6.

l INTRODUCTION
pae
feasible voltage levels at which large chunks of electric
generated areand
Economical tcchnologically
typically |1-37kV, while the most convenient utilisation voltages are 230/400)V for industrial
commercial and domestic purposes. Large industrial motors may run at 3.3, 6.6 or | | kV It isimpossible
Iransnit drectly. the clectric power as it is generated (l|-37kV). even over modest distances. Unacceptably
large power losses and voltage drops would result. As a rule of thumb, cconomical transmission votage
is 0.625 kV/km linc to-line, c.g. 400 kV for a line of about 640 km. It is therefore cssential to step-up
voltages at the send1ng (gencrating) end and to step-down at the receiving end. Usually more than 0ne-step
of step-down may he nccessary. Step-up and step-down of voltage levels is accomplishedIby mearns of statsc
electromagnctic devices called transformers.
6.1. Itcomprises of a rectangular core uk
The schematic diagram of a transformer is shown in Fig.mutually coupled circuit.
indeed a
has coils (windings) wound on the two lines and is primary and receiveselectric power from the souroe
from the ac source is called the
is excited
Thecoilcoil
other called the secondary and the voltage inducedin it could be usedto feed a load. The subscript '1
secondary roles in a transfor
will be associated with the primary and 2 with the secondary. Primary and
ports. Toavoid confusion, in Dracte
are easily reversed by the prevailing electrical conditions at the two
(low-voltage) windings.
the two transformer coils are known as HV (high-voltage) and LV part of the leakage Ruy
Alsoshown in Fig. 6.1 are thc mutual and leakage flux paths. Since a significant
than the mutual flux .
paths is through air, leakage fluxes o, and o,, are much less
Laminated core
omutual) (rectangular
Cross-section)

AC i N Load
Source
N

Leakage Leakage flux o2

flux on (secondary)
(primary) Primary
winding Secondary
winding

Fig. 6.I Atwo-winding transformer

The dots indicated on the two coils (windings) are the polarity marks. As the mutual flux alternates, thexe
coilends simultaneously acquire the same polarity. Also, current flowing into the dot in one coil and out of
the dot in the other coil would tend to produce core flux in the opposite directions.
The primary and secondary windings are made of copperlaluminum conductors.
6.1.I Transformer Core
The transformer core is made of highly permeable iron. It is essential, so that excitationcurrent requireu
establishcore flux Qis asmallpercentage (2-4) of the primary current i,; the rest being the useful compone
which coresponds to the load current. Further high permeable core provides tight coupling between the te
windings, i.e. leakage flux is kept very low.
 Transformers 6.3

carries aiternating flux to keep low the eddy-current loss, the core i constructed with silicon
Asthe core
|laminations lightlyinsulated in the form of
rectangular (0.35 strips mmthickness for 50 Hz). This type
steel
construction is used for power transformers operated at 25-400 Hz. Core-type transformer construction
of
shown in Fig. 6.2(a). With some refinements, this core construction is used for audiotransformers, (20 to
is used
2000 Hz.) For Iransformersin electronic circuit operating at hundreds of kHZ, powdered iron 'slug' is
as Core
with loose coupling as shown in Fig. 6.2(b). Air-cored transformers are used for radio devices and
instruments.
certain type of measuring and testing

Laminated iron-core
Slug

Primary

Secondary

Secondary
Secondary
Primary Primary o

(a) Core type - iron core (b) Slug core

Fig. 6.2 Transformer core types-single þhase

6.1.2 Core Types

type and shell
Two types of geometrical core shapes and winding arrangements are used practically--core
easily seen,
rype as shown in cross-sectional views of Fig. 6.3 (a) and (b) of a single-phase transformer. It is
that core type has a longer mean flux path but a shorter mean length of coil turn.
later, causes
The winding arrangement must be such as to reduce the leakage flux, which we will see
reduce the leakage flux,
reactive voltage drops in both primary and secondary. In a core type transformer to insulation, the LV
half-LV and half-HV are wound on each limb as shown in Fig. 6.3(a). For economical
coils are placed inside (adjoining the core) and HV coils are placed outside.
central limb as shown
In a shell-type transformer, there are three limbs with both windings placed on the
To reduce leakage, LV
inFig. 6.3(b). Half of the flux of the central limb is returned though each outer limb.
and HV coil packets are sandwiched.
construction requires more iron but
As per the statement in the first paragraph above, the core-type
used for special requirements
less copper. Therefore, this construction type is preferred, while the shell is
(explanation beyond the scope of this book).

