HANDBOOK

By Ottar Stensbo!
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2019 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/modelflyinghandbOOOOsten
 MODEL
FLYING
HANDBOOK
 MODEL
FLYING
HANDBOOK
By Ottar Stensbol

STERLING PUBLISHING CO., INC. new york

Tree TZe** C& -, L-t*c
London & Sydney
 OTHER BOOKS OF INTEREST
Balsa Wood Modelling
Easy Motorcycle Riding
Family Book of Crafts
Family Book of Hobbies
Practical Encyclopedia of Crafts

For information about the Academy of Model Aeronautics

(AMA), write to 806 Fifteenth Street N.W., Washington,
D.C. 20005.

Copyright © 1976 by Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.

419 Park Avenue South, New York, N.Y. 10016
Distributed in Australia and New Zealand by Oak Tree Press Co., Ltd.,
P.O. Box J34, Brickfield Hill, Sydney 2000, N.S.W.
Distributed in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in the British Commonwealth
by Ward Lock Ltd., 116 Baker Street, London W 1
Originally published in Norway under the title “Modellflyhandboken” ©1971
by Chr. Schibsteds Forlag, Oslo, Norway. Translated by the author.
Manufactured in the United States of America
A III All rights reserved
*1*' rf<?<

SjjjS $ Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 75-14507

k l|= $ Sterling ISBN 0-8069-0088-1 Trade Oak Tree 7061-2186-4
0089-X Library
Contents
Types of Model Airplanes. 7
Free-Flying Models . . . Gliders . . . Rubber-Powered
Models . . . Combustion-Engine-Powered Models . . . Jet-
or Rocket-Powered Models . . . Line-Controlled Model
Airplanes . . . Radio-Controlled Model Airplanes . . .
“Non-Flying” Model Airplanes
Elementary Aerodynamics. 13
Tools. 31
A Well-Stocked Tool Case
Materials. 35
Balsa Wood . . . Spruce and Pine . . . Ash and Beech . . .
Plywood . . . Piano Wire and Other Metals . . . Glue and
Cement. . . Dope . . . Acetone . . . Covering Materials
Power Sources. 39
The Rubber Motor . . . Diesel and Glowplug Motors . . .
Starting a Diesel Motor . . . Starting a Glowplug Motor
. . . Propeller . . . Fuel
Advice For The Beginner. 48
Models for the Beginner
Free-Flying Models. 52
Free-Flying Gliders . . . Trimming a Plane . . . Center of
Gravity . . . Trimming Flight . . . Launching a Glider
. . . The Nordic Glider . . . Free-Flying Power Models . . .
Rubber-Powered Planes . . . Diesel or Glowplug Engines
. . . Building and Trimming a Powered Model . . . The
First Flights
Line-Controlled Models. 73
Basic Flying Technique . . . The Beginning Model . . .
Building and Trimming . . . Additional Control Functions
Radio-Controlled Model Airplanes. 87
Radio-Controlled Sailplanes. 89
The Model Sailplane . . . The High-Start Model . . . The
Slope-Soarer Model . . . RC-Sailplanes for the Novice
. . . RC-Sailplanes for the Experienced Pilot . . . RC-
Sailplanes for the Expert . . . Fiberglass . . . Wings . . .
Rudders, Hinges and Horns . . . Spoilers . . . Radio-
Control Gear . . . Flying Conditions . . . Finding a
Thermal . . . Centering into a Thermal-Cone . . . Using
the Thermal . . . Launching a Sailplane . . . High-Start
. . . Slope Soaring
Radio-Controlled Power Planes. 123
Choosing the RC-Power Model ... A Power-Glider . . .
Advanced Models . . . Specialized Models . . . Pylon
Racing . . . Building an RC-Power Plane . . . Wing Sec¬
tions . . . Motor Thrust Line . . . Rudder Action . . .
Radio-Control Gear . . . Flying an RC-Power Plane
Static or Display Models. 143
Competition Flying. 145
Transporting Your Model. 148
Flying Safety. 151
General Safety Precautions . . . Free-Flight Precautions
. . . Line-Control Precautions . . . Radio-Control Pre¬
cautions
Glossary . 154
Index . 158
Types of Model Airplanes

A newcomer to the model flying hobby may be puzzled by

the large number of different airplane types in use. Until about
30 years ago this was no problem at all, since at that time only
rubber-powered, free-flying models of simple construction were
available. These are still used today but mainly by younger
enthusiasts for their first efforts.
Among the many types of model aircraft are some with
motors—engine-powered—and others without—sailplanes or
gliders. Whether powered or not, models may be free-flying or
telecontrolled (tele- = operating at a distance). The tele-
controlled airplanes are either line-controlled or radio-
controlled.
Model airplanes may be either in exact scale to their full-size
originals or so-called functional models which do not follow
their prototypes as faithfully, but are designed with an eye
more to the stability and flying performance of the model itself.
A beginner is likely to be more successful flying a functional
model.
Model airplanes fall into four basic categories—free-flying,
line-controlled, radio-controlled and non-flying.

Free-Flying Models
GLIDERS
Gliders are small, simple model airplanes without any
power installation. Ideal for beginners, a glider is easy to build,
will take a lot of punishment and will demonstrate to its pilot
some of the principles of aerodynamics, a field he needs to
understand to fly the more advanced, powered models
successfully.

7
Illus. 1. A simple free-flying glider.

Larger gliders of more sophisticated design are used for

competition flying. They are more vulnerable than simple
gliders and must be handled with care, but their flying
performances are generally very good.

8
RUBBER-POWERED MODELS
These craft have a rubber “motor” which turns the propeller.
This motor consists of one or more rubber bands fastened
between the propeller shaft and the rear of the fuselage. Of
course, these rubber-powered models can be simple or built to
resemble an actual aircraft.
A basic glider serves very well as an effective trainer. Building
a powered model is a far more complicated project than
producing a glider of similar size and design.

Illus. 3. A more sophisticated free-flying plane.

COMBUSTION-ENGINE-POWERED MODELS
This type of craft is usually referred to as just “powered
models.” Whether exact scale or functional models, all are
powered by an internal-combustion engine. These are small
diesel or ignition engines which produce remarkable power for
their size.
These engines can be fitted into simple models or into the
more sophisticated, cabin-type sports models. While they are
more pleasant to look at, cabin models are difficult to repair in
case of a crash. For real competition buffs there are advanced
models of many types, the commonest of which is the duration
model.

9
JET- OR ROCKET-POWERED MODELS
The new JETEX motors have made it possible to build realis¬
tic scale models of modern jet fighters. The JETEX motor is a
small rocket engine which burns a solid fuel pellet. The power
is rather low so the model size is, therefore, generally restricted
to 30 inches (75 cm.) or less in wingspan. These engines run
from 20 to 35 seconds after ignition. Using a lightweight,
streamlined model, it is possible to gain enough height for an
endurance glide back to earth.

Illus. 4. Two line-

controlled or
"ll-control" model
planes.

