Fundamentals of Information Technology Unit 12

Unit 12 Basics of Operating System

Structure:
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Basics of Operating System
12.3 Functions of Operating System
12.4 Development of Operating System
12.5 Operating System Virtual Memory
12.6 Operating System Components
12.7 Operating System Services
12.8 Operating System Security
12.9 Summary
12.10 Terminal Questions
12.11 Answers

12.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we have studied requirement analysis, software design
process, system development based on various models like waterfall model,
agile, spiral and V-model, software testing life cycle, various types of
software testing, software paradigms, programming methods and software
applications. In this unit, we will study the operating system basics such as
functions and the development of operating system, virtual memory,
operating system components, operating system services and operating
system security. The operating system has its own responsibilities to
perform fundamental tasks, such as receive input from the keyboard, send
output to the display screen, keep track of files and directories on the disk
and control peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
OS ensures that different programs and users running at the same time do
not interfere with each other and it provides a software platform on top of
which other programs (for example, application software) can run. These
responsibilities address the need to manage the computer hardware and the
application programs that use the hardware. It also focuses on providing an
interface between application software and hardware so that application
software can be efficiently developed.

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Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define operating system
 discuss various functions of an operating system
 explain various methods for developing operating systems
 discuss operating system virtual memory
 list various components of operating system
 describe operating system security

12.2 Basics of Operating System

An operating system is a computer program that enables computer
hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software. The
purpose of an OS is to provide an environment in which a user can execute
programs in a convenient and efficient manner.
The operating system is the most important software because it is
responsible for booting the computer. Booting is a process or set of
operations that loads and hence starts the operating system, starting from
the point when user switches on the power button. Every computer must
have an operating system installed on it. The Windows family of operating
systems is the most popular operating system.

12.3 Functions of Operating System

An operating system is a program which is permanently stored in the main
memory. The main function of an operating system is to control and use the
resources of a computer system. It is similar to the function of the captain of
a cricket team. The captain decides who will bowl and when, who will bat
and the batting order. Captain tries to optimally use the resources under his
command such as bowlers, fielders, batsmen and so on. Similarly an
operating system allocates and controls the use of resources of a computer,
namely, main memory, CPU, input and output devices.
Most operating systems perform the following functions:
 Process Management: The processor has to assign different tasks that
are being performed by the computer system
 Memory Management: Operating system manages the memory of the
computer system. This means that it provides the memory to the

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process and also deallocates the memory from the process. This also
defines that if a process gets completed, then it will deallocate the
memory from that process.
 Input and Output Management: When, one or more programs are
being executed it co-ordinates different input and output devices.
 File System Management: File system management is responsible for
the maintenance of a file system, in which the users are allowed to
create, delete, modify the files and also transfer of files from one storage
device to another.
 Priority Management: Priority management determines and maintains
the order in which the jobs are to be executed in the computer system.
 Error Detection: Error detection detects the error messages.
 Command Execution: Command execution reads the commands and
instructions that are to be performed by the computer system.
 Co-ordination: Co-ordinates with compilers, assemblers, utility
programs and other software to the various users of the computer
system.
 Data Integrity: Operating system keeps programs and information in
such a manner that they do not interface with each other.
 User Interface: In this, user interface provides easy communication
between the user and the computer system.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. ________ is the most important software which is responsible for
booting the computer.
2. Mention any two functions of the operating system.
3. ________ is responsible to create, delete, transfer and modify the files.
4. _____________ is accountable for allocating order of jobs that need to
be executed in the computer system.

12.4 Development of Operating System

To simplify the use of the hardware, operating system was developed. As
operating systems were designed and used, it became obvious that
changes in the design of the hardware could simplify them.

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Early Systems
Early computers were extremely large machines. There was no operating
system and the programs had to directly control all necessary hardware
components. The common input devices were card readers and tape drives.
The common output devices were line printers, tape drives, and punched
cards. The users of such systems did not interact directly with the computer.
The user prepared a job-which consisted of the program and some
information about the nature of the job (control cards) and submitted it to the
computer operator. The job would usually be in the form of punch cards. At
some later time (perhaps minutes, hours, or days), the output appeared.
The output consists of the result of the program, if there was any error in the
program the output was like a dump.
Simple Batch Systems
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs were batched together and
were run through the computer as a group. Thus, the programmers would
leave their programs with the operator. The operator would sort programs
into batches with similar requirements and, as the computer became
available, would run each batch. The output from each job would be sent
back to the appropriate programmer. A batch operating system, thus,
normally reads a stream of separate jobs-(from a card reader, for example),
each with its own control cards that predefined what the job does. Figure
12.1 shows a memory layout for a simple batch system.