Housing and Cooling

the built-in core and windings are
l0 prevent ingress of moisture and deterioration of winding insulation, circular tubes are provided
placed in a steel tank filled with transformer oil as shown in Fig. 6.3(a). Oval or which removes the heat
On the outside surfaces of the transformer tank, aiding in natural circulations of oil,
purpose. Oil circulation
0 core and winding ('R) losses and transports it to the tank surfaces for cooling moisture from air
absorbing
Temoves the heat generated by iron losses in the core. To prevent the coil from passage
and from being oxidised, the tank must be sealed and connected to the atmosphere through anarrOW
transformer breathes
or breathing purposes. Inside this passage is placed silica gel for drying the air that the
In. In large transformers forced cooling is provided by an oil pump outside the tank.
6.4 Basic Electrical ond Electronics Engineering

Core yoke
1/2 LV
1/2 LV
1/2 HV 1/2 HV

Windings

Windings Core
(a)
Core yoke

-o/2 o/2

Sandwiched LV
HV windings

b/2

Core

(b)

Fig. 6.3 (a) Core-type transformer (b) Shelltype transformer

6.1.3 Insulation
Windings made of copper/aluminum conductor (round/strip) are insulated by braided cotton, cotton apc:
empire tape, etc. and then impregnated with varnish under vacuum to displace air packets inside the insulaion.
Windings are insulated from the core by means of Bakelite cylinders and plastic spacers are also insulatd
from each other. Such insulation must be spaced to allow free space for circulation of coil.
 Transformers 6.5

Fig. 6.4 Notural cooling in transformers

6.2 IDEAL TRANSFORMER (IT)

In order to develop the mathematical model of a transformer, it is convenient to
visualise a circuit element
termed the "ideal'" transformer by makingcertain assumptions in the realistic transformer. These assumptions
only introduce insignificant model errors and are as follows:
The transtormer windings are resistance-less. This in effect means that ohmic power losses and
resistance voltage drops in the actual transformer are neglected.
The transformer core material has infinite permeability so that it requires zero mmf to create flux in
the core.
The leakage flux is negligible, i.e. no reactive voltage drops in windings.
The transformer core losses are negligible.
The diagrammatic representation of an ideal transformer is provided in Fig. 6.5 showing the core to carry
mutual flux, primary winding connected to sinusoidal voltage and secondary winding connected to a load.
As the source voltage applied to the primary is sinusoidal, allvoltage and current in this electromagnetic
device are sinusoidal whose instantaneous values are indicated on the diagram. Using standard symbols, we
can write these as rms value or as phasor.

F
F24

e. Ni Ng V2 Load

Fig.6.5 ldeal transformer (|T)

 6.6 Basic Electricol and Electronics Engineering

6.2.I Voltages and emfs

As the primary and secondary circuits are linked through the mutual flux, we begin with flux.
expressed as
= Omay Sin w?; 0= 2f rad/s which in
The emf induced in primary winding balances the applied voltage as per KVL. (6
Thus. "=e= N, -= 0 N Omax COS I
d
The secondary induces emf, which equals the load voltage and is similarly given by (62
V; =e, = ON, Omax COS M
In terms of rms values, (63,
V, =E, = V2nfN,Omax
(64)
and V, = E, = V2nfN, Omax
We find that the voltage and emfs are in phase and the flux lags by 90° (sin wt lags cos ot by 90°) (6.5)

6.2.2 Transformation Ratio

It is found from the above equations that the voltage transformation ratio of rms values is
VE N, =a (turn ratio)
E, N (66)
It is seen from these equations that in an ideal transformer, the voltages are in direct ratio of turms wik
nochange in phase angle.
The maximum value of the flux is found from Eqs (6.4) and (6.5) to be
E E,
Omax = -;W27 =4.44 (6.7)
V2nfN, V2rfN, 90°

It is seen that omay, is determined by the applied voltage

and its frequency and is independent of current. This is a
general result and as we shall see in later chapters, applies
also to ac machines.
The phasor diagram showing the primary and secondary
voltage including emfs and flux is drawn in Fig. 6.6 wherein, Fig.6.6 Phasor diagrams of ideal transforme,
as said already, the flux phasor lags E, and E,. by 90°. Currents not shown

Currents
The current drawn by the secondary load is
(6.8)
i,= V2/, cos(wt - 0);0 =phase angle assumed lagging
By Lenz's law, this current causes the mmt to oppose the core flux ¢. In phasor terms, secondary mmt

(6.9)
E=,N,.J, =,2-e currentIs
As the core flux cannot change, being governed by primary applied voltage and frequency.
a

drawn from the source to cause mmf E equal and opposite to F

 6.7
Transformers

Thus.
1,N=I,N, (6.10)
w.hich vicld the curent transformation ratio

(6.11)
N,
1We find that an ideal transformer fransforms the current
in the inverse ratio of turns and the pihase is preserved, In
terms of rms values,

(6.12)
N, a

The complete phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is Fig. 6.7 Phasor diagram of ideal transformer
drawn in Fig. 6.7 showing currents as well.
J Important Note The transformation ratio holds for emfs induced by the mutual flux. This equals
the voltage ratio for the ideal transformer because there is no voltage drop. The current transformation
applies to the secondary current and its primary current equivalent. These concepts will get clarified in
Sections 6.3and 6.4.

