Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Introduction

In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other engineering
structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit weights. Compaction
increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase the bearing capacity of
foundations constructed over them. Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable
settlement of structures and increases the stability of slopes of embankments.

Compaction — General Principles

Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires

mechanical energy.

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.

Compaction Mechanism.

When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the
soil particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed
position. The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the moisture content
increases.

Note that at a moisture content w = 0, the moist unit weight (γ) is equal to the dry
unit weight (γd), or γ = γd (w=0) = γ1

1 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

When the moisture content is gradually increased and the same compactive effort is
used for compaction, the weight of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually
increases. For example,

at w = w1 γ = γ2

the dry unit weight at this moisture content is given by

Beyond a certain moisture content w = w2 ,any increase in the moisture content tends
to reduce the dry unit weight. This phenomenon occurs because the water takes up the
spaces that would have been occupied by the solid particles.

The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is attained is generally
referred to as the optimum moisture content.

The Maximum dry unit weight (γd (max)) is the maximum unit weight that a soil can
attain using a specified means of compaction.

To obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content laboratory test is conducted such as Proctor compaction test

Standard Proctor Test

During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a baseplate at the bottom and to an
extension at the top. The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then
compacted in three equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer.

2 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, γ, can be calculated as

where W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold

Vm= volume of the mold ( 944 cm3)

For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the
laboratory. With the known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be calculated as

where w (%) = percentage of moisture content.

The values of γd determined from Eq. Can be plotted against the corresponding
moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture
content for the soil.

3 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

For a given moisture content w and degree of saturation S, the dry unit weight of
compaction can be calculated as follows.

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained
when no air is in the void spaces — that is, when the degree of saturation equals
100%. Hence, the maximum dry unit weight at a given moisture content with zero air
voids can be obtained by substituting S = 1 into previous Eq.

Factors Affecting Compaction

1. Effect of Soil Type

Clays usually yield bell-shaped curves. Sands often show an initial decrease in dry
unit weight, attributed to capillary tension that restrains the free movement of soil
particles, followed by a hump. Some soils—those with liquid limit less than 30% and
fine, poorly graded sands—may produce one or more humps before the maximum dry
unit weight is achieved.

2. Effect of Compaction Effort

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can
be determined as follow;

4 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture–unit weight
curve also changes.

5 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

From the preceding Figure, we can see that

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
is also increased.

2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum moisture content is decreased to

some extent.

The preceding statements are true for all soils. Note, however, that the degree of
compaction is not directly proportional to the compaction effort.

Modified Proctor Test

The standard Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions. This
revised version sometimes is referred to as the modified Proctor test. For conducting
the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm3, as in the
case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a
hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg. The drop of the hammer is 457 mm. The number
of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor
test.

The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700 kN-
m/m3.

Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an
increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum
dry unit weight is accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.

INTERPRETATION OF PROCTOR TEST RESULTS

Knowledge of the optimum water content and the maximum dry unit weight of soils is
very important for construction specifications of soil improvement by compaction.

Specifications for earth structures (embankments, footings, etc.) usually call for a
minimum of 95% of Proctor maximum dry unit weight. This level of compaction can
be attained at two water contents—one before the attainment of the maximum dry unit
weight, or dry of optimum, the other after attainment of the maximum dry unit
weight, or wet of optimum.

Heavily compacted soils tend to show sudden decrease in strength when sheared. In
engineering, if failure is to occur we prefer that it occurs gradually rather than
suddenly so that mitigation measures can be implemented. In some earth structures
(for example, earth dams) you should try to achieve a level of compaction that would
cause the soil to behave ductile (ability to deform without rupture). This may require
compaction wet of optimum at levels less than 95% of the maximum dry unit weight
(approximately 80% to 90% of maximum dry unit weight).

6 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Ex 1) The results of a standard compaction test are shown in the table below.

Water content (%) 6.2 8.1 9.8 11.5 12.3 13.2

Bulk unit weight

16.9 18.7 19.5 20.5 20.4 20.1
(kN/m3)

(a) Determine the maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content.

(b) What is the dry unit weight and water content at 95% standard compaction, dry of
optimum?

(c) Determine the degree of saturation at the maximum dry density.

(d) Plot the zero air voids line.

Solution

7 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Step 2: Plot graphs as shown in Figure

Step 3: Extract the desired values.

Step 4: Calculate the degree of saturation at maximum dry unit weight.