Operating System

User Program Area

Figure 12.1: Memory Layout for a Simple Batch System

Even though processing speed increased to a large extent because of batch

processing, the CPU was often idle. This is because of the disparity
between operating speeds of electronic devices like the CPU and the
mechanical input and output devices. CPU operates in the microsecond or
nanosecond ranges whereas input and output devices work in the second or
minute range. To overcome this problem the concept of SPOOLING came
into picture. Instead of reading from slow input devices like card readers into

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the computer memory and then processing the job, the input is first read into
the disk. When the job is processed or executed, the input is read directly
from the disk. Similarly when a job is executed for printing, the output is
written into a buffer on the disk and actually printed later. This form of
processing is known as SPOOLING, SPOOL stands for Simultaneous
Peripheral Operation OnLine. SPOOLING uses the disk as a large buffer to
read input devices and for storing output until output devices are available to
accept them.
SPOOLING overlaps input and output of one job with the computation of
other jobs. For example, spooler may be reading the input of one job while
printing the output of another and executing a third job. Spooling increases
the performance of the system by allowing both a faster CPU and slower
input and output devices to work at higher operating rates.
Multi-Programmed Batch Systems
The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time. This set of
jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool. Job pool is the space that
contains multiple jobs. The operating system now has to choose from the
job pool, a job that is to be executed next. This increases CPU utilization.
Since the disk is a direct access device, jobs in the job pool may be
scheduled for execution in any order, not necessarily sequentially.
Job scheduling brings in the ability of multi-programming. A single user
cannot keep both CPU and I/O devices busy. Multiprogramming increases
CPU utilization by organizing jobs in such a manner that CPU always has a
job to execute.
When two or more programs are residing in memory at the same time, then
sharing the processor is referred to as multiprogramming. The idea of multi-
programming can be described as follows. A job pool on the disk consists of
a number of jobs that are ready to be executed. Subsets of these jobs
reside in memory during execution. The operating system picks and
executes one of the jobs in memory. When this job in execution needs an
I/O (Input Output) operation to complete, the CPU is idle. Instead of waiting
for the job to complete the I/O, the CPU switches to another job in memory.
When the previous job has completed the I/O, it joins the subset of jobs
waiting for the CPU. As long as there are jobs in memory waiting for the
CPU, the CPU is never idle. Choosing one out of several ready jobs in

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memory for execution by the CPU is called CPU scheduling. Figure 12.2
shows a multi programmed batch system.

Operating system
Job 1
Job 2
Job 3
Job 4
Figure 12.2: Multi Programmed Batch System

Time Sharing Systems

Time sharing is a technique which allows many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-
sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
Processor's time, which is shared among multiple users simultaneously, is
termed as time-sharing. The main difference between Multiprogrammed
Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of
Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor
use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems' objective is to minimize response
time.
Multiple jobs are performed by the CPU by switching between them, but the
switches occur very regularly. Thus, the user can receive an immediate
response. For example, in a transaction processing, processor execute
each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is if a
number of users are present, each user can get time quantum. When the
user submits the command, the response time is a few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to
provide each user a small portion of the time. Computer systems that were
designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing
systems.
Advantages of timesharing operating systems are:
 Provide advantage of quick response.
 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.

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Disadvantages of timesharing operating systems are:

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed Systems
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real
time application and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed
among the processors according to which one can perform a job most
efficiently. The processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These
are referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred to as sites, nodes, and computers depending on the
context in which they are mentioned.
There are many reasons for building distributed systems, the major ones
are:
1) Resource Sharing: If different users are connected to one another with
different resources, then the user at one side may be able to use the
resources available at another side.
2) Computation Speedup: In distributed system, a particular computation
will be partitioned into number of sub computations that can run
concurrently. In addition to this, distributed system may allow us to
distribute the computations among various sites. It is called load sharing.
3) Reliability: It means in distributed system, if one site fails, the remaining
sites will share the work of failed site.
4) Communication: When many sites are connected to one another by a
communication network, the processes at different sites have the
opportunity to exchange information. A user may initiate file transfer or
communicate with another via electronic mail. A user can send mail to
another user at the same site or at a different site.
Real-Time Operating System
Real-Time operating systems are specially designed to respond to events
that happen in real time. A real time operating system has well-defined,
fixed time constrains. Processing must be done within the defined
constraints, or else the system will fail. This feature is very useful in