Equivalent Circuit
The equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer is drawn in Fig. 6.8.
Here. (6.13)

and (6.14)

h= al
000000000
Q00900090

V, =aV V,= 1laV,

N N

Fig. 6.8 Equivalent circuit of IT (a= N,/N)

They are called 'the secondary voltage and current referred to the primary'. Similarly, we define

V=V, (6.15)
5.8 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

as theprimary voltage and current referred to the secondary'. (6.\6,

The three vertical lines are indicative of the core. It is not necessary to draw these in every diagram.
It may be remarked here that V, applied to the secondary winding of an ideal transformer
same maximum core fAux as V, applied to the primary winding (Eq. (6.8). produces the
6.2.3 Impedance Transformation
In Fig. 6.9, animpedance Z, is connected on the secondary side of theideal transformer. The
seen in the primary side is found as impedance
(6.17a)
Or (N,IN,)V-=Z,
(N,/N)I,

(6.17b)

(6.18)

IT

000000000 999000090
IT

N,/N = a N/N = a

’ V

Fig. 6.9 Impedance-transforming property of IT

 Tiansformers 6.9

The impedance ransformation property (Eq. (6.18)| is illustrated

diagrammatically in Fig. 6.9. Z; 1S
called 'the secondary impedance refered to the primary', vice versa applies equally, i.e. Z'
The impedance transforms from one side of the ideal =(1/a»)Z,.
turns.
transformer to the other in the direct square ratio of
Equation (6.18) can be put in the admittance form as

a (6.19)
ie the admittance transforms from one side of the ideal
of turns.
transformer to the other in the inverse square ratio
The impedance-transforming property of the transformer is employed in
circuits. impedance matching in electric

Example 6.I
An ideal transformer hasS a turn ratio of 100/300., The LV winding is connected to a source of 3.3 kV,
50Hz. An impedance of (100 +j 35) Qis connected across the secondary
terminals.
value of maximum core flux, (b)the primary and secondary currents, (c) the real andCalculate the
(a)
reactive powers
supplied by the source to the transformer primary, and (d) the value of impedance which
directly across the source would draw the same real and reactive power as in (c). connected

Solution
(a) From Eq. (6.7),
V 3.3x 1000
Pmax =
2nfN V2x 50x 100
=0.149 Wb
(b) V,= 3.3 x (300/100) = 9.9 kV
9.9 x 1000
,= (100 + j35) 93.44 Z-19.3° A

I, =(300/100) x 93.44 Z-19.3°

= 280.03 -19.3°A

(c) S=V+;=V,1;
=9.9 x 93.44 Z19.3°kVA
= (873.1 +j305.7)
Hence, P, =873.I kW. Q, =305.7 kVA
(d) 7,-7;-z,
-(100/300) (100 +j 35)
= 11.1|+j3.89 2
 6.10 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

6.3 AcCOUNTING FOR FINITE PERMEABILITY AND CORE LOSS

In areal transformer. the core has finite permeability andto establish flux in the core, the
primary
woulddraw acurent component called magnetising current from the
sOurce over and above the load curTent.
Arcalcore will also have power loss (core loss) because it carries
90°
windinp
altermating flux. I can be modelled as a resistance R,(or conductance
G)across the primary voltage source.
The net exciting current' drawn by the primary to create core
flux
is then Imt
(6.20)
where I =-j B,, V, = magnetising current
1,=G, V, = core (iron) loss current, in phase with V,
The phasor diagram of the exciting current is drawn in Fig. Fig. 6.10
Therefore, the angle e, in the phasor diagram is close to 90°. It 6.11.
also
Mognetising current
phasor diagram
means that the exciting current I, has a low
The circuit model of the transformer atlagging power factor.
this stage of development is drawn in Fig. 6.12, The
assumption that is still made is that the windings are resistance-less and their
leakage flux is negligible

Tm

Fig. 6.I Exciting current phasor diagram

IT
T=zla

W
Im

G
Bm

a =N/N

Fig. 6.12 Circuit model of transformer (resistance and leakage neglected)

Loosely the term magnetising current will be used to mean exciting current.
 6.11
Transformers
sseen from Fig. 6.12 that the resultant current (under toad) drawn from the primary IS
(6.21)
The magnetising Current in a transformer is in the range 2-5% of the rated current. Further, it being
mainly reactive (B, ciose to 90°). rms
magnitude-wise is
(6.22)
It is also clear trom ig. 6.12 that on no-load (= Lla= 0), the transformer primary would draw only
e exciting current trom the source, which therefore is synonymous with the term no-load current (hence,
the symbol ,).

