ARTICLES

TRA1222 N27 September 2016

WHAT ARE ARTICLES? I
An article is a word that is used with a noun to indicate the type of
reference being made by the noun, most commonly definiteness.
• The articles in the English language are the and a/an, and (in certain
contexts) some.
• “An” and “a” are modern forms of the Old English “an”, which in
eastern dialects was the number “one” (which was “on”, in southern
dialects).
• Both “on” (respelled “one” by the Normans) and “an” survived into
Modern English, with “one” used as the number and “an” (“a”,
before nouns that begin with a consonant sound) as an indefinite
article.
• So, strictly speaking, we don’t add “n” to “a” before a vowel; rather,
we remove “n” from “an” before a consonant.
• In a process called juncture loss, the “n” of “an” has wandered back
and forth between the indefinite article and words beginning with
vowels over the history of the English language, where for example
what was once “a nuncle” is now “an uncle”. 2
WHAT ARE ARTICLES? II
• In many languages, articles are a special part of speech. In
English, articles are frequently considered a part of a broader
speech category called determiners, which combines articles and
demonstratives (such as “this” and “that”).
• In languages that employ articles, every common noun (with
some exceptions) is expressed with a certain definiteness (e.g.
definite or indefinite), just as many languages express every noun
with a certain grammatical number (e.g. singular or plural).
• Every noun must be accompanied by the article, if any,
corresponding to its definiteness, and the lack of an article
(considered a zero article) in itself specifies a certain
definiteness.
• This is in contrast to other adjectives and determiners, which are
typically optional. This obligatory nature of articles makes them
among the most common words in many languages – in English,
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for example, the most frequent word is “the”.
WHAT ARE ARTICLES? III
• Articles are usually characterized as either definite or
indefinite. A few languages have additional subtypes.
• Within each type, languages may have various forms of each
article, according to grammatical attributes such as gender,
number, or case, or according to adjacent sounds.
• Just a point – when listing things in alphabetical order, ignore
articles. For example, Shakespeare’s “The Comedy of Errors” is
alphabetized before “A Midsummer Night's Dream”.
• And note where we put the full stop when quoting a title.

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 Are you saying
“You know which one/s I mean?”
YES NO
Singular countable Plural noun /
The noun Uncountable noun
A/An No article
 The Fundamental Rule
a. To say “You know which one/s I mean”, we put the before a noun.
I’ve been to the doctor. (You know which one: my doctor.)
Have you fed the dogs? (You know which dogs I mean.)
Could you pass the salt? (You can see the salt that I want.)
b. When we cannot say “You know which I mean”, we:
– put a/an before a singular countable noun.
There’s a rat in the kitchen! I need a gun.
– put no article with a plural or an uncountable noun.
She’s afraid of rats. I need help.
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THE FUNDAMENTAL RULES II
• Four common mistakes to avoid
• Don’t use a/an with plural or uncountable nouns.
John collects stamps. Our garden needs water.
• Don’t use the to talk about things in general. The does not mean
“all”.
Elephants can swim very well. Petrol is expensive.
• Don’t use articles together with my, this, or other determiners.
My work. This problem. A friend of mine.
• Don’t use singular countable nouns alone, without an article or
other determiner. We can say a cat, the cat, my cat, this cat, any
cat, either cat or every cat, but not just cat.
Give it to the cat. Annie is a doctor.
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WHEN TO USE THE I
• When to use THE
• The = “you know which one(s)”
• The = “the only one(s) around”
• Superlatives
• The meaning “the well-known”
• When NOT to use THE
• Possessives and demonstratives
• Proper nouns (names)

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WHEN TO USE THE II
THE = “you know which one(s)”
• Our listener/reader may know which one(s) we mean
because:
• (a) we have mentioned it/them before.
She’s got two children: a boy and a girl. The boy’s fourteen
and the girl’s eight.
• (b) we say which one(s) we mean.
Who are the boys over there with John?
• (c) it is clear from the situation which one(s) we mean.
Could you close the door? (Only one door is open.)