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implementing systems such as an airline reservation system. In such a

system, the response time should be very short because a customer’s waits
for the reservation to be done quickly.
There are two types of real-time systems:
Hard-Real Time System: Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical
task is completed on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is
limited or missing with data stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.
Soft-Real Time System: Soft real time systems are less restrictive. The
critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority
until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-
time systems. Examples of this are, Multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced
Science Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers and so on.
Self-Assessment Questions
5. SPOOL stands for _______________.
6. ____________ overlaps input and output of one job with the
computation of other jobs.
7. Choosing one out of several ready jobs in memory for execution by the
CPU is called ____________.
8. Sharing the processor, when more than two programs are residing in
memory at the same time is known as ____________.
9. Time sharing is logical extension of ___________.
10. In ___________ systems, the processors do not share memory.
11. Mention various types of real-time systems.

12.5 Operating System Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is a feature of an operating system that temporarily transfers
data from Random Access Memory to hard disk. The operating system
breaks the programs address space into fixed size portions called pages.
Virtual memory is a concept in which the operating system allocates a
portion of a storage medium, usually the hard disk, to function as additional
RAM. The operating system uses an area of the hard disk for virtual
memory, in which it swaps (exchange) information between memory and
storage. The technique of swapping items between the memory and storage
is called paging. When an operating system spends much of its time with

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paging, instead of executing application software, it is said to be thrashing. If

application software such as, web browser, has stopped responding and the
hard disk LED blinks repeatedly, the operating system probably is thrashing.
Instead of using a hard disk as virtual memory, windows users can increase
size of memory through Windows Ready Boost, which can allocate up to 4
GB of removable flash memory devices as additional memory cache.
Cache memory, also called CPU memory, is random access memory (RAM)
that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access
regular RAM. This memory is typically integrated directly with the CPU chip
or placed on a separate chip that has a separate bus interconnect with the
CPU. There is better performance with Windows Ready Boost than hard
disk virtual memory because the operating system accesses a flash
memory device, such as USB flash drive or SD memory card, more quickly
than it accesses a hard disk.
A process executes only in the main memory, which is limited in size. Today
with graphic oriented applications like 3D video games, business
applications and so on, a user requires large memory for running such
applications. Note that it is not essential that the whole program must be
loaded in the main memory for processing as only the currently referenced
page needs to be present in the memory at the time of execution. Therefore,
the remaining pages of the program can reside in a hard disk portion
allocated as virtual memory and can be loaded into main memory whenever
needed. This process of swapping the pages from the virtual memory to
main memory is called page-in or swap-in. The system can run programs
that are actually larger than the primary memory of the system. Virtual
memory allows very effective multiprogramming and relieves the user from
the unnecessarily tight constraints of main memory.
The memory is divided into fixed size portions called page frames. An
address generated by the CPU is a logical address whereas address
actually available on memory unit is a physical address. Logical address is
also known a Virtual address. For mapping the logical addresses to physical
addresses in memory, a mapping table is used which is called page table.
Figure 12.3 shows a Logical Memory, Page Table and Physical Memory.

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Figure 12.3: Logical Memory, Page Table, Physical Memory

In virtual memory systems, the page table of each process stores an

additional bit to differentiate the pages in main memory from that on the
hard disk. This additional bit is set to 1 in case the page is in main memory,
otherwise it is 0. Whenever page reference is made, the operating system
checks the page table to determine whether the page is in main memory. If
the reference page is not found in the main memory, a page fault occurs
and the control is passed to the page fault routine in the operating system.
To handle page fault, the page fault routine first checks whether the virtual
address for the desired page is valid. If it is invalid, it terminates the process
giving error. Otherwise, it locates a free page frame in memory and
allocates it to the process, swaps the desired page into this allocated page
frame, and updates the page table to indicate that the page is in memory.
While handling page fault, there is a possibility that the virtual memory is full
and no free frame is available for allocation. In that case, the operating
system has to remove a page from the memory to make space for the
desired page to be swapped in. To decide which page frame is to be
replaced with new page, the operating system must track the usage
information for all pages. In this way, the operating system can determine
which pages are being actively used and which ones are not and therefore
can be removed from the main memory. Often the “least currently
accessed” page (the page that has gone the longest time without being
referenced) is selected.

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Self-Assessment Questions
12. The technique of swapping items between the memory and storage is
knows as ___________.
13. What type of address is generated by the CPU?
14. ___________ is used to map the logical addresses to physical
addresses.