Line-Controlled Model Airplanes

These are models controlled by lines running between the
pilot’s hand and a steering mechanism in the model. This
system is known as “U-control” because the lines form a “U”
shape between the pilot and his craft. U-control models are
very popular and can be divided into several groups—trainers,
stunt models, combat models, speed models, team racers, and
scale models.
All of these are flown around in a circle, tethered to the pilot’s
hand by the U-control lines. With these simple controls the
10
pilot can guide his model up and down, do loops and even fly
his plane upside down. Compared with the free-flight types of
model airplanes, the U-control models offer one distinct
advantage—they can be flown in very restricted areas. Even a
back yard or tennis court will do. However, one problem that
you as a U-control pilot must be aware of, in consideration of
your neighbors, is the loud noise of the engine.

Radio-Controlled Model Airplanes

By far the most popular types of models today are those
whose flight is controlled by radio signals. These models perform
manoeuvres similar to modern full-size aircraft. While this is
appealing to newcomers to the hobby, they must realize that
some aerodynamic and technical know-how is essential. The
best advice for a novice is to build, trim and fly a few good
old-fashioned free-flight models first.

Illus. 5. A radio-controlled sailplane (top) and a radio-

controlled powered model (bottom).
11
 Both sailplanes and powered models can be radio-controlled.
A radio-controlled model airplane is commonly referred to as
an “RC-plane” and the pilot is called an “RC-pilot.” The
radio-control unit is referred to as “RC-gear.” With his trans¬
mitter, the RC-pilot can control his model just as if he were
sitting in the cockpit. His skill plus, of course, the number of
servos on his gear and the capability of the control surfaces on
his model are the only factors limiting his manoeuvres through
the sky.

"Non-Flying" Model Airplanes

These are model aircraft meant to be looked at rather than
flown. They can be of solid wood, plastic or a combination of
materials. Usually constructed to exact scale ranging from
1:72 to 1:24, these display models are frequently built from kits.
Painted and with decals added, these models look very realistic.
They make an attractive collection and find a natural hangar in
youngsters’ rooms all over the world.

12
 Elementary Aerodynamics

Aerodynamics is often a frightening word to beginning

model airplane enthusiasts. The simple, self-explanatory draw¬
ings that follow, however, will give you an easy-to-follow
introduction to aerodynamics as it applies to flying model
aircraft.

->■

Laminar air stream

->■-*■

A typical pattern of an air

Turbulent air stream stream striking an object

Air velocity Area

11 yards 63 inches
(10 m.yscc. Shape (160 cm.)' Drag m grams

— t m w///////////a *
•
i |
i 1
t

mmmm-
—V////A119 ►

—[H67

The amount of drag (wind resistance) varies according to the

shape of the object.

13
 Lateral drag

Frontal % Aft drag

drag ^ {suction)

Object in motion

The total drag is the sum of all the drags.

Typical air-flow pattern over a wing.

-i. Low pressure area

+ High pressure area

The air flowing over the top of a wing has a greater distance
to travel and, therefore, travels faster than the air flowing
beneath the wing. This creates an area of lower air pressure
above the wing. The greater pressure below lifts the wing
towards the area of reduced pressure above.

The amount of air pressure varies at different points above

and below a wing, resulting in lift.
14
 The effect on the wing is as if the total lift (L) was applied to
a common center of pressure (P).

The angle at which the air stream meets the leading edge of a
wing is the angle of attack (a), equal to 15° in example above.

When the air stream meets the leading edge of a wing head-
on, the angle of attack is 0.
15
 Lift, pressure, and drag vary with the angle of attack.

2L

The amount of lift (L) is in proportion to the surface area (A)

of the wing.

The amount of lift (L) increases with speed (S).

16
 ^ Lift

Angle of attack greater than 0°

The amount of lift increases with the angle of attack.

Great lift

Medium lift

Small lift

The amount of lift increases with thickness of the wing.

17
 Loss of lift at the wing tips

The amount of lift varies at different points along the length

of a wing.

The four forces that act on an aircraft in flight are lift (L),
drag (D), weight (W), and thrust (T).

Drag and lift are small for a plane just starting its take-off
run because its speed is low.
18
 During the take-off and climb, the force of lift is greater than
weight.

In horizontal flight, lift equals weight while thrust equals

drag.
19
 Right wing panel

20
 The elevator moves the plane’s tail up and down around the
lateral or “pitch” axis.

The rudder causes movement around the vertical or “yaw”

axis.

The ailerons move the wings up and down around the

longitudinal or “roll” axis.
21
 c ; =>
Constant chord

Constant midsection with tapered wing tips

J
Tapered wings

Forward-swept wings

Airplane wings are made in many shapes to provide the

right amount of lift for each craft. The distance from the leading
edge to the trailing edge is called the chord.
22
 The relationship between an airplane’s wingspan (WS) and
the wing chord (C) is known as the aspect ratio (AR),
computed by the formula:
AR = —
WS
This ratio varies considerably with different kinds of airplanes.
For a powered plane, the AR is between 1:7 and 1:8, while
for a sailplane, the ratio is from 1:12 to 1:30.

23
 I

High wing

Low wing

Parasol wing

Different wing mountings provide varying amounts of

stability. The parasol wing gives the greatest stability, a low
wing the least.
24
 >“ D

Forward thrust has a different effect on high-winged, low¬

winged and mid-winged planes. An imaginary line through the
propeller axis is the thrust line (TL).

Vertical axis

An airplane’s stability depends also upon the proportion of

the body ahead of and behind the center of gravity.
25
 Dihedral or V-shaped wings

Straight wings with angled tips

Dihedral wings with angled tips

Gull wings

U-shaped wings

Upside-down V-shaped wings with angled tips

Various wing forms provide good stability.

In certain situations, the tailplane can block the fin and rud¬
der, interfering with stability. A T-tail arrangement will
prevent this.
26
 Cross section A-A Cross section B-B

Constructing wing panels with a built-in warp increases

stability. This shape is called “wash-out.”

A wing’s upwards or downwards inclination is called the

dihedral angle. The dihedral also helps to stabilize a plane.
27
 Wing Tail

Angle of attack
Stability is also affected by the air stream’s angle of attack.

s '\
r \

An airplane’s tail stabilizes it along its lateral axis.

Lift

When the tail of an airplane is level, the center of gravity will

be 1/3 the length of the wing chord back from the leading edge
of the wing.
28
 Lift

When the tail lifts, the center of gravity will be 2/3 the length
of the wing chord back from the leading edge.

C = Average wing chords

29
 Here are some general proportions for a free-flying powered
model. This type is also good as an RC-trainer.

ABBREVIATIONS

WS = Wingspan TC = Tail chord

WA = Wing area F = Fin
C = Wing chord R = Rudder
V = Dihedral (V-form) angle TM = Tail moment arm
TS = Tail span TF = Thrust line
TA = Tail area N = Nose length
Cg = Center of gravity

PROPORTIONS

WS depends on motor dis¬ TM is 200 to 250 per cent of C.

placement. M is 2 to 2\ C.
TA is 25 to 30 per cent of WA. TC is 35 to 40 per cent of C.
F+Ris8to 10 per cent of WA. Cg is 30 to 35 per cent of C.
TS is 25 to 35 per cent of WS. TF is 2 to 3° down, 1 to 2
N is 60 to 75 per cent of C. right.
C is 10 to 14 per cent of WS. V is 5 to 8°.