First mention Second mention

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WHEN TO USE THE III
• THE = “the only one(s) around”
• The listener may know which one we mean because there is
no choice – there is only one (e.g. the sun, the moon, the
earth, the world, the universe, the future) or there is only one
in our part of the world (e.g. the government).
I haven’t seen the sun for days. People used to think the earth
was flat.
Do you trust the government?

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WHEN TO USE THE IV
• Superlatives
• We usually use the with superlatives because there is
normally only one best, biggest, etc., individual or group (so it
is clear which one(s) we are referring to). For the same reason,
we usually use the with first, next, last, same and only.
I’m the oldest in my family.
We went to the same school. Can I have the next pancake?
• THE meaning “the well-known”
• After a name, an identifying expression with the is often used
to make it clear that the person referred to is “the well-known
one”.
She married Richard Burton, the actor.
I’d like you to meet Cathy Parker, the novelist. 10
PRONUNCIATION OF THE
The is normally pronounced /ði:/ before a vowel and /ðɘ/ before
a consonant.
• Compare: the ice /ði:/ and the snow /ðɘ/.
• The choice between /ði:/ and /ðɘ/ depends on pronunciation,
not spelling. We say /ði:/ before a vowel sound, even if it is
written as a consonant: the hour, the MP.
• And we say /ðɘ/ before a consonant sound, even if it is written
as a vowel: the university, the one-pound coin.
• We sometimes use a stressed /ði:/ before a hesitation, or when
we want to stress the following word, even if it begins with a
consonant.
He’s the /ði:/—just a moment—deputy assistant vice-president.
I’ve found the /ði:/ present for Jane!
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WHEN TO USE A/AN I
• When to use A/AN
• With singular countable nouns
• One person or thing
• Any one member of a class
• Classifying and defining
• Descriptions
• When A/AN cannot be left out:
• In negative expressions, after prepositions or after fractions
• Describing jobs people have
• Describing how things are used
• When A/AN is not used:
• With adjectives alone (by themselves)
• With possessives
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WHEN TO USE A/AN II
Uses of A/AN
• A/an does not add much to the meaning of a noun – it is like a
weak form of “one”. It has several common uses.
• A/AN with singular countable nouns
• One normally uses a/an only with singular countable nouns:
a secretary, an office.
• But plural expressions of quantity can be used with a/an (and
with another):
• We’ll need an extra ten pounds. I’ll bet that house could tell
a good few stories.

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WHEN TO USE A/AN III
• One person or thing:
• We can use a/an when we refer to one person or thing.
There’s a police car outside. Andy lives in an old house.
• Any one member of a class:
• We can use a/an when we talk about any one member of a
class.
A doctor must like people (= any doctor). I would like to live in
an old house (= any old house).
• Classifying and defining:
She’s a doctor. A glider is a plane with no engine.
• Descriptions:
She’s a nice person. It’s an extremely hot day. 14
WHEN TO USE A/AN IV
• When A/AN CANNOT be left out
• We do not normally leave out a/an in negative expressions,
after prepositions or after fractions.
Lend me your pen. – I haven’t got a pen.
You mustn’t go out without a coat.
Please get me three-quarters of a pound of red beans.
• And we do not leave out a/an when we say what jobs people
have, or how things are used.
She’s an engineer.
I used my shoe as a hammer.

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WHEN TO USE A/AN V
• When A/AN is NOT used: adjectives alone; possessives
• A/an cannot normally be used with an adjective alone
(without a noun).
• Compare: It’s a good car. It’s good.
• A/an cannot be used together with a possessive. Instead, we
can use the structure a ... of mine/yours etc:
He’s a friend of mine.

