The Transistor as a Switch

When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied in such a
way that it always operates within its “active” region, that is the linear part of the output
characteristics curves are used. However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be
made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid state switches by biasing the transistors base differently
to that of a signal amplifier.

Solid state switches are one of the main applications for the use of transistors, and transistor
switches can be used for controlling high power devices such as motors, solenoids or lamps, but they
can also used in digital electronics and logic gate circuits.

The areas of operation for a Transistor Switch are known as the Saturation Region and the Cut-off
Region. This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage divider circuitry
required for amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by driving it back and forth between its “fully-
OFF” (cut-off) and “fully-ON” (saturation) regions as shown below.

Operating Regions

The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the “Cut-off” region while the blue area to
the left represents the “Saturation” region of the transistor. Both these transistor regions are defined as:
1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB ), zero output collector
current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a large depletion layer and no current
flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is switched “Fully-OFF”.

Cut-off Characteristics

 • The input and Base are grounded (0v)

 • Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v

 • Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased

 • Base-Collector junction is reverse biased

 • Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )

 • No Collector current flows (IC = 0)

 • VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″

 • Transistor operates as an “open switch”

Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar transistor as a switch as
being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must
be negative with respect to the Base.

2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied, resulting in
maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage drop which results in the
depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current flowing through the transistor. Therefore
the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.
Saturation Characteristics

 • The input and Base are connected to VCC

 • Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v

 • Base-Emitter junction is forward biased

 • Base-Collector junction is forward biased

 • Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation region )

 • Max Collector current flows ( IC = Vcc/RL )

 • VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )

 • VOUT = VCE = ”0″

 • Transistor operates as a “closed switch”

Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a bipolar transistor as a switch as
being, both junctions forward biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter
potential must be positive with respect to the Base.

Then the transistor operates as a “single-pole single-throw” (SPST) solid state switch. With a zero signal
applied to the Base of the transistor it turns “OFF” acting like an open switch and zero collector current
flows. With a positive signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns “ON” acting like a closed switch
and maximum circuit current flows through the device.

Transistor specification parameters

There are a number of standard parameters with abbreviations that are used to define the performance
of a transistor. The definitions of these parameters are outlined in the table below:

Term Definition and details

The type number of the device is a unique identifier given to each type of transistor.
Type There are three international schemes that are widely used: European Pro-Electron
number scheme; US JEDEC (numbers start with 2N for transistors); and the Japanese system
(numbers start with 2S). [see the page on Transistor and Diode Numbering Codes].
 There is a wide variety of case styles. They often start with TOxx for leaded devices
Case
or SOTxxx for surface mount devices.

There are two types of transistor: NPN and PNP. It is important to choose the
Polarity
correct type otherwise all the circuit polarities will be wrong.

The two main types of material used for transistors are germanium and silicon.
Other materials are used, but in very specialised transistors. A knowledge of the
Material type of material used is important because it affects many properties, e.g. forward
bias for the base emitter junction is 0.2 - 0.3 V for germanium and ~0.6 V for
silicon.

Collector to Emitter breakdown voltage. This is the maximum voltage that can be
placed from the collector to the emitter. It is normally measured with the base open
circuit - hence the letter "0" in the abbreviation. The value should not be exceeded in
VCEO
the operation of the circuit otherwise damage may occur. Note that for circuits using
inductors in the collector circuit, the collector voltage may rise to twice the rail
voltage.

Collector to base breakdown voltage. This is the maximum collector base voltage -
VCBO gain it is generally measured with the emitter left open circuit. This value should not
be exceeded in the operation of the circuit.

Collector current, normally defined in milliamps, but high power transistors may be
quoted in amps. The important parameter is the maximum level of collector current.
IC
This figure should not be exceeded otherwise the transistor may be subject to
damage.

The collector emitter saturation voltage, i.e. the voltage across the transistor
VCEsat (collector to emitter) when the transistor is turned hard on. It is normally quoted for
a particular base and collector current values.

Hfe This is the current gain of the transistor. It is effectively the same as 

Frequency Transition - the frequency where current gain falls to unity. The
FT
transistor should normally be operated well below this frequency.

Total power dissipation for the device. It is normally quoted for an ambient external
temperature of 25C unless otherwise stated. The actual dissipation across the device
Ptot
is the current flowing through the collector multiplied by the voltage across the
device itself.
 Junction Field Effect Transistor
In the Bipolar Junction Transistor tutorials, we saw that the output Collector current of the
transistor is proportional to input current flowing into the Base terminal of the device, thereby
making the bipolar transistor a “CURRENT” operated device (Beta model) as a smaller current
can be used to switch a larger load current.

The Field Effect Transistor or simply FET however, uses the voltage that is applied to their
input terminal, called the Gate to control the current flowing through them resulting in the output
current being proportional to the input voltage. As their operation relies on an electric field
(hence the name field effect) generated by the input Gate voltage, this then makes the Field
Effect Transistor a “VOLTAGE” operated device.

