shortages and inequities in manage-
ment of fuels at this writing (heating oil in favor of gasoline ) it would appear reasonable to have power
plants that could burn a wide range of fuels to maintain mobility of the motoring public .

Demonstration by 1976

The principle difficulty with a synthesized design of smaller displacement is that such an engine
is not presently in the design phase . An engine of approximately 360 CID is under development

227
which will meet more stringent emission standards than those required by this study. Fuel economy
of a test vehicle will suffer due to both the displacement effect and emission control degradation
effects (0.4 g NOx).

The other consideration for the demonstration would be the availability of a suitable road
load determination with a full-size vehicle of suitable weight and aerodynamics.

This latter problem is not regarded to be severe as the potential road load economy is
amenable to analysis. The LA-4 cycle economy can be evaluated in any suitable vehicle . Inertia
weight and horsepower settings can establish the loading for the evaluation .

Road load economy in the 0 to 30 mph range can be reasonably estimated by tests in any
vehicle of the desired weight. If a vehicle of the target aerodynamic improvement can be located ,
then economy testing can be accomplished at high road sppeds.

Turbocharged Diesel Design

The characteristics of the proposed vehicle are as follows:

(1) Engine -4 cylinder, 230 CID turbocharged diesel, cast iron block; 115 hp at 4000 rpm

(2) Engine Accessories

a. Vacuum pump
b. Clutch fan

(3) Vehicle Size-Full ; aerodynamic drag reduction 10 percent

(4) Tires - Radial ply, steel belted

(5) Vehicle Weight - Curb weight , 3950 lb ; loaded vehicle weight, 4250 lb , inertia test weight,
4000 lb

(6) Transmission - Four-speed torque converter type ( ratios the same as those listed for the
S.I. engine synthesized design)

(7) Rear axle ratio -3.23 : 1

The reason for the revised change to a four-speed transmission is that under road load condi-
tions, in fourth gear the turbocharger energy input will be higher ; the kickdown and transition to
third gear will hopefully reduce the potential of lag to a full-power output .

This synthesized design also incorporates the full-size vehicle with reduced weight. The weight
of the power plant will not appreciably increase the overall vehicle weight. It has been assumed for
this study that the engine weight will be about 150 lb more than the reference vehicle engine using
presently existing technology . Some of the weight advantage is lost and the additional weight on
the front of the vehicle could compromise handling characteristics.

Radial ply tires and aerodynamics improvements are also incorporated in this design . Road
load horsepower requirements are reduced with respect to the reference vehicle but are the highest
of any of the synthesized designs, due to the increased rolling resistance.

228
 In addition to the obvious need for power steering, a suitable vacuum pump would have to be
driven to supply the various subsystems requiring vacuum power . Power requirements for this
accessory were also assumed to be on the order of the power steering pump parasitic requirements.

Evaluation

Fuel Economy

The fuel economy calculations when adjusted on a Btu-basis (due to the higher density of
diesel fuel) result in a 70-percent improvement in mileage with respect to the reference vehicle.

Cost

Based on foregoing cost considerations, the following total costs will accrue :

Weight reduction 150

Turbocharged diesel engine 250

Steel belted radials 75

475 +50 four speed automatic transmission

These costs are offset by the fuel savings ( See Section 5) .

Development Risk

The primary difficulty lies with the power plant weight reduction or vehicle redesign to be
compatible with the heavier engine. If the economy advantages can be demonstrated early , then
vehicle design can be somewhat altered to minimize the weight bias of the engine.

Demonstration by 1976

The availability of diesel engines in the displacement range necessary is limited ; however, it
is believed reasonable to modify a light industrial four stroke, four- cylinder diesel to incorporate
cam timing and injection timing changes and a turbocharger. Installation of the engine in the
vehicle will probably require treatment similar to that employed by Chrysler Corp with their slant-
six due to the high overall height of available engines. As with the previously described develop-
ments, the area of major concern is the engine and emissions. Primary development emphasis should
be placed on engine dynamometer development followed by LA-4 chassis dynamometer testing.
Performance testing in an appropriate weight vehicle should also be conducted . If sufficient develop-
ment impetus is provided , several operational prototype engines can be fully developed by 1976.
An operation engine could be prototyped by the end of 1974.

Production by 1980

As with the consideration of the stratified charge engine, it appears that only limited quantities
could be produced on a pilot plant basis until full evaluations of the in-use characteristics of the
vehicle and consumer acceptance are fully explored .

229
 In the area of emission controls, the manufacturers anticipate that particulate emissions standards
currently under consideration by the EPA will be promulgated . If the standards are as severe as
discussed in the section on diesel engines, then there is no hope for the diesel engine in an automobile.
The decision for a particulate standard would have to be carefully reviewed in relation to the trans-
portation energy needs of the United States. Mere delay of such a standard would not reduce the
development risk of a manufacturer.

Further reduction of the gaseous emissions standard (0.4 g/mile NOx) will also result in a fuel
consumption penalty . Sufficient data are not available to assess the degredation level which can be
anticipated in automotive service.

230
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231
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232
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233
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234
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235
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236
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237
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238
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149. "More Aluminum in Autos Seems Certain , but Recycling is Hurdle ," Industry Week,
December 3 , 1973 , pp 24-26 .

150. "Aluminum Work Cut, " Washington (AP) dateline , San Antonio Express Newspaper,
November 29 , 1973 .

151 . "Auto's Weight Reduction Push is Challenge for Steelmakers," Industry Week, September 10,
1973 , pp 26-29 .

152. Telephone communications, October 5 , 1973 , Don Horan , Automotive Marketing , U.S. Steel
Corp., Detroit, Michigan (313 ) 354-4511 .

153. Telephone communications with Stephen Sikes, General Manager, G.R.T.L. Co. , Southfield,
Michigan (313) 352-3935.

154. "Tradeoff & Integration Systems Studies," Final Report , Contract DOT-HS-257-2-514 ,
Section 12 , Producibility Document No. ASL-TIS- 103 , 30 June 1973 , for U.S. Department
of Transportation , National Highway Traffic Safety Administration , 400 Seventh Street , S.W. ,
Washington, D.C. 20590 , by AMF Incorporated , Advanced Systems Laboratory , Golota ,
California 93017.

155. Telephone communication with John R. Newell , Newell Salvage Co. , San Antonio , Texas .

156. Conversation with Frank Vitiello , Southwest Research Institute Machine Shop , San Antonio ,
Texas.

157. Hann , M.M. , " Design Considerations when Applying Hydraulic Drives to Vehicles," SAE
Paper No. 670740 , Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, New York.

158. "Speed Limiting Accessory Drive ," Descriptive Bulletin from Borg Warner , Spring Division.

159. Moyer, D.W. , "A Simple Transmission for a Deluxe Estate Tractor, " SAE Paper 660586 ,
Society of Automotive Engineers , New York, New York .

160. Zahn, Willard R. , "Factors Influencing Automotive Air Conditioner Evaporator Optimiza-
tion ," SAE Paper 690131 , 1969.

161 . Akerman, Joseph R. , "Automotive Air Conditioning Systems with Absorption Refrigeration,"
SAE Paper 710037.

239
162. Moore, G.H. , Jr. , and K.B. Bjorkman , "The Automotive Air Conditioning Compressor- A
Design Challange," ASHRAE Journal , May 1964 .

163. Taylor, G.J. , and W.S. Harris , "Cardiac Toxicity of Aerosol Propellants, " Journal American
Medical Association , 214 : 1 , p 81 , 1970 .

164 . "Automotive News, " July 30 , 1973 , p 16 .

165. Beatenbough , P.K. , " Engine Cooling Systems for Motor Trucks ," SAE - SP-284 , 1966.

166. Herfurth , W.R. , "Twenty Years Fleet Experience with Engine Temperature Control , "
SAE - SP- 194 , 1961 .

167. Tacchella , A.A. , J.S. Fawcett , and A.N. Anderson , "Dual -Circuit Ebullition Cooling for
Automotive Engines ," SAE Paper 887B , August 1964.

168. Brabetz , J.C. , and D.S. Pike , " Engines Like to be Warm," SAE Paper 891A, August 1964.

169. Kazlauskas , P.P. , "Coolant Temperature Effects on Engine Life and Performance ," SAE -
SP-194, 1961 .

170 . Geschelin , J. , "Dow Chemical Fills Cooling Gap ," Automotive Industries , August 15 , 1970 .

171 . "Running Costs of Motor Vehicles as Affected by Road Design and Traffic," Highway
Research Board , Program Report 111 , Appendix B , p 63 .

172. Walter, J.D. , "Energy Losses in Tires ," Presented at Caltech Seminar Series on Energy
Consumption in Private Transportation , December 4 , 1973.

240
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, W. S. , "R & D for Fuel Economy in Automotive Propulsion ," Report of Workshop
No. 8 , Transportation Energy Panel for the Office of Science and Technology (sponsored by USDOT) ,
19 June 1972 , published by U.S. Army Tank-Automotive Command.

Anonymous, "B & M 4th Speed ," Popular Hotrodding, Jun 1970 , p . 24-5.

Automotive Industrial Engineering Study, prepared for the Department of Transportation , National
Highway Safety Bureau , Washington , D.C. December 1967. Springfield , Virginia : Clearinghouse ,
1968.

"Brief Passenger Car Data, 1961- thru 1969 , " Ethyl Corporation , Petroleum Chemicals Division ,
100 Park Avenue , New York, New York 10017.

Caris, D. F. and R. A. Richardson , “ Engine-Transmission Relationship for Higher Efficiency ,"

SAE Transactions, V. 61 , 1953.

Cleveland , A. E. and I. N. Bishop, "Fuel Economy ," SAE Journ. , Aug 1960 , p . 27-31 .

"Cordless Cost Tire Problems Much Like Radial Belted Type " , Alliger, G. , SAE Journal, May 1970,
pp. 56-59.

Crook, G. M. , "The Binary Controlled Transmission ,” Description brochure of Gaines M. Crook

& Associates, 7252 Remmet Ave. , Canoga Park , Cal . 91303 , Sept. 1973 (private communication) .

"Dana's 10-Speed Semi-Automatic is Electronically Controlled ," Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress,
Sept 1973 .

Deimel, A. H., "Torque Converter Performance," SAE Journ. , Nov 1948 , p . 20-21.

Federal Register, June 28 , 1973 or CFR Title 40, Section 85.075-9.

Ferris, D. R. , "Temperature Control Can Determine Engine Life , Efficiency , and Economy ,"
SAE-SP- 194, 1961 .

Ford Marketing Corp. , "The C6 Automatic Transmission Training Handbook," Course 7521 , V 71S4-L2,
Jul 1970.

Forester, D. D. , "Temperature Control of Truck Cooling Systems, " SAE-SP- 194 , 1961 .

Gish , R. E. , J. D. McCullough , J. B. Tetzlaff, and H. T. Mueller, "Determination of True Engine

Friction," SAE Trans, V66 , 1968 , p . 649-667.

Hayashi , H. , "Heat Dissipating Capacity of Automotive I. C. Engine Lubricating Oil System ,"
SAE Paper 690470 , 1970 .

Hone Mgf. Co. , " 1973 Catalog - Hone Overdrive Transmissions, " 11748 E. Washington Blvd. ,
Santa Fe Springs , Cal . 90670 .

241
"Industrie Pirelli Has Unveiled a Cordless-Body Tire ," Chemical Week , June 27 , 1973 , p. 33.

Kovelan, W. J. and C. C. Moon , "Engine Cooling System Design for Optimum Temperature Control,"
SAE-SP194 , 1961 .

Kraus , C. E. and M. E. Gres , "A Transmission System for Single-Shaft Gas Turbine Powered Trucks ,"
Society of Automotive Engineers , Paper No. 730644 , June 1973 .

Kraus , James H. , "Traction Drive Shows Automotive Promise ," Machine Design , V45n25 , 18 Oct. 1973 ,
p. 20-24.

Lapedes , D. E. , Forrest , L. , Ghahremani , F. G. , Hamberg , O. , Roessler , W. M. , Smalley , W. M. , Hinton ,

M. , Lura , T. , Moltzer , Jr. , "Gas Turbine Engine Production Study ," Final Report prepared for Depart-
ment of Transportation , Office of the Secretary , Office of Systems Development and Technology ,
Washington , D.C. , July 1973. Springfield , Virginia : National Technical Information Service , 1973.

W. A. Mair , " Reduction of Base Drag by Boat-Failed Afterbodies in Low-Speed Flow ," The Aeronautical
Quarterly, Vol. XX , November 1969 , pp . 307-320.

New Operating Principals for Tires, Automotive Engineering, August 1973 , p . 15 .

New Process Gear , "Model 2400 Four-Speed Automatic Truck Transmission," Sales brochure .

Pond, J. B. , " Borg-Warner Tools-up for New Transmissions," Auto. Ind. , Sep 15 , 1972 , p . 29-33 .

Rowland , Roger, "Plastic's Car Inroads Detailed ," Automotive News, October 22 , 1973.

Saal, C. , "Performance Prediction Method Proved Valid in Truck Tests," SAE Journ. , Oct. 1950 ,
p . 17-21 .

SAE Handbook, SAE Standards and Recommended Practices

"J643a - Hydrodynamic Drive Test Code.
J646b Planetary Gear Terminology.
- Automotive Transmission Terminology .
J648d - Automatic Transmission Control System Terminology .
- Automatic Transmission Functions Terminology .
J647 - Automotive Transmission Diagrams.
J651b - Passenger Car Automatic Transmission Test Code .
J915 - Manual Control Sequence for Automatic Transmissions."

Schmidt , R. C. , "Analysis of Diesel Cooling Systems, " SAE Paper 887A, August, 1964.

Smith , T. , "Six Speed Street/Strip Automatic ," Popular Hotrodding, May 1971 , p . 34-37 , 90-92.

Stahman , R. C. and A. H. Rose , Jr. ,," Emissions from Carbureted and Timed Port Fuel Injected
Engines," presented at Annual Meeting of Air Pollution Control Association , Houston , Texas, June 1964 .

Telephone communications with Shepher Sikes, General Manager, G.R.T.L. Co. , Southfield , Michigan
(313) 352-3935.

242
Transportation Energy Panel , “ Research and Development Opportunities for Improved Transportation
Energy Usage ," Report DOT-TSC-OST-73-14 , US DOT, Sept 1972 .

Warren, G. B. , "Some Factors Influencing Motorcar Fuel Consumption in Service ," ASME Paper
65-WA/APC-2 , 1965 .

Webb, C. R. , "The Effect of Gradient on Fuel Consumption and Speed of a Road Vehicle , " Institute
of Mechanical Engineers, 1952.

243
 APPENDIX A

SPECIFICATIONS OF REFERENCE VEHICLES

245
Vehicle A

Body No. PM401G3F239716

Carburetor No. 6317S 0813 326

Distributor No. 3656763482

Engine No. 3F239716

Displacement (CID) 318

Bore/Stroke 3.91 X 3.31
HP at RPM 150 at 3600
Torque (ft-lb) at RPM 265 at 2000
Compression Ratio 8.6

Transmission (Automatic)

Gear-Ratios, first 2.45

second 1.45
third 1.00

Rear Axle Ratio : 2.71

General : Vehicle weight (full gas tank) 4190 lb

Gas tank capacity (gallons) 23
Tire size and manufacturer G78 X 15 B.F. Goodrich
Silvertown (belted)

Other Equipment :

Air Conditioning, Power Steering

247
Vehicle B

Base No. 3G53H258928

Carburetor No. D3AFRBB3E2

Distributor No. D3AF 12127 AA 3E9

Engine No. 3E14R3 Code K205D

Displacement (CID) 351

Bore/Stroke 4.00 X 3.50
HP at RPM 158 at 3800
Torque (ft-lb) at RPM 264 at 2400
Compression Ratio 8.0

Transmission ( Automatic).

Gear-Ratios , first 2.40

second 1.466
third 1.00

Rear Axle Ratio : 2.75

General: Vehicle weight (full gas tank) 4.270 lb

Gas tank capacity (gallons) 72
Tire size and manufacturer G78 X 15 Goodyear Polyglass
Custom Power Cushion

Other Equipment :

Air Conditioning, Power Steering

248
Vehicle C

Body No. 1L69H3C192648

Carburetor No. 7043114 074 3-BS

Distributor No. 1112168 2J2Q

Engine No. 13C182648 -T0323CKL

Displacement (CID) 350

Bore/Stroke 4.00 X 3.48
HP at RPM 145 at 4000
Torque (ft-lb) at RPM 255 at 2400
Compression Ratio 8.5

Transmission (Automatic)

Gear-Ratios, first 2.52

second 1.52
third 1.00

Rear Axle Ratio : 2.73

General: Vehicle weight (full gas tank) 4360 lb

Gas tank capacity (gallons) 26
Tire size and manufacturer G78 X 15 Uniroyal Fastrak
(Glass Belted)

Other Equipment :

Air Conditioning, Power Steering

249
Vehicle D

Body No. JH23G3B455830

Carburetor No. 6317SA 1063 326

Distributor No. 3656763

Engine No. 3B455830

Displacement (CID) 318

Bore/Stroke 3.91 X 3.31
HP at RPM 150 at 3600
Torque (ft-lb) at RPM 265 at 2000
Compression Ratio 8.6

Transmission (Automatic)

Gear-Ratios, first 2.45

second 1.45
third 1.00

Rear Axle Ratio : 2.76

General: Vehicle weight (full gas tank) 3490 lb

Gas tank capacity (gallons) 18
Tire size and manufacturer 7.35 X 14 Goodyear Power Cushion

Other Equipment :

Air Conditioning , Power Steering

250
Vehicle E

Body No. 1Q87H3N166120

Carburetor No. 7043112 1013BP2

Distributor No. 1112168 3D2

Engine No. 10424CKW 13N166120

Displacement (CID) 350

Bore/Stroke 4.00 X 3.48
HP at RPM 145 at 4000
Torque (ft-lb) at RPM 255 at 2400
Compression Ratio 8.5

Transmission (Automatic)

Gear-Ratios, first 2.52

second 1.52
third 1.00

Rear Axle Ratio : 2.73

General : Vehicle weight (full gas tank ) 3560 lb

Gas tank capacity (gallons) 18
Tire size and manufacturer F70 X 14 Uniroyal Tiger Paw
(belted)

Other Equipment :

Air Conditioning, Power Steering

251
Vehicle F

Body No. 3F01H176124

Carburetor No. D3AF DC B 3A9

Distributor No. D23F 2G26 12127

Engine No. 3A12G Code K604AG

Displacement (CID) 350

Bore /Stroke 4.00 X 3.50
HP at RPM 159 at 4000
Torque (ft-lb) at RPM 260 at 2400
Compression Ratio 8.0

Transmission (Automatic)

Gear-Ratios, first 2.40

second 1.466
third 1.00

Rear Axle Ratio : 2.75

General: Vehicle weight (full gas tank ) 3470 lb

Gas tank capacity (gallons) 19.5
Tire size and manufacturer GR78 X 14 Uniroyal Steel Belted
Radial (Zeta 40 M)

Other Equipment:

Air Conditioning , Power Steering

252
 APPENDIX B

ACCESSORY POWER TEST DATA

253
 7.0

6.0
HORSEPOWER

5.0

4.0

A/C

3.0
WATER PUMP
AND FAN

2.0
POWER
STEERING

ALT. 30 AMP

1.0

WATER PUMP
ONLY

1000 2000 3000

ENG. RPM

FIGURE B-1 . VEHICLE A

255
 7.0

6.0

5.0 AIR COND.

POWER
HORSE

4.0

WATER PUMP
AND FAN
3.0

POWER
STEERING
2.0

'
ALT 30 AMP

1. 아

WATER PUMP
ONLY

1000 2000 3000

ENG. RPM

FIGURE B-2. VEHICLE B

256
 7.0

6.0 AIR COND.

5.0-
POWER
HORSE

WATER PUMP
AND FAN
4.0

3.0

ALT. 30 AMPS
2.0

AIR

WATER
POWER
1. 아 PUMP ONLY
STEERING

1000 2000 3000

ENG . RPM

FIGURE B-3. VEHICLE C

257
 7.0

6. 아

6.0 AIR COND .

POWER
HORSE

4.0

3.0

WATER PUMP
AND FAN WATER

PUMP ONLY
2.0-

ALT
30 AMPS

1. 아

POWER STEERING

1000 2000 3000

ENG . PWR

FIGURE B-4 . VEHICLE D

258
 7.0

A /C

6.0
HORSEPOWER

5.0

WATER PUMP
AND FAN

4.0

3.0

ALT. 30 AMP
2.0

POWER
STEERING
1.0

WATER PUMP ONLY

1000 2000 3000

ENG . RPM

FIGURE B-5 . VEHICLE E

259
 7.0

6.0
HORSEPOWER

5.0

A /C

4.0

WATER PUMP
3.0 AND FAN

2.0 ALT . 30AMP

-
POWER -A
STEERING

1.0

WATER PUMP
ONLY

O
1000 2000 3000
ENG . RPM

FIGURE B-6. VEHICLE F

260
 APPENDIX C

ROAD TEST DATA

261
 TABLE C- 1

Power train operating parameters

Vehicle A Engine Manifold vacuum Driveshaft
speed (mph) speed (rpm)
(in. Hg) speed (rpm)

20 1008 17.8 724

30 1228 17.6 1009
40 1558 16.5 1366
50 1884 15.5 1699
60 2186 13.9 2020
70 2420 12.3 2354

TABLE C -2

Power train operating parameters

Vehicle B Engine Manifold vacuum Driveshaft
speed (mph) speed (rpm)
(in. Hg) speed (rpm)

20 815 15.5 646

30 1128 16.2 1016
40 1433 16.8 1353
50 1740 16.2 1689
60 2060 12.5 2020
70 2390 11.3 2353

TABLE C-3

Vehicle C Power train operating parameters

Engine Manifold vacuum Driveshaft
speed (mph) speed (rpm)
(in. Hg) speed (rpm)

20 1144 16.4 724

30 1156 14.9 1037
40 1478 15.4 1375
50 1819 14.8 1679
60 2143 13.6 2016
70 2505 12.9 2378

TABLE C-4

Power train operating parameters

Vehicle D Engine Manifold vacuum Driveshaft
speed (mph) speed (rpm)
(in. Hg) speed (rpm)

20 987 17.9 764

30 1251 18.5 1098
40 1581 17.9 1457
50 1924 17.1 1822
60 2280 15.0 2168
70 2609 13.9 2501

263
 TABLE C-5

Power train operating parameters

Vehicle E Engine Manifold vacuum Driveshaft
speed (mph) speed (rpm)
(in. Hg) speed (rpm )

20 1010 17.7 897

30 1163 15.6 1066
40 1522 16.6 1419
50 1847 15.6 1771
60 2200 14.8 2114
70 2532 13.8 2445

TABLE C-6

Power train operating parameters

Vehicle F Engine Manifold vacuum Driveshaft
speed (mph) speed (rpm)
(in . Hg) speed (rpm)

20 889 13.0 762

30 1100 13.7 1005
40 1505 14.6 1415
50 1800 11.4 1720
60 2240 11.8 2150
70 2530 12.5 2450

264
 VEHICLE
T
AESTS

South North
Mph C
p/
Aressure Mph p/C
Aressure
Mpg /dry
Wet
Barometer Mpg /dry
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge

18.86
19
22 71/73
29.73 18.45
19 21 81/88
29.78
19.13
19
22 Off 18.4119 22 Off
18.94
19
22 18.35
19 21
19.12
19 22 18.52
19 22
19
18.73 22 19
18.41 22
mpg
18.96
mph
20
at at
mpg
18.43
20
mph
mph
20
at
mpg
18.70
Composite
32
24.44
29 80/95 29.72 Off 23.27
29
31 79/95
29.76 Off
24.90
32
29 22.75
32
29
26.64
29 32 22.53
31
29
24.98
32
29 23.58
32
29
32
24.19
29 22.97
29 32
25.03
mpg
mph
30
at 23.02
mpg
30
at
mph

265
30
at
mpg
24.03
Composite
mph
24.21
38
42 70/68 29.69 Off 20.34
39
42 76/82
29.70 Off
38
23.09
42 42
20.09
39
23.26
39
42 20.08
39
42
23.23
43
39 38
20.10
41
23.67
39
42 38
20.45
41
23.49
mpg
at
mph
40 20.21
mpg
at
mph
40
mph
70
at
mpg
21.85
Composite
21.47
51
49 75/81 29.82 Off 51
49
18.60 74/83 29.82 Off
21.45
51
49 18.50
49
52
51
21.52
49 18.64
51
49
21.95
49
51 49
18.66 51
21.46
51
49 18.36
49 52
21.57
mpg
mph
50
at mph
50
at
18.55
mpg
Composite
mph
50
at
mpg
20.06
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Aont'd

South North
Mph p/C
Aressure Mph A
pC
/ ressure
Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer Mpg Barometer
dry
/
Wet
Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge Max
Min Disc
Suctharg
ion e

59
18.57 61 75/84
29.81 Off 61
59
17.29 76/85
29.78 Off
18.63
59
61 61
59
17.55
18.93
59
61 59
17.31 61
59
61
18.84 59
17.40 61
61
59
18.57 59
17.82 61
18.71
mpg
at
mph
60 mpg
17.47
mph
60
at
Composite
mph
60
at
mpg
18.09
69
16.55
71 75/86 29.76 Off 15.51
71
69 75/84
29.74 Off
69
16.44
71 69
15.67
71
16.89
69
71 69
15.63 71
69
16.57 70 68
15.90 70
16.86
68
70 68
15.95 70
16.66 mph
70
at
mpg 15.73
mpg
70
at
mph

266
Composite
mph
70
at
mpg
16.20
19
18.74
22 81/88 29.78 48 150 19
16.84
22 81/94
29.78 46 152
19
17.76
22 46 145 16.95 21
19 48 155
19
18.45
22 47 152 16.82 19
21 46 152
17.89
18
22 47 152 16.21 19
23 48 155
18.65
19
22 48 150 22
16.64
19 48 155
mpg
18.30
at
mph
20 16.69
mpg
20
at
mph
mph
20
at
mpg
17.50
Composite
21.59
29
32 73/81 29.68 42 180 32
19.19
29 73/81
29.68 42 180
32
20.27
29 40 180 18.64
32
28 40 180
32
20.24
29 41.5 180 18.89
31
29 40 180
20.18
32
29 41 180 18.80
29 32 41 180
19.77
32
29 40 180 18.79
32
29 40 .180
mpg
20.41
mph
30
at 18.86
mpg
30
at
mph
Composite
mph
30
at
mpg
19.64
 Tont'd
AESTS
C)(VEHICLE

South North
Mph pC
/Aressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer
Max
Min Suction
Discharge Max
Min Disch on
Suctiarge

76/82
29.70
42
40
19.45 35 150 18.36
39
41 83/89
29.70 34 145
19.92
39
42 34 150 18.25
39 42 34 150
38
19.81
42 35 150 18.54
39 42 34 150
39
19.74
42 35 150 18.5339 42 34 150
19.92
39
42 35 150 18.45
39 42 34 150

2222
mpg
19.77
mph
40
at mph
40
at
mpg
18.43
Composite
mph
40
at
mpg
19.10
51
18.78
49 74/83 29.82 22 175 16.83
49
51 75/84
29.81 21 175
51
18.72
49 21 175 51
16.80
49 21 180
49
18.59 51 22 175 51
49
17.11 21 180
51
18.60
49 21 175 16.80
49 51 21 180
18.82 51
49 22 180 49
17.16 51 22 175
mpg
18.70
mph
50
at 16.94
mpg
50
at
mph

267
mpg
mph
50
at
Composite
17.82
16.5960 62 76/85
29.78 21 180 15.66
61
59 76/85 29.76 20 180
180

60
16.7759 61 20 185 16.01
59 61 21
16.61
61
59 20 180 15.44
61
59 20 175
16.66
61
59 20 175 61
59
15.36 20 180
17.06
59 61 20 175 15.60
59 61 20 175
mpg
16.74
at
mph
60 15.61
mpg
60
at
mph
Composite
mph
60
at
mpg
16.18
69
14.83
71 75/84 29.74 20 175 71
14.29
69 75/86 29.74 20 180
69
15.08
71 20 180 69
14.66
71 20 180
69
14.91
71 20 180 14.70 69
71 20 180
68
14.74
71 20 175 14.60
69
71 20 180
14.75 68 71 20 175 68
14.71 71 20 175
at
mpg
14.86
mph
70 mph
70
at
mpg
14.59
Composite
mph
70
at
mpg
14.73
 TESTS
B
VEHICLE

South North
Mph A
pC
/ ressure Mph p/C
Aressure
Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer Mp Wet
dry
/
Barometer
Max
Min Disch on g
Suctiarge Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge

18.44
21
25 67/79
29.84 Off 17.96
23
21 68/81
29.81 Off
18.72
25
21 17.82
24
21
24
18.72
21 17.0820 23
17.95
21
24 17.41
23
21
24
21
17.52 17.41
21 23
18.27
mpg
at
mph
20 17.54
mpg
at
mph
20
mph
20
at
mpg
17.90
Composite
19.56
33
29 65/80 29.79 Off 30
32
18.85 67/82
29.78 Off
19.82
32
29 33
19.12
29
19.80
33
29 19.00
33
29
20.06
33
29 19.38
32
29
20.07
33
29 33
18.54
29
mpg
19.86
mph
30
at 18.98
mpg
30
at
mph

268
mph
30
at
mpg
19.42
Composite
43
39
20.55 52/54 29.81 Off 19.60
39
43 64/69 29.82 Off
40
43
21.12 19.64
39
43
39
21.13
43 39
19.77
42
39
20.73
43 20.29
39
42
43
38
21.03 19.67
39
44
20.91
mpg
40
at
mph 19.79
mpg
at
mph
30
mph
40
at
mpg
20.35
Composite
51
48
19.14 69/76 29.83 Off 18.63
49
52 67/76 29.82 Off
19.57
52
49 Off 18.96
50
53 Off
19.38
50
53 Off 53
50
18.71 Off
19.06
53
50 Off 49
18.77 54 Off
49
19.48
54 Off 18.99
48 53 Off
19.33
mpg
mph
50
at mpg
18.81
mph
50
at
mpg
19.07
Composite
mph
50
at
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Bont'd

South North
Mph p/C
Aressure Mph p/C
Aressure
Mpg Barometer
Wet
dry
/ Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge

16.71
59
62 65/79
29.80 Off 16.68
59
62 66/81
29.78 Off
16.17
59
62 16.15
59
62
63
60
15.51 60
15.87 63
59
15.72
62 16.04
60 62
15.63
63
59 16.15
59 63
15.95
mpg
at
mph
60 16.18
mpg
at
mph
60
Composite
mph
60
at
mpg
16.06
69
14.38
73 65/81 29.75 Off 69
14.51
73 66/82
29.73 Off
69
14.95
70 69
14.91
71
69
14.17 72 69
14.23
72
14.19
70 72 14.85
69 72
14.96 73
69 69
14.01 73

22223
70
at
mpg
14.53
mph 14.50
mpg
at
mph
70

269
Composite
mph
70
at
mpg
14.51
16.73
19
21 68/81 29.81 32 165 15.95
19
23 65/8
29.709 31 155
16.76
19
22 30 160 19
15.84
21 30 155
20
16.93
22 31 160 20
16.04
22 31 155
16.92
20
22 31 160 15.53
20
22 30 160
17.31
20
22 31 160 15.37
20
22 30 155
16.93
mpg
20
at
mph 15.75
mpg
mph
20
at
Composite
mpg
16.34
20
at
mph
33
30
19.23 67/82 29.78 30 170 18.11
36
29 65/79
29.78 30 165
34
19.47
29 30 160 18.30
34
29 30 160
19.50
29
33 30 160 18.26
32
29 30 160
30
33
19.26 30 160 33
30
18.54 30 160
19.00
33
30 30 155 29
18.12
34 30 160
19.29
mpg
at
mph
30 at
mpg
18.27
30
mph
Composite
mph
30
at
mpg
18.78
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Bont'd

South North
Mph A
pC
/ressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg Wet
d/ry Barometer Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Suction
Discharge Max
Min Disc
Suctharg
ion e

19.37
39
44 64/69
29.82 30 125 18.96
39
42 64/76
29.83 29 120
19.73
39
43 30 125 18.47
39
42 30 125
19.89
39 43 30 130 39
18.52 42 30 130
19.57
39 43 29 135 39
19.15 42 31 150
19.66
39
43 30 150 18.80 43
39 31 150
19.64
mpg
mph
40
at 18.78
mpg
40
at
mph
mph
40
at
mpg
19.21
Composite
17.48
49
52 67/76 29.82 30 155 17.32
54
49 69/79
29.81 31 155
17.37
54
50 30 160 17.29
54
50 31 160
49
54
17.14 30 160 17.69 53
50 31 160
53
17.48
49 30 160 17.38
49 53 31 160
17.80
48
54 30 160 16.53
49 53 31 160
17.45
mpg
at
mph
50 17.24
mpg
mph
50
at

270
70
50
at
mpg
17.35
Composite
mph
62
59
15.17 66/81 29.78 31 155 15.05
64
60 65/81
29.75 31 160
59
63
15.41 31 155 64
60
14.49 31 155
59
15.23
63 31 155 15.43
59
62 31 155
15.17
59 62 30 150 14.86
59 63 31 160
14.86
62
59 31 155 59
15.21 62 31 155
15.17
mpg
60
at
mph 15.01
mpg
60
at
mph
Composite
15.09
60
at
mpg
mph
13.92
69
73 66/82 29.73 31 155 13.82
69
72 66/82
29.70 31 160
14.07
70
72 31 160 68
13.44
73 31 160
73
13.80
70 31 160 13.49
69
73 31 160
13.90
68
73 31 160 68
13.71
73 31 160
13.87
73
69 31 155 68
13.77 73 31 160
13.91
mpg
mph
70
at 13.65
mpg
70
at
mph
mph
70
at
mpg
13.78
Composite
 VEHICLE
T
CESTS

South North
Mph C
p/
Aressure Mph C
p/
Aressure
Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Disc
Suctharg
ion e Min
Max Dis
Succha n
tiorge

20
13.61
23 79/83
29.71 Off 13.56
23
21 76/82
29.72 Off
13.64
23
21 13.58
19
21
13.79
19 21 13.75
19 21
13.77
21
19 13.83
19 21
13.75
20
22 13.71
20 22
13.71
mpg
at
mph
20 13.69
mpg
20
at
mph
Composite
mph
20
at
mpg
13.70
17.88 29
32 80/87 29.71 Off 17.39
31
29 81/90 29.69 Off
18,09 28 31 17.56
30
32
17.61 31
29 17.90
31
29
17.35 29 32 17.77
29 31
17.5929 31 17.67
29 31

22222
17.70
mpg
mph
30
at 17.66
mpg
at
mph
30

271
mph
30
at
mpg
17.68
Composite
39
17.14
41 79/89 29.65 Off 19.86
39
41 80/91
29.64 Off
39
19.02
41 39
19.99
41
19.59
41
39 19.00
41
39
39
19.26 41 19.26
39 41
17.59
39 41 18.71
39 41
18.52
mpg
at
mph
40 19.36
mpg
40
at
mph
Composite
mpg
18.94
40
at
mph
17.40
49 52 69/71 Off 49
14.61
52 69/71 Off
49
16.97 53 14.99
51
49
17.9549 52 14.50
50
49
17.49
49 52 49
14.73 51
17.89
49 52 49
14.42
51

33333
17.54
mpg
at
mph
50 14.65
mpg
at
mph
50
mph
50
at
mpg
16.10
Composite
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Cont'd

South North
Mph p/C
Aressure Mp
to h p/C
Aressure
Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge Minx
Ma Dis
Succha n
tiorge

15.28
59
62 66/71
29.29 Off 59
12.93
62 66/71
29.29 Off
15.4159 62 62
59
13.16 CINE
15.60
59 62 13.15
59
62

333
16.42
63
59 59
13.17 62
60
59
15.95 59
13.21 62
15.73
mpg
at
mph
60 13.12
mpg
60
at
mph
Composite
mph
60
at
mpg
14.43
72
13.60
69 70/79 29.75 Off 11.77
69
72 70/79
29.75 Off
14.03
69
72 12.24
69
72
14.50
69
72 69
12.23
72
14.82
69
73 69
12.45
71
14.20
69
72 11.67
69
72
14.23
70
at
mpg 12.07
mpg
at
mph
70

272
70
at
mpg
13.15
Composite
mph
12.21 20
22 76/82 29.72 37 160 21
12.04
19 80/87 29.71 40 170
19
11.79
21 35 155 12.18
19
21 38 170
12.10
21
19 34 150 19
12.14
21 37 180
19
21
12.60 36 160 11.78
19
21 36 175
12.43
19
21 35 165 12.20
19 21 36 170
12.23
at
mpg
mph
20 12.07
mpg
20
at
mph
20
at
mpg
12.15
Composite
mph
16.80
30
31 81/90 29.69 38 165 15.66
31
29 80/89
29.65 36 165
17.16
31
29 37 165 29
15.40
31 37 175
17.15
29
32 36 165 16.12
29
31 35 175
31
17.03
29 35 160 28 31
29
15.87 39 175
16.74
31
29 36 165 28
15.65 31 38 175
mpg
16.98
mph
30
at at
mpg
15.74
mph
30
mph
30
at
mpg
16.36
Composite
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Cont'd

South North
Mph A
pC
/ressure Mph p/C
Aressure
Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Disc
Suctharg
ion e Min
Max Dischar
Suctionge

15.65
39
41 80/91 29.64 34 160 39
16.73 41 78/88 29.63 38 160
16.00
39
41 38 165 16.19
39
41 38 160
39
15.63 41 38 165 16.13 41
39 38 160
39
15.89 41 36 160 38
15.87 42 37 160
15.61
39
41 36 160 39
14.94 41 38 160
15.76
mpg
at
mph
40 15.97
mpg
70
at
mph
40
at
mpg
15.87
Composite
mph
50
15.60 50 66/71 29.79 31 115 13.55
53
49 66/71 29.79 32 120
51
50
16.11 31 118 49
13.45
52 31 115
53
16.28
51 31 115 49
13.45
52 31 118
15.75
50
52 31 113 14.00
49
52 31 115
16.33
49
52 31 119 13.58
49 52 32 123
16.01
mpg
at
mph
50 13.61
mpg
50
at
mph

273
23
mpg
14.81
Composite
mph
50
at
14.67
62
59 70/79 29.75 31 130 11.61
59
62 70/79 29.75 32 128
59
14.89
62 31 125 62
59
12.16 31 125
63
14.62
59 34 125 12.33
62
59 31 126
62
14.46
59 33 135 12.44
59 63 34 120
14.60
59
62 33 128 59
12.19 62 32 120
14.65
mpg
at
mph
60 12.15
mpg
60
at
mph
mph
60
at
mpg
13.38
Composite
69
13.49
71 72/82
29.73 32 143 11.67
69
73 72/82
29.73 34 138
13.48
69
72 33 145 69
11.20
72 31 150
13.29
69
72 34 148 11.44
69 72 32 125
69
13.14 72 32 143 69
11.38 72 32 150

2222
69
13.38 72 33 150 69
11.55 72 33 146
13.36
mpg
70
at
mph 11.45
mpg
at
mph
70
mph
70
at
mpg
12.41
Composite
 VEHICLE
TESTS
D

South North
Mph p/C
Aressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer Mpg Barometer
dry
/
Wet
Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge Max
Min Disc
Suctharg
ion e

18
19.00
22 83/77
29.68 Off 19.26
18 22 89/79
29.66 Off
18.98
19 22 19.60
19 21 1.28
19.42
19 22 19
19.35 22
19
18.92 22 19
19.64 22
19.17
19 22 19.47
18 22
mpg
19.10
at
mph
20 19.46
mpg
mph
20
at 150

mph
20
at
mpg
19.29
Composite
24.81 29 31 79/97 29.97 Off 23.42
29 32 79/93 29.58 Off
25.3329 32 29
24.13
32
24.9629 32 32
23.74
29
24.37 32 23.61
29 32
24.99 32 28
23.91 32

22288
24.89
mpg
at
mph
30 23.76
mpg
30
at
mph

274
mph
Composite
30
at
24.33
25.26
39 41 78/93 29.65 Off 23.79
39 41 79/93 29.63 Off
39
25.78
42 22.71
39 42
24.60
42
39 23.68
39
42
24.89
39
42 23.50
42
39
24.66
38 42 23.46
42
39
mpg
25.04
at
mph
40 23.43
mpg
at
mph
40
Composite
mph
40
at
mpg
24.24
49
22.27
52 74/75 29.70 Off 21.23
52
49 73/74 29.70 Off
23.43
52
49 21.10
49 52
23.43
49
52 21.09
49 52
22.93
48 52 21.22
49 52
22.72
49 52 49
20.58 52

XXXXX
22.96
mpg
50
at
mph at
mpg
21.04
mph
50
mph
50
at
mpg
22.0
Composite
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Dont'd

South North
Mph p/C
Aressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer Mpg Barometer
dry
/
Wet
Max
Min Disc
Suctharg
ion e Min
Max Disc
Suctharg
ion e

59
19.10
62 73/74
29.71 Off 59
18.40
62 77/80
29.71 Off
19.32
62
59 18.79
62
59
19.68
58 62 18.89
62
59
19.74
59
62 59
18.18 62
59
19.76
62 18.38
59 62
mph
60
at
mpg
19.52 mpg
18.53
at
mph
60
Composite
mph
60
at
mpg
19.03
69
16.54 72 81/85 29.72 Off 16.81
68
72 81/87 29.72 Off
69
17.13
72 17.00
69
72
69
16.76 72 69
17.61
72
72
69
17.28 69
16.90 72
69
17.23
72 69
16.57 72
16.99
mph
70
at at
mpg
16.98
70
mph

275
Composite
mph
70
at
mpg
16.985
18.91 2
129 87/79 29.66 38 200 21
19
19.65 78/92
29.65 38 200
22
19
18.56 38 200 19
18.57
22 38 210
19
18.51
22 38 21021 19
19.41
22 38 210
19
18.11
22 38 205 19
19.14 22 39 215
19
19.24
22 40 215 19
18.75 22 39 220
mpg
18.67
at
mph
20 at
mpg
19.10
mph
20
Composite
mph
20
at
mpg
18.89
32
29
20.38 79/93 29.58 33 200 29
20.37
32 74/87 29.59 210
21.25
32
29 33 210 20.41
32
29 210
29
21.17 34 220 20.21
32
29 31 210
2333

32
21.80
32
28 33 225 29
20.68 32 31 210
32
29
21.35 33 220 29
19.19 32 31 215

mph
30
at
mpg
21.19 mph
30
at
mpg
20.17
mpg
mph
30
at
Composite
20.18
 VEHICLE
C ESTS
Tont'd
)(D

South North
Mph A
pC
/ressure Mph p/C
Aressure
Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer
Max
Min Suct
Discharg
ion e Max
Min Suction
Discharge

19.93
39
42 79/93
29.63 29 225 19.96
39
42 79/95 29.61 30 220
20.42
39
41 30 225 20.13
40
41 30 225
39
20.70 42 30 225 20.21
39 42 31 230
39
20.62
42 30 225 19.96
39 42 30 230
19.45
39
42 30 225 39
19.76 42 32 230
20.22
mpg
at
mph
40 20.00
mpg
at
mph
40
Composite
mpg
20.11
mph
40
at
19.49
49 52 73/74 29.70 25 170 49
18.43
52 73/74 29.71 24 155
19.85
52
49 25 170 18.70
52
49 25 175
49
19.85
52 25 165 18.51
49
52 26 175
19.98
52
49 20 180 18.22
49 52 24 150
19.50
49
52 24 18.61
150
49 52 24 160
19.73
mpg
50
at
mph 18.49
mpg
at
mph
50
26

276
Composite
19.11
mph
50
at
mpg
59
62
17.19 77/80
29.71 25 200 59
16.87
62 81/85 29.72 26 195
16.89
62
59 77/80 26 195 59
17.29
62 26 180
17.24
59
62 26 190 16.68
59
62 26 190
59
17.50
62 25 185 17.10
59 62 25 190
17.46
59
62 27 200 16.89
59 62 25 190
17.26
mpg
60
at
mph 16.97
mpg
at
mph
60
Composite
17.12
mph
60
at
mpg
69
15.15
72 81/87 29.72 26 15.20
82/89
69
215
72 29.72 24 200
15.75
69
72 25 200 69
15.91 72 25 185
69
15.82
72 25 200 15.70
69 72 25 180
69
15.76
72 26 200 15.68
69
72 26 200
69
15.83
72 25 195 69
15.45
72 25 195
15.66
mpg
70
at
mph 15.59
mpg
at
mph
70
mph
70
at
mpg
15.63
Composite
 VEHICLE
TESTS
E

South North
Mph A
pC
/ressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg Barometer
Wet
dry
/ Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer
Max
Min Sucti
Disch
. on
arge Max
Min Suct
Discharg
ion e

14.138
19 74/75
29.62 Off 14.039
19 22 75/76
29.62 Off
14.310
19 13.738 19
22
13.92818 13.812
19
22

66
22
14.378
19 13.051
19 22
19
14.176 19
13.76822

22222
14.186
mpg
at
mph
20 13.682
mpg
at
20
mph
mph
20
at
mpg
13.934
Composite
16.782
29
32 78/80 29.63 Off 17.969
29
32 77/82 29.63 Off
32
17.541
28 29
17.714
32
32
28
17.992 17.623
29
32
32
17.545
29 17.867
29 32
27
277 17.791
32
29 17.884
29 32
17.530
at
mpg
mph
30 17.811
mpg
mph
30
at
Composite
mph
30
at
mpg
17.671
17.539
39
42 78/86
29.62 Off 17.751
38
42 78/86 29.59 Off
39
17.988
42 38
18.299
42
39
17.962
42 39
18.359
42
18.073
43
38 39
18.54542
17.984
42
39 39
18.33742
17.909
mpg
40
at
mph 18.258
mpg
40
mph
at
mph
40
at
mpg
18.084
Composite
18.48
52
49 82/87 29.67 Off 16.93
48
52 82/87 29.67 Off
48
50
19.05 16.98
48
50
18.94
50
48 17.30
48
50
48
19.11 50 16.92
48 50
18.84
48 50 17.20
48 51
18.88
mpg
at
mph
50 17.07
mph
50
at
mpg
mph
50
at
mpg
17.98
Composite
 VEHICLE
C ESTS
Tont'd
)(E