30
Tools

An experienced model builder can make any model using

only a razor blade, ordinary pins, glue and a work table. Of
course, building model airplanes that will fly is not so simple,
but it is truly surprising what you can do with just a little
equipment. Simple models call for only a few basic tools. If
you start with kits, as most beginners do, some of the parts
will be ready-made for you. When you graduate to larger, more
complicated models, you will need a greater assortment of
tools to do the job. If you are a serious model builder, the
equipment described below represents the basic items you will
need—experts will have more. In getting started, however, it is
just as well to buy tools only as you need them over a period of
time.
Work Board. The most important item is your work board. It
should be perfectly flat and made from soft wood; otherwise
you will bend the pins when you try to push them in. A large
artist’s drawing board is ideal for model building. These are
available in sizes ranging from 20 X 16 inches to 70x50 inches
(50x40 cm. to 180x125 cm.). Buy the largest that you can
afford and have room for.
You can, of course, make your own work board from pine
or other soft wood. It must, however, be truly flat, straight¬
grained, and free from knots.
Regardless of the type of work board you choose, you should
paint or stain it a dark color. Small pieces of balsa and pins
show up clearly against a dark background and are not so
easily lost or misplaced.
Knife and Razor Blades. Since you will be working with a
variety of woods, you should buy a quality knife right away.
Many commercial brands are on the market, and it pays to ask
your hobby dealer for advice on which one to buy. For building
31
Illus. 6. A well-stocked tool case for the experienced
builder. The tools are identified on the next page.

32
A Well-Stocked Tool Case
1: hand drill
2: drill bits
3: sharpening stone
4: blades for scroll saw
5: scroll saw
6: bench pin for scroll saw
7: clamp
8: small screwdriver
9: assorted files
10: engineer’s double-headed wrench
11: hammer
12: heavy-duty wire cutter
13: square pliers
14: round-nose pliers
15: small knife
16: utility knife
17: heavy screwdriver
18: small brush
19: large brush
20: soldering iron
21: steel ruler
22: box of pins
23: center punch (or hole puncher)
24: wooden clamps
25: steel wool
26/28: soldering chemicals
27: soldering tin

This list of tools will give you some idea of the variety of
equipment you may eventually want to buy, adding to your
collection as you become more accomplished at model
building. Invest your money in quality tools, and only in those
that you need—no more. Remember that you, and not the
tools, make the model—it is your skill, imagination, and
patience that will insure success.

33
models, a solid-handled knife with interchangeable blades is
best. You will also need a variety of blades of different shapes.
Keep a supply of single-edged razor blades at hand as well.
Use the thickest type available.
Saws. You will most often use a coping saw, small hacksaw,
and scroll saw. Have an assortment of fine and coarse blades
to fit them.
Plane. The small type is best, so you can use it in tight areas.
Files. You will need flat and round files for both wood and
metal work.
Drills. Small drills are the most useful, especially the range
between dc and £ inch (1.5 and 6.0 mm.). Buy drills for boring
both wood and metal.
Pliers. You will need a pair of good quality, heavy-duty
wire cutters capable of cutting steel wire up to 16 or 14
Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.). Square and round-nose pliers
are also useful.
Wood Rasp and Sandpaper. A solid rasp for wood and sand¬
paper of different grades are essential. You can make a
suitable sanding block from a piece of balsa wood 2x2x1
inches (50 x 50 X 25 mm.). Blocks in other sizes may also be
necessary.
Clamp Vices and Pins. Ordinary household steel pins and
some lightweight clamps will always be needed in your work.
Hammer and Screwdriver. You will need one of each,
generally a small size.
Electric Soldering Iron. A medium-heavy soldering iron of
about 75 watts is best. Do not buy the smallest types, which
are made especially for radio repair work.
Steel Ruler and T-Square. A 3-foot (1-m.) ruler is adequate—
a little bit longer is even better. These are your most valuable
tools—buy the best you can and take care of them.
Brushes and Spray Gun. You will need a variety of small
flat and round paintbrushes. A good spray paint gun is also
nice to have.

34
Materials

You will use different materials for various parts of any

model airplane you want to build and fly. Since you will
probably be starting with kit models, most of the materials
will already be chosen for you. Even so, the density, strength,
and weight of the materials are basic information you must
know to be an intelligent and successful builder. You must
also understand the fundamental ideas behind model con¬
struction to select the proper materials for a job. Of course,
theory is more important when you begin to design your own
models, but from the beginning, you must have a thorough
knowledge of the characteristics of the materials that you
will use.

Balsa Wood
Balsa wood is the main building material used in model
airplanes. It is very light and the strength-to-weight factor is
good. It is classified hard, medium or soft, with hard balsa the
heaviest and soft balsa the lightest. Choose from the various
grades depending on the strength that the particular model
requires. The fuselage of any plane must be built from fairly
hard balsa for strength, while the tail section (which must be
kept as light as possible) should be built of light balsa.
Hobby shops sell balsa in many different sizes. You can
choose from such a broad selection in hobby shops that it is
seldom necessary for you to plane or saw it yourself. The most
popular strip sizes are iT-, £-, and i-inch 0-5-, 2.0-,
3.0-, 4.5-, and 6.0-mm.) square sections. Flat sections of
inch or inch (1.5x6.0 mm. or 3.0x12.5 mm.) are also
available. Pieces which are 1-inch (25-mm.) square or larger
are classified as “blocks.” You can also buy “sheets,” which
35
are usually 2 or 3 inches (50 or 75 mm.) wide and 12 inches
(30 cm.) long.
A model airplane built from balsa wood must be sanded
carefully before doping and covering.

Spruce and Pine

These woods are some 3 to 4 times heavier than balsa, with
a proportionate increase in strength. Spruce and pine are
mainly used in model airplane parts where strength is essential
—for instance, the main spars in the wings of larger models.
You must avoid knots or other weak spots that are often found
in these woods. Take care when sanding a model in which balsa
has been used together with spruce or pine since the latter
woods are so much harder than balsa.

Ash and Beech

Ash and beech are 2 to 4 times heavier than balsa. They are
generally used in small amounts for engine mounts, power
propellers or nose blocks.

Plywood
This thin, high-quality bonded material is sold in small
panels inch (.75 mm.) thick, or thicker. Often referred to as
“aircraft ply,” it is very strong and is used to reinforce bulk¬
heads and heavy-duty wing ribs. You need a good saw to cut
thin plywood, and be very careful when you sand it.