8 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

FIELD COMPACTION

Compaction Equipment

Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types
of rollers are

1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

3. Sheepsfoot rollers

4. Vibratory rollers

Smooth-wheel rollers
Pneumatic rubber-tired
rollers

Sheepsfoot rollers

9 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Field Compaction and Factors Affecting Field Compaction

In addition to soil type and moisture content, other factors must be considered to
achieve the desired unit weight of compaction in the field. These factors include the
thickness of lift, the intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment, and
the area over which the pressure is applied. These factors are important because the
pressure applied at the surface decreases with depth, which results in a decrease in the
degree of soil compaction.

During compaction, the dry unit weight of soil also is affected by the number of roller
passes.

10 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Specifications for Field Compaction

In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a

compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a
specification for relative compaction, which can be expressed as

R = relative compaction

For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in terms of
the required relative density Dr

Where

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of compaction include.

1. Sand cone method; 2. Rubber balloon method

3. Nuclear method.

11 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)

A sand cone apparatus is shown in Figure. It consists of a glass or plastic jar with a
funnel attached to the neck of the jar.

The procedure for a sand cone test is as follows:

1. Fill the jar with a standard sand—a sand with known density—and determine the
weight of the sand cone apparatus with the jar filled with sand (W1). The American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) recommends Ottawa sand as the standard.

2. Determine the weight of sand to fill the cone (W2).

3. Excavate a small hole in the soil and determine the weight of the excavated soil
(W3).

4. Determine the water content of the excavated soil (w).

5. Fill the hole with the standard sand by inverting the sand cone apparatus over the
hole and opening the valve.

6. Determine the weight of the sand cone apparatus with the remaining sand in the jar
(W4).

7. Calculate the unit weight of the soil as follows:

12 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Ex 2) The standard Proctor test for a gravelly sand (24% gravel, 76% sand) to be used
as a base course (a soil layer above the existing soil) of a highway embankment is
shown in Figure below.

(a) Specify the compaction criteria for the field.

Solution

From fig The maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content are 19.6 kN/m3
and 5.8%, respectively

13 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Specify 95% standard Proctor test to be compacted dry of optimimun

The grain-size distribution of the backfill material is an important factor that controls
the rate of densification. Brown (1977) has defined a quantity called the suitability
number for rating backfill as

The smaller the value of SN, the more desirable the backfill material. Following is a
backfill rating system proposed by Brown:

14 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Ex 3) Following are the details for the backfill material used in a vibroflotation
project:

• D10 = 0.36 mm

• D20 = 0.52 mm

• D50 = 1.42 mm

Determine the suitability number SN. What would be its rating as a backfill material?

Solution

Rating: Excellent

Ex 4) The in situ moist unit weight of a soil is 17.3 kN/m3 and the moisture content is
16%. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.72. This soil is to be excavated and
transported to a construction site for use in a compacted fill. If the specification calls
for the soil to be compacted to a minimum dry unit weight of 18.1 kN/m3 at the same
moisture content of 16%, how many cubic meters of soil from the excavation site are
needed to produce 2000 m3 of compacted fill? How many 20 ton truckloads are
needed to transport the excavated soil?

Solution

15 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬

Soil Compaction Chapter 5

Assignment # 5
Q 1) Calculate and plot the variation of dry density of a soil in kg/m3 (Gs = 2.65) at
w = 5, 10, 15, and 20% for degree of saturation, S = 70, 80, 90, and 100%.

Q 2) The results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table.

a. Determine the maximum dry density (kg/m3) of compaction and the optimum
moisture content. Given mold volume = 943.3 cm3.

b. If specification calls for 97% relative compaction in the field, what would be the
field dry density and the range of acceptable moisture content?

Q 3) A proposed embankment fill requires 5000 m3 of compacted soil. The void ratio
of the compacted fill is specified as 0.75. Soil can be transported from one of the four
borrow pits as described in the following table. The void ratio, specific gravity of soil
solids, and the cost per cubic meter for moving the soil to the proposed construction
site are provided in the table.

a. Determine the volume of each borrow pit soil required to meet the specification of
the embankment site

b. Make necessary calculations to select the borrow pit which would be most cost
effective.

Q 4) The relative compaction of a sand in the field is 88%. The maximum and
minimum dry unit weights of the sand are 18.55 kN/m3 and 15.41 kN/m3,
respectively. Determine: a. Dry unit weight in the field; b. Relative density of
compaction; c. Moist unit weight at a moisture content of 13%.

16 ‫عبدالعزيز بوحجر‬ .‫أ‬