Typical Field Effect Transistor

The Field Effect Transistor is a three terminal unipolar semiconductor device that has very
similar characteristics to those of their Bipolar Transistor counterparts ie, high efficiency, instant
operation, robust and cheap and can be used in most electronic circuit applications to replace
their equivalent bipolar junction transistors (BJT) cousins.
Field effect transistors can be made much smaller than an equivalent BJT transistor and along
with their low power consumption and power dissipation makes them ideal for use in integrated
circuits such as the CMOS range of digital logic chips.
We remember from the previous tutorials that there are two basic types of Bipolar Transistor
Construction, NPN and PNP, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and
N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made. This is also true of FET’s as there
are also two basic classifications of Field Effect Transistor, called the N-channel FET and the P-
channel FET.

The field effect transistor is a three terminal device that is constructed with no PN-junctions
within the main current carrying path between the Drain and the Source terminals, which
correspond in function to the Collector and the Emitter respectively of the bipolar transistor. The
current path between these two terminals is called the “channel” which may be made of either a
P-type or an N-type semiconductor material.
The control of current flowing in this channel is achieved by varying the voltage applied to
the Gate. As their name implies, Bipolar Transistors are “Bipolar” devices because they operate
with both types of charge carriers, Holes and Electrons. The Field Effect Transistor on the other
hand is a “Unipolar” device that depends only on the conduction of electrons (N-channel) or
holes (P-channel).
The Field Effect Transistor has one major advantage over its standard bipolar transistor
cousins, in that their input impedance, ( Rin ) is very high, (thousands of Ohms), while the BJT is
comparatively low. This very high input impedance makes them very sensitive to input voltage
signals, but the price of this high sensitivity also means that they can be easily damaged by static
electricity.
There are two main types of field effect transistor, the Junction Field Effect
Transistor or JFET and the Insulated-gate Field Effect Transistor or IGFET), which is more
commonly known as the standard Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor or MOSFET for short.

The Junction Field Effect Transistor

We saw previously that a bipolar junction transistor is constructed using two PN-junctions in the
main current carrying path between the Emitter and the Collector terminals. The Junction Field
Effect Transistor (JUGFET or JFET) has no PN-junctions but instead has a narrow piece of
high resistivity semiconductor material forming a “Channel” of either N-type or P-type silicon
for the majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic electrical connections at either end
commonly called the Drain and the Source respectively.
There are two basic configurations of junction field effect transistor, the N-channel JFET and the
P-channel JFET. The N-channel JFET’s channel is doped with donor impurities meaning that the
flow of current through the channel is negative (hence the term N-channel) in the form of
electrons.
Likewise, the P-channel JFET’s channel is doped with acceptor impurities meaning that the flow
of current through the channel is positive (hence the term P-channel) in the form of holes. N-
channel JFET’s have a greater channel conductivity (lower resistance) than their equivalent P-
channel types, since electrons have a higher mobility through a conductor compared to holes.
This makes the N-channel JFET’s a more efficient conductor compared to their P-channel
counterparts.

Comparison of Connections between a JFET and a BJT

Bipolar Transistor Field Effect Transistor

Emitter – (E) >> Source – (S)

Base – (B) >> Gate – (G)

 Collector – (C) >> Drain – (D)

The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of JFETs are shown below.

The semiconductor “channel” of the Junction Field Effect Transistor is a resistive path through
which a voltage VDS causes a current ID to flow and as such the junction field effect transistor can
conduct current equally well in either direction. As the channel is resistive in nature, a voltage
gradient is thus formed down the length of the channel with this voltage becoming less positive
as we go from the Drain terminal to the Source terminal.
The result is that the PN-junction therefore has a high reverse bias at the Drain terminal and a
lower reverse bias at the Source terminal. This bias causes a “depletion layer” to be formed
within the channel and whose width increases with the bias.
The magnitude of the current flowing through the channel between the Drain and the Source
terminals is controlled by a voltage applied to the Gate terminal, which is a reverse-biased. In an
N-channel JFET this Gate voltage is negative while for a P-channel JFET the Gate voltage is
positive. The main difference between the JFET and a BJT device is that when the JFET junction
is reverse-biased the Gate current is practically zero, whereas the Base current of the BJT is
always some value greater than zero.

N-Channel JFET
A semiconductor bar of n-type material is
taken & ohmic contacts are made on either
ends of the bar. Terminals are brought out
from these ohmic contacts and named as
drain & source as shown in the figure below. On the other two sides of the n-type semiconductor
bar, heavily doped p-type regions are formed to create a p-n junction. Both these p-type regions
are connected together via ohmic contacts and the gate terminal is brought out as seen below.
Figure below shows the n-channel & p-channel JFET with symbols. The arrow on the gate
indicates the direction of the current. Current flows through the length of the n-type bar (channel)
due to majority charge carries which in this case are electrons. When a voltage is applied
between the two ends, a current which is carried by the majority carriers electrons flows along
the length of a bar. The majority carriers enter the bar through the source terminal and leave
through the drain terminal. The heavily doped regions of the n-type bar are known as the gates.
The gate source junctions is reverse is biased as a result depletion regions from which extend to
the bar by changing gate to source voltage effective cross sectional area decreases with the
function of the gate to source voltage.

P-Channel JFET
p-channel JFET consists of a p-type silicon or
GaAs. Two sides of the bar is heavily doped
with n-type impurities. When a voltage is
applied between the two ends, a current which
is carried by the majority carrier holes flow
along the length of a bar.
The gate source junction is reverse biased as a
result depletion regions form, which extend to
the bar by changing gate to extend to source
voltage the depletion width can be controlled.
The effective cross sectional area decreased
with increasing reverse bias, so the drain
current is the function of the gate to source
voltage.
Biasing of JFET
The gate to source p-n junction of a JFET is always reverse biased and supply voltage is given
across the drain to source terminal.