Piano Wire and Other Metals

Thick spring-steel wire, -fc- to -J-inch (1.5 to 3.0 mm.) in
diameter, is used for landing gear structures and rubber-
powered propeller shafts. Medium wire (^ to -fa inch or .75
to 1.5 mm.) is used for rubber-powered models and control¬
line models. Wire as thin as .006 inch (.15 mm.) is used for
control lines and for small springs.
Brass, aluminum and duralumin in sheet, strip and tubular
form are also used for many purposes in large models. How¬
ever, always keep the weight factor in mind.
36
Glue and Cement
Glue is one of the most important materials for all model
building. You will find a large selection for many different
purposes in your hobby shop. The glue you will use most often
is quick-drying cellulose.
Ordinary white glue is also useful and popular. It is slow
drying, and thus enables you to correct a poor join several
minutes after making it. For plastic materials and fiberglass,
you will use different epoxy glues. Always prepare epoxy glue
strictly according to the instructions which accompany it.

Dope
The framework of a model may be doped before or after
you cover it with the airplane’s skin. This will help waterproof
and protect the plane’s structure. Dope handles in many ways
like thinned cellulose glue. You can buy dope either clear or in
colors, and you should always use a good quality brush to
paint it on. Colored dope is somewhat heavier than clear dope.

Acetone
Acetone is used to thin out dope and glue. It is also a solvent,
good for cleaning your brushes and removing unwanted paint
spots from the model. Acetone is quite inflammable and
dangerous if inhaled. Therefore, keep the bottle tightly capped
and safely away from small children. Never leave a bottle of
acetone on the floor or on your work table where a child can
reach it.

Covering Materials
Today, you can choose from a wide variety of covering
materials—special tissues, silk, nylon and plastic sheets. The
application of these covering materials depends on the type of
model and your own personal preference. Generally, the tissues
are used for smaller, free-flight models. Silk and nylon are
heavier and far stronger than tissue, but they also require a
37
stronger framework. Plastic sheets that shrink to fit, for instance
“Monokote” or “Solar-film,” are becoming increasingly popu¬
lar. These last do not require any dope or glue—they will stick
to the framework and shrink to the tightness of a drumhead
with the application of heat from an iron.

38
Power Sources

The common power sources or engines for model airplanes

today are the rubber “motor,” the diesel motor, and the glow
or glowplug motor.

The Rubber Motor

This is the oldest and simplest model airplane motor. It

consists of one or more rubber bands which run between the
propeller shaft and a hook in the aft (rear) section of the
fuselage. By turning the propeller around with your finger,
you twist the rubber loops more and more, achieving consider¬
able torque. The rubber loops accumulate energy which is
converted to propeller energy the moment you set the propeller
free. The power you obtain is proportional to the number of
turns that you give the propeller during the “wind-up.”
A rubber motor can be either very simple like the one in
lllus. 7, or more sophisticated, like the device shown in Illus. 8,

propeller lllus. 7. The most simple rubber motor.

39
 Ulus. 8. A complicated rubber engine with
transmission gear.

with transmission gear and a free-wheeling propeller. Either

motor will give you good, faithful service if you treat
it correctly.
To make a motor, first cut the rubber to the appropriate
width and length and then lubricate it with a soft oil. You now
“trim” it, which is simply stretching and re-stretching the rubber
until you can turn it the maximum number of times and thus
get the greatest possible energy delivery from it. There are a
number of trimming methods. This is the simplest:

bearing rubber tubing

shaft

lus. 9. A cut-away view of the propeller

mounting in a sophisticated set-up show¬
ing the free-wheeling propeller.
40
Illus. 10. Use this knot to
join the ends of a rubber
band.

1. Fasten the end of the length of rubber to a door handle

and stretch it to approximately 3 times its original length.

2. Turn it 50 times and then let it unravel, still holding the

end.
3. Let the rubber relax for a minute, then stretch it as before,
giving it 75 or 80 turns. Again, let it unwind while keeping it
taut.
4. Let it (and you) relax for a minute, and then give it 50
turns as you stretch it and 45 or 50 additional turns as you
gradually relax the lengthwise stretch. Repeat the original
procedure, this time giving it 125 turns.
Continue this process, increasing the “wind-up” each time
by 25 per cent until you obtain the maximum number of turns
for that particular length of rubber. You can calculate this
maximum number by using the following table:

Number of loops 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
^-inch width 64 52 44 40 36 32 29 27 25
^--inch width 48 44 32 33 30 28 25 22 19
^-inch width 44 36 29 26 23 22 20 18 16

Find the column which shows the width of the strip of rubber
you are using. Now follow this column across until you find
the corresponding number in the column which indicates the
number of loops you have made from the total length. By
multiplying the number from the table by the total length of
the rubber strip, you arrive at the maximum number of turns
for that particular rubber-powered motor. For example, if you
are going to twist a ^--inch-wide rubber strip, 20 inches long,
using 10 loops, you will be able to achieve a maximum of
20 (inches) X 33 (number from table) = 660 turns. (If you are
working in centimeters, just divide the length of the rubber strip
by 2.5 before multiplying by the number from the table.)
41
Illus. 11. The diesel-fed motor (left) and the glowplug
engine (right) are the most popular in use today.

Diesel and Glowplug Motors

These two types of engines are the most commonly used in
model airplanes. Both types are normally single-cylinder,
2-stroke engines with a cylinder volume of .12 to .6 cu. in.
(.2 to 10 cc.). In the diesel motor, the fuel is ignited by the high
compression created in the cylinder by the piston. The glow-
plug motor has a small glowplug which, before the start, is
heated by using a small battery. The glowing plug then causes
ignition, and the battery leads are removed. The glowplug now
keeps glowing because of the heat from each ignition and the
motor runs happily.
Starting one of these motors can be difficult for a beginner.
The following tips should, however, be of help. First of all,
you should always break in a motor before you want to actually
use it. This breaking-in period may vary from a few minutes
to 1 or 1^ hours, depending on the type and size of the motor
and the manufacturer’s advice. Read all of the directions that
come with the motor before you do anything! Generally you
should not run a motor more than 3 or 4 minutes the first time.
Then, repeat this 3 to 5 additional times. Be careful not to
overdo it.
Of course, you must mount the motor securely before you
try starting it. Use solid machine screws and a solid piece of
plywood at least % inch (3 mm.) thick. When the motor and
tank are fastened, connect the tubing between the fuel-inlet of
42
Ulus. 12. Mount the fuel tank on the same level as the
motor so that your engine draws the fuel by suction.

the motor and the fuel tank. Be sure to check that the tank and
fuel-inlet are on the same level (see Illus. 12). The fuel must
not be allowed to flow freely down into the motor. The motor
should produce enough suction by itself to draw fuel from
the tank.

STARTING A DIESEL MOTOR

Put diesel fuel into the tank. Choke the motor by holding
your finger tightly over the air-intake while you turn the

Illus. 13. Prime the diesel

engine with a few drops of fuel
in the exhaust. Then kick the
propeller counter-clockwise.

