1.

5 – Solid Structures

Ionic solids Giant covalent solids

Ionic solids (crystals) are giant lattices of positive and negative ions. Structures are made of the same base unit Giant covalent solids consist of networks of covalently bonded atoms
repeated over and over again. The structure of the crystal depends on the relative number of ions and their sizes. arranged into giant lattices.
In diamond, each carbon atom is joined to four
others by strong covalent bonds. The atoms
arrange themselves in a tetrahedral shape. This
makes it very hard.
Cs+ It has a very high melting temperature – a lot
of energy needed to break the numerous strong
covalent bonds.

Cl- It does not conduct electricity – there are no

free electrons or ions present.
NaCl coordination CsCl coordination
Graphite consists of hexagonal layers. Each
number number
carbon is joined to three others by strong
6:6 8:8
covalent bonds. The extra electrons are
Cs+ ion is larger than Na+ ion therefore more Cl– ions can fit around it. delocalised within the layer. The layers are held
together by weak van der Waals forces.
Physical properties
It has a very high melting temperature – it has
• High melting and boiling temperatures – It takes a large amount of energy to overcome the strong electrostatic strong covalent bonds in the hexagon layers.
forces between the oppositely charged ions.
It is soft and slippery – the weak forces between
• Often soluble in water – The oxygen end of the water molecules is attracted to the positive ions, and the the layers are easily broken, so the layers can
hydrogen ends of the water molecules are attracted to the negative ions. slide over each other.
δ+ δ+
δ-
It is a good conductor of electricity – the delocalised electrons are free to
H H move along the layers so an electric current can flow.
O O
H δ+
δ- δ+ H
δ+
δ+ δ- + δ+ H
δ
-
δ-
H H δ+
O
O O
H H
H H
O H δ+
δ+ δ-
δ+ δ+

• Hard but brittle – When force is applied, layers of ions slide over each other causing ions of the same charge to
be next to each other; the ions repel each other and the crystal shatters.
• Poor electrical conductivity when solid, but good when molten or dissolved – In the solid state, the ions are
fixed in position by the strong ionic bonds; however, when molten or dissolved, the ions are free to move and will
move to the electrode of opposite charge, so will carry the current.
1.5 – Solid Structures

Simple molecular solids Metals

These consist of covalently bonded molecules held together by weak Metal atoms bond together to form a giant metallic structure.
intermolecular forces. Metals consist of a regular arrangement of metal cations (a lattice) surrounded
‘pool’ of delocalized
Physical properties electrons by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons. The strong metallic bond is due to the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the nucleus of the cations and the
Low melting and boiling temperatures – Although the covalent bonds within
delocalised electrons.
the molecules are strong, the intermolecular forces holding the molecules
together are weak and do not need much energy to break. Physical properties
Poor conductors of electricity – They do not contain delocalised electrons or High melting temperatures – A large energy is needed to overcome the strong
ions. forces of attraction between the nuclei of the metal cations and the delocalised
Two examples of simple molecular solids are iodine and ice. lattice of electrons; the melting temperature is affected by the number of delocalised
positive ions
electrons per cation and the size of the cation.
In iodine, atoms are covalently In ice, molecules of water are
Hard – The metallic bond is very strong.
bonded in pairs to form diatomic I2 arranged in rings of six held together
molecules. These molecules are held by hydrogen bonds. In this ordered Good conductors of electricity both in the solid and molten state – The delocalised electrons can carry a current
together by weak van der Waals structure, the water molecules are because, when a potential difference is applied across the ends of a metal, they will be attracted to and move
forces and are arranged in a regular further apart than they are in the towards the positive terminal of the cell.
pattern. liquid state. Since there are large Good thermal conductors because the delocalised electrons can pass kinetic energy to each other.
areas of open space inside the rings,
ice is less dense than liquid water at Malleable (can be shaped) and ductile (can be drawn into a wire) – When a force is applied to a metal, the layers
0˚C. of cations can slide over each other; however, the delocalised electrons move with the cations and prevent forces
of repulsion forming between the layers.

oxygen hydrogen
atom atom

covalent bond hydrogen bond