Biasing of an N-channel JFET

The cross sectional diagram above shows an N-type semiconductor channel with a P-type region
called the Gate diffused into the N-type channel forming a reverse biased PN-junction and it is
this junction which forms the depletion region around the Gate area when no external voltages
are applied. JFETs are therefore known as depletion mode devices.
This depletion region produces a potential gradient which is of varying thickness around the PN-
junction and restricts the current flow through the channel by reducing its effective width and
thus increasing the overall resistance of the channel itself.
Then we can see that the most-depleted portion of the depletion region is in between the Gate
and the Drain, while the least-depleted area is between the Gate and the Source. Then the JFET’s
channel conducts with zero bias voltage applied (ie, the depletion region has near zero width).
With no external Gate voltage (VG = 0), and a small voltage (VDS) applied between the Drain and
the Source, maximum saturation current ( IDSS ) will flow through the channel from the Drain to
the Source restricted only by the small depletion region around the junctions.
If a small negative voltage ( -VGS ) is now applied to the Gate the size of the depletion region
begins to increase reducing the overall effective area of the channel and thus reducing the current
flowing through it, a sort of “squeezing” effect takes place. So by applying a reverse bias voltage
increases the width of the depletion region which in turn reduces the conduction of the channel.
Since the PN-junction is reverse biased, little current will flow into the gate connection. As the
Gate voltage ( -VGS ) is made more negative, the width of the channel decreases until no more
current flows between the Drain and the Source and the FET is said to be “pinched-off” (similar
to the cut-off region for a BJT). The voltage at which the channel closes is called the “pinch-off
voltage”, (VP).

JFET Channel Pinched-off

In this pinch-off region the Gate voltage, VGS controls the channel current and VDS has little or no effect.

JFET Model
The result is that the FET acts more like a voltage controlled resistor which has zero resistance
when VGS = 0 and maximum “ON” resistance ( RDS ) when the Gate voltage is very negative. Under normal
operating conditions, the JFET gate is always negatively biased relative to the source.

It is essential that the Gate voltage is never positive since if it is all the channel current will flow to the
Gate and not to the Source, the result is damage to the JFET. Then to close the channel:
 No Gate voltage ( VGS ) and VDS is increased from zero.

 No VDS and Gate control is decreased negatively from zero.

 VDS and VGS varying.

The P-channel Junction Field Effect Transistor operates the same as the N-channel above, with
the following exceptions: 1). Channel current is positive due to holes, 2). The polarity of the
biasing voltage needs to be reversed.
The output characteristics of an N-channel JFET with the gate short-circuited to the source is
given as

Output characteristic V-I curves of a typical junction FET.

The voltage VGS applied to the Gate controls the current flowing between the Drain and the Source
terminals. VGS refers to the voltage applied between the Gate and the Source while VDS refers to the
voltage applied between the Drain and the Source.
Because a Junction Field Effect Transistor is a voltage controlled device, “NO current flows into the
gate!” then the Source current ( IS ) flowing out of the device equals the Drain current flowing into it and
therefore ( ID = IS ).

The characteristics curves example shown above, shows the four different regions of operation for a
JFET and these are given as:

 Ohmic Region – When VGS = 0 the depletion layer of the channel is very small and the JFET
acts like a voltage controlled resistor.

 Cut-off Region – This is also known as the pinch-off region were the Gate voltage, V GS is
sufficient to cause the JFET to act as an open circuit as the channel resistance is at maximum.

 Saturation or Active Region – The JFET becomes a good conductor and is controlled by the
Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) while the Drain-Source voltage, ( VDS ) has little or no effect.

 Breakdown Region – The voltage between the Drain and the Source, ( VDS ) is high enough to
causes the JFET’s resistive channel to break down and pass uncontrolled maximum current.
The characteristics curves for a P-channel junction field effect transistor are the same as those above,
except that the Drain current ID decreases with an increasing positive Gate-Source voltage,VGS.

The Drain current is zero when VGS = VP. For normal operation, VGS is biased to be somewhere
between VP and 0. Then we can calculate the Drain current, ID for any given bias point in the saturation or
active region as follows:

Drain current in the active region.

Note that the value of the Drain current will be between zero (pinch-off) and IDSS (maximum current). By
knowing the Drain current ID and the Drain-Source voltage VDS the resistance of the channel ( ID ) is given
as:

Drain-Source channel resistance.

Where: gm is the “transconductance gain” since the JFET is a voltage controlled device and which
represents the rate of change of the Drain current with respect to the change in Gate-Source voltage.
Modes of FET’s
Like the bipolar junction transistor, the field effect transistor being a three terminal device is
capable of three distinct modes of operation and can therefore be connected within a circuit in
one of the following configurations.

Common Source (CS) Configuration

In the Common Source configuration (similar to common emitter), the input is applied to the
Gate and its output is taken from the Drain as shown. This is the most common mode of
operation of the FET due to its high input impedance and good voltage amplification and as such
Common Source amplifiers are widely used.
The common source mode of FET connection is generally used audio frequency amplifiers and
in high input impedance pre-amps and stages. Being an amplifying circuit, the output signal is
180o “out-of-phase” with the input.