South North
Mph A
pC
/ ressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer
Min
Max Disc
Suctharg
ion e Max
Min Disc
Suctharg
ion e

15.58
61
59 81/88 29.64 Off 17.28 61 81/88
29.64 Off
15.96
61
59 17.41 59 61
16.76
58
61 17.40 59 61
58
15.85
60 17.40 59 60
15.81 58
60 58
17.62 60
15.89
mpg
mph
60
at 17.42
mpg
60
at
mph
mph
60
at
mpg
16.65
Composite
71
15.22
69 82/91 29.60 Off 69
13.70 71 82/91
29.60 Off
15.39
68
70 14.24 70
68
14.85
70 14.43 70
14.83
70
68 14.05 68 70
68
14.64 70 68
14.15 70
mpg
14.99
mph
70
at 14.11
mpg
mph
70
at

278
Composite
mpg
14.55
mph
70
at
19
11.93 22 75/76 29.62 35 167 19
11.72
22 75/76
29.62 34 170
22
19
12.04 34 176 11.93
19
22 34 171
12.18
19
22 34 172 12.00
19 22 34 174
12.24
19
22 34 175 11.98 19 22 34 175
12.16 19
22 34 176 19
11.95 22 35 177
20
at
mpg
12.11
mph mpg
11.92
mph
20
at
mph
20
at
mpg
12.02
Composite
15.35
32
29 77/82 29.63 35 165 15.66
29 32 78/86
29.62 36 176
15.87
32
29 35 175 15.90 29 32 35 175
29
16.22
32 37 175 15.96 32
29 33 175
16.11
28
32 37 180 15.88 29 32 36 185
16.08
32
29 36 178 16.08
29 32 36 185
15.93
mpg
mph
30
at 15.90
mpg
30
at
mph
Composite
15.92
mph
30
at
mpg
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Eont'd

South North
Mph p/C
Aressure Mph p/C
Aressure
Mpg Wet
/dry
Barometer Mpg Wet
dry
/
Barometer
Max
Min Dischar
Suctionge Max
Min Suction Discharge

39
16.02
42 79/87
29.59 36 180 16.52 38
42 78/86
29.58 37 180
16.32
42
39 35 180 16.50 39 42 37 185
16.24
39
42 34 180 16.32 39 42 35 190
38
16.71
42 34 180 16.72 39 42 36 190
16.62
38
42 33 180 16.50 38 42 35 190
16.38
mpg
at
mph
40 mpg
16.51
at
mph
40 33333
mph
40
at
mpg
16.45
Composite
50
48
16.46 80/85 29.66 35 180 15.55
48 50 81/88
29.64 36 175
16.84
50
48 37 180 15.76 48 50 33 165
16.98
48
50 38 185 15.68 48 50 34 175
17.10
48
50 36 185 15.78 48 50 32 175

3333
17.12
48
50 36 185 46
15.83 50 32 170
16.90
mpg
at
mph
50 15.72
mpg
at
mph
50

279
mpg
16.31
Composite
mph
50
at
15.43
61
58 82/89 29.63 38 185 58
60
14.34 82/91 29.60 34 175
15.76 58
60 34 180 14.55
58
60 34 180
16.48 58 60 39 190 14.39 60
58 32 175
15.82 58
60 37 185 14.78 58 60 33 175
15.55
58 60 37 185 14.68
58 60 32 175

58888
mph
60
at
mpg
15.81 14.55
mpg
60
at
mph
mph
60
at
mpg
15.18
Composite
68
13.14
70 84/92 29.57 34 175 68
13.00 70 81/91 29.55 35 180
13.23
68
70 38 185 13.09 69 70 35 180
13.58
68
70 33 175 13.08 68
70 35 180
70
68
13.65 34 180 12.80 68 70 34 170
13.70 68 70 33 175 13.07
68 70 33 170
13.46
mpg
70
at
mph at
mpg
13.01
mph
70
at
mpg
13.24
Composite
mph
70
 TESTS
F
VEHICLE

South North
Mph p/C
Aressure Mph /
pC
Aressure
Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Dis
Succha n
tiorge Max
Min Dis
Suctio
chanrge

18.35
21
23 83/
29.88
57 Off 20
15.58 21 85/93
29.55 Off
17.69
20
22 20
15.07
21
17.38
20 22 20
15.12 21
19.28 20 22 15.88
20 21
19.94
21 23 20
15.37 21
18.53
mpg
at
mph
20 15.40
mpg
at
mph
20
mph
20
at
mpg
16.97
Composite
31
17.52 32 85/93 29.53 Off 31
15.97
30 76/76 29.50 Off
30
17.05
31 30
16.18
31
17.93
30 31 30
16.11
31
17.77
31
29 16.44 31
30
29
17.86
31 30
15.89 31
17.63
at
30
mpg 16.12
mpg
30
at
mph

280
mph
30
at
mpg
16.88
Composite
16.78 40
41 77/80 29.49 Off 15.75
40
41 77/79
29.49 Off
16.48
39
41 39
15.85
41
16.46
39
41 15.34
39
41
15.42
39
41 15.22
39
41
39
16.53
41 39
16.00
41
16.33
mpg
30
at
mph 15.63
mpg
30
at
mph
mph
Composite
40
at
15.98
15.03
49 51 77/80 29.71 Off 49
14.86 51 77/80 29.72 Off
15.50
51
49 14.88
51
49
15.30
51
49 14.31
51
49
51
15.29
49 49
14.83 51
49
15.28
51 49
14.88 59
15.28
mpg
at
mph
50 14.75
mpg
at
50
Composite
mph
50
at
mpg
15.02
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Font'd

South North
Mph C
p/
Aressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg Wet
/
dry Barometer Mpg dry
/
Wet
Barometer
Max
Min Suc
Distio n
charge Max
Min Suct
Discion
harge

59
16.38
61 29.71 Off 61
59
14.45 29.71 Off
16.51
61
59 29.71 14.43
59 61
15.07
59 61 14.35
59 61
61
59
15.20 15.69
39 61
15.32
59 61 14.50
59 61
15.70
mpg
60
at
mph at
mpg
14.68
60
mph
Composite
mph
60
at
mpg
15.19
69
14.26
71 29.69 Off 13.64
69
71 29.65 Off
15.05
69
71 13.80
69
71
69
15.22
71 13.85
69
71
14.88
69
71 69
14.09
71
69
15.36
71 13.16
69
71
14.95
mpg
at
mph
70 13.71
mpg
at
mph
70

281
Composite
mph
70
at
mpg
14.33
13.51
21
20 80/82 29.46 27 16.03
225 21
20 77/
29.480
9 26 230
12.31
20
21 26 225 13.07
20
21 25 225
12.86
21
20 '26 1 225 12.79
21
20 26 225
14.28
21
20 26 225 20
11.52 21 25 225
13.66
20
21 26 225 11.78
20 21 26 225
mpg
13.32
mph
20
at mpg
13.04
at
mph
20
mph
20
at
mpg
13.18
Composite
30
14.21 32 76/76 29.50 20 31
210
30
14.71 80/82 29.46 20 210
14.0429 31 21 215 14.11
31
29 20 210
14.82
29 31 22 215 14.16
31
29 20 215
30
14.70
31 22 220 30
14.49 31 21 220
14.57
30 31 22 220 15.08
30 31 20 220
14.47
mpg
mph
30
at 14.51
mpg
mph
30
at
Composite
14.49
mph
30
at
mpg
 VEHICLE
T
C ESTS
)(Font'd

South North
Mph A
pC
/ressure Mph A
pC
/ressure
Mpg Wet
/dry
Barometer Mpg Barometer
Wet
dry
/
Max
Min Suction
Discharge Max
Min Disch on
Suctiarge

40
13.15
42 77/79
29.49 16 200 13.24
40
42 76/77
29.49 15 205
13.67
42
40 15 200 13.63 39
41 15 200
39
15.82 41 14 200 11.67
39 41 15 200
38
16.00 41 15 200 39
13.87 41 14 200
39
16.09 41 15 200 39
14.89 40 15 200
mpg
14.95
at
mph
40 13.46
mpg
40
at
mph
mph
40
at
mpg
14.21
Composite
14.72
49 51 29.72 12 195 13.85
49
51 29.71 11 195
14.66
51
49 12 205 51
13.96
49 11 200
14.61
51
49 11 200 13.93
51
49 11 200
14.53
51
49 12 205 14.00
49 51 11 200
14.75
51
49 12 205 13.98
49 51 11 200
14.65
mpg
mph
50
at 13.94
mpg
50
at
mph

282
Composite
mph
50
at
mpg
14.30
61
59
14.69 29.71 10 195 13.64
59 61 29.69 10 200
14.68
59
61 11 200 59
13.73 61 10 200
14.26
61
59 11 200 13.13
59 61 10 195
61
59
14.51 10 200 59
13.81 61 10 200
15.00
61
59 10 200 13.17
59 61 10 195
at
mpg
14.63
60
mph mpg
13.50
mph
60
at
mph
60
at
mpg
14.07
Composite
69
71
14.20 29.65 10 205 69
12.78
71 29.62 200
69
14.13 71 10 205 12.86
69
71 200
14.42
71
69 10 205 12.86
69
71 195
69
14.70
71 10 205 69
12.88 71 195
69
14.46
71 10 205 13.0469 71 195
66699

14.38
mpg
70
at
mph 12.88
mpg
70
at
mph
Composite
mph
70
at
mpg
13.63
 APPENDIX D

LA-4 CHASIS DYNAMOMETER TEST RESULTS

283
1
 TABLE D-1. TEST SEQUENCE
(REFER TO TEXT, SECTION 4)

1. Cold start
2. Hot start (no A/C)
3. Hot start (no A/CO)
4. Cold start
5. Hot start (with A/C)
6. Hot start (with A/C)

TABLE D-2. REFERENCE VEHICLE MILEAGE

(MPG) ON LA-4

Test no.
Vehicle
1 2 3 4 5 6

A 11.52 12.79 12.65 11.92 11.90 11.61

B 10.17 10.62 10.59 9.89 11.23 10.73
с 10.97 12.19 11.82 10.34 10.42 10.36
D 12.59 13.72 13.46 12.43 12.88 12.95
E 12.09 12.63 11.76 11.16 11.54 11.37
F 9.53 9.95 9.76 9.33 9.58 9.69

TABLE D-3. SUMMARY OF FUEL CONSUMPTION

(LBS) FOR FIRST 505 SECONDS OF LA-4

Test no.
Vehicle
2 3 4 5 6

A 2.04 1.62 1.66 1.86 1.84 1.83

B 2.20 1.79 1.80 2.44 1.82 1.99
C 2.07 1.81 1.87 2.31 2.12 2.20
D 1.85 1.52 1.59 1.84 1.67 1.68
E 1.86 1.64 1.81 2.00 1.92 1.96
F 2.29 2.18 2.19 2.30 2.29 2.28

285
1
EXAMPLE DATA SEGMENT FROM LA-4 CYCLE TEST
(VEHICLE D , TEST 4)

287
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.5 241.9 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.0 0.0
1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,04 0.0 0.0
1.5 2338.1 0.0 6.58 0.04 0.0 0.0
2.0 1481.3 0.0 19.02 0.06 0.0 0.0
2.5 943.1 0.0 19.05 0.08 0.0 0.0
3.0 800.0 0.0 17.97 0.10 0.0 0.0
3.5 705.7 0.0 16.42 0.11 0.0 0.0
4.0 679.1 0.0 15.66 0.11 0.0 0.0
4.5 619.4 0.0 14.97 0.11 0.0 0.0
5.0 631.9 0.0 14.93 0.11 0.0 0.0
5.5 639.3 0.0 15.08 0.11 0.0 0.0
6.0 655.5 0.0 14.85 0.12 0.0 0.0
6.5 658.5 0.0 14.99 0.12 0.0 0.0
7.0 631.9 0.0 14.79 0.12 0.0 0.0
7.5 612.8 0.0 14.50 0.12 0.0 0.0
8.0 611.3 0.0 14.50 0.13 0.0 0.0
8.5 642.3 0.0 14.64 0.13 0.0 0.0
9.0 608.3 0.0 14.06 0.14 0.0 0.0
9.5 609.8 0.0 14.50 0.15 0.0 0.0
10.0 634.1 0.0 14.66 0.15 0.0 0.0
10.5 619.4 0.0 14.41 0.15 0.0 0.0
11.0 608.3 0.0 14.21 0.15 0.0 0.0
11.5 631.9 0.0 14.55 0.15 0.0 0.0
12.0 655.5 0.0 14.55 0.15 0.0 0.0
12.5 584.7 0.0 14.13 0.16 0.0 0.0
13.0 619.4 0.0 14.23 0.16 0.0 0.0
13.5 609.8 0.0 14.08 0.16 0.0 0.0
14.0 608.3 0.0 14.24 0.16 0.0 0.0
14.5 631.9 0.0 14.64 0.16 0.0 0.0
15.0 612.8 0.0 14.24 0.16 0.0 0.0
15.5 631.9 0.0 14.50 0.16 0.0 0.0
16.0 655.5 0.0 14.21 0.16 0.0 0.0
16.5 655.5 0.0 14.82 0.16 0.0 0.0
17.0 655.5 0.0 15.08 0.16 0.0 0.0
17.5 631.9 0.0 14.50 0.16 0.0 0.0
18.0 631.9 0.0 14.50 0.16 0.0 0.0
18.5 679.1 0.0 14.99 0.16 0.0 0.0
19.0 655.5 0.0 14.98 0.16 0.0 0.0
19.5 639.3 0.0 14.56 0.16 0.0 0.0
20.0 639.3 0.0 14.93 0.16 0.0 0.0
20.5 631.9 0.0 14.79 0.16 0.0 0.0
21.0 655.5 14.79 0.16 25.7 0.0
21.5 592.1 0.0 13.06 0.16 49.9 0.0
22.0 584.7 0.0 13.05 0.16 60.3 0.0
22.5 608.3 0.0 13.63 0.16 67.2 0.0
23.0 584.7 0.0 13.64 0.16 67.2 0.0

289
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

23.5 631.9 0.0 13.63 0.16 71.8 0.0

24.0 631.9 0.0 13.82 0.16 71.8 0.0
24.5 608.3 0.0 13.64 0.16 74.1 0.0
25.0 608.3 0.00 13.36 0.16 72.3 0.0
25.5 603.3 0.0 11.23 0.16 67.2 0.0
26.0 891.5 0.0 10.29 0.16 105.8 0.0
26.5 1202.6 0.0 1 12.76 0.16 198.7 0.0
27.0 631.9 0.0 14.38 0.16 0.0 0.0
27.5 1269.0 0.0 13.05 0.18 248.5 0.0
28.0 1387.0 77.6 12.76 0.19 251.5 3.7
28.5 1397.3 227.6 11.79 0.19 237.3 10.3
29.0 1528.5 371.6 10.73 0.19 235.0 16.6
29.5 1581.6 418.1 10.58 0.19 233.5 18.6
30.0 1646.5 468.3 10.44 0.19 229.9 20.5
30.5 1699.6 529.1 10.44 0.19 221.1 22.3
31.0 1773.3 577.1 10.37 0.19 219.5 24.1
31.5 1740.9 604.1 11.89 0.20 196.4 22.6
32.0 1552.1 660.3 11.79 0.21 181.9 22.9
32.5 1481.3 673.1 12.48 0.22 157.2 20.1
33.0 1504.9 703.1 12.37 0.22 146.8 19.7
33.5 1552.1 745.1 12.18 0.22 143.4 20.3
34.0 1563.2 756.3 12.36 0.22 140.7 20.3
34.5 1563.2 793.1 12.47 0.22 137.5 20.8
35.0 1563.2 797.6 12.50 0.22 131.0 19.9
35.5 1563.2 841.1 13.77 0.23 124.2 19.9
36.0 1410.5 826.1 15.80 0.23 78.9 12.4
36.5 1344.2 852.3 15.22 0.23 81.5 13.2
37.0 902.5 842.6 18.77 0.23 60.3 9.7
37.5 844.3 817.1 17.46 0.23 25.7 4.0
38.0 808.2 794.6 17.12 0.23 11.8 1.8
38.5 808.2 795.3 17.10 0.23 5.6 0.8
39.0 805.9 756.3 16.96 0.23 0.0 0.0
39.5 808.2 756.3 16.86 0.23 0.0 0.0
40.0 783.8 745.1 16.67 0.23 0.0 0.0
40.5 779.4 728.6 16.52 0.23 0.0 0.0
41.0 773.5 721.1 16.40 0.23 0.0 0.0
41.5 773.5 721.1 16.26 0.23 0.0 0.0
42,0 773.5 697.1 16.40 0.24 6.0 0.8
42.5 749.9 660.3 15.94 0.24 0.0 0.0
43.0 749.9 649.1.0 15.85 0.24 6.4 0.8
43.5 726.3 608.6 15.80 0.24 9.0 1.0
44.0 729.3 581.6 15.80 0.24 11.8 1.3
44.5 707.1 556.1 15.53 0.24 12.5 1.3
45.0 702.7 553.1 15.37 0.24 11.8 1.2
45.5 705.7 553.1 15.52 0.24 11.8 1.2
46.0 726.3 553.1 15.37 0.24 12.3 1.3
46.5 867.9 554.6 13.19 0.24 16.7 1.8

290
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

47.0 1161.3 553.1 10.73 0.24 41.1 4.3

47.5 1339.8 564.3 12.19 0.24 88.8 9.5
48.0 1363.4 601.1 12.32 0.24 109.7 12.6
48.5 1387.0 635.6 12.47 0.25 119.1 14.4
49.0 1392.9 660.3 12.18 0.25 122.6 15.4
49.5 1444.5 676.1 10.44 0.25 124.2 16.0
50.0 1537.4 721.1 9.49 0.26 140.3 19.3
50.5 1599.3 749.6 8.90 0.26 151.8 21.7
51.0 1622.9 793.1 8.84 0.26 161.9 24.4
51.5 1646.5 821.6 9.13 0.27 165.6 25.9
52.0 1445 . 850.1 12.90 0.27 143.4 23.2
52.5 1176.1 841.1 17.61 0.27 98.4 15.8
53.0 870.8 841.1 17.61 0.27 46.4 7.4
53.5 867.9 803.6 17.28 0.27 18.7 2.9
54.0 902.5 841.1 17.29 0.27 13.4 2.2
54.5 820.7 802.8 18.30 0.28 9.0 1.4
55.0 776.4 793.1 17.61 0.28 0.0 0.0
55.5 749.9 756.3 17.25 0.28 0.0 0.0
56.0 758.8 745.1 17.46 0.28 0.0 0.0
56.5 758.8 725.6 17.25 0.28 0.0 0.0
57.0 713.0 697.1 16.81 0.28 0.0 0.0
57.5 702.7 635.6 16.43 0.28 0.0 0.0
58.0 704.9 629.6 16.55 0.30 0.0 0.0
58.5 689.4 601.1 16.38 0.30 0.0 0.0
59.0 664.4 577.1 15.99 0.30 0.0 0.0
59.5 679.1 577.1 15.68 0.31 6.4 0.7
60.0 1245.4 577.1 9.42 0.31 32.6 3.6
60.5 1434.1 625.1 10.87 0.31 98.6 11.7
61.0 1504.9 659.6 9.00 0.31 124.2 15.6
61.5 1603.7 699.3 7.97 0.31 153.7 20.5
62.0 1646.5 745.1 7.68 0.31 171.1 24.3
62.5 1655.3 778.1 7.55 0.31 178.0 26.4
63.0 1657.5 818.6 7.97 0.31 178.0 27.7
63.5 1563.2 841.1 10.29 0.32 164.3 26.3
64.0 1504.9 889.1 11.02 0.34 140.8 23.8
64.5 1466.6 890.6 11.74 0.34 124.2 21.1
65.0 1292.6 893.6 15.12 0.35 94.9 16.1
65.5 1292.6 892.1 14.84 0.35 77.6 13.2
66.0 1221.8 913.1 17.97 0.35 67.2 11.7
66.5 902.5 899.6 17.97 0.35 29.1 5.0
67.0 985.8 889.1 16.84 0.35 13.4 2.3
67.5 1065.5 889.1 16.44 0.35 19.6 3.3
68.0 1080.2 889.1 16.54 0.36 25.7 4.3
68.5 1058.1 889.1 16.52 0.36 25.7 4.3
69.0 1089.1 895.1 16.58 0.37 29.1 5.0
69.5 1111.2 889.1 15.51 0.37 30.0 5.1
70.0 1292.6 891.3 15.08 0.37 46.4 7.9

291
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

70.5 1324.3 913.1 15.22 0.37 63.7 11.1

71.0 1292.6 913.1 16.96 0.37 65.0 11.3
71.5 869.4 916.1 18.77 0.38 32.6 5.7
72.0 985.8 913.1 17.97 0.38 13.4 2.3
72.5 985.8 889.1 16.96 0.38 12.5 2.1
73.0 1080.2 890.6 16.14 0.38 19.2 3.3
73.5 1504.9 875.6 11.02 0.38 134.1 22.3
74.0 1277.8 914.6 14.13 0.38 46.7 8.1
74.5 1363.4 923.6 14.94 0.38 63.7 11.2
75.0 1339.8 937.1 14.97 0.38 70.7 12.6
75.5 1339.8 937.1 14.93 0.38 68.7 12.3
76.0 1339.8 943.0 15.66 0.38 68.8 12.4
76.5 1198.2 961.0 16.96 0.39 57.9 10.6
77.0 1179.0 961.0 16.67 . 0.39 48.0 8.8
77.5 1103.8 937.1 17.25 0.39 36.1 6.4
78.0 1080.2 937.1 17.61 0.39 29.6 5.3
78.5 1036.0 937.1 17.61 0.39 22.9 4.1
79.0 996.9 944.5 19.28 0.39 19.8 3.6
79.5 919.5 923.6 19.13 0.39 6.4 1.1
80.0 900.3 913.1 18.55 0.39 0.0 0.0
80.5 1033.0 890.6 15.24 0.39 0.0 0.0
81.0 1159.9 913.1 14.93 0.39 25.7 4.5
81.5 1323.5 937.1 14.06 0.39 47.1 8.4
82.0 1443.0 944.5 14.06 0.39 72.2 13.0
82.5 1410.5 961.0 15.80 0.39 84.5 15.5
83.0 1269.0 944.5 15.80 0.39 68.7 12.4
83.5 1056.6 946.0 17.97 0.40 46.4 8.4
84.0 1127.4 962.5 17.25 0.40 36.7 6.7
84.5 1080.2 945.3 17.03 0.40 29.4 5.3
85.0 1081.7 943.0 16.81 0.41 26.3 4.7
85.5 1245.4 938.5 12.37 0.41 32.6 5.8
86.0 1444.5 961.0 13.92 0.41 67.2 12.3
86.5 1457.7 1009.0 13.83 0.41 82.6 15.9
87.0 1459.9 1009.0 13.92 0.41 88.0 16.9
87.5 1457.7 1015.0 13.81 0.42 88.8 17.2
88.0 1457.7 1015.0 13.92 0.42 88.0 17.0
88.5 1484.3 1042.0 13.95 0.43 88.7 17.6
89.0 1504.9 1057.0 14.10 0.43 89.5 18.0
89.5 1504.9 1063.0 14.06 0.43 88.2 17.9
90.0 1507.1 1081.0 14.13 0.43 88.2 18.2
90.5 1504.9 1105.0 14.51 0.43 88.0 18.5
91.0 1345.7 1082.5 16.81 0.43 71.8 14.8
91.5 1363.4 1105.0 16.67 0.44 60.7 12.8
92.0 1363.4 1105.0 16.16 0.44 55.0 11.6
92.5 1440.0 1112.5 15.22 0.44 60.9 12.9
93.0 1481.3 1112.5 15.22 0.45 70.7 15.0
93.5 1457.7 1129.0 15.37 0.46 70.7 15.2