12.6 Operating System Components

Even though, not all systems have the same structure many modern
operating systems share the same goal of supporting the following types of
system components.
1. Process Management
A program in execution is referred to as process. Certain resources are
required by the process such as memory, input and output devices, CPU
time and files. These resources are either given to the process when it is
created or allocated to it while it is running.
Process management is responsible for the following activities:
 Creation and deletion of user and system processes
 Allocating hardware resources among the processes
 Provides mechanism for process communication
 Controlling the process of processes
 Provides mechanism for deadlock handling
2. Main Memory Management
Memory Management of an operating system is concerned with the
management of the main memory or primary memory.
The main memory management is responsible for the following activities:
 Keeping track of which portion of the memory is currently being utilized
and by whom.
 Decide which processes are loaded into memory when memory space
becomes available.
 Allocate and de-allocate memory space as required.
3. File Management
A file is a collection of related information. For storing the files, physical
media (secondary storage device), is used. Some examples of storage

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media are magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Each of these
media has its own properties like speed, capacity, and data transfer rate
File management is responsible for the following activities:
 Creation and deletion of files.
 Creation and deletion of directories.
 Support of primitives for manipulating files and directions.
 Mapping of files onto secondary storage.
 Backup of files on stable storage media.
4. Input Output (I/O) System Management
I/O system keeps status of I/O devices and is referred as I/O traffic
controller. The I/O subsystem consists of general device driver interface,
drivers for specific hardware devices and a memory management
component that includes buffering, caching and spooling. I/O subsystem
hides the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the user. Only the
device driver knows the peculiarities of the specific device to which it is
assigned.
The I/O system consists of:
– Buffer-caching system
– General device-driver interface
– Drivers for specific hardware devices
5. Secondary Storage Management
Normally systems have numerous levels of storage, including primary
storage, secondary storage and cache storage. Instructions and data must
be placed in primary storage (RAM) or cache to be referenced by a running
program. Because main memory is too small to accommodate all
information, and information is lost when power is OFF, the computer
system must provide secondary storage to back up main memory.
Secondary storage consists of hard disks, CD and other media designed to
hold information.
Secondary storage management is responsible for the following activities:
 Scheduling the requests for memory access.
 Managing the free space available on the secondary-storage device.
 Allocation of storage space when new files have to be written.

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6. Networking
The computer systems communicate with one another through
communication lines called network. The communication-network design
must consider with different parameters while designing the networks such
as topology of network, type of network, communication protocols and
security.
7. Protection System
If a computer system has users and allows the concurrent execution of
processes, then various processes must be protected from one another's
activities. Protection refers to the mechanism for controlling the access of
resources (defined by computer system) by the processes. The major role
of protection in the computer system is to provide mechanisms to enforce
polices which govern by the system resources.
8. Command Interpreter System
A command interpreter is an interface between operating system and the
user. In UNIX and MS-DOS, operating system command interpreter is a
special program. When users login the first time or when a job is initiated,
operating system is included in the kernel. A control statement is processed
by the command interpreter. Command interpreter reads the statement,
analyses it and carries out the required action.
Self-Assessment Questions
15. Deadlock handling mechanism is provided by _________.
16. __________ is responsible for mapping of files onto secondary storage.
17. The processors communicate with one another through communication
lines called ____________.

12.7 Operating System Services

Operating systems are responsible for providing essential services within a
computer system such as, loading of programs and transfer of programs
between secondary storage and main memory, supervision of the
input/output devices, file management and provides protection facilities.
Following are the five services provided by operating systems.
1. Execution of Program
The purpose of a computer system is to allow the user to execute programs.
So the operating system provides an environment where the user can
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conveniently run programs. The user does not have to worry about the
memory allocation or multitasking. These things are taken care of by the
operating systems. Running a program involves allocating and de-allocating
memory, as well as CPU scheduling in case of multi-process. These
functions cannot be given to the user-level programs. So user-level
programs cannot help the user to run programs independently without help
from operating systems.
2. Input Output Operations
Every program needs an input and produces an output. The operating
systems hide the details of hardware from the user for the input and output
operations. The operating system, by providing input output operations,
makes it convenient for the users to run programs.
3. File System Manipulation
The output of a program may need to be written into new files or input taken
from some files. The operating system provides this service. The user does
not have to worry about secondary storage management. User gives a
command for reading or writing to a file and sees his or her task
accomplished. Thus operating system makes it easier for user programs to
achieve their task.
This file system manipulation involves secondary storage management. The
speed of I/O that depends on secondary storage management is critical to
the speed of many programs and hence, the operating systems manage it,
rather than giving individual users the control of it.
4. Process Communication
To exchange information with each other, there are instances where
processes need to communicate. It may be between processes running on
the different computers or on the same computer. By providing this service,
the operating system relieves the user from the worry of passing messages
between processes. It can be done by the user programs, if the messages
need to be passed to processes on the other computers through a network.
The user program may be customized to the specifications of the hardware
through which the message transits and provides the service interface to the
operating system.

