Digital reading theory and its relationship to academic reading practices

Lisa Nowak, FIS2309, Design of Electronic Text

Abstract
As students and scholars increase their use of digital texts, digital reading theorists consider how
electronic text affects reading practices, learning, and scholarship. This essay examines the
development of digital reading theory and its relationship to academic reading practice. Hypertext
theory and the phenomenology of reading are evaluated as methods of understanding the digital reading
process and as starting points for the development of new online reading tools. Empirical studies of
academic reading and conceptions of appropriate reading tools are considered alongside theoretical
developments to determine the impact of digital reading on scholarly practices.

Keywords: digital reading, hypertext, phenomenology of reading, theory

D
Introduction through digital reading tools. While these
igital reading can be studied from several processes are not new to academic reading,
different perspectives; the fields of researchers and designers are beginning to
cognitive psychology, education, consider how to facilitate critical reading in the
information studies, and literary studies have all digital environment, opening new opportunities to
contributed to different aspects of current readers.
knowledge of digital reading. Hypertext theory has
emerged as the most prominent theory of digital Development of Hypertext Theory
reading today. The phenomenology of reading can The term hypertext, first coined in the 1960s by
also be used to model digital reading, and Theodor H. Nelson, can be defined as “text
empirical studies of reading behaviour serve to composed of blocks of words (or images) linked
complement areas of theory. However, digital electronically by multiple paths, chains, or trails in
reading theory is still an emerging area of study an open-ended, perpetually unfinished textuality,”
that continues to seek a theoretical framework and (Landow, 1997, p.3). This definition is drawn from
accepted body of knowledge (Miall & Dobson, Roland Barthes’ description of an ideal text, where
2001). the text has many networks that interact to create a
text without beginning or end (Landow, 1997).
Academic reading consists of the reading done by Foucault similarly describes a text as a network
students in the process of learning about a with links, expressed through a book’s references
discipline and by faculty when doing research and to other texts (Landow, 1997). As such, hypertext
teaching. Both reading theory and practice point to theory is based in the theories of postmodernism
an increasingly social, interactive use of digital and poststructuralism (Carusi, 2006) but also
texts. The thought processes that take place during grows out of the world of the printed text and
academic reading, such as questioning new often exists in comparison to print forms. More
concepts, synthesizing findings, reworking ideas, recently, DeStefano and LeFevre (2007) define
and responding to authors, are beginning to find an hypertext broadly as “a collection of documents
outward expression in the online environment containing links that allow readers to move from

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one chunk of text to another” (p. 1616). Processes
Hypertext’s format can bring greater freedom to
Vannevar Bush’s 1945 essay was similarly readers when compared to printed books, which
instrumental in developing today’s concept of are arranged in a preordained order that readers
hypertext, where Bush introduced the idea of a must follow (Carusi, 2006). However, not all
memex (Zambare, 2005). This device was scholars agree that hypertext does in fact bring
envisioned to store all kinds of books and such freedom to users. Traditional text does not
documents while also being able to link items necessarily constrain readers. Critics argue that
(Bush, 1945). This same concept can be seen in there can also be many paths through a printed
today’s digital libraries. text, to be formed by the reader during the process
of understanding the text. Hypertext itself is made
Currently, literary scholars are interested in the up of prearranged lexias and link choices that may
potential and theory of hypertext. Authors such as limit reading choices (Carusi, 2006). Although
Jay David Bolter, George P. Landow, and Richard readers of print texts may follow similar reading
Lanham, among others, have been influential in processes to those used in hypertext when
the development of the field of hypertext theory connecting concepts, hypertext offers a physical
(Miall & Dobson, 2001; Zambare, 2005). manifestation of this reading process.