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A AND AN: THE DIFFERENCE
We do not normally pronounce the sound /ɘ/ before a vowel. So
before a vowel, the article a (/ɘ/) changes to an, as you well know.
Compare: a rabbit, a lemon, an elephant, an orange.
• The choice between a and an depends on pronunciation, not
spelling. We use an before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a
consonant: an hour, an MP.
• And we use a before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a
vowel: a university, a one-pound coin.
• Some people say an, not a, before words beginning with h if the
first syllable is unstressed: an hotel (a hotel is more common),
an historic occasion (a historic ... is more common).
• A is sometimes pronounced /eɪ/ before a hesitation, when we want
to emphasise the following word, or when we want to make a
contrast with the.
• I think I’ll have a /eɪ/ – chocolate ice cream. It’s a /eɪ/ reason – it’s
not the only reason. 17
PLURAL AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
A/AN NOT used
• Plural and uncountable nouns (e.g. cats, wool) cannot normally be
used with a/an (because a/an has a similar meaning to “one”).
Instead, we most often use no article.
• There were cats in every room. Doctors generally work long hours.
• Remember that many abstract (= uncountable) nouns can also be
countable. For example: a coffee, a knowledge of Spanish.
THE
• Instead of no article, we use the when we want to say “You and I
both know which I mean”. Compare:
• I’m working with children. (The hearer doesn’t know which ones.)
• How are the children? (= the hearer’s children.)
• We need salt (= any salt). Could you pass the salt? (The hearer can
see the salt that is wanted.) 18
SOME/ANY AND NO ARTICLE I
Use with uncountable and plural nouns
• Uncountable and plural nouns can often be used either with
some/any or with no article. There is not always a great
difference of meaning.
We need (some) cheese. I didn’t buy (any) eggs.
• Some is used especially in affirmative sentences; any is more
common in questions and negatives.
• SOME/ANY or NO article – which to use, and when?
• We prefer some/any when we are thinking about limited but
rather indefinite numbers or quantities - when we don’t know,
care or say exactly how much/many.
• We prefer no article when we are thinking about unlimited
numbers or quantities, or not thinking about numbers/quantities
at all. 19
SOME/ANY AND NO ARTICLE II
• Compare and explain:
We’ve planted some roses in the garden. (A limited number; the
speaker doesn’t say how many.)
I like roses. (No idea of number.)
Is there any water in the fridge? (The speaker wants a limited
amount.)
Is there water on the moon? (The interest is in the existence of
water, not the amount.)
• We do not use some/any when it is clear exactly how much/many
we are talking about.
• Compare and explain:
You’ve got some great books. (Not all the books are great.)
You’ve got beautiful nails. (A definite number – ten. You’ve got
some pretty nails would suggest that the speaker is not making it
clear how many – perhaps six or seven!) 20
TALKING IN GENERAL I
The does not mean “all”
• We do not use the with uncountable or plural nouns to discuss
things in general - to refer to all books, all people or all life, for
example. The does not mean “all”. Instead, we use no article.
• Compare and explain:
The books are expensive. (= a particular set of books)
Books are expensive. (= generally)
I never really understood the nature of my father’s work.
She’s very interested in nature, especially animals and birds.
• Note that most (meaning “the majority of”) is used without the:
Most birds can fly.
• So explain “the” in these two sentences.
Most of the birds are winter visitors. (= a known group of birds)
The most birds you’ll see there is very few. (= superlative) 21
TALKING IN GENERAL II
• Generalisations with singular countable nouns
• Sometimes we describe things in general by using the with a
singular countable noun.
Schools should focus more on the child and less on exams.
• This is common with the names of scientific instruments and
inventions, and musical instruments.
Life would be quieter without the telephone. The violin is more
difficult than the piano.
• We can also generalise by talking about one example of a class,
using a/an (meaning “any”) with a singular countable noun.
A good book can bring much pleasure. A child needs plenty of love.
• Note that we cannot use a/an in this way when we are generalising
about all the members of a group together.
The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct. Do you like horses? 22
DIFFICULT CASES I
• Let’s go through the commoner difficult cases:
• Groups
• Closed Groups
• ‘Half-general’ Groups
• Physical Environment
• Items in everyday life
• Use of THE when NOT exactly clear