Common Gate (CG) Configuration

In the Common Gate configuration (similar to common base), the input is applied to the Source
and its output is taken from the Drain with the Gate connected directly to ground (0v) as shown.
The high input impedance feature of the previous connection is lost in this configuration as the
common gate has a low input impedance, but a high output impedance.
This type of FET configuration can be used in high frequency circuits or in impedance matching
circuits were a low input impedance needs to be matched to a high output impedance. The output
is “in-phase” with the input.
Common Drain (CD) Configuration

In the Common Drain configuration (similar to common collector), the input is applied to the
Gate and its output is taken from the Source. The common drain or “source follower”
configuration has a high input impedance and a low output impedance and near-unity voltage
gain so is therefore used in buffer amplifiers. The voltage gain of the source follower
configuration is less than unity, and the output signal is “in-phase”, 0o with the input signal.
This type of configuration is referred to as “Common Drain” because there is no signal available
at the drain connection, the voltage present, +VDD just provides a bias. The output is in-phase
with the input.

The JFET Amplifier

Just like the bipolar junction transistor, JFET’s can be used to make single stage class A
amplifier circuits with the JFET common source amplifier and characteristics being very similar
to the BJT common emitter circuit. The main advantage JFET amplifiers have over BJT
amplifiers is their high input impedance which is controlled by the Gate biasing resistive network
formed by R1 and R2 as shown.

Biasing of JFET Amplifier

This common source (CS) amplifier circuit is biased in class “A” mode by the voltage divider
network formed by resistors R1 and R2. The voltage across the Source resistor RS is generally set
to be about one quarter of VDD, ( VDD /4 ). The required Gate voltage can then be calculated using
this RS value. Since the Gate current is zero, ( IG = 0 ) we can set the required DC quiescent
voltage by the proper selection of resistors R1 and R2.
The control of the Drain current by a negative Gate potential makes the Junction Field Effect
Transistor useful as a switch and it is essential that the Gate voltage is never positive for an N-
channel JFET as the channel current will flow to the Gate and not the Drain resulting in damage
to the JFET. The principals of operation for a P-channel JFET are the same as for the N-channel
JFET, except that the polarity of the voltages need to be reversed.

Applications of JFET
The junction field effect transistor has many applications in the field of electronics and
communication.
1. Low noise and high input impedance amplifier:- Noise is an undesirable disturbance which
interferes with the signals information - greater the noise less the information. Energy electronics
device cause some amount of noise. If FET s is used at the front end, we get less amount of
amplified noise at the output. Now, it has very high input impedance. So, it can be used in high
input impedance amplifier.
2. Buffer amplifier:- Buffer amplifier should have very high input impedance and low output
impedance. Because of high i / p impedance and low output impedance, FET acts as great buffer
amplifier. the common drain mode can be used in this purpose.
3. R.F. Amplifier:- JFET is good in low current signal operation as it is a voltage controlled
semiconductors device. It has very low noise level. So, it can be used as RF amplifier in receiver
sections of communication field.
4. Current source:- Here all the supply voltage appears across load. If the current tries to
increase very much, the excessive load a current drives the JFET in to active region. Thus JFET
acts as a current source .
5. Switch:- JFET may be used as an on / off switch controlling electrical power to load.
Chopper :- When a source wave is applied to the gate of JFET witch, the chopper operation can
be done using JFET.
6. Multiplexer:- Analog multiplexer circuit can be made using JFETs.
 The MOSFET
The MOSFET – Metal Oxide FET
As well as the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET), there is another type of Field Effect
Transistor available whose Gate input is electrically insulated from the main current carrying
channel and is therefore called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor or IGFET. The most
common type of insulated gate FET which is used in many different types of electronic circuits is
called the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFET for short.

The IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled field effect transistor that differs from a JFET
in that it has a “Metal Oxide” Gate electrode which is electrically insulated from the main
semiconductor n-channel or p-channel by a very thin layer of insulating material usually silicon
dioxide, commonly known as glass.
This ultra thin insulated metal gate electrode can be thought of as one plate of a capacitor. The
isolation of the controlling Gate makes the input resistance of the MOSFET extremely high way
up in the Mega-ohms (MΩ) region thereby making it almost infinite.
As the Gate terminal is isolated from the main current carrying channel “NO current flows into
the gate” and just like the JFET, the MOSFET also acts like a voltage controlled resistor were the
current flowing through the main channel between the Drain and Source is proportional to the
input voltage. Also like the JFET, the MOSFETs very high input resistance can easily
accumulate large amounts of static charge resulting in the MOSFET becoming easily damaged
unless carefully handled or protected.
Like the previous JFET tutorial, MOSFETs are three terminal devices with
a Gate, Drain and Source and both P-channel (PMOS) and N-channel (NMOS) MOSFETs are
available. The main difference this time is that MOSFETs are available in two basic forms:

 1. Depletion Type – the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch
the device “OFF”. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Closed” switch.

 2. Enhancement Type – the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to

switch the device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Open”
switch.
The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of MOSFETs are shown below.