292
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

94.0 1444.5 1129.0 15.71 0.46 70.7 15.2

94.5 1391.4 1153.0 16.96 0.46 63.7 14.0
95.0 1269.0 1139.5 19.03 0.46 44.5 9.7
95.5 1174.6 1129.0 20.62 0.46 29.8 6.4
96.0 1056.6 1105.0 20.29 0.46 8.4 1.8
96.5 1221.8 1107.3 17.25 0.46 9.2 1.9
97.0 1198.2 1105.0 17.10 0.46 18.7 3.9
97.5 1224.7 1106.5 16.98 0.46 25.7 5.4
98.0 1280.0 1105.0 13.92 0.46 27.3 5.7
98.5 1504.9 1107.3 13.37 0.46 55.0 11.6
99.0 1410.5 1129.0 16.52 0.46 67.2 14.4
99.5 1277.8 1115.5 17.10 0.47 49.9 10.6
100.0 1202.6 1129.0 18.55 0.47 33.9 7.3
100.5 1185.7 1105.0 17.61 0.47 25.7 5.4
101.0 1221.8 1108.0 17.61 0.47 23.4 4.9
101.5 1127.4 1088.5 19.13 0.47 16.6 3.4
102.0 1127.4 1084.0 18.77 0.47 8.4 1.7
102.5 1154.0 1090.0 18.17 0.47 11.8 2.5
103.0 1127.4 1058.5 17.83 0.47 9.0 1.8
103.5 1221.8 1064.5 14.64 0.47 13.4 2.7
104.0 1374.4 1081.0 14.79 0.47 39.5 8.1
104.5 1410.5 1105.0 13.93 0.47 53.6 11.3
105.0 1552.1 1129.0 12.82 0.47 74.1 15.9
105.5 1484.3 1105.0 13.05 0.47 77.6 16.3
106.0 1457.7 1129.0 14.50 0.49 74.1 15.9
106.5 1417.9 1139.5 15.43 0.49 68.3 14.8
107.0 1434.1 1135.0 15.80 0.49 63.7 13.8
107.5 1394.3 1153.0 16.23 0.50 60.6 13.3
108.0 1209.3 1129.0 19.28 0.50 40.0 8.6
108.5 1174.6 1129.0 20.73 0.51 27.3 5.9
109.0 1033.0 1105.0 20.44 0.51 0.0 0.0
109.5 1033.0 1105.0 20.34 0.51 0.0 0.0
110.0 1015.3 1088.5 19.44 0.51 0.0 0.0
110.5 1056.6 1060.8 18.33 0.51 0.0 0.0
111.0 1154.7 1044.3 15.68 0.51 0.0 0.0
111.5 1363.4 1037.0 14.25 0.51 29.1 6.0
112.0 1387.0 1105.0 14.40 0.51 47.3 10.0
112.5 1374.4 1105.0 14.50 0.51 54.7 11.5
113.0 1364.8 1105.0 14.27 0.51 55.0 11.6
113.5 1481.3 1105.0 12.76 0.51 63.7 13.4
114.0 1457.7 1129.0 12.49 0.51 70.7 15.2
114.5 1482.8 1135.0 12.76 0.51 70.7 15.3
115.0 1461.4 1135.8 12.47 0.51 70.7 15.3
115.5 1457.7 1138.0 12.47 0.51 68.6 14.9
116.0 1463.6 1156.0 12.37 0.52 67.4 14.8
116.5 1465.1 1177.0 12.47 0.52 67.6 15.2
117.0 1481.3 1187.5 12.92 0.52 68.5 15.5

293
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

117.5 1481.3 1180.0 13.93 0.52 67.4 15.1

118.0 1316.2 1177.0 17.84 0.53 53.8 12.1
118.5 1248.3 1177.0 18.77 0.54 33.2 7.5
119.0 1174.6 1156.0 20.44 0.54 20.0 4.4
119.5 1080.2 1156.0 20.73 0.54 0.0 0.0
120.0 1090.5 1057.0 17.54 0.54 0.0 0.0
120.5 938.7 1044.3 19.61 0.55 0.0 0.0
121.0 891.5 1009.0 19.16 0.55 0.0 0.0
121.5 844.3 937.1 18.74 0.55 -10.8 0.0
122.0 803.0 898.1 17.97 0.55 0.0 0.0
122.5 713.8 841.1 16.96 0.55 0.0 0.0
123.0 702.7 756.3 16.38 0.55 0.0 0.0
123.5 685.0 728.6 16.09 0.55 0.0 0.0
124.0 682.1 680.6 15.80 0.55 0.0 0.0
124.5 655.5 649.1 15.53 0.55 0.0 0.0
125.0 636.4 601.1 15.08 0.55 0.0 0.0
125.5 633.4 529.1 15.08 0.55 0.0 0.0
126.0 608.3 457.1 14.64 0.55 11.8 1.0
126.5 593.6 371.6 14.13 0.55 11.8 0.3
127.0 593.6 289.1 14.13 0.55 16.6 0.9
127.5 631.9 174.3 14.64 0.55 22.2 0.7
128.0 612.8 14.68 0.55 23.7 0.0
128.5 608.3 0.0 14.50 0.55 36.9 0.0
129.0 608.3 0.0 14.50 0.55 47.8 0.0
129.5 587.7 0.0 14.06 0.55 60.3 0.0
130.0 631.9 14.64 0.55 68.8 0.0
130.5 609.8 0.0 14.40 0.55 75.1 0.0
131.0 608.3 0.0 14.38 0.55 74.8 0.0
131.5 584.7 0.0 13.95 0.55 74.1 0.0
132.0 584.7 0.0 13.92 0.55 74.8 0.0
132.5 637.8 14.64 0.55 78.2 0.0
133.0 642.3 0.0 15.22 0.55 82.7 0.0
133.5 584.7 0.0 14.10 0.55 81.1 0.0
134.0 587.7 0.0 14.08 0.55 77.6 0.0
134.5 609.8 0.0 14.35 0.55 79.1 0.0
135.0 608.3 0.0 14.50 0.55 81.1 0.0
135.5 612.8 0.0 14.35 0.56 81.1 0.0
136.0 608.3 0.0 14.12 0.56 77.6 0.0
136.5 608.3 0.0 14.35 0.56 78.7 0.0
137.0 608.3 0.0 14.35 0.56 81.1 0.0
137.5 611.3 0.0 13.92 0.56 81.1 0.0
138.0 608.3 0.0 14.11 0.57 77.6 0.0
138.5 609.1 0.0 14.50 0.57 81.1 0.0
139.0 571.5 0.0 14.06 0.57 78.2 0.0
139.5 631.9 - 14.50 0.57 81.1 0.0
140.0 614.2 0.0 14.50 0.57 81.1 0.0
140.5 609.8 0.0 14.53 0.57 81.1 0.0

294
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

88,8888
Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuelweight Torque Horse-
(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

141.0 567.0 14.13 0.57 77.6 0.0

141.5 592.1 14.64 0.57 77.8 0.0
142.0 619.4 - 14.39 0.57 84.5 0.0
142.5 608.3 14.06 0.57 81.1 0.0
143.0 595.1 13.97 0.58 78.2 0.0
143.5 540.5 13.05 0.58 74.1 0.0
144.0 608.3 0.0 14.11 0.58 74.1 0.0
144.5 631.9 14.09 0.58 78.5 0.0
145.0 590.6 0.0 13.82 0.58 77.6 0.0
145.5 608.3 0.0 13.94 0.58 74.8 0.0
146.0 584.7 0.0 14.06 0.58 75.2 0.0
146.5 589.2 0.0 13.77 0.58 72.3 0.0
147.0 619.4 0.0 14.64 0.58 81.1 0.0
147.5 608.3 0.0 14.35 0.58 78.7 0.0
148.0 584.7 0.0 13.93 0.58 77.6 0.0
148.5 584.7 0.0 13.63 0.58 74.1 0.0
149.0 608.3 0.0 14.50 0.58 77.6 0.0
149.5 631.9 0.0 14.71 0.58 81.1 0.0
150.0 609.8 0.0 14.41 0.58 81.1 0.0
150.5 589.9 0.0 13.77 0.58 77.8 0.0
151.0 564.1 0.0 14.06 0.58 74.2 0.0
151.5 586.2 0.0 13.97 0.58 74.6 0.0
152.0 590.6 0.0 13.92 0.58 74.1 0.0
152.5 608.3 0.0 14.21 0.58 77.8 0.0
153.0 608.3 0.0 14.27 0.58 77.8 0.0
153.5 584.7 0.0 14.13 0.58 77.6 0.0
154.0 608.3 0.0 14.35 0.59 77.6 0.0
154.5 584.7 0.0 13.77 0.59 77.6 0.0
155.0 561.1 0.0 13.24 0.59 70.7 0.0
155.5 593.6 0.0 13.66 0.59 71.6 0.0
156.0 590.6 0.0 14.24 0.59 72.2 0.0
156.5 584.7 0.0 13.96 0.59 75.0 0.0
157.0 584.7 0.0 13.54 0.59 72.0 0.0
157.5 587.7 0.0 14.21 0.59 75.2 0.0
158.0 608.3 0.0 14.50 0.59 78.9 0.0
158.5 561.1 0.0 13.79 0.59 74.3 0.0
159.0 561.1 0.0 13.19 0.59 71.1 0.0
159.5 564.1 0.0 13.24 0.59 63.7 0.0
160.0 584.7 0.0 13.81 0.59 70.9 0.0
160.5 584.7 0.0 13.48 0.59 77.6 0.0
161.0 567.0 0.0 13.64 0.59 70.7 0.0
161.5 592.1 0.0 13.92 0.59 75.0 0.0
162.0 570.7 0.0 13.77 0.59 77.6 0.0
162.5 584.7 0.0 13.53 0.59 74.1 0.0
163.0 562.6 0.0 13.80 0.59 74.6 0.0
163.5 584.7 0.0 13.77 0.59 74.1 0.0
164.0 584.7 0.0 14.06 0.59 74.1 0.0

295
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

164.5 547.9 0.0 13.19 0.59 71.3 0.0

165.0 608.3 0.0 13.96 0.59 72.0 0.0
165.5 609.8 0.0 14.35 0.59 77.8 0.0
166.0 586.2 0.0 14.13 0.59 77.6 0.0
166.5 619.4 0.0 14.11 0.59 77.6 0.0
167.0 584.7 0.0 13.77 0.59 74.7 0.0
167.5 608.3 0.0 13.92 0.59 74.6 0.0
168.0 608.3 0.0 13.77 0.59 75.6 0.0
168.5 985.8 0.0 9.71 0.59 105.3 0.0
169.0 1177.6 0.0 12.91 0.59 217.6 0.0
169.5 1269.0 0.0 9.28 0.59 250.7 0.0
170.0 1487.2 10.15 0.59 319.9 0.0
170.5 1488.7 227.6 9.86 0.59 309.5 13.4
171.0 1520.5 361.1 9.74 0.59 286.4 19.7
171.5 1575.7 409.1 9.17 0.61 254.1 19.8
172.0 1699.6 481.1 8.91 0.61 250.9 23.0
172.5 1835.2 553.1 7.60 0.61 262.4 27.6
173.0 1907.5 625.1 7.74 0.61 265.2 31.6
173.5 1811.7 652.1 6.14 0.62 243.9 30.3
174.0 1788.1 721.1 4.78 0.63 240.3 33.0
174.5 1954.7 793.1 4.49 0.63 268.2 40.5
175.0 2025.5 889.1 5.80 0.63 286.1 48.4
175.5 1953.2 937.1 8.03 0.63 264.5 47.2
176.0 1840.4 938.5 9.77 0.63 220.4 39.4
176.5 1622.9 961.0 9.71 0.65 165.6 30.3
177.0 1457.7 985.0 16.43 0.65 136.4 25.6
177.5 991.7 961.0 18.77 0.66 65.3 11.9
178.0 962.3 937.1 19.13 0.67 29.6 5.3
178.5 921.0 920.6 18.99 0.67 11.8 2.1
179.0 891.5 913.1 18.77 0.67 0.0 0.0
179.5 891.5 913.1 18.70 0.67 0.0 0.0
180.0 878.2 913.1 18.55 0.68 0.0 0.0
180.5 1158.4 913.1 14.24 0.68 11.8 2.1
181.0 1249.8 890.6 15.37 0.68 40.1 6.8
181.5 1221.8 916.1 15.08 0.69 53.4 9.3
182.0 1221.8 913.1 14.79 0.69 50.3 8.8
182.5 1255.7 943.0 15.08 0.69 55.0 9.9
183.0 1221.8 937.1 14.51 0.69 54.4 9.5
183.5 1245.4 937.1 14.13 0.70 53.8 9.6
184.0 1277.8 940.0 13.19 0.70 56.8 10.2
184.5 1484.3 961.0 12.18 0.70 77.6 14.2
185.0 1512.3 991.8 11.77 0.70 94.9 17.9
185.5 1339.8 1009.0 18.47 0.70 85.8 16.5
186.0 988.8 967.0 19.62 0.70 39.5 7.3
186.5 988.7 947.5 19.28 0.70 16.3 2.9
187.0 867.9 913.1 18.77 0.70 0.0 0.0
187.5 849.4 893.6 18.41 0.70 0.0 0.0

296
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

188.0 797.1 865.1 17.61 0.70 0.0 0.0

188.5 752.9 841.1 16.96 0.70 0.0 0.0
189.0 749.9 817.1 16.84 0.70 0.0 0.0
189.5 707.9 756.3 16.23 0.70 0.0 0.0
190.0 710.1 721.1 16.01 0.71 0.0 0.0
190.5 679.1 673.1 15.70 0.71 0.0 0.0
191.0 682.1 649.1 15.84 0.71 0.0 0.0
191.5 690.2 649.1 15.70 0.71 0.0 0.0
192.0 683.5 656.6 14.06 0.71 0.0 0.0
192.5 891.5 656.6 14.36 0.71 13.4 1.7
193.0 990.3 673.1 12.32 0.71 27.3 3.5
193.5 1108.2 660.3 12.34 0.71 53.6 6.7
194.0 1297.0 697.1 12.18 0.71 78.9 10.5
194.5 1387.0 706.1 11.60 0.71 99.9 13.4
195.0 1457.7 751.1 10.58 0.71 122.6 17.5
195.5 1462.2 756.3 9.13 0.71 127.1 18.3
196.0 1605.2 802.1 8.13 0.71 144.2 22.0
196.5 1678.9 844.1 7.26 0.71 164.6 26.4
197.0 1673.0 874.1 4.80 0.71 174.5 29.0
197.5 1911.9 947.5 3.68 0.71 200.3 36.1
198.0 2212.8 1033.0 3.33 0.71 235.0 46.2
198.5 2293.9 1129.0 3.39 0.73 278.8 59.9
199.0 2354.3 1201.0 3.91 0.73 295.7 67.6
199.5 2341.1 1250.5 4.39 0.74 289.2 68.9
200.0 2318.2 1321.0 5.95 0.74 271.4 68.3
200.5 2283.5 1345.0 6.83 0.75 235.0 60.2
201.0 2001.9 1345.0 5.22 0.75 205.7 52.7
201.5 2003.4 1372.8 4.68 0.75 191.8 50.1
202.0 2047.6 1417.0 6.38 0.77 191.8 51.8
202.5 2032.8 1465.0 5.84 0.77 181.4 50.6
203.0 2028.4 1489.0 6.70 0.77 171.5 48.6
203.5 2000.4 1513.0 7.39 0.79 160.9 46.3
204.0 1979.8 1517.5 7.54 0.79 150.3 43.4
204.5 1954.7 1524.3 7.39 0.79 139.9 40.6
205.0 2001.1 1571.5 7.54 0.79 139.9 41.9
205.5 2003.4 1609.0 7.54 0.79 137.7 42.2
206.0 2024.0 1633.0 7.39 0.80 136.4 42.4
206.5 2000.4 1633.0 7.83 0.80 131.0 40.7
207.0 1976.8 1640.5 7.83 0.82 124.2 38.8
207.5 2025.5 1691.5 8.16 0.82 124.2 40.0
208.0 2003.4 1705.0 9.43 0.82 122.6 39.8
208.5 1978.3 1711.0 10.15 0.83 110.3 35.9
209.0 1931.1 1705.0 10.34 0.83 96.5 31.3
209.5 1929.6 1711.0 10.48 0.83 89.3 29.1
210.0 1957.6 1735.0 11.47 0.84 88.0 29.1
210.5 1882.4 1732.0 13.24 0.84 75.3 24.8
211.0 1841.1 1716.3 14.35 0.85 61.2 20.0

297
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuelweight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

211.5 1835.2 1711.0 14.64 0.85 53.4 17.4

212.0 1813.1 1705.0 15.37 0.86 46.4 15.1
212.5 1835.2 1729.0 16.52 0.86 46.4 15.3
213.0 1976.8 1499.5 7.39 0.86 154.3 44.1
213.5 1812.4 1706.5 17.00 0.87 39.5 12.8
214.0 1788.1 1705.0 16.96 0.87 36.1 11.7
214.5 1794.0 1705.0 16.71 0.87 36.5 11.8
215.0 1835.2 1716.3 16.67 0.87 41.1 13.4
215.5 1836.7 1716.3 16.14 0.87 46.7 15.2
216.0 1869.2 1714.0 15.43 0.88 50.1 16.4
216.5 1835.2 1708.0 15.94 0.88 50.1 16.3
217.0 1811.7 1705.0 17.17 0.89 43.8 14.2
217.5 1811.7 1705.0 17.15 0.89 40.4 13.1
218.0 1835.2 1716.3 16.67 0.89 41.1 13.4
218.5 1886.9 1711.8 14.26 0.90 50.3 16.4
219.0 1940.7 1735.8 13.64 0.90 68.5 22.6
219.5 1891.3 1729.0 14.37 0.91 63.7 21.0
220.0 1906.0 1753.0 14.35 0.91 61.8 20.6
220.5 1911.9 1753.0 14.11 0.91 63.7 21.3
221.0 1940.7 1760.5 13.69 0.91 67.2 22.5
221.5 1929.6 1753.0 13.63 0.91 67.2 22.4
222.0 1931.1 1761.2 13.63 0.91 67.2 22.5
222.5 1953.2 1781.5 13.77 0.91 70.7 24.0
223.0 1953.2 1787.5 13.69 0.91 70.7 24.1
223.5 2000.4 1801.0 13.34 0.91 74.1 25.4
224.0 2000.4 1801.0 12.76 0.91 74.8 25.6
224.5 2000.4 1805.5 12.47 0.92 78.0 26.8
225.0 2031.4 1825.0 12.37 0.92 81.1 28.2
225.5 2047.6 1829.5 12.32 0.92 84.5 29.4
226.0 2024.0 1849.0 12.61 0.93 84.5 29.8
226.5 2028.4 1849.0 12.76 0.93 81.3 23.6
227.0 2026.9 1852.0 12.76 0.93 78.9 27.8
227.5 2029.2 1873.0 12.78 0.93 77.6 27.7
228.0 2050.5 1873.0 12.20 0.94 78.5 28.0
228.5 2165.6 1921.0 10.58 0.94 91.4 33.4
229.0 2174.4 1921.0 9.86 0.95 102.3 37.4
229.5 2175.9 1945.0 10.15 0.96 108.7 40.3
230.0 2165.6 1945.0 11.17 0.96 103.1 38.2
230.5 2167.0 1969.0 11.22 0.96 98.8 37.0
231.0 2165.6 1975.0 11.89 0.96 94.9 35.7
231.5 21420 1976.5 12.32 0.96 88.0 33.1
232.0 2142.0 1973.5 13.08 0.96 81.5 30.6
232.5 2125.8 1993.0 13.05 0.97 77.6 29.4
233.0 2142.0 1993.0 13.24 0.98 74.3 28.2
233.5 2128.0 2000.5 14.64 0.98 74.1 28.2
234.0 2071.2 1993.0 14.79 0.99 60.3 22.9
234.5 2072.7 1976.5 15.22 0.99 51.4 19.3

298
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

235.0 2073.4 1993.0 15.37 0.99 50.6 19.2

235.5 2100.7 1993.0 15.94 1.00 50.1 19.0
236.0 2094.8 1993.0 15.95 1.00 48.0 18.2
236.5 2071.2 1978.0 15.37 1.00 46.4 17.5
237.0 2142.0 1993.0 13.63 1.01 56.8 21.6
237.5 2142.0 1993.0 13.65 1.01 67.2 25.5
238.0 2142.0 2017.0 14.93 1.01 63.7 24.5
238.5 2118,4 2000.5 14.93 1.01 57.9 22.1
239.0 2118.4 1993.0 14.64 1.02 56.8 21.6
239.5 2142.0 2002.0 13.77 1.02 61.4 23.4
240.0 2175.2 2017.0 13.77 1.02 67.3 25.9
240.5 2171.5 2041.0 13.63 1.03 70.7 27.5
241.0 2199.5 2048.5 13.92 1.03 74.1 28.9
241.5 2165.6 2017.0 14.06 1.03 67.2 25.8
242.0 2146.4 2041.0 14.64 1.03 64.1 24.9
242.5 2147.9 2024.5 14.50 1.03 60.3 23.2
243.0 2214.2 2065.0 14.11 1.03 67.2 26.4
243.5 2212.8 2065.0 14.06 1.03 70.7 27.8
244.0 2125.8 2044.0 15.68 1.04 60.9 23.7
244.5 2142.0 2041.0 15.94 1.04 53.4 20.7
245.0 2125.8 2041.0 15.83 1.04 49.9 19.4
245.5 2147.9 2044.0 15.85 1.06 51.4 20.0
246.0 2128.7 2050.0 15.80 1.06 50.1 19.6
246.5 2142.0 2041.0 15.66 1.06 49.9 19.4
247.0 2150.8 2047.0 15.66 1.06 53.4 20.8
247.5 2150.8 2041.0 15.51 1.06 53.4 20.7
248.0 2147.9 2065.0 15.51 1.07 53.4 21.0
248.5 2172.9 2050.0 15.54 1.07 54.2 21.2
249.0 2165.6 2041.0 15.51 1.07 53.4 20.7
249.5 2142.0 2045.5 15.51 1.07 53.4 20.8
250.0 2165.6 2048.5 15.54 1.07 53.4 20.8
250.5 2175.9 2065.0 15.67 1.07 53.6 21.1
251.0 2165.6 2050.0 15.66 1.07 53.4 20.8
251.5 2165.6 2041.9 16.09 1.09 50.1 19.5
252.0 2119.1 2042.5 16.98 1.10 46.4 18.1
252.5 2118.4 2041.0 17.61 1.10 40.0 15.5
253.0 2129.4 2041.0 18.16 1.10 39.5 15.4
253.5 2118.4 2026.0 18.28 1.11 36.3 14.0
254.0 2094.8 2017.0 18.41 1.11 32.6 12.5
254.5 2078.6 2002.0 18.77 1.11 29.1 11.1
255.0 2071.2 1993.0 19.28 1.11 25.7 9.7
255.5 2047.6 2002.7 19.93 1.11 22.2 8.5
256.0 2029.2 1993.0 20.06 1.11 13.4 5.1
256.5 2010.7 1975.0 19.93 1.11 12.5 4.7
257.0 2000.4 1945.0 19.86 1.11 11.8 4.4
257.5 2000.4 1945.0 19.77 1.11 9.8 3.6
258.0 1954.7 1927.0 19.71 1.12 11.8 4.3