43
propeller counter-clockwise 2 to 4 times. (The fuel should be
visible in the tubing and fuel-inlet.) Squeeze a little fuel from
your fuel bottle into the exhaust ports—just a few drops will
do. Now, your diesel motor is ready to start.
With your finger, flick the propeller quickly counter-clock¬
wise. The motor should start after a maximum of 6 to 12 tries.
If it does not, increase the compression a little by turning the
compression screw 1 or \\ turns clockwise. Repeat the starting
procedure, and the motor should start up. (You may also have
to adjust the fuel needle to increase or decrease the amount of
fuel let into the motor while running. This procedure is not
difficult but does require some experience.) Always be careful
around the motor and propeller—take care of your fingers!

STARTING A GLOWPLUG MOTOR

For this, you need the proper fuel, a 1.5-volt starter battery,
a starting cable with clips, and, of course, a mounting platform
for the engine.
Begin by connecting the battery to the glowplug. Check to
see that the plug really glows—the glow coil should be red
(you will sometimes be able to see this through the exhaust
ports). You may also hear the plug heat, because the moisture
on the coil will burn off, causing a low, crackling noise.
Squeeze a few drops from your fuel bottle into the exhaust
ports and the fuel-intake. Turn the propeller quickly with a
smart flick and it should start up immediately. Now, with the
fuel needle, adjust the motor until you hear an even, purring
sound. The glowplug motor runs at a considerably higher rate
of revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) than the diesel motor, pro¬
ducing a much higher tone.
If the motor will not start, try squeezing more fuel into the
exhaust ports and the fuel-intake and repeat the starting pro¬
cedure. Remember, the battery should be connected only during
the starting and adjusting procedures. Disconnect it as soon as
the motor runs steadily. Keep the battery, cables and clips
well away from the motor. Do not short-circuit the battery by
careless use of the clips.
A glowplug motor is harder to start in cold weather, because

44
Illus. 14. The position of the battery clips on the glowplug
motor. They are safely stored with the battery.

the battery does not keep its full power as the temperature
drops. The glowplug then gets too little voltage and will not
deliver the needed starting kick. Use a storage, or accumulator
battery instead of a dry cell in winter. A storage battery is, in
any event, cheaper to run over a long period of time.

Propeller
Your choice of propeller is also very important for the
efficient use of a motor. You must consider the motor itself,
its displacement, and how you want it to perform.
A propeller is normally referred to by a two-digit designation
—for example, 8x6. This means that this propeller is 8 inches
in diameter and has a pitch of 6 inches. The pitch is the
horizontal distance the propeller will screw forward in one
complete revolution, in this case, 6 inches.
The pitch number is quite useful in further calculations.
You can use it to determine the theoretical speed that any
combination of motor and propeller will deliver. For example,
45
if you put the propeller in question on a U-controI plane and
spin it at a rate of 15,000 r.p.m., the theoretical speed of the
plane should then be:

6 (inches) x 15,000 (r.p.m.) x 60 (minutes per hour)

12 (inches per foot) x 5,280 (feet per mile)
= 85.2 m.p.h.

If you want to calculate the speed in kilometers per hour you

use essentially the same formula, keeping in mind the change
from English measure to the metric system:

6 (inches) X 2,54 (cm. per inch) X 15,000 (r.p.m.) x 60 (min./hr.)

100,000 (cm. per kilometer)
= 137.16 km./hr.

Whichever system you use, keep in mind that the speed you
determine is only theoretical. The drag on the plane reduces
the speed considerably, anywhere from 15 to 40 per cent of
the figure you calculated, depending on the model, its finish,
and other factors. For practical purposes, you should count on
a 30 per cent reduction from the calculated theoretical speed
for the true speed. In the above case then, the U-control plane
will fly at approximately 60 miles or 96 kilometers per hour.
When you choose a propeller, remember that a smaller
diameter propeller will give more revolutions per minute and
thus a higher theoretical and actual effect. Within natural
physical limits, the speed of the plane will increase with the
increase in effect. If you choose an 8x8 propeller instead of
one that is 8 x 6, for a specific motor, you will obtain less effect
and, consequently, less speed. This can be very bad for a heavy
plane. Choosing the correct propeller is very important in
order to get the best performance from your plane.

Fuel
The fuel you use is also important. A number of mixtures
are available for both diesel and glowplug motors. The engine
manufacturer will normally tell you which “soup” is best for
each motor. Stick to the recommended mix until you become
an expert. Today, very few people mix their own fuel. For the

46
inexperienced pilot, a pre-mixed fuel is definitely best. Just
remember that a diesel motor cannot run on glowplug-motor
fuel, and vice versa.
The model airplane engines of today are nothing less than
masterpieces of mechanical engineering. This chapter deals
only with the basic types—no mention has been made of the
sophisticated motors with throttle-devices, silencers, or self¬
starting mechanisms. These advanced machines are best left
until you have gained a little flight time. In the beginning
stages, you only need the basic facts about motors and how to
handle them. If you care for them properly, you will be well
rewarded.

47
Advice for the Beginner

Being a novice is not easy in any sport or hobby. In building

model airplanes, problems frequently arise at the start. Without
the right help and instructions from an experienced model
builder, you may be tempted to give up after your initial effort.
This book aims to provide you with just the advice you need
to overcome those first hurdles and help you before you become
too discouraged.
Many beginners go wrong right away by choosing the wrong
model. Do not select a complicated and ambitious scale-model
reproduction of a World War II Mustang or a Thomson racer
for your first project. If you overestimate your skill, you will
likely be frustrated by the unforeseen difficulties of such a
complex project. This will result almost inevitably in a quick
return to your work table after a heartbreaking crash on the
flying field. You are then faced with the even more discouraging
prospect of repairing a complicated model that you did not
completely understand when you were first constructing it.
Regardless of your age or your individual interests, you
should try a simple and functional box-construction model for
your first project (avoid any scale models at this stage). Start
off with a basic trainer design. You will find that a medium-size
model is easy to build, trim, fly, and—most importantly—easy
to repair. You can find this type of model without difficulty in
your hobby shop, but once again, be careful. Decide what kind
of model you prefer: a simple glider, a small rubber-powered
model, or perhaps a radio-controlled trainer type. The simplest
is usually the best. All beginners would do well to choose a
small glider with a wingspan of 20 to 30 inches (50 to 75 cm.)
for their first model. This will give you considerable experience
in building and trimming the craft, and you will learn some
basic aerodynamics and flying techniques. A glider is the best
48
Ulus. 15. A glider made from sheet balsa.

basic training for further model building, whether you are

interested in free-flight, line-controlled, or radio-controlled
models.
Most novices get the best results by using a kit. If you know
any experienced model builders, ask their advice on any
particular problems or stumbling blocks. Most model builders
are more than happy to share their building secrets. It is also
a good idea to compare what you are told and what you read
with your own actual experience in building a model.
You should not be too discouraged if your first model fails
to soar to the heavens—most beginners do not have their first
project in operation for very long. A crash is almost predictable,
and very understandable. The best advice is: Do not abandon
your first model after a crash and blindly go on to a bigger and
newer project. Rather, rebuild your first model or make a

lllus. 16 (left). A rubber-powered plane for the beginner.