Characteristics of Hypertext A second debate focuses on the cognitive

Hypertext can take many different forms, processes taking place during reading. Hypertext
providing different degrees of context and choice has been put forward as a better reflection of the
to readers (Carusi, 2006). However, hypertext is associativeness of cognition and the reading
characterized by several main features. First, process (White, 2007). However, some theorists,
hypertext is described as non-linear (Carusi, such as Bolter, argue that this associativeness can
2006). Because of this, readers are seen as having also be carried out through print-based reading,
the ability to create the text as they read, that it is not exclusively the domain of hypertext
depending on the choices made when reading (White, 2007). Similarly, Dillon argues that there
(Carusi, 2006). Hypertext is said to bring freedom is no evidence within cognitive psychology that
to readers, creating new terms such as wreader hypertext supports associative thought processes
and secondary author (Carusi, 2006). Because (as cited in White, 2007, para. 16). Charney again
hypertext is joined by links, each reader is able to argues that there is insufficient evidence to
create a unique path through the text, therefore conclude that hypertext reflects the associative
having a role in the text’s authorship (Carusi, processes of reading, cognition, and memory (as
2006). Each reader can then create a unique text cited in Carusi, 2006, p. 170).
according to the links followed.
Effects on Reading and Readers
Hypertext consists of two components: links and As readers adjust to the digital medium, certain
lexias (Carusi, 2006). A lexia, a reading unit or new factors are introduced to the reading process.
section of text, can be of varying length and First, the digital text is less material than text on a
composition (Carusi, 2006). Lexias are joined by page, but can act in different ways than print text
links. It is through these links that lexias gain (Gervais, 2007). Words on the screen can have
meaning and form the text as a whole (Carusi, hyperlinks and can be changed through computer
2006). However, this whole is changeable functions (Gervais, 2007). It is not yet clear
depending on the reader’s choices and can be whether hyperlinked words are read in the same
formed again with each reading. way as print-based words (Gervais, 2007). The
non-linearity of hypertext may also affect the
Theoretical Debates: Freedom and Cognitive reading process. Readers no longer have the

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entirety of texts before them and must learn to interactive process. However, in higher education,
navigate invisible sections of text (Gervais, 2007). a problem arises through the multiple texts that
can be derived through hypertext reading, creating
When reading digital text, simply making one’s difficulties for teaching and study. If students and
way through the text often requires more thought instructors can all create different texts through
and practice than it does when reading print texts. reading, they have little common ground for
Gervais (2007) explains that every act of reading discussion and instruction (Carusi, 2006).
consists of three parts: manipulation,
comprehension, and interpretation. The According to Carusi (2006, p. 171), the central
manipulation of traditional print texts is often claim of hypertext theory is that “hypertext
overlooked in the act of reading, but this aspect of constitutes a challenge to existing reading
the reading process is growing in importance with practices, and that even our experiences of reading
digital reading (Gervais, 2007). If a text cannot be will eventually be changed by it.” Hypertext may
manipulated, readers will have difficulty in have the ability to change the roles of readers, the
understanding and interpreting the text (Gervais, attention given to texts, and the form of texts
2007). Readers must continue to learn to themselves (Carusi, 2006). Some theorists worry
manipulate texts on screen as they adapt to the that students may become readers who lack depth
digital reading environment (Gervais, 2007). of thought and analysis due to the nature of
hypertext, while others suggest that hypertext can
The digitization of texts also means that there are bring about new forms of scholarship that have yet
ever-greater numbers of texts available in digital to be discovered (Carusi, 2006). These elements
format. This changes the reader’s cultural reading are beginning to be studied, but researchers have
context. Readers have access to overflowing yet to develop firm conclusions about the changes
information, so that the need for selection and brought about by hypertext to academic reading
speed becomes more central to the reading process and learning.
(Gervais, 2007). Readers must learn to
intelligently select needed texts from among many Phenomenology of Reading
(Gervais, 2007). However, accelerated reading can The phenomenology of reading is most often used
reduce comprehension to more superficial levels to describe the process of reading traditional,
(Gervais, 2007). Individual texts tend to have less linear text, but it can also be a challenge to
importance to readers, are read quickly, and are hypertext theory in describing digital reading. Its
discarded or lost in the overflow of digital goal is to describe the experience of reading
information (Gervais, 2007). (Carusi, 2006). Carusi (2006) outlines nine
characteristics of reading as portrayed through the
Text digitization has important effects in the phenomenology of reading, developed by
academic environment. Patterson (2000) argues Wolfgang Iser (1978). In this case, reading is seen
that readers interact with electronic text in ways as a conscious activity and an act of
that is not possible with print text, that hypertext communication. The text is not perceived all at
allows readers to have a more authorial role and to once by the reader, so that the reader focuses only
participate more in the text. This can lead to new on one part of the text at any time (Carusi, 2006).
educational practices for teachers and students,
who can use hypertext in new, participative ways The reader forms expectations while reading,
in the classroom (Patterson, 2000). Students can which are either met or not, causing syntheses to
become coauthors through hypertext, and be reinforced or modified (Carusi, 2006). A blank
instructors can encourage students to contribute or gap is formed when the reader’s expectations
their own writing in response to hypertexts read are not met, causing the reader to look for
(Patterson, 2000). Reading then becomes an connections and modify expectations (Carusi,