299
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

258.5 2000.4 1930.0 19.57 1.12 13.1 4.8

259.0 2024.0 1931.5 18.41 1.12 19.4 7.1
259.5 2165.6 2065.0 15.67 1.12 54.9 21.6
260.0 2031.4 1924.0 17.54 1.12 36.3 13.3
260.5 2031.4 1931.5 17.31 1.12 39.6 14.6
261.0 2047.6 1927.0 17.26 1.13 41.1 15.1
261.5 2026.9 1945.0 17.25 1.14 41.1 15.2
262.0 2026.9 1925.5 17.13 1.14 43.6 16.0
262.5 2024.0 1921.0 16.98 1.14 41.1 15.0
263.0 2024.0 1927.0 17.10 1.14 41.1 15.1
263.5 2025.5 1921.0 17.25 1.14 41.1 15.0
264.0 2024.0 1928.5 17.56 1.14 41.1 15.1
264.5 1986.4 1904.5 17.61 1.14 39.5 14.3
265.0 1985.7 1904.5 18.26 1.14 32.8 11.9
265.5 1976.8 1897.0 18.55 1.15 29.1 10.5
266.0 2000.4 1906.0 18.74 1.15 29.1 10.6
266.5 1976.8 1897.0 18.70 1.16 29.1 10.5
267.0 1959.9 1897.0 19.05 1.16 25.7 9.3
267.5 1929.6 1855.7 19.01 1.16 20.3 7.2
268.0 1953.2 1880.5 19.19 1.16 22.2 8.0
268.5 1959.1 1873.0 18.19 1.16 25.7 9.2
269.0 1979.0 1877.5 17.61 1.16 30.2 10.8
269.5 1940.7 1858.0 18.12 1.16 32.6 11.5
270.0 1911.9 1849.0 19.13 1.17 27.3 9.6
270.5 1931.1 1856.5 18.77 1.17 23.5 8.3
271.0 1962.1 1858.0 17.97 1.17 30.8 10.9
271.5 1961.3 1873.0 17.97 1.18 36.1 12.9
272.0 1953.2 1850.5 17.87 1.18 36.7 12.9
272.5 1929.6 1831.0 17.87 1.18 33.0 11.5
273.0 1934.0 1849.0 18.26 1.18 33.5 11.8
273.5 1931.1 1849.0 18.19 1.18 34.1 12.0
274.0 1954.7 1849.0 17.28 1.18 36.9 13.0
274.5 2000.4 1849.0 15.82 1.18 47.3 16.7
275.0 1960.6 1849.0 15.22 1.18 53.8 18.9
275.5 2007.8 1873.0 15.37 1.18 57.0 20.3
276.0 2024.0 1873.0 15.38 1.18 60.3 21.5
276.5 2024.0 1879.0 14.79 1.18 61.4 22.0
277.0 2024.0 1873.7 14.21 1.18 63.7 22.7
277.5 2047.6 1878. 13.93 1.19 67.2 24.0
278.0 2094.8 1903.0 13.39 1.19 74.1 26.9
278.5 2071.2 1921.0 13.11 1.19 75.2 27.5
279.0 2094.8 1922.5 12.95 1.19 77.8 28.5
279.5 2119.9 1922.5 12.61 1.19 81.3 29.7
280.0 2145.7 1945.0 11.74 1.19 85.6 31.7
280.5 2212.8 1975.0 11.16 1.20 95.6 35.9
281.0 2192.1 1993.0 11.06 1.20 98.4 37.3
281.5 2218.7 2000.5 11.31 1.21 101.8 38.8

300
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

282.0 2189.2 1997.5 12.39 1.21 96.5 36.7

282.5 2118.4 2000.5 12.78 1.22 85.3 32.5
283.0 2143.4 2003.5 13.65 1.22 77.6 29.6
283.5 2192.1 2017.0 12.76 1.2 78.7 30.2
284.0 2165.6 2041.0 15.00 1.22 81.1 31.5
284.5 2099.2 1999.0 14.93 1.22 57.5 21.9
285.0 2100.7 2000.5 15.80 1.23 55.0 20.9
285.5 2118.4 2000.5 16.23 1.23 51.1 19.5
286.0 2105.1 2000.5 17.25 1.23 46.4 17.7
286.5 2094.8 2003.5 18.70 1.24 40.4 15.4
237.0 2047.6 1993.0 18.39 1.24 29.1 11.1
287.5 2024.0 1953.2 19.20 1.24 22.2 8.3
288.0 2001.9 1971.2 20.15 1.24 19.2 7.2
288.5 1976.8 1945.0 20.75 1.26 11.8 4.4
289.0 1932.6 1946.5 21.63 1.26 0.0 0.0
289.5 1657.5 1906.0 22.76 1.26 -12.4 0.0
290.0 1646.5 1873.0 22.32 1.26 -28.1 0.0
290.5 1701.1 1849.0 21.49 1.26 -29.3 0.0
291.0 1835.2 1849.0 20.48 1.26 -19.3 0.0
291.5 1846.3 1853.5 19.42 1.26 -11.8 0.0
292.0 1916.4 1849.0 17.57 1.26 0.0 0.0
292.5 1906.0 1849.0 17.26 1.26 15.3 5.4
293.0 1936.3 1849.0 17.39 1.26 25.7 9.0
293.5 1908.2 1849.0 17.61 1.26 25.7 9.0
294.0 1906.0 1852.0 18.46 1.26 25.7 9.1
294.5 1838.2 1812.2 19.00 1.26 12.5 4.3
295.0 1819.0 1801.0 18.45 1.27 8.4 2.9
295.5 1906.0 1801.0 16.81 1.27 13.4 4.6
296.0 1914.9 1808.5 16.59 1.27 32.6 11.2
296.5 1929.6 1825.0 17.25 1.28 36.1 12.5
297.0 1846.3 1804.0 19.28 1.29 27.3 9.4
297.5 1811.7 1777.0 19.31 1.31 12.0 4.1
298.0 1885.4 1777.0 16.86 1.31 22.2 7.5
298.5 1882.4 1786.0 17.02 1.31 32.6 11.1
299.0 1906.0 1804.0 17.39 1.31 39.5 13.6
299.5 1867.7 1777.0 17.26 1.31 36.5 12.3
300.0 1861.8 1781.5 17.26 1.33 37.1 12.6
300.5 1869.9 1777.0 17.39 1.33 38.5 11.3
301.0 1861.8 1780.0 17.46 1.33 36.1 12.2
301.5 1864.7 1801.0 18.15 1.33 34.1 11.7
302.0 1820.5 1777.0 18.33 1.33 27.0 9.1
302.5 1844.1 1760.5 18.85 1.33 25.8 8.6
303.0 1774.8 1738.0 19.49 1.33 18.7 6.2
303.5 1764.5 1733.5 20.50 1.33 13.4 4.4
304.0 1764.5 1735.8 20.58 1.33 8.8 2.9
304.5 1746.0 1716.3 20.48 1.33 8.4 2.7
305.0 1720.2 1705.0 20.30 1.33 0.0 0.0

301
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

305.5 1698.1 1681.0 20.17 1.33 0.0 0.0

306.0 1889.8 1811.5 17.25 1.33 32.6 11.2
306.5 1693.7 1685.5 21.45 1.33 0.0 0.0
307.0 1528.5 1636.0 21.64 1.33 0.0 0.0
307.5 1457.7 1618.0 21.64 1.33 -17.8 0.0
308.0 1410.5 1610.5 22.03 1.33 -22.8 0.0
308.5 1389.2 1592.5 21.93 1.33 -26.0 0.0
309.0 1363.4 1585.0 21.89 1.33 -25.8 0.0
309.5 1297.7 1543.0 21.60 1.33 -28.6 0.0
310.0 1339.8 1546.0 21.66 1.34 -26.2 0.0
310.5 1300.7 1513.0 21.45 1.34 -29.0 0.0
311.0 1301.4 1514.5 21.62 1.34 -26.2 0.0
311.5 1276.4 1489.0 21.48 1.34 -26.2 0.0
312.0 1232.1 1451.5 21.17 1.34 -24.6 0.0
312.5 1221.8 1427.5 21.19 1.34 -22.4 0.0
313.0 1185.7 1393.0 20.87 1.34 -22.8 0.0
313.5 1174.6 1369.0 20.78 1.34 -22.8 0.0
314.0 1158.4 1352.5 20.77 1.34 -19.3 0.0
314.5 1127.4 1321.0 20.47 1.34 -22.4 0.0
315.0 1127.4 1298.5 20.44 1.34 -18.9 0.0
315.5 1083.2 1249.0 20.17 1.34 -19.3 0.0
316.0 1033.0 1232.5 19.88 1.35 -18.0 0.0
316.5 1033.0 1225.0 19.86 1.35 -15.9 0.0
317.0 1009.4 1177.8 19.71 1.35 -15.9 0.0
317.5 947.5 1153.0 19.18 1.35 -15.9 0.0
318.0 902.5 1129.0 18.73 1.35 -18.7 0.0
318.5 894.4 1105.0 18.41 1.35 -15.9 0.0
319.0 941.6 1108.0 18.99 1.35 -14.8 0.0
319.5 902.5 1105.0 18.71 1.35 -15.9 0.0
320.0 962.3 1091.5 18.77 1.35 -14.6 0.0
320.5 902.5 1044.3 18.77 1.35 -15.6 0.0
321.0 875.2 1034.5 18.19 1.35 -14.8 0.0
321.5 891.5 1033.0 18.18 1.35 -12.4 0.0
322.0 850.9 1016.5 18.04 1.35 -12.2 0.0
322.5 798.6 989.5 17.54 1.35 -12.4 0.0
323.0 808.2 961.0 17.42 1.35 -12.4 0.0
323.5 829.5 961.0 17.57 1.35 0.0 0.0
324.0 797.1 923.6 16.81 1.35 0.0 0.0
324.5 779.4 895.1 16.72 1.35 0.0 0.0
325.0 751.4 865.1 16.38 1.35 0.0 0.0
325.5 749.9 817.1 16.23 1.35 0.0 0.0
326.0 726.3 756.3 15.80 1.35 0.0 0.0
326.5 732.2 721.1 16.11 1.35 0.0 0.0
327.0 709.4 697.1 15.39 1.35 0.0 0.0
327.5 702.7 673.1 15.41 1.35 0.0 0.0
328.0 679.1 634.1 14.93 1.35 0.0 0.0
328.5 702.7 631.1 15.26 1.35 8.4 1.0

302
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

329.0 658.5 605.6 14.40 1.35 8.4 1.0

329.5 686.5 586.1 14.69 1.35 11.8 1.3
330.0 662.2 553.1 14.79 1.35 11.8 1.2
330.5 619.4 505.1 14.06 1.35 11.8 1.1
331.0 614.2 488.6 13.48 1.35 12.3 1.1
331.5 631.9 457.1 14.09 1.35 13.4 1.2
332.0 608.3 433.1 13.63 1.35 18.7 1.5
332.5 614.2 385.1 13.34 1.35 18.7 1.4
333.0 608.3 337.1 13.93 1.35 20.3 1.3
333.5 612.8 217.1 13.34 1.35 25.7 1.1
334.0 639.3 76.1 13.93 1.35 25.7 0.4
334.5 686.5 0.0 14.50 1.35 22.2 0.0
335.0 655.5 0.0 14.68 1.35 32.6 0.0
335.5 619.4 0.0 13.55 1.35 39.5 0.0
336.0 619.4 0.0 13.48 1.35 53.4 0.0
336.5 608.3 0.0 13.48 1.35 72.0 0.0
337.0 608.3 0.0 13.36 1.35 85.6 0.0
337.5 619.4 0.0 13.77 1.35 88.0 0.0
338.0 584.7 0.0 13.21 1.35 88.0 0.0
338.5 631.9 0.0 13.81 1.35 91.4 0.0
339.0 631.9 0.0 13.77 1.35 94.9 0.0
339.5. 640.8 0.0 13.77 1.35 92.8 0.0
340.0 631.9 0.0 13.92 1.35 95.8 0.0
340.5 608.3 0.0 13.67 1.35 92.1 0.0
341.0 631.9 0.0 13.77 1.35 94.9 0.0
341.5 609.8 0.0 13.48 1.35 91.9 0.0
342.0 619.4 0.0 13.24 1.35 91.4 0.0
342.5 608.3 0.0 13.77 1.35 91.4 0.0
343.0 631.9 0.0 13.65 1.35 91.4 0.0
343.5 660.7 0.0 . 14.35 1.35 94.9 0.0
344.0 608.3 0.0 13.55 1.35 94.9 0.0
344.5 655.5 0.0 13.77 1.35 94.9 0.0
345.0 593.6 0.0 13.19 1.35 91.4 0.0
345.5 631.9 0.0 13.92 1.35 91.4 0.0
346.0 655.5 0.0 14.06 1.35 94.9 0.0
346.5 619.4 0.0 13.63 1.35 92.1 0.0
347.0 631.9 0.0 13.68 1.36 92.7 0.0
347.5 619.4 0.0 13.77 1.36 95.3 0.0
348.0 631.9 0.0 13.92 1.37 94.9 0.0
348.5 595.1 0.0 13.34 1.37 91.9 0.0
349.0 664.4 0.0 14.06 1.37 93.0 0.0
349.5 661.4 0.0 14.13 1.37 98.4 0.0
350.0 631.9 0.0 13.48 1.37 91.4 0.0
350.5 609.8 0.0 12.32 1.37 84.5 0.0
351.0 969.6 0.0 12.37 1.37 130.4 0.0
351.5 1009.4 0.0 12.76 1.37 186.0 0.0
352.0 1062.5 0.0 11.16 1.37 203.1 0.0

303
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

352.5 618.7 0.0 13.63 1.37 91.4 0.0

353.0 1342.0 79.1 12.37 1.38 265.1 4.0
353.5 1391.4 169.1 12.18 1.38 262.7 8.5
354.0 1528.5 361.1 11.46 1.38 268.4 18.5
354.5 1580.1 468.3 11.16 1.38 258.9 23.1
355.0 1674.5 482.6 10.00 1.38 243.7 22.4
355.5 1846.3 553.1 8.85 1.38 261.1 27.5
356.0 17704 611.6 8.41 1.38 261.4 30.4
356.5 1698.1 658.1 7.84 1.38 251.5 31.5
357.0 1764.5 745.1 8.26 1.38 248.4 35.2
357.5 1770.4 756.3 8.41 1.38 235.0 33.8
358.0 1789.5 817.1 8.55 1.38 223.8 34.8
358.5 1789.5 844.1 8.84 1.38 213.5 34.3
359.0 1811.7 889.1 9.13 1.38 188.4 31.9
359.5 1693.7 943.0 8.30 1.39 184.9 33.2
360.0 1696.6 961.0 8.42 1.39 175.4 32.1
360.5 1693.7 985.0 8.70 1.40 171.1 32.1
361.0 1657.5 1009.0 8.55 1.41 164.1 31.5
361.5 1693.7 1044.3 8.70 1.41 162.0 32.2
362.0 1657.5 1089.3 10.00 1.41 157.2 32.6
362.5 1575.7 1105.0 11.20 1.42 136.4 28.7
363.0 1563.2 1111.0 11.19 1.42 119.1 25.2
363.5 1504.9 1108.0 12.76 1.42 105.3 22.2
364.0 1552.1 1132.8 13.19 1.43 99.0 21.4
364.5 1556.5 1163.5 13.98 1.43 99.9 22.1
365.0 1504.9 1153.0 14.13 1.43 88.6 19.5
365.5 1504.9 1177.0 14.50 1.44 84.8 19.0
366.0 1457.7 1156.0 14.21 1.44 77.7 17.1
366.5 1512.3 1186.0 14.64 1.44 81.1 18.3
367.0 1538.8 1225.0 14.79 1.44 84.5 19.7
367.5 1509.3 1225.0 14.64 1.45 81.1 18.9
368.0 1528.5 1225.0 14.55 1.45 78.2 18.3
368.5 1507.1 1225.0 14.50 1.45 77.6 18.1
369.0 1552.1 1249.0 14.93 1.46 81.1 19.3
369.5 1528.5 1249.0 15.51 1.46 78.0 18.6
370.0 1481.3 1249.0 15.66 1.46 70.7 16.8
370.5 1481.3 1273.0 16.81 1.46 67.2 16.3
371.0 1374.4 1231.8 18.85 1.46 51.1 12.0
371.5 1322.8 1249.0 19.63 1.46 36.1 8.6
372.0 1316.2 1249.0 19.86 1.47 29.1 6.9
372.5 1339.8 1234.0 19.62 1.47 26.1 6.1
373.0 1364.8 1225.0 17.97 1.47 29.1 6.8
373.5 1528.5 1249.0 14.79 1.47 50.8 12.1
374.0 1563.2 1250.5 14.68 1.47 68.7 16.4
374.5 1583.1 1297.0 14.93 1.47 81.1 20.0
375.0 1534.4 1297.0 15.87 1.47 77.6 19.2
375.5 1481.3 1297.0 17.10 1.49 68.3 16.9

304
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

376.0 1434.1 1273.0 17.61 1.49 54.7 13.2

376.5 1434.1 1297.0 17.98 1.49 49.9 12.3
377.0 1434.1 1297.0 17.61 1.49 47.1 11.6
377.5 1463.6 1297.0 17.54 1.49 49.9 12.3
378.0 1440.0 1297.0 17.43 1.49 49.9 12.3
378.5 1457.7 1297.0 17.57 1.49 49.9 12.3
379.0 1457.7 1297.0 17.83 1.49 49.9 12.3
379.5 1457.7 1321.0 18.14 1.49 47.7 12.0
380.0 1457.7 1303.0 18.01 1.49 46.4 11.5
380.5 1457.7 1321.0 18.12 1.49 46.4 11.7
381.0 1444.5 1297.0 17.57 1.49 44.5 11.0
381.5 1491.7 1304.5 16.96 1.49 49.9 12.4
382.0 1504.9 1321.0 16.96 1.49 53.4 13.4
382.5 1510.8 1321.0 17.16 1.49 56.8 14.3
383.0 1504.9 1324.8 17.54 1.49 55.0 13.9
383.5 1363.4 1297.0 19.86 1.50 43.0 10.6
384.0 1374.4 1321.0 20.31 1.50 32.6 8.2
384.5 1185.7 1297.0 21.02 1.50 13.4 3.3
385.0 1151.0 1273.0 20.58 1.51 0.0 0.0
385.5 1179.0 1273.0 20.80 1.51 0.0 0.0
386.0 1127.4 1225.0 20.44 1.51 -11.1 0.0
386.5 1131.8 1235.5 20.58 1.52 0.0 0.0
387.0 1134.8 1228.0 20.58 1.52 0.0 0.0
387.5 1103.8 1225.0 20.45 1.52 0.0 0.0
388.0 1080.2 1210.0 20.35 1.52 0.0 0.0
388.5 1080.2 1177.0 20.00 1.52 -11.1 0.0
389.0 996.9 1153.0 19.61 1.52 0.0 0.0
389.5 985.8 1106.5 19.43 1.52 0.0 0.0
390.0 985.8 1063.0 19.28 1.52 0.0 0.0
390.5 918.0 1019.5 18.77 1.52 0.0 0.0
391.0 867.9 945.3 18.12 1.52 0.0 0.0
391.5 827.3 923.6 17.59 1.52 0.0 0.0
392.0 797.1 889.1 17.25 1.52 0.0 0.0
392.5 773.5 826.1 16.52 1.52 0.0 0.0
393.0 773.5 775.1 16.58 1.52 0.0 0.0
393.5 681.3 721.1 15.66 1.52 0.0 0.0
394.0 729.3 660.3 15.80 1.52 6.2 0.8
394.5 688.0 649.1 14.84 1.52 11.8 1.5
395.0 713.8 610.1 15.22 1.52 16.4 1.9
395.5 655.5 532.1 14.50 1.52 18.7 1.9
396.0 662.9 468.3 14.70 1.52 20.0 1.8
396.5 631.9 436.1 13.95 1.52 23.3 1.9
397.0 679.1 372.3 14.41 1.52 26.1 1.9
397.5 679.1 300.3 14.25 1.53 30.6 1.8
398.0 608.3 97.1 13.34 1.53 29.1 0.5
398.5 679.1 0.0 14.35 1.53 29.1 0.0
399.0 966.7 1105.0 19.28 1.53 0.0 0.0

305
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

8888,8,
Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuelweight Torque Horse-
(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

399.5 631.9 13.92 1.53 57.3 0.0

400.0 679.1 0.0 14.50 1.53 71.1 0.0
400.5 639.3 0.0 13.92 1.53 81.1 0.0
401.0 611.3 0.0 13.63 1.53 84.5 0.0
401.5 655.5 13.92 1.53 92.7 0.0
402.0 655.5 0.0 14.22 1.53 95.6 0.0
402.5 657.0 14.10 1.53 102.0 0.0
403.0 655.5 0.0 14.13 1.53 101.8 0.0
403.5 637.8 0.0 14.12 1.53 96.5 0.0
404.0 655.5 0.0 14.13 1.53 102.0 0.0
404.5 631.9 0.0 13.53 1.53 99.2 0.0
405.0 665.8 0.0 13.96 1.53 98.4 0.0
405.5 608.3 0.0 13.34 1.53 96.5 0.0
406.0 655.5 0.0 13.83 1.53 92.7 0.0
406.5 640.8 0.0 13.55 1.53 94.9 0.0
407.0 1151.0 0.0 11.60 1.53 148.1 0.0
407.5 1276.4 0.0 13.77 1.54 268.0 0.0
408.0 1254.2 0.0 12.36 1.54 279.9 0.0
408.5 1363.4 11.45 1.54 285.5 0.0
409.0 1504.9 275.6 12.32 1.54 302.6 15.9
409.5 1481.3 372.3 11.89 1.54 271.4 19.2
410.0 1578.7 437.6 11.16 1.54 255.5 21.3
410.5 1657.5 489.3 10.58 1.54 254.1 23.7
411.0 1740.9 531.3 10.64 1.54 235.0 23.8
411.5 1508.4 564.3 8.91 1.54 226.4 24.3
412.0 1599.3 629.6 9.14 1.54 219.5 26.3
412.5 1673.0 679.1 3.88 1.54 219.7 28.4
413.0 1740.9 728.6 8.44 1.54 224.1 31.1
413.5 1811.7 779.6 7.99 1.54 229.9 34.1
414.0 1822.0 841.1 7.98 1.54 229.9 36.8
414.5 1846.8 889.1 8.84 1.54 224.1 37.9
415.0 1740.9 913.1 11.16 1.54 175.5 30.5
415.5 1693.7 937.1 8.03 1.54 168.7 30.1
416.0 1751.2 971.5 7.68 1.54 179.1 33.1
416.5 1749.7 1009.0 7.73 1.54 181.4 34.9
417.0 1725.4 1042.0 9.28 1.56 178.0 35.3
417.5 1628.8 1084.0 11.60 1.57 158.4 32.7
418.0 1556.5 1081.0 10.75 1.57 124.2 25.6
418.5 1575.7 1086.3 13.34 1.58 119.9 24.8
419.0 1299.9 1091.5 16.10 1.58 85.3 17.7
419.5 1202.6 1081.0 18.74 1.58 60.3 12.4
420.0 1037.5 1081.0 19.57 1.60 27.0 5.6
420.5 1060.3 1064.5 19.86 1.61 13.4 2.7
421.0 985.8 1033.0 19.28 1.63 0.0 0.0
421.5 1080.2 1033.0 18.16 1.64 0.0 0.0
422.0 1127.4 1033.0 18.26 1.64 11.8 2.3
422.5 1136.3 1057.0 19.00 1.64 22.2 4.5