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DIFFICULT CASES II
Groups:
• When we generalise about members of a group, we usually use
no article. But if we talk about the group as a whole—as if it was
a well-known unit—we are more likely to use the.
• Compare:
Nurses mostly work very hard.
The nurses have never gone on strike.
Stars vary greatly in size.
The stars are really bright tonight.
• This often happens when we talk about nationalities.
• Compare:
New Zealanders don’t like to be mistaken for Australians.
The Australians suffered heavy losses in the First World War.
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DIFFICULT CASES III
Closed Groups:
• We are more likely to use the if we are discussing a ‘closed’ group or
class with a relatively definite, limited number of members.
• Compare:
French painters (a large, indefinite group)
The Impressionists (a particular artistic movement; we know more
or less who belonged to the group)
19th-century poets
The Romantic poets (Shelley, Keats, Byron, Wordsworth, etc.)
• Specialists are likely to use the for groups or classes that they study
or know about.
• Compare:
Metals are mostly shiny.
Next term we’re going to study the metals in detail. 25
DIFFICULT CASES IV
‘Half-general’ Groups
• Some expressions are ‘half-general’ – in the middle between
general and particular. If we discuss 1960s music or eighteenth-
century history, we are not talking about all music, or history,
but these are still rather general ideas (compared with the
music we heard last night or the history I did at school).
• In these ‘half-general’ expressions, we usually use no article.
• However, the is often used when the noun is followed by a
limiting, defining phrase, especially one with of.
• Compare:
1960s music African butterflies
The music of the 1960s The butterflies of Africa
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DIFFICULT CASES V
Physical Environment
• The is used with a number of rather general expressions
referring to our physical environment – the world around us
and its climate. The suggests that everybody is familiar with
what we are referring to.
• Examples are:
My wife likes the seaside, but I prefer the mountains.
British people talk about the weather a lot.
I love listening to the wind.
• But note that no article is used with nature, society or space
when these have a ‘general’ meaning.
She is an upright member of society.
Would you agree that space is the final frontier?
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DIFFICULT CASES VI
Items in everyday life
• We use the (with a singular countable noun) when we talk
about some kinds of thing that are part of everybody’s lives,
like ‘the bus’ or ‘the hairdresser’ – we use the to suggest
common experience that we all share.
I have some of my best ideas when I’m on the bus.
Most of my friends go to the hairdresser two or three times a
month.
I’ve stopped reading the newspaper because it’s too
depressing.

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DIFFICULT CASES VII
Use of THE when NOT exactly clear
• We sometimes use the even when it is not exactly clear which
of several particular persons or things we are referring to. This
can happen when there are several similar possibilities, and it
is unnecessary to be more definite.
Lying by the side of the road we saw the wheel of a car.
John Perkins is the son of a rich banker (who may have more
than one son).
She threw it in the bin. What does “She threw it in a bin” mean?
• The is often used like this with wrong.
He’s the wrong man for me.
I’m sorry, you’ve got the wrong number (on the phone).

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DIFFICULT CASES I
What do we use with:
• Groups? No article
• The group as a whole? The
• Closed Groups? The
• Items in everyday life? The
• ‘Half-general’ Groups? No article, or the with a
limiting / defining phrase
• Physical Environment? The, but no article for
nature, society or space
in a general sense

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SPECIAL RULES AND EXCEPTIONS
There are loads of special rules and exceptions, and there is
now way round the fact that – you’ve just got to learn them!
Certain common expressions Double expressions
Both and all Kind of etc.
Amount and number Man and woman
Days, months and seasons Musical instruments
Jobs and positions Exclamations
Illnesses Parts of the body etc.
Measurements Place names
Newspapers and magazines Abbreviated styles
Radio, cinema, theatre and television
• Here is a PDF with information on the above groups.
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