Ulus. 17 (right). A model like this could be your first line-
controlled plane.
49
Ulus. 18. This high-wing cabin model offers a stable,
consistent flight pattern for the novice RC-power pilot.

duplicate of it. This will enable you to study and correct your
initial errors, give you additional experience, and be consider¬
ably less expensive. Take your time and proceed slowly, one
step at a time. Only by following a systematic building and
training program will you be able to graduate successfully
from the elementary stages of model building.

Models for the Beginner

Understandably, not all beginners will want to start with
the same initial project. Be guided by your own interests, but
do choose a simple, functional model to start. A small free-
flying glider, for instance, is an ideal project for any beginner,
above all for those who want to fly free-flight models. It is
slow-flying and has a good chance of surviving its first flight.
On the other hand, it is pointless to force yourself to build a
plane for which you have little enthusiasm.
No matter which category of model airplanes you choose,
you will find a great selection of kits and first-class building
plans. In most cases, you will be better off with a kit, where
you will meet with few, if any, problems during construction.
Generally, you will find it easier to achieve a satisfactory end
result from a kit rather than from materials which must be cut
to size and built up from a plan. You will also find that kits
are less expensive in the long run, because there is less waste
50
Ulus. 19. Cumulus is a steady RC-sailplane that you could
use as a free-flight trainer.

of material. (Of course, you should always keep any excess

materials for repairs or to build other projects.)
Kits also eliminate some of the more repetitive and often
tedious work. The balsa is usually pre-printed or die-cut, so
you can begin the actual construction work right away. If you
build from a plan, you must first transfer the patterns to the
balsa sheets, cut all of the parts accurately, and then sand them
to the exact size. You can build a model airplane in a fairly short
time if you work from a kit—construction from a building
plan usually calls for two or three times as much work.
Whichever type of model airplane you want to fly, you will
find numerous basic projects to choose from. Since this selec¬
tion varies from place to place and year to year, it is impractical
to suggest specific models or kits. Look at the various models
shown in Illus. 15 to 20. If you find kits that produce models
comparable to these planes, you will not go far wrong.
Remember also to ask your hobby shop for any advice they
can give. But don’t rush your choice—seek information and
building tips before you buy. You may save more money than
you realize.

Illus. 20. When you are ready for RC-sailplanes, choose a

large, sturdy model.
51
Free-Flying Models

Free-flying model airplanes, referred to as FF-models, fly

without any kind of steering device manipulated by the pilot
on the ground. Free-flying planes are powerless gliders or
powered models.

Free-Flying Gliders
Gliders (often called sailplanes or soarers) are, of course,
motorless. In any model aircraft survey, the gliders come first.
They are the ideal training crafts for model airplane enthusiasts,
thanks to the simplicity of their design and their durability in
the air.
Gliders can be launched in a variety of fashions:
(a) by hand from a hill,
(b) by catapult from a field,
(c) by winch-towing from a field,
(d) by simple towline from a field.
The simple towline method (d) is the most popular, and is the
only method allowed in competitions.
Gliders are divided into several classes depending on their
wing area, weight, and other variables. Internationally, the
A-2 class represents a sophisticated, high-performance plane,
a plane you should be able to fly after you have a year or more
of experience. The Thermic (Ulus. 2.1) is typical of the A-2
class. It has a wingspan of from 6j to 7 feet (190 to 210 cm.), a
minimum weight of 14.5 ounces (410 grammes), and a total
surface area of 495 to 525 square inches (32 to 34 dm.2). A-2
class gliders are not for beginners. Building, trimming, and
maintaining such a plane calls for experience.
Instead, try your hand first at a trainer type with smaller
overall dimensions. A plane with a wingspan of 2 to 5 feet (60
52
to 150 cm.) is much better. Many good kits and building plans
are available for planes of this size. A plane like the one in
lllus. 22 has simple lines, is easily put together, and can take
some punishment—characteristics to look for in a practical
trainer.
Simpler, but somewhat more restricted in use, are the very
small chuck-gliders, which are usually constructed from solid
balsa wood and launched with a strong side-arm throw. Chuck-
gliders (lllus. 23) vary in size, with wingspans from 12 to 24
inches (30 to 60 cm.). For youngsters especially, the chuck-
glider is the ideal first project.

lllus. 23. A youngster can build a chuck-glider quickly out

of balsa wood.
53
 All gliders can be built from kits, or. if you prefer, from
detailed building plans. Model airplane magazines often carry
plans which you can enlarge and build. Once you have basic
experience from building a kit model, you will not find it
difficult to make up workable plans from such a drawing (see
page 60). Depending on your ability and the time you have to
spare for your hobby, you can decide whether to build from a
kit or start from scratch with a plan. But the beginner, of course,
should avoid this effort and stick to a basic kit.

Trimming a Plane
After you build any plane, you must trim it before you fly it.
First, check your model to see if there are any unwanted warps.
From in front of the model, look carefully from the wing tips
towards the middle of the wing. From behind, check from the
tail towards the nose, and from above, look down on the fin.
Be sure there are no misalignments. If you do find a fault,
correct it carefully. You can, for instance, apply more dope on
a twisted wing panel, fasten it again to your building board,
and let it dry. Some warps may be so bad that you must
overcorrect the mistake and fasten the wing in an “opposite
twist” on the building board in order to straighten it. You
can also make effective use of the steam from boiling water to
“moisten up” a framework that has acquired an unwanted
twist (remember, though, that some planes call for a twist in
the wings—see page 27). You must correct such a mistake
before covering the framework. Hold the framework about
4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 cm.) from the boiling water for 60
seconds while you force the warp out with your fingers and
bend the structure back to the correct position and slightly
beyond. Hold it there until it dries (5 to 10 minutes), and then
put it back on your building board, where you pin it fast. Let
it dry completely for at least 24 hours.

CENTER OF GRAVITY
Now, your flying wonder is ready for the final trimming
procedure. Before you try a hand launch, you must first check
the balance of your model and determine if it has the correct
center of gravity (see page 28).
54
 Balance your airplane under the wing (lllus. 24). If your
model has a flat tailplane (one mounted at zero angle ot
incidence), place your fingers under a point exactly i chord
from the leading edge of the wing. If the tailplane is a lifting
type, the model should balance at a point that is approximately
| chord in front of the trailing edge of the wing. To correct a
tail-heavy model, just put some lead into the nose, preferably
in a specially arranged “lead-chamber” (most kit models are
provided with this space). When your model is correctly
balanced, the nose of your model should “hang” slightly.