306
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (lb) (ft-lb) power

88880
(in. Hg)

423.0 971.1 1033.0 19.14 1.64 9.1 1.8

423.5 963.7 1009.0 19.20 1.64 0.0 0.0
424.0 921.0 985.0 18.70 1.64 0.0 0.0
424.5 867.9 940.0 18.03 1.64 0.0 0.0
425.0 854.6 924.3 17.85 1.64 0.0 0.0
425.5 829.5 871.1 17.61 1.64 0.0 0.0
426.0 798.6 802.1 16.96 1.64 0.0 0.0
426.5 752.9 756.3 16.54 1.64 0.0 0.0
427.0 713.8 698.6 15.67 1.64 0.0 0.0
427.5 708.6 656.6 15.67 1.64 11.8 1.5
428.0 684.3 577.1 15.37 1.64 13.4 1.5
428.5 679.1 515.6 15.08 1.64 18.7 1.8
429.0 608.3 438.3 13.97 1.64 18.7 1.6
429.5 655.5 371.6 14.79 1.64 25.7 1.8
430.0 655.5 276.3 14.35 1.64 32.6 1.7
430.5 679.1 180.3 14.64 1.64 33.2 1.1
431.0 686.5 0.0 14.79 1.64 29.6 0.0
431.5 679.1 0.0 15.22 1.64 43.0 0.0
432.0 609.8 0.0 13.93 1.64 53.4 0.0
432.5 631.9 0.0 13.98 1.64 70.7 0.0
433.0 639.3 0.0 14.21 1.64 81.2 0.0
433.5 612.8 0.0 13.65 1.64 88.0 0.0
434.0 631.9 0.0 14.21 1.64 95.1 0.0
434.5 631.9 0.0 14.50 1.64 99.0 0.0
435.0 679.1 0.0 14.2 1.64 102.3 0.0
435.5 655.5 0.0 14.40 1.64 105.3 0.0
436.0 642.3 0.0 14.24 1.64 102.0 0.0
436.5 631.9 0.0 14.26 1.64 101.8 0.0
437.0 631.9 0.0 14.35 1.64 105.3 0.0
437.5 660.7 0.0 14.50 1.64 108.7 0.0
438.0 631.9 0.0 13.79 1.64 102.8 0.0
438.5 655.5 0.0 14.35 1.64 103.3 0.0
439.0 611.3 0.0 13.64 1.64 99.7 0.0
439.5 619.4 0.0 13.93 1.64 101.8 0.0
440.0 679.1 0.0 14.35 1.64 103.1 0.0
440.5 609.8 0.0 13.92 1.64 103.3 0.0
441.0 631.9 0.0 14.06 1.64 101.8 0.0
441.5 639.3 0.0 14.07 1.64 101.8 0.0
442.0 637.1 0.0 14.21 1.64 102.3 0.0
442.5 641.5 0.0 14.13 1.64 105.7 0.0
443.0 631.9 0.0 13.92 1.64 102.3 0.0
443.5 655.5 0.0 14.06 1.64 105.3 0.0
444.0 643.0 0.0 14.35 1.64 101.8 0.0
444.5 655.5 0.0 14.38 1.64 102.9 0.0
445.0 655.5 0.0 14.35 1.64 105.3 0.0
445.5 655.5 0.0 14.50 1.64 102.3 0.0
446.0 631.9 0.0 13.92 1.64 105.3 0.0

307
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

446.5 655.5 0.0 14.21 1.65 102.0 0.0

447.0 608.3 0.0 13.92 1.65 101.8 0.0
447.5 634.9 0.0 14.12 1.65 102.8 0.0
448.0 631.9 0.0 13.77 1.65 102.0 0.0
448.5 679.1 0.0 14.13 1.65 105.3 0.0
449.0 655.5 0.0 14.64 1.65 105.3 0.0
449.5 631.9 0.0 14.13 1.65 105.3 0.0
450.0 631.9 0.0 13.77 1.65 102.9 0.0
450.5 637.1 0.0 14.06 1.65 105.9 0.0
451.0 631.9 0.0 13.65 1.65 102.1 0.0
451.5 609.8 0.0 13.35 1.65 96.5 0.0
452.0 1155.4 0.0 13.19 1.65 164.3 0.0
452.5 1159.9 0.0 14.08 1.65 240.3 0.0
453.0 1151.0 0.0 13.64 1.65 244.9 0.0
453.5 1229.9 0.0 12.47 1.65 241.2 0.0
454.0 1387.0 145.1 12.19 1.65 262.7 7.3
454.5 1559.5 337.1 11.02 1.65 295.7 19.0
455.0 1563.2 409.1 10.58 1.65 283.1 22.1
455.5 1677.5 484.1 10.44 1.65 275.3 25.4
456.0 1740.9 538.1 9.86 1.65 264.9 27.1
456.5 1701.8 581.6 8.26 1.65 255.4 28.3
457.0 1751.2 649.1 7.30 1.65 262.6 32.4
457.5 1846.3 721.1 6.09 1.65 272.7 37.4
458.0 1976.8 796.1 5.51 1.66 286.8 43.5
458.5 2024.0 871.1 5.43 1.66 299.1 49.6
459.0 2030.6 937.1 5.52 1.66 289.6 51.7
459.5 1960.6 970.0 8.61 1.66 268.2 49.5
460.0 1811.7 1009.0 9.42 1.67 219.5 42.2
460.5 1740.9 1039.0 7.83 1.67 193.3 38.2
461.0 1811.7 1081.0 7.25 1.68 191.8 39.5
461.5 1835.2 1105.0 7.16 1.70 191.8 40.4
462.0 1842.6 1133.5 7.54 1.70 188.4 40.7
462.5 1835.2 1177.0 8.12 1.70 181.4 40.7
463.0 1742.3 1225.0 10.87 1.70 167.6 39.1
463.5 1648.0 1211.5 11.02 1.70 136.4 31.5
464.0 1751.2 1225.0 8.55 1.71 124.2 29.0
464.5 1764.5 1250.5 10.58 1.71 139.9 33.3
465.0 1646.5 1273.0 12.08 1.73 119.9 29.1
465.5 1602.3 1297.0 13.54 1.74 101.8 25.1
466.0 1603.7 1297.0 13.66 1.74 94.9 23.4
466.5 1488.7 1282.0 15.37 1.74 81.1 19.8
467.0 1504.9 1297.0 15.37 1.74 70.7 17.5
467.5 1535.9 1297.0 14.99 1.74 70.7 17.5
468.0 1552.1 1321.0 16.55 1.74 74.5 18.7
468.5 1434.1 1321.0 18.19 1.74 60.3 15.2
469.0 1417.9 1297.0 18.12 1.74 47.3 11.7
469.5 1435.6 1298.5 17.61 1.74 46.4 11.5

308
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuelweight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

470.0 1434.1 1297.0 17.61 1.75 41.1 10.2

470.5 1457.7 1321.0 17.61 1.75 46.7 11.7
471.0 1440.0 1297.0 17.61 1.75 46.4 11.5
471.5 1434.1 1297.0 17.59 1.76 46.4 11.5
472.0 1420.9 1297.0 18.41 1.77 41.1 10.2
472.5 1420.1 1297.0 18.62 1.77 41.1 10.2
473.0 1410.5 1304.5 19.03 1.78 40.4 10.0
473.5 1388.4 1297.0 18.91 1.78 36.1 8.9
474.0 1441.5 1297.0 17.43 1.78 37.4 9.2
474.5 1509.3 1298.5 15.57 1.78 50.2 12.4
475.0 1410.5 1300.0 19.13 1.78 53.4 13.2
475.5 1348.6 1300.0 20.76 1.78 40.2 9.9
476.0 1269.0 1280.5 20.87 1.78 18.7 4.6
476.5 1245.4 1253.5 19.71 1.78 0.0 0.0
477.0 1363.4 1273.0 18.99 1.78 18.7 4.5
477.5 1339.8 1255.0 18.91 1.78 22.2 5.3
478.0 1345.7 1259.5 19.13 1.78 22.5 5.4
478.5 1341.2 1256.5 19.04 1.78 22.2 5.3
479.0 1366.3 1249.0 17.57 1.78 25.7 6.1
479.5 1345.7 1232.5 17.25 1.78 30.4 7.1
480.0 1363.4 1249.0 17.39 1.78 36.1 8.6
430.5 1387.0 1255.0 17.39 1.78 39.5 9.4
481.0 1410.5 1253.5 17.39 1.78 39.5 9.4
481.5 1394.3 1259.5 17.25 1.78 40.8 9.8
482.0 1363.4 1249.0 17.01 1.78 39.5 9.4
482.5 1387.0 1249.0 17.17 1.78 40.2 9.6
483.0 1387.0 1273.0 17.10 1.78 43.6 10.6
483.5 1410.5 1255.0 17.10 1.78 44.1 10.5
484.0 1418.7 1273.0 17.97 1.78 46.4 11.3
484.5 1320.6 1232.5 18.62 1.78 33.0 7.8
485.0 1316.2 1226.5 18.71 1.80 29.4 6.9
485.5 1387.0 1250.5 17.61 1.30 36.1 8.6
486.0 1419.4 1252.8 17.02 1.80 41.1 9.8
486.5 1434.1 1259.5 16.98 1.80 48.0 11.5
487.0 1485.8 1249.0 15.43 1.80 53.4 12.7
487.5 1504.9 1259.5 15.69 1.81 63.7 15.3
488.0 1509.3 1301.5 17.61 1.81 68.7 17.0
488.5 1245.4 1253.5 20.92 1.81 32.6 7.8
489.0 1339.8 1256.5 19.17 1.81 22.2 5.3
489.5 1342.7 1249.0 18.26 1.81 27.2 6.5
490.0 1316.2 1225.0 18.14 1.81 25.7 6.0
490.5 1339.8 1256.5 18.55 1.81 32.6 7.8
491.0 1325.0 1249.0 18.55 1.81 29.1 6.9
491.5 1317.6 1234.0 18.18 1.82 29.1 6.8
492.0 1410.5 1252.8 17.25 1.82 41.1 9.8
492.5 1387.0 1234.0 16.28 1.82 40.0 9.4
493.0 1434.1 1249.0 16.38 1.82 47.7 11.4

309
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

493.5 1434.1 1256.5 16.41 1.82 50.9 12.2

494.0 1434.1 1249.0 16.39 1.82 51.2 12.2
404.5 1410.5 1249.0 16.81 1.82 50.8 12.1
495.0 1269.0 1249.0 20.15 1.83 39.5 9.4
495.5 1185.7 1249.0 20.94 1.83 13.4 3.2
496.0 1185.7 1226.5 20.94 1.83 6.4 1.5
496.5 1127.4 1201.0 20.59 1.83 0.0 0.0
497.0 1112.7 1156.0 20.47 1.83 0.0 0.0
497.5 1089.8 1138.0 20.29 1.84 0.0 0.0
498.0 1080.2 1129.0 20.29 1.84 0.0 0.0
498.5 1080.2 1105.0 19.93 1.84 0.0 0.0
499.0 962.3 1033.0 19.13 1.84 0.0 0.0
499.5 945.3 985.0 18.99 1.84 0.0 0.0
500.0 896.6 937.1 18.41 1.84 0.0 0.0
500.5 844.3 889.1 17.61 1.84 0.0 0.0
501.0 797.1 820.1 16.99 1.84 5.2 0.8
501.5 780.1 756.3 16.41 1.84 8.4 1.2
502.0 730.7 679.1 15.80 1.84 9.4 1.2
502.5 682.8 631.1 14.84 1.84 13.1 1.6
503.0 679.1 601.1 14.85 1.84 16.4 1.9
503.5 702.7 553.1 15.13 1.84 20.0 2.1
504.0 679.1 529.8 14.64 1.84 23.1 2.3
504.5 657.0 468.3 14.80 1.84 23.1 2.1
505.0 634.9 416.6 14.13 1.84 25.7 2.0
505.5 680.6 394.1 14.64 1.84 29.1 2.2
506.0 682.1 365.6 14.79 1.84 32.6 2.3
506.5 655.5 178.1 14.06 1.84 36.1 1.2
507.0 662.9 - 14.50 1.84 29.4 0.0
507.5 702.7 0.0 15.28 1.84 41.1 0.0
508.0 659.2 0.0 14.79 1.84 55.0 0.0
508.5 679.1 0.0 14.69 1.84 71.8 0.0
509.0 679.1 0.0 14.13 1.84 88.0 0.0
509.5 655.5 0.0 14.35 1.84 99.4 0.0
510.0 619.4 0.0 13.77 1.85 101.8 0.0
510.5 679.1 0.0 14.64 1.85 105.3 0.0
511.0 614.2 0.0 14.13 1.85 106.0 0.0
511.5 689.4 0.0 14.93 1.85 110.2 0.0
512.0 619.4 0.0 14.13 1.85 108.7 0.0
512.5 655.5 0.0 14.24 1.85 105.3 0.0
513.0 661.4 0.0 14.70 1.85 108.7 0.0
513.5 655.5 0.0 14.35 1.85 110.4 0.0
514.0 679.1 0.0 14.39 1.85 110.3 0.0
514.5 655.5 0.0 13.55 1.85 101.8 0.0
515.0 727.8 0.0 10.58 1.85 101.8 0.0
515.5 1080.2 0.0 16.96 1.85 191.8 0.0
516.0 867.9 0.0 13.34 1.86 165.4 0.0
516.5 971.1 0.0 14.25 1.86 168.0 0.0

310
 SAMPLE-DATA FROM DYNAMOMETER PROCEDURE (Cont'd)

Time Engine Drive Vacuum Fuel weight Torque Horse-

(sec) rpm shaft rpm (in. Hg) (lb) (ft-lb) power

517.0 972.6 0.0 13.67 1.86 165.8 0.0

517.5 988.8 0.0 13.92 1.86 164.1 0.0
518.0 1064.7 0.0 14.64 1.86 161.1 0.0
518.5 1080.2 - 15.37 1.86 157.2 0.0
519.0 1103.8 145.1 15.22 1.86 143.4 4.0
519.5 1151.0 169.1 15.37 1.86 133.2 4.3
520.0 1156.9 313.1 15.51 1.86 129.7 7.7
520.5 1160.6 338.6 15.66 1.86 123.0 7.9
521.0 1185.7 371.6 16.30 1.87 120.4 8.5
521.5 1185.7 409.1 16.85 1.87 112.2 8.7
522.0 1151.0 385.1 16.38 1.87 98.4 7.2
522.5 1179.0 433.1 13.93 1.87 112.2 9.3
523.0 1316.2 457.1 13.68 1.87 137.7 12.0
523.5 1439.3 505.1 12.47 1.87 165.8 15.9
524.0 1528.5 556.1 12.18 1.87 193.4 20.5
524.5 1504.9 578.6 11.89 1.87 192.9 21.3

311
 FUEL USE SUMMARY

3500 lb 22 October 1973

11.2 hp (EPA)

Relative Relative Absolute Absolute Fuel weight Fuel weight Fuel weight
Start Start avg start difference Integral
Stop Stop avg stop

Acceleration

21.0 29.0 27.9 35.9 0.185 0.224 0.040 0.043

55.0 60.5 61.9 67.4 0.312 0.352 0.040 0.026
163.0 170.0 169.9 176.9 0.590 0.648 0.058 0.056
187.5 205.0 194.4 211.9 0.698 0.862 0.164 0.192
346.0 365.0 352.9 371.9 1.352 1.467 0.114 0.124
402.9 414.0 408.9 420.9 1.533 1.643 0.110 0.082
447.5 478.0 454.4 484.9 1.648 1.788 0.141 0.166
510.5 528.0 517.4 534.9 1.861 1.911 0.051 0.060
568.0 575.0 574.9 581.9 1.970 1.990 0.020 0.025
644.5 657.5 651.4 664.4 2.102 2.138 0.036 0.063
692.5 701.0 699.4 707.9 2.198 2.217 0.019 0.025
727.5 739.0 734.4 745.9 2.284 2.335 0.051 0.068
765.0 778.0 771.9 784.9 2.409 2.455 0.046 0.077
958.0 968.5 964.9 975.4 2.883 2.933 0.050 0.063
1052.0 1066.0 1058.9 1072.9 3.056 3.135 0.079 0.065
1100.0 1112.0 1106.9 1118.9 3.171 3.208 0.037 0.043
1167.0 1175.0 1173.9 1181.9 3.327 3.367 0.040 0.030
1196.0 1202.0 1202.9 1208.9 3.406 3.409 0.003 0.010
1255.0 1263.0 1261.9 1269.9 3.506 3.535 0.029 0.012
1267.0 1273.0 1273.9 1279.9 3.559 3.565 0.006 0.020
1336.0 1345.0 1342.9 1351.9 3.681 3.718 0.036 0.033
Total 1.171

Deceleration

37.0 39.0 43.9 45.9 0.232 0.231 0.001 0.001

49.0 53.0 55.9 59.9 0.276 0.311 0.035 0.000
113.0 122.0 119.9 128.9 0.540 0.549 0.009 0.001
181.0 187.5 187.9 194.4 0.699 0.703 0.004 0.004
299.0 333.0 305.9 339.9 1.321 1.344 0.023 0.003
385.0 396.0 391.9 402.9 1.499 1.499 0.0 0.002
421.0 428.5 427.9 435.4 1.643 1.643 0.0 0.001
491.0 505.0 497.9 511.9 1.829 1.847 0.018 0.003
544.0 552.0 550.9 558.9 1.940 1.940 0.0 0.001
611.0 620.0 617.9 626.9 2.075 2.089 0.014 0.002
668.0 679.0 674.9 685.9 2.176 2.190 0.015 0.003
714.0 726.0 720.9 732.9 2.258 2.285 0.028 0.003
751.0 762.0 755.9 768.9 2.371 2.396 0.025 0.003
946.0 954.0 952.9 960.9 2.857 2.891 0.034 0.002
1015.0 1023.0 1021.9 1029.9 3.051 3.060 0.010 0.000
1093.0 1098.0 1099.9 1104.9 3.167 3.169 0.002 0.0
1140.0 1152.0 1146.9 1158.9 3.276 3.290 0.014 0.002
1178.0 1184.0 1184.9 1190.9 3.369 3.373 0.004 0.000

312
 FUEL USE SUMMARY (Cont'd)

Relative Relative Absolute Absolute Fuel weight Fuel weight Fuel weight
Integral
Start Stop Start Stop avg start avg stop difference

Deceleration (Cont'd)

1234.0 1243.0 1240.9 1249.9 3,479 3.477 0.002 0.000

1303.0 1307.0 1309.9 1313.9 3.625 3.642 0.017 0.000
1356.0 1365.0 1362.9 1371.9 3.735 3.727 0.008 0.001
Total 0.262

Cruise

29.0 37.0 35.9 43.9 0.218 0.233 0.014 0.006

39.0 49.0 45.9 55.9 0.233 0.272 0.040 0.030
53.0 55.0 59.9 61.9 0.308 0.312 0.003 0.008
60.5 113.0 67.4 119.9 0.351 0.539 0.188 0.134
170.0 181.0 176.9 187.9 0.662 0.701 0.039 0.023
205.0 299.0 211.9 305.9 0.856 1.326 0.470 0.452
365.0 385.0 371.9 391.9 1.463 1.497 0.034 0.044
414.0 421.0 420.9 427.9 1.643 1.643 0.0 0.002
478.0 491.0 484.9 497.9 1.793 1.829 0.036 0.028
528.0 544.0 534.9 550.9 1.904 1.940 0.036 0.024
575.0 611.0 581.9 617.9 1.988 2.059 0.071 0.075
657.5 668.0 664.4 674.9 2.152 2.178 0.026 0.017
701.0 714.0 707.9 720.9 2.218 2.279 0.061 0.037
726.0 727.0 732.9 733.9 2.281 2.291 0.010 0.003
739.0 751.0 745.9 757.9 2.341 2.376 0.035 0.016
762.0 765.0 768.9 771.9 2.384 2.410 0.026 0.002
778.0 946.0 784.9 952.9 2.455 2.853 0.398 0.347
968.5 1015.0 975.4 1021.9 2.933 3.052 0.119 0.059
1052.0 1093.0 1058.9 1099.9 3.056 3.169 0.113 0.073
1112.0 1118.9 1146.9 3.211 3.273 0.062 0.052
1175.0 1178,0 1181.9 1184.9 3.369 3.382 0.013 0.001
1202.0 1234.0 1208.9 1240.0 3.409 3.482 0.072 0.054
1249.0 1255.0 1255.9 1261.9 3.498 3.513 0.016 0.0
1263.0 1267.0 1269.9 1273.9 3.527 3.547 0.021 0.029
1273.0 1303.0 1279.9 1309.9 3.568 3.621 0.053 0.061
1345.0 1356.0 1351.9 1362.9 3.715 3.727 0.012 0.005
Total 1.967

Idle

0.0 21.0 6.9 27.9 0.185 0.188 0.003

125.0 163.0 131.9 169.9 0.546 0.594 0.047
333.0 346.0 339.9 352.9 1.349 1.373 0.025
396.0 402.0 402.9 408.9 1.502 1.538 0.037
428.5 447.5 435.4 454.4 1.643 1.645 0.002
505.0 510.5 511.9 517.4 1.852 1.861 0.009
552.0 568.0 558.9 574.9 1.948 1.964 0.016
620.0 644.5 626.9 651.4 2.072 2.099 0.027

313
 FUEL USE SUMMARY (Cont'd)

Relative Relative Absolute Absolute Fuel weight Fuel weight Fuel weight
Stop Stop Integral
Start Start avg start avg stop difference

Idle (Cont'd)

679.0 692.5 685.9 699.4 2.178 2.186 0.008

954.0 958.0 960.9 964.9 2.888 2.892 0.003
1023.0 1052.0 1029.9 1058.9 3.055 3.064 0.008
1152.0 1167.0 1158.9 1173.9 3.303 3.330 0.027
1184.0 1196.0 1190.9 1202.9 3.389 3.407 0.018
1243.0 1249.0 1249.9 1255.9 3.485 3.502 0.017
1307.0 1336.0 1313.9 1342.9 3.643 3.663 0.019
Data ended at time equal 1374.4
Total 0.266