The four MOSFET symbols above show an additional terminal called the Substrate and is not
normally used as either an input or an output connection but instead it is used for grounding the
substrate. It connects to the main semiconductive channel through a diode junction to the body or
metal tab of the MOSFET. Usually in discrete type MOSFETs, this substrate lead is connected
internally to the source terminal. When this is the case, as in enhancement types it is omitted
from the symbol for clarification.
The line between the drain and source connections represents the semiconductive channel. If this
is a solid unbroken line then this represents a “Depletion” (normally-ON) type MOSFET as drain
current can flow with zero gate potential. If the channel line is shown dotted or broken it is an
“Enhancement” (normally-OFF) type MOSFET as zero drain current flows with zero gate
potential. The direction of the arrow indicates whether the conductive channel is a p-type or an
n-type semiconductor device.
Basic MOSFET Structure and Symbol

The construction of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET is very different to that of the Junction
FET. Both the Depletion and Enhancement type MOSFETs use an electrical field produced by a
gate voltage to alter the flow of charge carriers, electrons for n-channel or holes for P-channel,
through the semiconductive drain-source channel. The gate electrode is placed on top of a very
thin insulating layer and there are a pair of small n-type regions just under the drain and source
electrodes.
We saw in the previous tutorial, that the gate of a junction field effect transistor, JFET must be
biased in such a way as to reverse-bias the pn-junction. With a insulated gate MOSFET device
no such limitations apply so it is possible to bias the gate of a MOSFET in either polarity,
positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
This makes the MOSFET device especially valuable as electronic switches or to make logic
gates because with no bias they are normally non-conducting and this high gate input resistance
means that very little or no control current is needed as MOSFETs are voltage controlled
devices. Both the p-channel and the n-channel MOSFETs are available in two basic forms,
the Enhancement type and the Depletion type.

Depletion-mode MOSFET
The Depletion-mode MOSFET, which is less common than the enhancement mode types is
normally switched “ON” (conducting) without the application of a gate bias voltage. That is the
channel conducts when V = 0 making it a “normally-closed” device. The circuit symbol shown
GS

above for a depletion MOS transistor uses a solid channel line to signify a normally closed
conductive channel.
For the n-channel depletion MOS transistor, a negative gate-source voltage, -V will deplete
GS

(hence its name) the conductive channel of its free electrons switching the transistor “OFF”.
Likewise for a p-channel depletion MOS transistor a positive gate-source voltage, +V will GS

deplete the channel of its free holes turning it “OFF”.

In other words, for an n-channel depletion mode MOSFET: +V means more electrons and more
GS

current. While a -V means less electrons and less current. The opposite is also true for the p-
GS

channel types. Then the depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-closed” switch.

Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit Symbols

The depletion-mode MOSFET is constructed in a similar way to their JFET transistor

counterparts were the drain-source channel is inherently conductive with the electrons and holes
already present within the n-type or p-type channel. This doping of the channel produces a
conducting path of low resistance between the Drain and Source with zero Gate bias.
Enhancement-mode MOSFET
The more common Enhancement-mode MOSFET or eMOSFET, is the reverse of the
depletion-mode type. Here the conducting channel is lightly doped or even undoped making it
non-conductive. This results in the device being normally “OFF” (non-conducting) when the
gate bias voltage, V is equal to zero. The circuit symbol shown above for an enhancement MOS
GS

transistor uses a broken channel line to signify a normally open non-conducting channel.
For the n-channel enhancement MOS transistor a drain current will only flow when a gate
voltage (V ) is applied to the gate terminal greater than the threshold voltage ( V ) level in
GS TH

which conductance takes place making it a transconductance device.

The application of a positive (+ve) gate voltage to a n-type eMOSFET attracts more electrons
towards the oxide layer around the gate thereby increasing or enhancing (hence its name) the
thickness of the channel allowing more current to flow. This is why this kind of transistor is
called an enhancement mode device as the application of a gate voltage enhances the channel.
Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause the channel resistance to decrease further causing
an increase in the drain current, I through the channel. In other words, for an n-channel
D

enhancement mode MOSFET: +V turns the transistor “ON”, while a zero or -V turns the
GS GS

transistor “OFF”. Then, the enhancement-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-open”

switch.
The reverse is true for the p-channel enhancement MOS transistor. When V = 0 the device is
GS

“OFF” and the channel is open. The application of a negative (-ve) gate voltage to the p-type
eMOSFET enhances the channels conductivity turning it “ON”. Then for an p-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +V turns the transistor “OFF”, while -V turns the transistor
GS GS

“ON”.

Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET and Circuit Symbols

Enhancement-mode MOSFETs make excellent electronics switches due to their low “ON”
resistance and extremely high “OFF” resistance as well as their infinitely high input resistance
due to their isolated gate. Enhancement-mode MOSFETs are used in integrated circuits to
produce CMOS typeLogic Gates and power switching circuits in the form of as PMOS (P-
channel) and NMOS (N-channel) gates. CMOS actually stands for Complementary
MOS meaning that the logic device has both PMOS and NMOS within its design.

Thyristor
In many ways the Silicon Controlled Rectifier, or the Thyristor as it is more commonly known, is similar to
the transistor. It is a multi-layer semiconductor device, hence the “silicon” part of its name. It requires a gate
signal to turn it “ON”, the “controlled” part of the name and once “ON” it behaves like a rectifying diode, the
“rectifier” part of the name. In fact the circuit symbol for the thyristor suggests that this device acts like a
controlled rectifying diode.