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2006). As such, the phenomenology of reading can De Stefano and LeFevre (2007) conducted a
be compared to hypertext theory, where the reader detailed literature review to examine the
forms connections between lexias through links. relationship between cognitive load and hypertext
However, in hypertext, the lexias and links are reading. They found that the links in hypertext add
pre-formed for readers, while in the decision-making processes and interruptions to the
phenomenology of reading it is the reader who reading process. These may make reading more
makes his or her own connections within the text enriching or create increased complexity for
(Carusi, 2006). Even so, the experience of reading comprehension (DeStefano and LeFevre, 2007).
to be gained through hypertext can also be gained The authors also found that when hypertexts
through the reading of linear text, according to the included new features, readers’ comprehension
phenomenology of reading (Carusi, 2006). was decreased when compared to linear texts or
hypertexts without the added features. However,
Applying Theory: Studies and the Design of hypertexts with hierarchical structures and
Reading Spaces organizational aids often resulted in better
Several empirical studies examine different comprehension. Furthermore, in both cases,
aspects of digital reading with the goal of better novice readers were more highly affected by these
understanding the reading process. This changes in structure than were those readers with
knowledge can be put toward the design of digital prior knowledge of the structures (DeStefano and
reading tools and interfaces. LeFevre, 2007). As such, the manipulation of texts
must be considered when designing reading
Miall and Dobson (2001) conducted a study interfaces. Finally, they did not find evidence to
evaluating the use of hypertext for literary reading. support the claim that hypertext generates a more
Through two studies with 130 readers, the authors enriching reading experience.
examined the differences between linear and
hypertext forms of electronic text, using short In addition, DeStefano and LeFevre (2007) put
stories. Overall, Miall and Dobson (2001) found forward several suggestions for the design of
that hypertext was not an effective tool for literary hypertexts. They explain that, in educational
reading. Hypertext readers took longer in reading settings, it is important to “establish principles of
each node presented, often felt confused and good hypertext design for learning that are
reported feeling that they had missed part of the consistent with our understanding of human
text (Miall & Dobson, 2001). Many hypertext cognition but without neglecting issues of
readers had difficulty following the story given. motivation and interest,” (DeStefano & LeFevre,
2007, p. 1636). They further recommend that
Furthermore, hypertext readers and linear readers cognitive processes should be combined with a
generated different kinds of comments about the model of hypertext learning that would include
text. Hypertext readers commented more aspects such as prior knowledge, working memory
frequently on difficulties in navigating the text but capacity, and the ability to impose structure on
also reported feeling more control through the information (DeStefano & LeFevre, 2007).
choice of links (Miall & Dobson, 2001). While
linear readers showed greater engagement with the Salmeron, Kintsch, and Canas (2006) conducted
story, on a more personal level, hypertext readers two studies to identify the reading strategies
were distanced from the text and made fewer chosen by hypertext readers. They discovered two
comments about the literary aspects of the story strategies: the coherence strategy (selecting text
(Miall & Dobson, 2001). This suggests that related to the previous section read) and the
hypertext can limit a reader’s involvement with interest strategy (choosing the most interesting
the content of a text. text over less interesting sections). Through the
two studies, the authors found that the strategy