314
 APPENDIX E

INSTALLED ENGINE POWER/BSFC DATA

315
TEST DATA FOR THE ENGINE FROM VEHICLE B

317
 140

130-

120-

110
T

100
BHP

90

80-

70
T

60-

50-

40-

30
1000 2000 3000 4000
ENGINE RPM

318
 1.40

2 O
1.30-

1.20
4

1.10 6

1
1.00
F
B

.90 10

319
VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
.80 12
BSFC
TORQUE
VS
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BS FC ( LB / HP - HR )
1000
RPM
.70

Δ
-16

Δ
.60

A
.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 80 100 120
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
)
LT
(F
- B
TORQUE
 1.40
A

1.30 2

1.20

아
1. 6
8

1.00-

.90

320
20
.80 VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
2
VACUUM ( IN - HG)

TORQUE
VS
BSFC

BSFC ( LB/ HP - HR )
RPM
1250 -14
.70

.60 16
8

.50 8 18

400 20
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 180
160 200 240
220 260 280
TORQUE
(FB
)-L T
 1.40 Δ
'

1.30

1.20

1.10 6

1.00
∞

.90 Δ VACUUM
TORQUE
VS

321
BSFC
TORQUE
VS
.80 RPM
1500
VACUUM (IN - HG)

BSFC (LB/ HP- HR )

.70

.60 16
O

8
.50 -18

.400 20
20 100
80
40
60 120 140 220
200
240
180
160 260 280
LB
)(FT-
TORQUE
 1.40
A

1.30 2

1.20

8
1.10 6

1.00

.90 A VACUUM
VS
TORQUE -10

322
BSFC
TORQUE
VS

.80 RPM
1750 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP- HR)

.70 +14

.60 +16
8

8
.50 +18

20
20 40 60 80 100 140
120 180
200
220
160 240 260 280
(FT
TORQUE
L
-
) B
 1.40

1.30 2

1.20

1.10-- -6

1.00

.90 VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
A 10

323
VS
TORQUE
FC
B
OS
.80 ΔΔ 12
2000
RPM
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB/ HP - HR )
.70 -14

8 16
.60

T
A 8

50 18
O

€ 0
.4 20
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1 80
.160 200
240
220 260
280
F
L
)-
(BT
TORQUE
 1.40

1.30 12

1.20

1.10

1.00 8

T
.90- 10

324
VACUUM
TORQUE
VS

BSFC
TORQUE
VS
.80 O D

T
2500
RPM

BSFC ( LB / HP- HR )
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

.70 -14

T
.60 16
Ο

.50g 8 18

20
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 200
160
180 240
220 260 280
L
)
TORQUE
-(FB
T
 1.40

O
Δ
1.30 2

1.201
8

1.10- +6

1.00
B

90 TORQUE
VACUUM
VS

D
6

325
BSFC
TORQUE
VS
O
3000
RPM
.80

T
2

8
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

00
.60 16

아
.50 18

.400 20
40
20 60 80 100 140
120
160
180 240
220
200 260 280
TORQUE
(FT
)-L B
TEST DATA FOR THE ENGINE FROM VEHICLE D

327
 150

INSTALLED
140
NET HP

130

120

110

110
BHP

90

80
T

70

60
T
50

50

40
1000 2000 3000 4000

RPM

329
 1.40
A
▲A

1.30 VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
Δ 2

O TORQUE
VS
BSFC

1.20 AT
CID
318
RPM
1000

아
1.1 6

1.00

.90 10

1
T

330
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN -HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

.60 16
8

.50 18

.401 A 20
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
160 180 200 240
220 260 280
TORQUE
L
FB
(
-
) T
 1.40

A
1.30 2

1.20

1.10 6

1.00
B

V
TORQUE
VS
ΔACUUM
.90 TORQUE
VS
BSFC 10
T

331
RPM0
125
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

T
T

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

.60 16

50 18

50
20
.40 140
20 40 60 80 100 160
120 180 220
200 240 260 280
FB
(
-L
) T
TORQ UE
 1.40
A
'A
Δ

1.30H 2

1.20
4

1.10 6

1.00

V
AACUUM
TORQUE
VS

.90 TORQUE
VS
BSFC
O 10

332
1500
RPM

.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70

.60 16

.50 18

20
20 40 60 80 140
120
100 160 180 240
220
200 260 280
(FB
TORQUE
)-L T
 1.40

1.30 12

1.20

T
1.10 6

00 .
1.00
B

1
Δ VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
.90- BSFC
TORQUE
VS 10

333
33
1750
RPM

.80
VACUUM ( IN - HG ) 2

BSFC ( LB / HP- HR )
.70- 14

.60 16

.50 18

T
20
20 40 60 80 100 160
120
140 180 220
200 260
240 280
TORQ
(
-L
)
FT B UE
 1.40

1.30 V
AACUUM
TORQUE
VS 2

BSFC
O
TORQUE
VS

1.20 RPM
2000
AT
CID
318

T
1.1
아 6

1.00

.90 10

334
.80 12

T
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

ΔΔ

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

T
.60 16

T
00008

.50 18

A
.40 20
20 60
40 80 100 1 20
140
180
200
-160 240
220 260 280
TORQUE
(
FB
L
-
) T
 1.40

A
44
1.30
2

1.20
4

1.10 6

1.00

T
B

.90 VACUUM
TORQUE
VS 10

335
TORQUE
VS
BSFC
RPM
2500
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

.60 16

.50 18

40 20
20 40 60 100
80 140
120
160 180 200 260
240
220 280
TORQ
F
(T
L
-
) B UE
TEST DATA FOR THE ENGINE FROM VEHICLE E

337
 120+ 350 CID - FULL LOAD

INSTALLED NET HP
- ORSEPOWER

110+

O
BRAKE

100+
H

90+

80+

70+

60+

50+

40+

1000 2000 3000

ENGINE RPM

339
 1.40

O
1.30 2

1.20 4

1.10 6

A
1.00
B

.90 10

340
VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
A
.80 TORQUE
BSFC
O
VS 12

A
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

AT
CID
350
RPM
1000

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

.60 16

.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 80
100 160
120
140 180 240
200
220 260 280
(FB
TORQUE
)-L T
 1.40
O

1.30 2

T
1.20

1.10
6

1.00

T
TORQUE
VS
VACUUM
A
.90 TORQUE
BSFC
VS 10
T

341
RPM
1250

.80
T
VACUUM (IN - HG )
2

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

.60 16
8
8

.50 18

20
20 40 60 100
80 120 200
180
140
160 220 260
240 280
FT
( B
TORQUE
-L
)
 1.40 T

130 2

1.20

1.10 6

1.00

44
B

VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
.90 BSFC
TORQUE
VS
O 10

342
BSFC
•
TORQUE
VS
VACUUM
(EGR
VALVE
LINE
.80 BLOCKED
)
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

AT
CID
350
RPM
1500

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

.60 16

.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 80
100 120
140
160 180 200
240
220 260 280

O
(FB T
TORQUE
-L
)
 1.40

1.30 2

1.20

1.10 6

1.00

.90
8

T
VS
V
TORQUE
ΔACUUM

343
BS
TORQUE
VS
FC
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

T
RPM
1750

BSFC ( LB / HP- HR )
.70 14

T
.60 16

.50 18

20
.40 280
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
160 180 240
220
200 260
FB
-L
) T
TORQUE
(
 1.40

1.30 2

1.20

1.10 6

1.00

+
T

.90 10
TORQUE
VS
VACUUM
T

344
BSFC
TORQUE
VS
80 RPM
2000 12
VACUUM (IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR
.70 14

ས་
.60 16

.50 18

T
L
.40 20
20 40 60 80 100 140
180
160
120 200 220 240
280
260
)
LT
F
-( B
TORQUE
TEST DATA FOR THE ENGINE FROM VEHICLE F

345
 140

130-

120-

110

100
BHP

90-

80

70

60

50

40

30
1000 2000 3000 4000
ENGINE RPM

347
 1.40

OO
1.30 2

1.20
A

1.10-
6

TORQUE
VS
VACUUM
BSFC
TORQUE
VS
O
1.00-
®

RPM
1000

O
.90 10

348
8
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP-HR )
.70 14

.60 16

.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 80 100 160
140
120 180 240
220
200 260 280
TORQUE
(FB
)-L T
 1.40 T
то T A

O
1.30 2
8

1.20 ΑΔ
4

1.10

T
VACUUM
A VS
TORQUE
1.00

T
VS
FC
BS
TORQUE
B

RPM
1250
.90 10

349
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP -HR )
.70 14

T
.60 16
°
8

.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 100
80 120
140
160 180 240
220
200
260 280
TORQ
(FB
L
-
) T UE
 1.40

1.30 2

1.20 4

1.10 6

VACUUM
A
TORQUE
VS
1.00
VS
B
TORQUE
OSFC
B

RPM
1500

.90 10

350
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 ধ 14

T
.60 16
8

.50 -18

.40 20
0 20 40 60 100
80 120 140
160 180 200 220 260
240 280
TORQUE
(FT
-L
) B
 1.40

1.30 2

.00
1.20

1.10 6
8

1.00

T
TORQUE
VACUUM
A
VS
B

་
BSFC
O
TORQUE
VS
.90
RPM
1750

351
.80
VACUUM ( IN - HG )
2

BSFC ( LB/ HP - HR )
.70

.60 16

.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 100
80 140
120
160 180 220
240
200 260
280
FT
(
-L
) B
TORQ UE
 1.40

Oo
1.30

1.20

1.10
6

A TORQUE
VACUUM
VS
A
1.00 TORQUE
BS
VS
FC

1
B

RPM
2000

.90 10

352
.80
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB /HP - HR )
.70 8 114

.60 -16
8

.50 18

40 20
20 40 60 180
140
160
120 200 220 240 260 280
80 100
TORQUE
(
-L
)
FT B
 1.40

1.30 2

1.20

1.10

A
8

1
1.00 VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
A
T
∞

BSFC
TORQUE
VS
O
.90 10
RPM
2500

353
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70 14

.60 16

.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 100
80 140
120
160 180 220
240
200 260 280
(FB
-L
) T
TORQUE
 1.40

1,30 12

1.20

O
1.10 6

VACUUM
TORQUE
VS
Δ
1.00

T
TORQUE
BSFC
VS

.90 10

354
34
.80 12
VACUUM ( IN - HG )

BSFC ( LB / HP - HR )
.70

T
.60 16

.50 18

.40 20
20 40 60 100
80 160
140
120 180 240
220
200 260 280

·
F
(
-L
) T
B
TORQ UE
 APPENDIX F

CALCULATIONS OF FUEL ECONOMY

355
 APPENDIX F

In an attempt to compare various distributions of urban and highway driving in a composite

cycle , several of the individual improvements were considered with respect to three different averaging
techniques . Calculations of average fuel economy were performed according to the following cycle
definitions :

Cycle 1 : 50 percent urban , 50 percent evenly divided between 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , 70

1 1 1 1
= 4 +
(MPG)avg 2(mpg) LA- •
12 (mpg)20mph (mph)70mph

Cycle 2 : 50 percent urban , 5 percent at 40 , 13 percent at 50 , 19 percent at 60 , 13 percent at 70

1 1 1 1 1
(MPG)avg = 2(mpg)LA4 + + +
20(mpg)40 mph 7.69( mpg) 50 mph 5.26(mpg)60 mph 7.69(mpg )70 mph

Cycle 3 : 50 percent urban , 5 percent at 40 , 13 percent at 50 , 32 percent at 55

1 1 1 1
+
( MPGavg = 2 ( mpg) LA-4 20 ( mpg)40 7.69(mpg)50 mph 3.125(mpg) 55 mph
mph

For each individual improvement , the percentage increase in fuel economy was calculated on a
mile per gallon basis ; the reference vehicle (4600 lb LVW, 350 CID) was used for comparison in each
case . No correction for emission control was applied .

The results of the cycle comparisons are shown in Table F- 1 .

357
 TABLE F- 1 . MILES PER GALLON ; VARIOUS CYCLE MODES

Reference Turbo, S.I., Naturally Variable Lean Strat.

Turbo, S.I., Turbo
Mode water aspirated
vehicle aftercool diesel displace. burn charge
alcohol diesel

Urban 13.6 15.9 15.1 21.8 18.9 17.5 14.5 17.2

20 mph 17.9 23.8 22.3 29.8 26.3 32.5 22.3 30.3
30 mph 22.4 26.6 24.4 32.7 27.8 31.6 24.1 30.5
40 mph 20.9 24.6 22.6 28.2 24.4 25.3 24.0 27.1
50 mph 19.7 22.2 21.1 27.0 23.2 22.4 21.6 24.7
55 mph 18.8 20.8 19.7 26.1 22.4 20.7 20.3 23.2
60 mph 17.8 19.3 18.2 25.1 21.6 19.0 19.0 21.6
70 mph 16.1 16.9 16.0 22.6 19.2 16.6 16.6 19.0

Avg 1 15.8 18.4 17.3 24.2 20.9 19.9 17.1 20.3

% Imp. 16.5 9.5 53.2 32.3 25.9 8.2 28.5

Avg 2 15.5 17.6 16.7 23.3 20.1 18.5 16.6 19.3

% Imp. 13.5 7.7 50.3 29.7 19.4 7.1 24.5

Avg 3 15.9 18.3 17.3 23.9 20.7 19.3 17.1 20.0

% Imp. 15.1 8.8 50.3 30.2 21.4 7.5 25.8

358
 APPENDIX G

AMBIENT EFFECTS ON ECONOMY

359
 The fuel economy of a vehicle is influenced by a large number of parameters such as the
complete technical design details , driver habits , warmup condition , engine state of tune and age,
tire condition, road surface characteristics , etc. In this Appendix , partial data are presented illustrat-
ing the influence of two ambient conditions (temperature and altitude) on the fuel economy of a
particular vehicle. 171 Figures G- 1 and G-2 illustrate , respectively, the influence of ambient temp-
erature and altitude on the fuel economy of this vehicle. In general , it can be concluded that oper-
ation at the higher ambient temperatures ( 80° F) consumes less fuel than operation at low ambient
'temperatures (0° F) even under fully warmed -up conditions. Altitudes above 2000 feet will also cause
CONSUMPTION
a loss in mileage.
GALLONS
FUEL
MILE
PER

.08
IN

70 MPH-
.07

60 MPH
.06

50 MPH-

.05 40 MPH-

VEHICLE 30 MPH
.04 1964 SEDAN 20 MPH
V-8 ENG., 283 CU. IN.
AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION
CONDITION
.03 DRY ASPHALT PAVEMENT
LEVEL STRAIGHT ROAD
CALM WIND
.02
-20 20 40 60 80 100
AIR TEMPERATURE, F
FIGURE G-1

There are many interacting factors that influence thèse results . First , the fuel consumption of
a carbureted engine is dependent on the inlet air density . Lowering the inlet air temperature will
produce more power output capability for a given engine , thus in the extreme case , a given motive
load could be met at a smaller throttle opening (higher pumping losses) and lower economy. At higher
elevations fuel distribution in multicylinder engines can reduce power output due to the lower
potential for evaporation of fuel into the cooler airstream , thus requiring a larger throttle opening
to meet a given power demand (due to a leaner fuel/air mixture) . Fuel consumption , then, will also
increase with increasing altitude .

Spark timing and fuel air ratio aren't continuously optimized for all ambient conditions ; con-
sequently , economy and/or performance will be better or worse depending on the deviation of ambient
operating temperature from the ambient temperature (~ 86° F) for which most engine development
is conducted . For a detailed discussion of most of the effects on engine fuel consumption see

171"Running Costs of Motor Vehicles as Affected by Road Design and Traffic," Highway Research Board, Program Report 111 ,
Appendix B, p 63.

361
 CONSUMPTION
GALLONS
FUEL
MILE
PER
IN
.28
VEHICLE
1964 SEDAN
V-8 ENG., 283 CU. IN.
AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION
CONDITION
.20 STRAIGHT HIGH TYPE PAVEMENT
CALM WIND
80°-90°F 40 MPH

15 30 MPH

+ 10 % GRADE

2 3
ELEVATION ABOVE SEA LEVEL IN THOUSANDS OF FT
FIGURE G-2

Reference 21. It should be noted that recently produced vehicles may have significantly different
mileage (fuel use) levels and the characteristic shapes of Figures G- 1 and G-2 may not remain con-
stant due to such changes as heated air from exhaust manifold air diverter valves and other carburetion
and manifolding changes incorporated in modern vehicles.

Two other influences are also worthy of note here . First decreasing ambient temperature increases
the aerodynamic drag due to increased air density. Increasing altitude can decrease air density , thus
lowering drag , but ambient temperature is also lowered at higher elevations. Second , the rolling
resistance of tires decreases with increasing temperature due to two effects ; ( 1 ) less hysteretic flexural
losses and ( 2 ) increased internal tire pressure due to the higher internal air temperature . (See Reference 172).

The test data presented here reflect the extremes encountered by the operation of one vehicle
over a wide range of conditions. Tailoring of a specific vehicle to its most likely operating condition
could minimize the variation.

172Walter, J. D. , “Energy Losses in Tires," Presented at Caltech Seminar Series on Energy Consumption in Private Transportation,
December 4, 1973.

362
 APPENDIX H

COMMENT BY REVIEWERS

363
 COMMENT BY REVIEWERS

Following the preparation of the draft of this report , the Government requested a review of
the manuscript by individuals and organizations acquainted with the subject of automotive fuel
economy. Several helpful and constructive suggestions were received as a result of this evalua-
tion, and the Southwest Research Institute greatly appreciates the contributions of the reviewers.

The comments made by reviewers in response to the formal Government request are repro-
duced in this appendix. In several cases , changes in the text were made as a result of the sugges-
tions, therefore the comments may not be applicable to the present structure of the report. The
areas in which changes were made are identified in the following discussion for the sole purpose
of clarifying differences between the original manuscript and the present form .

No attempt at rebuttal of the comments by the reviewers has been made ; this appendix to
the report is not regarded as a suitable forum for debate. The absence of a response , however,
does not necessarily imply agreement with the comments. Many of the points raised involve
issues about which there are differences of opinion , and in some cases the data necessary for
adequate resolution is not available . On some points , even an adequate presentation of both sides
of the issue would require the addition of an extensive discussion . Furthermore , as a matter of
interest , it may be observed that there exist differences of opinion between the various reviewers
on some points .

It should be noted that the page numbers mentioned in the comments refer to an early
manuscript ; there is no direct correspondence with page numbers in this edition . However , the
general area to which the comments are applicable should be readily identifiable .

Comments by Chrysler Corporation

The section of the report dealing with lock-up clutches has been revised to include the
possibility of clutch engagement in more than one gear. In addition , numerical values have been
altered to clarify differences between torque converter efficiency and total driveline efficiency .

Comments by Garrett Corporation

The use of retarded spark and the use of fuel as an antidetonant were added to the list of
available techniques for preventing knock in turbocharged engines.

Comments by General Motors Corporation

The section of the report dealing with exhaust gas recirculation was revised .

365
Comments from Texaco, Inc.

The change from TCP to TCCS was made , and the implication that all stratified charge
engines exhibit multifuel capability was removed . In the Figure noted , those points not appli-
cable to stratified charge engines were deleted . The statement concerning loss in fuel economy
as a result of emission control was clarified .

Comments from Tracor, Inc.

The change from "friction" to "traction" was made as suggested . The implication that
major engine design changes would be required for vehicle operation with a continuously vari-
able transmission was removed .

366
 CHRYSLER
CORPORATION

June 7 , 1974

Mr. Herbert H. Gould

TMP
U.S. Department of Transportation
Transportation Systems Center
Kendall Square
Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142

Subject : January 1974 , Southwest Research Institute ,

A Study of Technological Improvements to
Automobile Fuel Consumption ,
Contract DOT - TSC -628

Dear Mr. Gould :

At Mr. Cline W. Frasier's request of April 3 , 1974 , the

subject draft report was reviewed in my office and found to
be quite complete . The following brief comments are submitted
for your information and use :

In our opinion , the study has over -estimated the knock problem
as related to supercharged engines . In particular , we do
not agree that supercharging to a pressure ratio of 1.45 would
require a reduction in compression ratio from 8 to 5. In
computing the end -gas temperature , we believe that proper
account has not been made of the heat transfer effects that
influence the end -gas temperature and thus the knock limited
operation . The required reduction in compression ratio will
be less than this amount , but will , of course , vary from
engine to engine .

In discussing the use of fuel shut -off during deceleration

with a fuel injection system , it appears that the authors have
not been aware that Volkswagen has used such a system with
reasonable success . Some recognition of the Volkswagen
system would seem to be in order .

Other than these two comments , we find nothing in the summary

that suggests serious disagreement .

very truly yours , (

ArueBan

GJH/Eh
367
 CHRYSLER
ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH OFFICE CORPORATION

May 22 , 1974

Mr. Herbert H. Gould

DOT/Transportation Systems Center
Kendall Square
Cambridge , Mass . 02142

Dear Mr. Gould :

The report developed by the Southwest Research

Institute titled " A Study of Technological Improvements to
Automobile Fuel Consumption" , which was sent to Mr. Sinclair
by Mr. C. W. Frasier , has now been reviewed by us . We
regret the delay in acknowledging formal receipt of this
report , however , we did indicate to you on the telephone
that a study was being made and we would report our findings
to you when this study was complete . We found the report
to be comprehensive and put together in a logical , under-
standable manner - our compliments to the Southwest
Research Institute .

The analysis of the report was conducted by our

Vehicle Development Group under Mr. R. R. Love , whom I
believe you met at our Chrysler Proving Grounds . Some
discrepancies in various sections of the report regarding
the fuel economy gains were found - some of these were
plus and some were minus . However , when using Chrysler
parameters , the end result in total fuel economy gain was
approximately the same as the conclusion in your report .
I should point out that our analysis was conducted only on
the fuel injection engine and did not cover the stratified
charge or diesel engine versions . If you desire to discuss
the details of our analysis , this could be arranged with our
Vehicle Development Group .

You had specifically requested in our telephone

conversation our opinion regarding automatic transmission
lockup clutches in various gears . Our figures are more
favorable than those in your report by approximately 6%
in both the urban and highway cycles . Lockup in the one-
two upshift shows an additional 3% in the urban cycle .

Enclosed is a paper " General Factors Affecting Vehicle

Fuel Consumption " which was presented by Messrs . Huebner
and Gasser of Chrysler Corporation last May . You may find
this of interest if you have not already seen it .

P. O. BOX 1118, DETROIT, MICHIGAN 48231

368
Mr. H. H. Gould - 2 - 5-15-74

Chrysler Corporation is continually active in the area

of improved fuel economy and has taken many definite steps
which, in general , are in line with your report findings .
These include smaller engine sizes in some of our models ,
extensive effort in the area of weight reduction , increased
availability of radial - ply tires , programs to reduce
aerodynamic drag , lower numerical axle ratios , overdrive
manual transmissions for future models and consideration of
a lockup clutch in automatic transmission direct drive .

We appreciate the opportunity to review the report and

again let me reiterate that we would be pleased to personally
discuss with you details of our analysis .