Thyristor Symbol
However, unlike the diode which is a two layer ( P-N ) semiconductor device, or the transistor
which is a three layer ( P-N-P, or N-P-N ) device, the Thyristor is a four layer ( P-N-P-N )
semiconductor device that contains three PN junctions in series, and is represented by the symbol
as shown.
Like the diode, the Thyristor is a unidirectional device, that is it will only conduct current in one
direction only, but unlike a diode, the thyristor can be made to operate as either an open-circuit
switch or as a rectifying diode depending upon how the thyristors gate is triggered. In other
words, thyristors can operate only in the switching mode and cannot be used for amplification.
The silicon controlled rectifier SCR, is one of several power semiconductor devices along with
Triacs (Triode AC’s), Diacs (Diode AC’s) and UJT’s (Unijunction Transistor) that are all
capable of acting like very fast solid state AC switches for controlling large AC voltages and
currents. So for the Electronics student this makes these very handy solid state devices for
controlling AC motors, lamps and for phase control.
The thyristor is a three-terminal device labelled: “Anode”, “Cathode” and “Gate” and consisting
of three PN junctions which can be switched “ON” and “OFF” at an extremely fast rate, or it can
be switched “ON” for variable lengths of time during half cycles to deliver a selected amount of
power to a load. The operation of the thyristor can be best explained by assuming it to be made
up of two transistors connected back-to-back as a pair of complementary regenerative switches
as shown.

A Thyristors Two Transistor Analogy

The two transistor equivalent circuit shows that the collector current of the NPN
transistor TR feeds directly into the base of the PNP transistor TR , while the collector current
2 1

of TR feeds into the base of TR . These two inter-connected transistors rely upon each other for
1 2

conduction as each transistor gets its base-emitter current from the other’s collector-emitter
current. So until one of the transistors is given some base current nothing can happen even if an
Anode-to-Cathode voltage is present.
When the thyristors Anode terminal is negative with respect to the Cathode, the centre N-
P junction is forward biased, but the two outer P-N junctions are reversed biased and it behaves
very much like an ordinary diode. Therefore a thyristor blocks the flow of reverse current until at
some high voltage level the breakdown voltage point of the two outer junctions is exceeded and
the thyristor conducts without the application of a Gate signal.
This is an important negative characteristic of the thyristor,
as Thyristors can be unintentionally triggered into conduction by a reverse
over-voltage as well as high temperature or a rapidly risingdv/dt voltage
such as a spike.
If the Anode terminal is made positive with respect to the Cathode, the
twoouter P-N junctions are now forward biased but the centre N-P junction
is reverse biased. Therefore forward current is also blocked. If a positive
current is injected into the base of the NPN transistor TR , the resulting
2

collector current flows in the base of transistor TR . This in turn causes a

1

collector current to flow in the PNP transistor, TR which increases the base
1

current of TR and so on.

2 Typical Thyristor

Very rapidly the two transistors force each other to conduct to saturation as they are connected in
a regenerative feedback loop that cannot stop. Once triggered into conduction, the current
flowing through the device between the Anode and the Cathode is limited only by the resistance
of the external circuit as the forward resistance of the device when conducting can be very low at
less than 1Ω so the voltage drop across it and power loss is also low.
Then we can see that a thyristor blocks current in both directions of an AC supply in its “OFF”
state and can be turned “ON” and made to act like a normal rectifying diode by the application of
a positive current to the base of transistor, TR which for a silicon controlled rectifier is called the
2

“Gate” terminal.
Thyristor I-V Characteristics Curves
Once the thyristor has been turned “ON” and is passing current in the forward direction (anode
positive), the gate signal looses all control due to the regenerative latching action of the two
internal transistors. The application of any gate signals or pulses after regeneration is initiated
will have no effect at all because the thyristor is already conducting and fully-ON.
Unlike the transistor, the SCR cannot be biased to stay within some active region along a load
line between its blocking and saturation states. The magnitude and duration of the gate “turn-on”
pulse has little effect on the operation of the device since conduction is controlled internally.
Then applying a momentary gate pulse to the device is enough to cause it to conduct and will
remain permanently “ON” even if the gate signal is completely removed.
Therefore the thyristor can also be thought of as a Bi stable Latch having two stable states “OFF”
or “ON”. This is because with no gate signal applied, a silicon controlled rectifier blocks current
in both directions of an AC waveform, and once it is triggered into conduction, the regenerative
latching action means that it cannot be turned “OFF” again just by using its Gate.

Thyristor Summary
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers known commonly as Thyristors are three-junction PNPN
semiconductor devices which can be regarded as two inter-connected transistors that can be used
in the switching of heavy electrical loads. They can be latched-“ON” by a single pulse of
positive current applied to their Gate terminal and will remain “ON” indefinitely until the Anode
to Cathode current falls below their minimum latching level.