TRIMMING FLIGHT
You are now ready for the first trimming flights. Pick a calm
day and set yourself up on the slope of a small hill. Hold the
model well above your head as shown in lllus. 25. Don’t look
at the model, but fix your eyes on the horizon or a little below
the horizon line. Give the model a decent toss forward and
let it go. If you are lucky, your plane is correctly trimmed and
will fly in a picture glide to the ground, like path A in lllus. 25.
If it is not trimmed correctly, you can expect a bumpy ride,
similar to the line described in path B. Here the plane is tail-
heavy_put more ballast in the nose. Or you might find that
55
Illus. 25. Try to get a smooth flight (path A) during your'
trimming flights.

your model dives too quickly to the ground (path C). In this
case, your model is carrying too much weight in the nose—
remove ballast gradually until you achieve an ideal flight path.
If your model flies either tail-heavy (path B) or nose-heavy
(path C) even though the center of gravity is correct, check the
angle of incidence of the wing. For a model which behaves as
if it were nose-heavy, pack a bit of balsa under the leading edge
of the wing (Illus. 26). Be careful, though—just a thin sliver of
balsa about ^ inch (1 mm.) thick at a time. Make several
practice flights to check the performance before adding another
piece.

Illus. 26. Pack a thin sliver of balsa under the leading edge
of the wing to correct a nose-heavy model.

56
 A model which acts tail-heavy even though it has the correct
center of gravity needs an equivalent packing under the trailing
edge of the wing. Your goal is to have every flight look like
path A in Illus. 25. Since a correct launch is very important in
obtaining a smooth flight, make several tests before making
any changes.

Launching a Glider
Once your plane is properly trimmed, you can take it out to
the field to fly it from a high-start. You will need another person
to help you with your high-start, which is similar to getting a
kite into the air. A sturdy fishing line of 50 yards (50 meters),
a metal ring and a small flag are all you need. (It is also nice to
have a small fishing reel to hold the line when you are finished
with it.) Your basic high-start gear will look something like
that in Illus. 27.

50 meters/yards-—--
10 cm.

First, attach the ring to the start hook which is fastened to

the underbelly of the plane beneath the wing. (To install a start
hook on your glider, take a small piece of piano wire (A inch—
.8 to 1.0 mm.—in diameter for a small plane, tA inch—1.5 to
2.0 mm.—in diameter for larger models) and bend it to the
shape shown in Illus. 28. Then make a U-shaped piece of light
metal and solder the hook to it, as in Illus. 28. Now you can

Illus. 28. Make your start hook with a small piece of piano
wire, then bend and solder it to light metal (right).
57
Illus. 29. Attach the start-hook assembly to the underside
of the fuselage with screws or a pin.

fasten the assembled hook arrangement to the fuselage with

small screws or a metal pin, as shown in Illus. 29.)
Now have your friend walk away from you with the model
while you let out line from the reel (see Illus. 30). When the line
is fully extended, your helper holds the model well above his
head and you both make ready for the start. At a signal, start

Illus. 30. Ready for the launch, with the model's nose
headed into the wind.

your run into the wind (Illus. 31). It is important that your
helper also makes a short run for your model to get a proper
lift-off.

Illus. 31. At the beginning of your run, your helper should

also make a short run to aid in the lift-off.

58
Illus. 32. When the model reaches its peak height, slow to a
halt so that the line disengages.

The model will rapidly gain height and you must watch how
it behaves by looking back over your shoulder. As it approaches
the maximum height allowed by the start-line (in this case,
50 yards or meters), gradually slow your run until you come to
a complete halt (Illus. 32). As you near the disengagement
point and stop your run, the tension on the towline is decreased,
and the pressure of the air will blow the towline off the hook.
The flag fastened to the towline provides wind resistance to
assist the disengagement.

59
150

dural tongue
O^M
lllus. 33. You can build a Nordic glider from these plans if
you have some experience with building and flying kit
models.

60
THE NORDIC GLIDER
A Nordic type, like the plane in Illus. 33, is the classic
free-flight glider. It is recognized all over the world as a
high-performance competition plane. Originally created in
Scandinavia (hence the name), the Nordic glider has gone
through a long development period. It is known for the high
quality of its aerodynamic performance. The table below shows
some typical features of Nordic planes, based on the two main
Nordic models—the “all-weather glider” and the typical
“thermal glider.” Both models correspond to the basic Nordic
formula, but they exhibit some significant differences. The
thermal glider is only flown in good, calm conditions. The all-
weather glider can be flown in windy, rather rough conditions
when the air is more turbulent than usual.

Thermal Type All- Weather Type

Wing area 465-542 sq. in. 442-457 sq. in.
(30-30.5 dm2) (28.5-29.5 dm2)
Aspect ratio of wing 12-15 10-13
Dihedral of wing 12-15° 8-10°
Thickness of wing 5-6% 6-8%
Maximum curvature of
wing section 40-50% 35-40%
Nose radius of wing section 0.8 0.6-0.7
Tail area 52.7-62 sq. in. 62-82 sq. in.
(3.4-4 dm2) (4-5.5 dm2)
Aspect ratio of tailplane 6-7 5-6
Dihedral of tailplane 0-5° 5-10°
Thickness of tailplane 6% 6%
Maximum curvature of
tailplane section 40% 40%
Moment arm 4-5 chords 3.5-4 chords
Length of nose 1-1.5 chord 0.9-1.5 chord
Start hook position Just in front of 15-20° in front of
center of gravity center of gravity

You must be an experienced model builder before you

attempt to build and fly a Nordic free-flight glider. It demands
the utmost care during the building, trimming and flying stages.
61
The aerodynamic layout must conform exactly to the plans if
you are to obtain a glider that performs to your satisfaction. Be
sure to read as much of the specialist information in the hobby
magazines as possible before trying to design and build a
Nordic of your own.

Free-Flying Power Models

Five major types of motors are available for powered flight:

rubber motors, glowplug motors, diesel motors, jet motors,
and rocket motors. The first three types are commonly used in
model flying. The glowplug motor holds first place over diesel
engines as far as fuel-fed motors are concerned. Both the diesel
and glowplug motors are technical jewels of unbelievable quality
and performance.
Powered planes have many features in common with gliders
as far as building and trimming are concerned. In general, a
power model is heavier than a comparably sized glider, because
of the motor, tank, landing gear, and the heavier, stronger
framework required for the plane to cope with the stresses
brought about by the increased speed. Because of the motor,
you pay more attention to the distribution of weight and the
strength of your model.
Powered planes are generally classified as sport or competi¬
tion models. Each of these is broken down into various classes
with specific rules for competition. The most famous is the
Wakefield class, a type of rubber-powered model built to FAI
{Federation Aeronautique Internationale) specifications and
flown in the classic event for Lord Wakefield’s Trophy.
Another special type is the Coupe d’Hiver model (Illus. 34).
This plane is also built according to special formulae and flown
worldwide in Coupe d’Hiver competitions. Both Coupe d’Hiver
and Wakefield models are highly technical projects for experts.
Beginners will do well to start off with simpler projects.
A newcomer’s first project should be either a simple stick
model, or an equally simple cabin model. The temptation, of
course, is to start in immediately with a fancy scale biplane,
62
lllus. 34. The Coupe d'Hiver class of planes is built to
exacting standards and flown by special competition
rules. These are highly technical and are a challenge for
the expert modeller.