Very truly, yours ,

Denis
E. D. Heins
Chief Engineer
Advance Programs and
Safety Planning

EDH : 1m
cc : S. D. Jeffe
R. R. Love
R. M. Sinclair
S. L. Terry

369
 AIRESEARCH INDUSTRIAL DIVISION
GARRETT A DIVISION OF THE GARRETT CORPORATION
9225 AVIATION BLVD. · LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90009 • AREA CODE 213 670-711

May 14 , 1974

Mr. Herbert H. Gould / TMP

Department of Transportation
Transportation Systems Center
Kendall Square
Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142

Via : Mr. Mike Rachlin , Garrett Sales , Washington D.C.

Dear Mr. Gould :

I have studied the draft of the Southwest Research report

" A Study of Technological Improvements to Automobile Fuel
Consumption " , paying particular attention to Item X
" Turbocharged , Spark Ignited , Carbureted Engine " .

I am concerned that this report shows the small turbocharged

spark - ignition engine as a negative or only marginal
candidate , for improved fuel consumption ; whereas , AID's
(AiResearch Industrial Division ) test data shows the opposite
to be true . This may be due to the fact that the author of
the report limited the variables used in his calculation of
knock limits ; whereas AID has actually tested using a broad
range of variables including compression ratio , spark
advance , fuel mixture ratio , etc. to search for near maxi-
mum obtainable power increases .

Possibly , the difference between our test results and the

predictions by Southwest Research lies in spark timing . I
have not yet been able to obtain the reports referenced in
the Southwest Research paper , but I suspect that the calcu-
lated detonation limits are based on constant spark timing .

Test work at AID has shown that power can be increased when
spark is retarded and intake manifold pressure is increased
to borderline knock . Figure 1 , attached , illustrates torque ,
spark timing , and bsfc vs. intake manifold pressure to show
the amount of spark retard and boost which can be utilized
until torque ceases to increase .

370
Mr. Herbert H. Gould / TMP -2- May 14 , 1974

Fuel can also be used as an antidetonant . One source , " Water

Injection for Aircraft Engines " , by M. R. Rowe and G. T. Ladd
(SAE Transactions , Vol . 54 , No. 1 , January 1946 , Page 28 )
indicates that by enrichment of the mixture from 12.5 : 1 to
9 : 1 A/ F , power can be increased approximately 25% by super-
charging to the detonation limit . AID tests show that the
output from an 8.5 : 1 compression ratio engine can be increased
to 337 ft - lb at 2000 rpm by turbocharging to 39 inHgA intake
manifold pressure and operating at an air / fuel ratio of 11 : 1
while utilizing suitable spark retard . This is a 22 % torque
increase above naturally - aspirated output . Fuel was the only
antidetonant used in conjunction with spark retard .

The experience , as noted in the report , of race cars and air-

craft needing alcohol fuel or antidetonant injection is true
in some cases . Indianapolis cars which use alcohol fuel
naturally - aspirated still do when turbocharged , and World
War II aircraft did use water alcohol injection for high power .
Today the very successful Porsche Can - Am race cars are turbo-
charged and burn pump gasoline , and private aircraft ( Cessna ,
Beechcraft , etc. ) are turbocharged without antidetonant
injection . Although antidetonant does allow extra power , it
is not necessary for worthwhile benefits from turbocharging .
( Note : Since exhaust gas recirculation is a known method of
reducing peak cylinder temperatures for NO , control , it is
possible that exhaust gas could be used for detonation control . )

AID test data substantiates that emissions are not increased

by turbocharging . Actually , we have observed slight reductions
in HC and NOx on vehicles we have turbocharged for increased
power .

Contrary to the statement on Page 164 , I know of no experience

or experimental data which indicate that turbocharging a spark-
ignition engine does not improve engine performance without the
use of aftercooling and / or an antidetonant . Compression ratio
reduction , spark retard , and / or rich mixtures are used to
control detonation . Turbocharged racing vehicles have recently
far outdone their naturally - aspirated counterparts with both
using the same fuel and with the non - aftercooled , non - ADI
( antidetonant injection ) equipped turbocharged engine frequently
required to suffer a displacement penalty . For example , a
255 cid naturally - aspirated Offenhauser engine produces 430 hp
with 13 : 1 compression ratio . The turbocharged 159 cid
Offenhauser , which has now replaced it , produces more than
900 hp using the same type of fuel .

371
Mr. Herbert H. Gould /TMP -3- May 14 , 1974

Although some turbochargers do emit a high frequency whine ,

these are the units with vaned diffuser compressors . Modern
designs of small turbochargers almost exclusively have vane-
less compressors . The turbochargers on the Oldsmobile
Jetfire and the Corvair Spyder were inaudible .

The reliability of turbochargers is well known in the

trucking and construction industry where m any turbocharged
diesel engines are used successfully . In the antidetonant
system used on the Oldsmobile Jetfire , a safety system was
incorporated to limit boost if the ADI system ran out of
fluid or failed to function .

Although our dynamometer work has been with one size engine
only , and included no car testing , we feel sufficient merit
has been shown to initiate a car test phase for demonstrating
the benefits .

Very truly yours ,

AIRESEARCH INDUSTRIAL DIVISION

C.E. Me Mersey
Charles E. McInerney
Automotive Engineering Specialist

CEM/mfs

CC : Mr. Cline Frasier , DOT

Mr. Mike Rachlin , Garrett Sales , Washington D.C.
Mr. Parker Bartlett , Garrett Corporation

Attach .

372
 Environmental Activities Staff
General Motors Corporation
General Motors Technical Center
Warren, Michigan 48090

May 6, 1974

Cline W. Frasier
Manager, Special Project
Office for Energy and Environmental Projects
Transportation Systems Center
Kendall Square
Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142

Dear Cline :

Pursuant to our discussion , we have examined in some detail the SwRI

draft report entitled "A Study of Technological Improvements to Auto-
mobile Fuel Consumption " . I had asked two different Staffs to examine
the document for their comments and I am including their comments as
I received them as the easiest way to handle them .

From one of the Staff activities I received the following comments :

Our major comments in the area of engines are as follows:

·
Lean Engines (homogeneous and stratified) They seem to
have an inadequate grasp of pollutant formation and control
in lean combustion . They do not appear to understand EGR .
They place the open -chamber stratified charge engine in a
much more favorable light than we think it deserves from
published information , but they admittedly have more ex-
perience with the open -chamber SCE than GM has.

Turbocharging - Our reviewer's ratings of the SwRI assess-

ment of fuel economy prospects in turbocharged engines (both
gasoline and diesel ) range from " reasonable " to " optimistic " ,
with the majority holding the latter opinion . Up-to-date
experience with turbocharging is not extensive at GMR
(although probably greater than at SwRI ) . Our judgments
here will be more definitive as additional experience is
accumulated . Certainly their concern about knock in the
turbocharged gasoline engine is appropriate .

373
C. W. Frasier - 2 - May 6, 1974

Diesel - SwRI realistically cites potential problems with

particulates and odor, then forges ahead with no sure
cures in sight . Their fuel economy projections seem un-
realistically optimistic .

Their whole approach to estimating vehicle fuel economy

seems overly simplistic and leads to extremely optimistic
expectations . In many instances we think their attitudes
on the constraints imposed by emissions fall into the same
category . Economy estimates can be no more realistic
than the guesses they made to provide input data , of
course. Although we doubt that their projected gains in
fuel economy will be realized in practice, I see little to
gain from additional discussions with SwRI on this topic .
The only consequences I foresee from such a meeting are
arguments about appropriate input assumptions .

The comments I received from the other Staff activity are as follows:

1. Fuel economy improvements should be expressed as percent

decrease in fuel consumption .
2. Present technology does not permit construction of a diesel
engine powered car with performance equal to a present-
day reference car but lighter in weight .
3. Present technology does not permit construction of a cylin-
der injected stratified charge engine powered car with
performance equal to the reference car but lighter in
weight .
4. Present technology does not permit achieving low levels
of HC emission with the cylinder injected stratified charge
engine while still maintaining a sizable fuel economy ad-
vantage .
5. Present fuel economy analysis techniques will not provide
reliable fuel economy penalty for emission controls, either
by applying a fixed percentage loss , or by synthesizing a
brake specific fuel consumption engine map .

Comments 2, 3, 4, and 5 are not of a constructive nature .

For these comments I can only recommend that the authors
point out the " programmed inventions " required to accom-
plish those goals that are outside of present technology .

374
C. W. Frasier - 3 - May 6, 1974

Also, the hazards should be noted regarding estimates

of fuel economy penalties assigned for emission controls .
The following offers some elaboration on the above
comments:

On page one of the Introduction the authors state that

their primary objective was to reduce fuel consumption
by at least 30% . However, through the report they
used the larger numbers resulting from comparisons based
on percent increase in miles per gallon . In view of the
objective, it would be more appropriate to make all com-
parisons based on percent decrease in fuel consumption .

In the report Summary the following potential individual

improvements were discussed:

Turbocharging
Variable displacement
Reduction in engine friction
Lean mixture engine
Intake port fuel injection
Stratified charge cylinder injected engine
Diesel engine
Drive trains
Lock-up clutch
Manual transmission
Overdrive
Continuously variable
Tires
Aerodynamics
Weight
Air conditioning
Cooling system

The most promising of these individual improvements

were combined in three different synthesized vehicle
designs:

Conventional spark ignition engine

Stratified charge cylinder injected engine
Turbocharged diesel engine

375
C. W. Frasier - 4 - May 6, 1974

It was specified that these synthesized vehicles must

meet the 1976 interim grams/mile emission standards
of 0.41 HC , 3.4 CO, and 2.0 NOx. Fuel economy
was calculated using an arbitrary mix of one accelera-
tion rate, cruise speeds in 10 mph increments from 20
through 70 mph , and one fuel rate for idle and decel-
eration .Fuel consumption values were determined from
a map of engine brake specific consumption plotted on
torque and speed coordinates.

The synthesized vehicle designs involve some design goals

and fuel economy analysis techniques that are outside of
present technology . A summary of these synthesized vehicles
is shown on the attached chart .

First among the design goals that would require very

significant breakthroughs is the construction of a diesel
engine powered car that would meet reference car per-
formance levels and be lighter in weight . The authors
recognize this problem as a " primary development risk " ,
but there is no presently known solution . This same
problem applies to the direct cylinder injection stratified
charge engine .

An additional design problem with the cylinder injection

stratified charge engine is achieving low HC emission
without a substantial reduction in the fuel economy ad-
vantage . The authors touch on this problem by suggesting
a 5% loss in the fuel economy advantage if EGR is re-
quired for control of NOx .

The fuel economy analysis technique problem involves

estimating the fuel economy penalty resulting from the
addition of emission controls . In our experience it has
been necessary to develop the required engine hardware
first . Then an engine test produces the required bsfc
map from which to calculate fuel economy . Assuming
that emission controls can be developed without an
economy penalty, or assuming an arbitrary economy
penalty is not realistic .

376
C. W. Frasier -- 5-
May 6, 1974

As I'm certain you appreciate , the draft is quite a tome and we have
not attempted to make many of the minor changes which might be
appropriate .

Thank you for giving us an opportunity to examine the draft before

final publication .

Very truly yours,

FWB : rf Fred W. Bowditch

att . Executive Assistant
to the Vice President
Vehicle Emission Matters

377
 TEXACO

PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE TEXACO INC.
DEVELOPMENTS P. O. BOX 509
WILLIAM T. TIERNEY BEACON, NEW YORK 12508
PROJECT MANAGER TEL. (AREA 914) 831-3400

April 22 , 1974

Mr. Herbert H. Gould/TMP

DOT/Transportation Systems Center
Kendall Square ,
Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142

Dear Mr. Gould :

As requested in Mr. C. W. Frasier's letter to me

of April 3 , we have reviewed the report " A Study of Technological
Improvements to Automobile Fuel Consumption " with particular
reference to the statements concerning stratified charge engines ,
and wish to offer the following comments .

Page 219 , last paragraph - Change reference TCP to Texaco

Controlled - Combustion System ( TCCS ) . ( ( The name change from
Texaco Combustion Process ( TCP ) was made in 1970 and has been
used in all of the work discussed in this report . ) )

Page 222 , last paragraph - On the basis of our information ,

the TCCS is the only stratified charge engine having a true
multifuel capability . In any event this attribute cannot be
assigned to all engines discussed in the report .

Page 228 - Figure 76 was based on a curve provided by Texaco * ,

copy attached . You will note that the hexagonal points are not
stra tifi ed charge engine data but are those presented by INOUE
et al of Toyota based on their pre -mixed charge engine studies .

Page 234 , first paragraph , last sentence - " --- stratified charge
engine could satisfy the most stringent emission requirements ,
but the fuel economy benefits of stratified charge operation
11
were lost in the process --- . The " benefit " is not defined
and it must be recognized that some stratified charge engines
exhibit better basic fuel economy than their pre - mixed charge
prototypes . The " loss " in fuel economy in achieving emission
controls must be related to the " loss " associated with emission
control of the pre -mixed charge engine . His statement as made

*Page 18 , Figure D , Supporting Information to Statement by

John K. McKinley , President of Texaco Inc. , to the Air and Water
Pollution Subcommittee of the Senate Public Works Committee ,
June 26 , 1973 .

378
Mr. Herbert H. Gould - 2 - April 22 , 1974

in the report implies that the fuel economy of stratified charge

engines is lost in emission control such that it has no advantage
over the pre - mixed charge engine when both are adjusted to meet
the same emission standards .

Your letter did not request that the report draft

be returned to you . We will retain it in our file pending further
advice . It will not be distributed or discussed outside of the
group of those who have contributed to the foregoing editorial
comments . We appreciate your having made this report available
to us . If you wish to discuss any of our comments , please do
not hesitate to contact me .

Very truly yours ,

T
C. T.ecomey
.
W. T. TIERNEY

WTT- 1mm
Attach .

379
 Tracor, Inc.
Tracor Sciences & Systems
6500 Tracor Lane
Austin, Texas 78721
Telephone 512: 926 2800

30 April 1974

Mr. Herbert H. Gould

Department of Transportation
Transportation Systems Center
55 Broadway
Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142

Dear Mr. Gould :

On the attached sheets are listed our comments to Section

XVII , " Drive Trains , " from the report by Southwest Research
Institute , " A Study of Technological Improvements to
Automotive Fuel Consumption , as requested by Mr. Cline
Frasier in his letter of 3 April .

In reference to the last item on this listing , an article

which was printed in the SAE Transactions , Volume 61 ,
dated 1953 , it should be noted that this was written over
20 years ago and nothing has been done to date . The
enclosed graphs show data that were originally taken from test
cars at Curtiss -Wright in 1961. These demonstrated a traction
CVT was practical ; but again , nothing has been done by the
automobile makers to date .

Sincerely

James H. Kraus
Project Engineer

JHK : am

Enclosures

Copy to Mr. Cline W. Frasier

380
Tracor Sciences & Systems

COMMENTS TO SECTION XVII , " DRIVE TRAINS "

FROM THE REPORT BY

SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE

" A Study of Technological Improvements to

Automotive Fuel Consumption'

Page 275 - bottom of page : The word friction should be changed

to traction . Friction refers to sliding where traction refers

to power transfer through rolling contacts as in the wheels of

a car .

Page 276 - second line : The word friction should be traction , as

above .

Page 278 : The graph is fine but does not show the power curve of
a continuously variable transmission ( CVT ) . Such a curve would

come up the full reduction ratio curve to maximum power , then go

straight across to the point where maximum power intersects the
road load curve . The available power for acceleration with a CVT

is always greater than or equal to the power available from a

shifted transmission .

Page 279 : Same as above .

Page 282 - end of first paragraph : Add : A CVT can adjust to

provide the optimum drive train ratio under all conditions and ,
consequently , can provide equal performance from the smallest sized

engine . Fuel economy is increased by both the reduced engine size

and the increased loading of that engine during normal operations .

Page 284 : The graph shows curves 6 , 7, and 8 for a CVD transmission

straddling an optimum fuel economy curve ( not shown) . The CVT can

indeed follow the plotted curves , but with proper controls , it can

also follow the optimum curve .

381
Tracor Sciences & Systems

Page 285 - Table 26 : The author shows an " optimum drive train"

with a smaller engine but does not show a smaller engine for the
CVT . He has provided no performance comparison . The CVT - equipped

vehicle would show equal performance and significantly greater fuel

economy compared to the " optimum drive train" with an even smaller
engine . Each transmission should have an engine sized for equal

performance . Typical ratio range for a traction CVT runs from

about 5 : 1 to 0.65 : 1 for an overall of about 7.6 : 1 . 1 While this

overall could be extended to about 9 : 1 , little , if any , additional

performance or fuel economy is gained .

Page 286 - Table 27 : Same as above . Real fuel economy improvements

are not shown for the CVT because no performance criteria were set .

With the same engine , the CVT - equipped car will greatly outperform
its counterpart .

Page 286 · second line from end : Delete the words " relatively

major . The changes required to harden an engine sufficiently for

the loading from a CVT are not considered major . Most small

European engines are capable of this type of loading . The VW

engine , even though air cooled , can be run at full throttle virtually
continuously .

-
Page 291 The author should consider automatically modulated
clutches . These are presently used successfully in industrial

applications and in some trucks . The primary problem with all

fluid couplings and torque converters is the required 2 : 1 speed

ratio to go from stall to lockup . This prevents the engine from

being operated at below 16-1800 rpm for low - to - medium speed highway
cruise even though maximum fuel economy is obtained there .

Page 293 - line 6: Change the word friction to traction as discussed

previously .

382
Tracor Sciences & Systems

Page 294 · Table 28 : Change the words friction CVD to traction

ᏟᏙᎢ .

Page 295 · Paragraph 5. Safety : A CVT can provide equal or better

50-70 mph passing ability with a smaller engine than with the
present conventional transmission . This would both reduce top

speed for safety and improve fuel economy . From the graph on

Page 278 , a 125 hp engine with a CVT would provide better

50-70 mph acceleration than the 160 hp engine with a 3 : 1 drive

train ratio ; top speed is cut from 110 mph to about 102 mph .

Page 298A - Calculations : The author has not entered performance

into his equation nor has he adjusted the relative engine sizes
to equal performance . It is not realistic to compare fuel economy

for muscle cars and normal family sedans . If a potential buyer is

satisfied with the performance of a standard sedan , he should be

shown the added fuel economy of a different drive train in the same

car with the same performance .

Page 298A - Table 27: The author has failed to adjust his baseline

vehicle to the latest emission standards . Therefore , all compari-

sons are low and even the simple lock -up clutch which does improve

fuel economy with no effect on emissions shows a negative effect .

Page 299 Paragraph 7. Noise : A traction CVT by itself is extremely

quiet and can significantly lower engine noise at highway speeds by

allowing the engine to operate at greatly reduced speed . The Tracor

Pinto test car runs the engine at about 1800 rpm at 60 mph .

Page 299 · Paragraph 8. Performance : The engine must operate at

maximum power for maximum performance , not at maximum torque . The

transmission must accept that power , provide the correct torque

multiplication , and deliver that power to the drive shaft at the

correct instantaneous speed . Maximum thrust is generated by maximum

wheel torque at the correct wheel speed ( i.e. , at maximum power ) .

383
Tracor Sciences & Systems

Page 302 - References : The author should reference an article

entitled " Engine - Transmission Relationship for Higher Efficiency "

by D. F. Caris and R. A. Richardson which was printed in the

SAE Transactions , Volume 61 , dated 1953. This article concludes :

"High - Compression -- Ideal Transmission System

"A summary of the gains in economy which are possible

with a combination of high - compression engines and ideal

transmissions , shows the incentive for further intensive
work . This paper has shown how a gain of from 25 to 35%
is easily possible with an ideal transmission . It has

also been shown that large gains of 25 to 35% are possible

with engines of 12/1 compression ratio . By obtaining the

advantage of gains from both high- compression engine and

ideal transmission developments through further research ,

a total saving of 45 to 60% could be made .

" It seems entirely possible , therefore , to reduce

gasoline consumption by half without a sacrifice in car

size , performance , or roominess . To obtain a 50% increase

in the present miles per gallon with normal driving is

indeed an incentive for automotive engineers to take

advantage of the potentials in the high - compression engine

and the ideal transmission .

"Progressive industry has always had a goal in the

future , set by the research of today . This study presents

such a goal as a challenge for future development .

"When the goal is reached , motorists will go half again

as far on a tank of gasoline . This will permit valuable

oil resources to be used more effectively and more

efficiently . If oil wells are considered sources of

miles of transportation , each well will produce 50% more

than the present mileage . Where 20 mpg in the family car

384
Tracor Sciences & Systems

is now considered , 30 will be obtained in the future .

The savings , made up of the total of each motorist , will

reach into billions of dollars per year .

"Automotive engineers will have performed one of the

basic jobs of engineering -- to make the most efficient

use of natural resources . "

385
 appli
compa cation e
rativ

Vehicle
Personal
Standard

V
L b
.- ehicle
3000
100
Engine
RPM
5250
at
HP
●

6000 35
Throttle
3/4
30 Basis
5000 100
T

4000 80 25
25

3000 60 20

386
386
2000 40
155

20 10
GAS MILEAGE - MPG

1000

ENGINE SPEED - RPM

20

ROAD SPEED-MPH
0 5 90
100 0 30
40
20
10 50 30
10 50 70
0 40
20 60 80
M
- PH
SPEED
ROAD TIME
SEC
- M
- PH
SPEED
ROAD
STEADY

ACCELERATI
SMOOTH ON ACCELERAT
QUICKER ION MILEAGE
GAS
IMPROVED

RATIO
O
:16.25
VERALL ON
TRANSMISSI
TRACTION
TOROID
:,3 .0
1TRANSMISSI
MANUAL
,S PEED
3.75 ON
CONVERTER
+ TORQUE
FOR
S 2.16
.45
21AUTOMATIC
PEED
:,3.46

M 1/14/72
A6-184-92
 APPENDIX I

Report of Inventions

387
 REPORT OF INVENTIONS

A diligent review of the work performed under this contract has

revealed no new innovation , discovery , improvement or invention .

389
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE SEP

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE

STAMPED BELOW
JAN 25 82
BOOKS REQUESTED BY ANOTHER BORROWER
ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE RECALL
RECEIVED JUL 1 2 1983

MAY 0 5 1993

Physical Sciences Library

NOV 22 '83
NOV 17 1994
RECEIVED
NOV28 83
NOV 1 3 1994

PHYSICAL SCS. LIBRARY APR 18

LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS

D4613 (7/92)M
 3 1175 00456 9730

TL Technological improvements to automobile fuel

154 consumption : final report / C. W. Coon ...
T43 [ et al . ] . -- Washington , D.C. U.S. Dept.
of Transportation : for sale by the Supt . of
Docs . U.S. Govt . Print . Off. , 1974 .
PHYSICAL 2 v. in 1 : ill . ; 27 cm . -- ( Report - De-
SCIENCES partment of Transportation ; no . DOT- TSC- OST-
LIBRARY 74-39 )
Issued in cooperation with U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio.
1. Automobiles --Fuel consumption . VI . Coon, C. W.vil . U.S.
Dept. of Transportation. VIII. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. IV. Southwest Research institute, San Antonio,
o/cho/avo 8/76 DOCUMENT