Static Characteristics of a Thyristor

 Thyristors are semiconductor devices that can operate only in the switching mode.
 Current operated devices, small Gate current controls a larger Anode current.
 Conducts current only when forward biased and triggering current applied to the Gate.
 The thyristor acts like a rectifying diode once it is triggered “ON”.
 Anode current must be greater than holding current to maintain conduction.
 Blocks current flow when reverse biased, no matter if Gate current is applied.
 Once triggered “ON”, will be latched “ON” conducting even when a gate current is no
longer applied providing Anode current is above latching current.
Thyristors are high speed switches that can be used to replace electromechanical relays in many
circuits as they have no moving parts, no contact arcing or suffer from corrosion or dirt. But in
addition to simply switching large currents “ON” and “OFF”, thyristors can be made to control
the mean value of an AC load current without dissipating large amounts of power. A good
example of thyristor power control is in the control of electric lighting, heaters and motor speed.
 Triac
TRIAC, from triode for alternating current, is a generalized trade name for an electronic
component that can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered (turned on), and is
formally called a bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor.
A Triac behaves just like two conventional thyristors connected together in inverse parallel
(back-to-back) with respect to each other and because of this arrangement the two thyristors
share a common Gate terminal all within a single three-terminal package.
Since a triac conducts in both directions of a sinusoidal waveform, the concept of an Anode
terminal and a Cathode terminal used to identify the main power terminals of a thyristor are
replaced with identifications of: MT1, for Main Terminal 1 and MT2 for Main Terminal 2 with
the Gate terminal G referenced the same.
In most AC switching applications, the triac gate terminal is associated with the MT1 terminal,
similar to the gate-cathode relationship of the thyristor or the base-emitter relationship of the
transistor. The construction, P-N doping and schematic symbol used to represent a Triac is given
below.

Triac Symbol and Construction

We now know that a “triac” is a 4-layer, PNPN in the positive direction and a NPNP in the
negative direction, three-terminal bidirectional device that blocks current in its “OFF” state
acting like an open-circuit switch, but unlike a conventional thyristor, the triac can conduct
current in either direction when triggered by a single gate pulse. Then a triac has four possible
triggering modes of operation as follows.

 Ι + Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current positive (+ve)

 Ι – Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current negative (-ve)

 ΙΙΙ + Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current positive (+ve)

 ΙΙΙ – Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current negative (-ve)
Triac I-V Characteristics Curves

In Quadrant Ι, the triac is usually triggered into conduction by a positive gate current, labeled
above as mode Ι+. But it can also be triggered by a negative gate current, mode Ι–. Similarly, in
Quadrant ΙΙΙ, triggering with a negative gate current, –ΙG is also common, mode ΙΙΙ– along with
mode ΙΙΙ+. Modes Ι– and ΙΙΙ+ are, however, less sensitive configurations requiring a greater gate
current to cause triggering than the more common triac triggering modes of Ι+ and ΙΙΙ–.

Applications of Triac
Next to SCR, the triac is the most widely used member of the thyristor family. In fact, in many of
control applications, it has replaced SCR by virtue of its bidirectional conductivity. Motor speed
regulation, temperature control, illumination control, liquid level control, phase control circuits,
power switches etc. are some of its main applications.

Diac
The Diode AC switch, or Diac for short, is another solid state, three-layer, two-junction semiconductor
device but unlike the transistor the Diac has no base connection making it a two terminal device, labelled
A1 and A2. Diacs have no control or amplification but act much like a bidirectional switching diode as
they can conduct current from either polarity of a suitable AC voltage supply.

In our tutorial about SCR’s and Triacs, we saw that in ON-OFF switching applications, these
devices could be triggered by simple circuits producing steady state gate currents as shown.
When switch, S1 is open no gate current flows and the lamp is “OFF”. When switch S1 is closed,
gate current IG flows and the SCR conducts on the positive half cycles only as it is operating in
quadrant Ι.
We remember also that once gated “ON”, the SCR will only switch “OFF” again when its supply
voltage falls to a values such that its Anode current, I is less than the value of its holding
A

current, I .
H

If we wish to control the mean value of the lamp current, rather than just switch it “ON” or
“OFF”, we could apply a short pulse of gate current at a pre-set trigger point to allow conduction
of the SCR to occur over part of the half-cycle only. Then the mean value of the lamp current
would be varied by changing the delay time, T between the start of the cycle and the trigger
point. This method is known commonly as “phase control”.
But to achieve phase control, two things are needed. One is a variable phase shift circuit (usually
an RC passive circuit), and two, some form of trigger circuit or device that can produce the
required gate pulse when the delayed waveform reaches a certain level. One such solid state
semiconductor device that is designed to produce these gate pulses is the Diac.

Diac Symbol and I-V Characteristics

We can see from the above diac I-V characteristics curves that the diac blocks the flow of current
in both directions until the applied voltage is greater than V , at which point breakdown of the
BR

device occurs and the diac conducts heavily in a similar way to the zener diode passing a sudden
pulse of voltage. This V point is called the Diacs breakdown voltage or breakover voltage.
BR

In an ordinary zener diode the voltage across it would remain constant as the current increased.
However, in the diac the transistor action causes the voltage to reduce as the current increases.
Once in the conducting state, the resistance of the diac falls to a very low value allowing a
relatively large value of current to flow. For most commonly available diacs their breakdown
voltage typically ranges from about ±25 to 35 volts.
This action gives the diac the characteristic of a negative resistance as shown above. As the diac
is a symmetrical device, it therefore has the same characteristic for both positive and negative
voltages and it is this negative resistance action that makes the Diac suitable as a triggering
device for SCR’s or triacs.