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chosen affects the reader’s comprehension of the for reading electronic texts. As digital materials
text, depending on the reader’s prior knowledge. are increasing in number, libraries and other
The coherence strategy best facilitated learning for institutions continue to collect and promote these
readers with low prior-knowledge, while both the materials without understanding how they are
coherence strategy and the interest strategy being used (Coyle, 2008). Researchers have yet to
promoted comprehension for readers with discover what technologies will make it more
intermediate knowledge (Salmeron et al., 2006). desirable for readers to use electronic texts and
This research can be compared to the claim of what methods can be used to best link the ideas
hypertext theory that hypertext can facilitate and relationships between these texts (Coyle,
learning more efficiently than linear text 2008).
(Salmeron et al., 2006). While this claim has not
yet been supported by research, there may be Both hypertext theory and the phenomenology of
certain situations where hypertext can be reading can be used to design digital reading
beneficial, especially when readers with prior spaces for academic readers. Carusi (2006) argues
knowledge actively choose the order of text to be that the phenomenology of reading best represents
read (Salmeron et al., 2006). Even so, the study the academic reading process. In applying the
results show that these readers will benefit equally phenomenology of reading to digital reading in
from linear and hypertext versions of the text higher education, the advantages of hypertext can
(Salmeron et al., 2006). also be incorporated into the design of reading
tools (Carusi, 2006). As the phenomenology of
Finally, Quayyum (2008) conducted a study to reading suggests there is always interaction
describe students’ reading practices when between the parts and wholes of texts, these
preparing electronic journal articles for class characteristics can be incorporated with
discussion. By examining the markings made by hypertext’s ability to allow readers to form links
two groups of users, those doing individual between texts in creating reading tools for students
annotations and those sharing their markings with (Carusi, 2006). Students can form their own lexias
other members of the group, Qayyum discovered a and links in a text, connecting ideas while
range of markings present and several differences commenting on the principles used in these
between the groups. Highlighting and underlining decisions (Carusi, 2006).
were found to be the two main forms of marking
the electronic journal articles (Qayyum, 2008). Developments in reading tools for academic e-
Interface designers should facilitate the use of books are moving toward a more interactive
these two features and should provide options for medium for reading online. One research group,
colours and sizes of lines, so that readers sharing the Institute for the Future of the Book, affiliated
documents can distinguish their markings from with the University of Southern California, has
those of other users (Qayyum, 2008). Finally, the started to develop tools for collaborative online
author concludes that both technical and social academic reading, writing, and review. The
aspects of human interaction with electronic Institute anticipates a future for books where “the
documents must be considered when designing social life of readers and authors … will exist
marking and reading systems (Qayyum, 2008). around and inside of books” (Albanese, 2006,
para. 5) and “books will literally have discussions
Due to the variety of findings and inside of them, both live chats and asynchronous
recommendations present in these studies, it can exchanges through comments and social
be difficult to draw out conclusive principles for annotation. You will be able to see who else out
the development of reading theory or the design of there is reading that book and be able to open up a
reading tools. Even so, these studies and others are dialog with them” (Albanese, 2006, para. 6).
working towards the design of effective interfaces Reading and writing tools developed by the

FIS2309: Design of Electronic Text, Vol 1(1), 2008. 5

Institute, such as CommentPress and Sophie, are
based on the idea that the process of questioning Coyle, K. (2008). E-Reading. Journal of
that goes on during academic reading can be Academic Librarianship, 34(2), 160-162.
expressed online during the reading process and
that readers and authors can interact with each DeStefano, D. & LeFevre, J. (2007). Cognitive
other within a book (Young, 2006). load in hypertext reading: A review.
Computers in Human Behaviour, 23,
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becoming a topic of study, little work has been Gervais, B. (2007). Is there a text on this screen?
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electronic books and journals and the processes Siemens & S. Schreibman (Eds.), A
used in reading these texts. Some of the claims of companion to digital literary studies (pp.
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hypertext theory to examine other aspects of Johns Hopkins University Press.
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reading? Is student learning affected by increased Miall, D., & Dobson, T. (2001). Reading hypertext
use of hypertext, e-books, and e-journals? What and the experience of literature. Journal of
are the roles of the author and the reader in the Digital Information, 2(1). Retrieved July
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answered adequately. As designers and theorists
focus on interactive online reading processes, new Patterson, N. G. (2000). Hypertext and the
tools and paradigms are created for academic changing roles of readers. The English
reading, facilitating many of the processes that Journal, 90(2), 74-80.
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Additional Works of Interest

Dobson, T. M. (2007) Reading, writing, and the
digital artifact. Journal of E-Learning,
3(7), 266-272.

Drucker, J. (2007). The virtual codex from page

space to e-space. In R. Siemens & S.
Schreibman (Eds.), A companion to digital
literary studies (pp. 216-232). Malden,
MA: Blackwell.

Vandendorpe, C. (2007). Reading on screen: The

new media sphere. In R. Siemens & S.
Schreibman (Eds.), A companion to digital
literary studies (pp. 203-215). Malden,
MA: Blackwell.

Warwick, C. (in press). Premature elegies: E-

books, electronic publishing and reading.
In S. Hornby & B. Glass (Eds.), Reader
development in practice: Bringing
literature to readers. London: Facet.

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