64 CIRCUIT MODEL OF TRANSFORMER

Both primary and secondary of a transformer have winding resistances. Apart from this,the two windings have
leakage fux: O, linking only the primary and o,, linking only the secondary (see Fig. 6.1), which induces the
primary and secondary windings to possess leakage inductances and therefore, leakage reactances at steady
sinusoidal operation. The ideal primary and secondary windings along with the core (which now carries only
the mutual flux ,) indeed constitute the ideal transformer. Let windings resistances be r, r, and
wind1ing
reactances (inductive) be x, and x,.
The complete circuit model (commonly called equivalent circuit) is drawn in Fig. 6.13. It comprises the
following circuit elements.
1. Magnetising shunt branch-B,, and G, in parallel
2. Primary resistance r and leakage reactance x, in series
3. Ideal transformer (turn ratio N,/N, = a)
4. Secondary resistance,and leakage reactance x, in series

|T
X1
X2
t

Q00000000
0000
W

E
Bm G;

N,/N= a

Fig. 6. 13 Equivalent circuit

By the technique of impedance transformation, these can be transferred to one side of the transformer
Say the primary. Then equivalent series resistance and reactance of the transformer referred to the primary
side are
Equivalentresistance R=rtr =rtar, (6.23)

Equivalent resistance X=x+x, -Xt ax, (6.24)

6.12 Basic Electricoland Electronics Engineering

The transformer circuit model (equivalent circuit) of Fig. 6.13 with

referred to the primary side, gets modified to the form shown in the figuresecondary
where resistance and
reaclan(62%ce
In the circuit model of atransformer, it is not necessary to carry the
ideal transformer as
current conversions Eqs (6.25) and (6.26) can always be carried out computationally. these (624ay
vollage
R
X

W000

V, Bm G;

Fig. 6.14 Circuit model of atransformer (IT left out)

The magnetising shunt branches in the circuit model of Fig. 6.15 do not affect voltage computzio.
and may therefore be ignored. Further, since R is much smaller in a transformer than X, R may aleot
ignored. These two steps leadto the simplified circuit models of Fig. 6.15. It is also unnecessary to Carry he
superscript 'dash on current and voltage.

R X

0000 +

x
(a)
X

0000
V

(b)

Fig. 6. 15 Simplified circuit model of atransformer

Phasor Diagram
The phasor diagram corresponding to the circuit model of a transformer is drawn in Fig. 6.16 where t,
secondary phase angle 6, = primary phase angle.
 6.13
Transformers

8, is slightly more than ,

S- angle by which Vload V,. very smalI
Alags E, by 90°, not shownis phasor diagram.
V

S(very small) E1 E1

En
N2 Ihx2

Im

Fig. 6.l6 Transformer phasor diagram as per circuit model (not to scale)
Alternative
de
If we use e = -V ,the flux phasor ¢ willlead E,, E, by 90°. I, will be in phase opposition to /,.
dt

lo

Ih2 I2X2
E
In V=-E
Y2

Fig.6.17 Transformer exact phasor diagram (not to scale)

Summary
It is seen from the complete circuit model of atransformer that because of voltage drops in the
primary and secondary resistances and leakage reactances, we have
 6.14 Bosic Fletrical and Electronics Engineering

as the furn ratio is the ratio of inducedemfs. However, as the series voltage drops are
Is Sufficiently accurate to assume that very small, i

Iikein an ideal transformer.

We ohserve from the circuit model that it has a shunt branch (B,, and G) across
the source voltage
V anda series branch (R and X) between V and V,. Therefore., we can treat these indenend 0
shunt branch for finding exciting current , and the series branch for calculating
(V-L). The input current can then be found as the sum of the two currents-exciting drop
Current
voltage
plus load current, i.e. I, = lo +,:
Example 6.2
A 150 kVA, 2400/240 Vsingle-phase transformer has the following
parameters
r, =0.2 2 T, = 2x 10Q
X =0.6 Q X, = 6x 10-o
and R, = 10 ks2 Xm = 1.6 k2
(a) Calculate the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance as seen on the HV side.
(b) Convert the resistance and reactance values referred to LV side.
(C) At rated current, calculate the impedance voltage drop on the HV side. Also,
calculate the
voltage drop as a percentage of the rated voltage.
(d) With the secondary open (no load), what current will be drawn from HV side (2400 VsOurce)
What is its pf?
Solution We will take the turn ratio same as the ratio of rated voltage. Thus,
2400
Turn ratio, a = = 10
240
(a) As seen on HVside.
R=0.2 + (10x2x 10
=0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 Q
X=0.6 +(10)' x6x10=1L2 9
(b) As referred to the LVside,
1
RLV) = x0.4 = 4 x10 2

X(LV) = 5X1.2 = 12 x 10Q

(10)²