Diac Applications
As stated above, the diac is commonly used as a triggering device for other semiconductor
switching devices, mainly SCR’s and triacs. Triacs are widely used in applications such as lamp
dimmers and motor speed controllers.

Comparison between Transistor and SCR

1. Transistor has only three layers of semiconductor where thyristor has four layers of them.

2. Three terminals of transistor are known as emitter, collector and base where thyristor has

terminals known as anode, cathode and gate

3. Thyristor is considered as tightly couple pair of transistors in analysis.

4. Thyristors can operate at higher voltages and currents than transistors.

5. Power handling is better for thyristors because their ratings are given in kilo watts and

transistor power range is in watts.

6. Thyristor only requires a pulse to change the mode to conducting where transistor needs a

continuous supply of the controlling current.

7. Internal power loss in transistor is higher than that of thyristor.

 The Light Emitting Diode
Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the different types of semiconductor
diodes available today. They are the most visible type of diode that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either
visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type light
when a forward current is passed through them.

A “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialised
type of PN junction diode, made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor
material.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band
recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons
which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable
number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light
output.

LED Construction
Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are
semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a normal signal diode.
The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin
hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both vibration and shock.
Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the epoxy resin body is
constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the junction are reflected away
from the surrounding substrate base to which the diode is attached and are focused upwards
through the domed top of the LED, which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light.
This is why the emitted light appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.
However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy shell. Some
indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction that has a flat surface on
top or their body is shaped into a bar or arrow. Also, nearly all LEDs have their cathode, ( K )
terminal identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body, or by one of the leads being shorter
than the other, ( the Anode, A ).

Light Emitting Diode Colours

So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes which are made
for detection or power rectification, and which are made from either Germanium or Silicon
semiconductor materials, Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor
compounds such as Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide
Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed
together at different ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of colour.
Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light spectrum and
therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of the semiconductor material used
will determine the overall wavelength of the photon light emissions and therefore the resulting
colour of the light emitted.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is determined by the wavelength of the light
emitted, which in turn is determined by the actual semiconductor compound used in forming the
PN junction during manufacture.
LED uses fall into four major categories:

 Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to
convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects.

 Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.

 Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to
incident light, instead of emitting light.

LCD
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video
display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit
light directly.
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or
fixed images which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and7-
segment displays as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary
images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors,

televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are common in
consumer devices such as DVD players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and
telephones, and have replaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are
available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not
use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image
persistence.

The LCD screen is more energy efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT. Its low
electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is
an electronically modulated optical device made up of any number of segments filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source(backlight) or reflector to produce images in color
or monochrome. Liquid crystals were first discovered in 1888. By 2008, annual sales of
televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became
obsolete for most purposes.
 Photo Diode
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current. The current is generated
when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. A small amount of current is also produced when
no light is present. Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or
small surface areas. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area
increases. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area
photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed
(to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow
light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a
photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the speed of response. A
photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.

Applications:
P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such
as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used to
generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog; for measurement and the
like), or to change the state of circuitry (digital; either for control and switching, or digital signal
processing).
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment
from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or
photoconductors may be used. Either type of photo sensor may be used for light measurement, as
in camera light meters, or to respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.
Photo sensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light, or to a source of light which
is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single component
with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence of a
mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch), or to couple two digital or analog
circuits while maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them, often for safety
(optocoupler).
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry.
They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.

Photo Transistor
A phototransistor is a device that converts light energy into electric energy. Phototransistors are
similar to photoresistors but produce both current and voltage, while photoresistors only produce
current. This is because a phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor and focuses the
energy that is passed through it. Photons (light particles) activate phototransistors and are used in
virtually all electronic devices that depend on light in some way.
How a Phototransistor Works
A phototransistor is a bipolar device that is completely made of
silicon or another semi-conductive material and is dependent on
light energy. Phototransistors are generally encased in an opaque
or clear container in order to enhance light as it travels through it
and allow the light to reach the phototransistor’s sensitive parts.
A phototransistor generally has an exposed base that amplifies
the light that it comes in contact with. This causes a relatively
high current to pass through the phototransistor. As the current
spreads from the base to the emitter, the current is concentrated
and converted into voltage.

Applications:
Phototransistors are used for a wide variety of applications. In fact, phototransistors can be used
in any electronic device that senses light. For example, phototransistors are often used in smoke
detectors, infrared receivers, and CD players. Phototransistors can also be used in astronomy,
night vision, and laser range-finding.

Solar Cell

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly
into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a
form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current,
voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks of
photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels.
Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or
an artificial light. They are used as a photo detector (for example infrared), detecting light or
other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs.

 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

Applications
Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical power
from sunlight, as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A solar
array generates solar power using solar energy.

From a solar cell to a PV system. Diagram of the possible components of a photovoltaic system

Cells, modules, panels and systems

Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar photovoltaic
panel or solar photovoltaic module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the sun-
facing side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers. Solar cells are usually
connected in series in modules, creating an additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel yields a
higher current; however, problems such as shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less
illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing substantial power loss and
possible damage because of the reverse bias applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated
partners.

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