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5. Error Handling
The operating system constantly needs to be aware of possible errors.
Errors may occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices (such as
connection failure on a network, lack of paper in the printer) and in the user
program (such as arithmetic overflow, an attempt to access an illegal
memory location). For each type of error, the operating system should take
the appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
Self-Assessment Questions
18. Mention any two operating system services.
19. In error handling, an error may occur in the CPU, memory hardware,
I/O devices and in the user program. (True/False)

12.8 Operating System Security

Operating system security means protecting the operating system from
viruses and unauthorized access. Authentication is a process of verifying
whether a person is authorized to access the computer or not. This can be
done by verifying users logging into a centralized system.
User name and password is the most commonly used access credentials to
get authorized access to computer systems. It is easy to implement. User
name is associated with a password. When the user logs onto the system,
the user has to enter his user name and password against a prompt. The
entered password is then matched with the one that is stored in the file
system. If the two match, the user will be allowed to login.
Users should choose passwords that are not easy to guess. Choosing user
names, family names, names of cities, and so on are easy to guess. Length
of a password plays an important role in the effectiveness of the password.
If it is short it is easy to remember and use. Longer the password it is
difficult to remember. The length of password should be 6-8 characters
which include alphabets, numbers and special symbols. Multiple passwords
at different levels could provide additional security. Change of password at
regular intervals is a good practice. Many operating systems allow a user to
try only a few guesses for a login after which the user is logged off the
system.
One of the Program threats is a virus. Virus as the name itself says it is a
piece of code that is embedded in a program; virus is copied in the
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computer system without your knowledge. Viruses are very dangerous and
it can delete user files, modify user files and crash systems. As a user
accesses the information, the virus starts getting inserted in other files or
programs and can make the system unusable for the user.
‘Prevention is better than cure’- as the saying goes, there is no good cure
available after infection. One of the safest ways to prevent virus attacks is to
use legal copies of software. Also system needs to be protected against use
of unauthorized or unchecked hard disks.
Self-Assessment Questions
20. __________ is a process of verifying whether a person is authorized to
access the computer or not.
21. Viruses are very dangerous and it can delete user files, modify user
files and crash systems. (True/False)

12.9 Summary
Let’s recapitulate the important points in this unit:
 An operating system or OS is a computer program that enables
computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer
software.
 The main function of an operating system is to control and use the
resources of a computer system.
 Most operating systems perform different functions such as Process
Management, Memory Management, Input and Output Management,
File System Management, Priority Management, Error Detection,
Command Execution, Co-Ordination, Data-Integrity and User Interface.
 Developmental stages of operating systems such as, Early Systems,
simple batch systems, Multiprogrammed Batch Systems, Time Sharing
Systems, Distributed Systems and Real-Time Operating System.
 Virtual memory is a feature of an operating system that temporarily
transfers data from RAM to hard disk.
 Operating system security means protecting the operating system from
viruses and unauthorized access.

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12.10 Terminal Questions

1. Explain the responsibilities of an Operating system
2. Explain various functions of operating system.
3. Briefly explain development of operating system.
4. What is virtual memory? Briefly explain the role of virtual memory in
the operating system.

12.11 Answers
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Operating System
2. Process Management and Memory Management
3. File System Management
4. Priority Management
5. Simultaneous Peripheral Operation OnLine.
6. SPOOLING
7. CPU scheduling
8. Multiprogramming
9. Multiprogramming
10. Distributed
11. Hard-Real Time System and Soft-Real Time System
12. Paging
13. Logical
14. Page table
15. Process management
16. File management
17. Network
18. Input Output Operations and Process Communication
19. True
20. Authentication
21. True
Terminal Questions
1. The most important type of system software is an operating system. An
operating system has three main responsibilities first one is, Perform
basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending

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output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the
disk and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
(Refer to section 12.2)
2. Most operating systems perform the various functions such as Process
Management, Memory Management, Input and Output Management,
File System Management, Priority Management. (Refer to section 12.3)
3. There are different systems for development of operating systems such
as early systems, simple batch systems, multi-programmed batch
systems and many more. (Refer to section 12.4)
4. One of the features of an operating system is virtual memory, which
temporarily transfers pages from RAM to hard disk. (Refer to section
12.5)

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