63
Ulus. 35. A biplane (left), while tempting, should be
avoided by a beginner. Instead, start with a simple cabin
model of sturdy design (right).

like the one in Illus. 35. While it is smart looking, it will give
you nothing but headaches. If you feel you still want to try a
scale model, at least go for a simple scale model. The high-wing
design in Illus. 35 is a good choice. Even better would be a
model like the functional cabin design in Illus. 36.
For any free-flying model, you must take extra care in the
selection of building materials. You must be careful with the
weight of the balsa wood, which can vary considerably and
give you a completely different wing loading than you originally
planned.

Illus. 36. This functional cabin design will give the

beginning modeller a stable ride.

64
 You can use the following table as a reference guide when
you begin to actually build planes from scratch.

Density in Pounds Grade of Balsa Application

per Cubic Foot

6 and below Ultra-light Indoor display models

and wing tips on larger,
flying models
6 to 8 Light Sheet fill-in on fuselage,
sheet covering on wings,
and cowlings
8 to 9 Light to medium Same as light balsa for
slightly heavier models

9 to 10 Medium-light Spacers on box fuse¬

lage, trailing edges, and
ailerons
10 to 12 Medium-hard Wing spars, trailing
edges, carved propellers

14 to 15 Hard Main wing spars, leading

edges, bulkheads
16 and over Extra-hard Same as hard balsa with
some weight penalty

Remember always to try to fit your material to the project.

Hard balsa is by no means best suited to all models or for all
purposes. With experience, you will learn how to balance the
strength and weight factors in your models.

RUBBER-POWERED PLANES
Rubber-powered models are popular with all age groups,
mainly because they are fairly simple to operate. Rubber-
powered craft give you the maximum flying time per work-hour
at the building board, but you are restricted to specific weights,
sizes, and types of planes. These restrictions are probably the
main reason for the popularity of glowplug and diesel motors.
Turn back to page 40 for details on how to build and trim your
own rubber-lowered engine.
65
 Illus. 37. The sturdy high-wing design of this model will
go well with a diesel or glowplug motor.

DIESEL OR GLOWPLUG ENGINES

If you decide to begin your model-flying career with a diesel-
or glowplug-powered plane, look first at the remarks beginning
on page 42. Try to build a functional cabin model like the plane
in Illus. 37. The general specifications are a wingspan of 36 to
48 inches (90 to 120 cm.) powered by a .048 to .15 cu. in. (.8 to
2.5 cc.) engine. Illus. 38 and 39 show a popular diesel engine

Illus. 38 (left) Piccol° is a popular diesel engine. Illus. 39

(right). This glowplug engine can turn at a rate of uo to
15,000 r.p.m. P
66
and a glowplug engine that are widely used. These small motors
can turn at a rate of up to 15,000 or 20,000 r.p.m. (revolutions
per minute). They can deliver thrust in the region of 0.1 to
0.6 horsepower. The following table will help you determine a
theoretical tip speed for particular engine and propeller
combinations.

TIP SPEED—M.P.H.

r.p.m. Propeller Diameter—inches

7 8 9 10 11 12
6
107.1 124.9 124.8 160.6 178.5 196.4 214.2
6,000
142.8 166.5 190.4 214.1 238.0 261.9 285.6
8,000
178.5 208.1 238.0 267.6 297.5 327.4 357.0
10,000
214.2 249.8 285.6 321.2 357.0 392.8 424.4
12,000
249.9 291.4 333.2 374.7 416.5 458.3 495.8
14,000
285.6 333.0 380.8 428.2 476.0 523.8 571.2
16,000
321.3 374.7 428.4 481.8 535.5 589.4 642.6
18,000
357.0 416.0 476.0 535.2 595.0 654.8 714.0
20,000

12-inch
If you couple a 20,000 r.p.m. engine with an 11- or
; with a
propeller, you will see that you are no longer playing _:— f
CIU1U 5) l(jy. auu an. -

The chart below lists different sizes of diesel and glowplug

motors and the propellers best suited to use their power in the
most efficient way. Because diesel and glowplug engines run at
different speeds, they take different size propellers for maximum
thrust. Glowplug engines generally turn out a much higher
r.p.m. than diesel engines. You compensate for this with a
different-size propeller. The following are suggested motor-
propeller pairings:

Propeller size
Motor type/size

.048 cu. in. (.8 cc.) diesel 6x3" to 7x4"

.06 cu. in. (1.0 cc.) diesel 6 X 4" to 8 X 4"
.09 cu. in. (1.5 cc.) diesel 7x4" to 8x4"
.15 cu. in. (2.5 cc.) diesel 8x4" to 9x4"
.21 cu. in. (3.5 cc.) diesel 9x4" to 10x4"

67
Motor type/size Propeller size

.048 cu. in. (.8 cc.) glowplug 5x3" to 6x4"

.09 cu. in. (1.5 cc.) glowplug 6x4" to 8x4"
.15 cu. in. (2.5 cc.) glowplug 7x4" to 9x4"
.21 cu. in. (3.5 cc.) glowplug 9x4" to 9x6"
.30 cu. in. (5.0 cc.) glowplug 9x6" to 10x6"
.36 cu. in. (6.0 cc.) glowplug 10x4" to 11x6"
.48 cu. in. (8.0 cc.) glowplug 11x4" to 12x4"
.60 cu. in. (10.0 cc.) glowplug 11x8" to 12x6"

The most popular diesel or glowplug frameworks are the

sports types, like the cabin trainer shown in Illus. 37 on page 66.
Another popular model is the somewhat heavier plane shown
in Illus. 40. This plane makes a very good trainer for both free-
flight and radio-controlled operation.
If competition is your thing, you should try your hand at a
competition model, like the one shown in Illus. 41. Equipped
with a .15 cu. in. (2.5 cc.) motor, this plane is engineered for
just a few seconds of powered flight followed by a calculated
glide period. These “hot” competition models require very
skilful building and very careful trimming.

Illus. 40. Mikado is a heavier model that makes a good

free-flight or radio-controlled trainer.

68
 1,310

lllus 41 When you have some experience, you can build

a competition model similar to this one. It is engineered
for a short power climb followed by a slow, graceful
descent to the ground.

69
 sheet to check the accuracy of the wing setting.

BUILDING AND TRIMMING A POWERED MODEL

The build-up for a power plane is similar to that for a glider,
but you must be more careful in your selection of materials so
that you get the most favorable weight-to-strength ratio.
The balancing and trimming procedure for a powered plane
is the same as for a glider (see page 54). You should also use a
template to check the accuracy of the wing setting on both
sides. Make this template out of |-inch (3-mm.) balsa sheet and
place it under the wing and tailplane (Illus. 42). Be sure that
when you cut the template you allow for the correct angle
of incidence.

THE FIRST FLIGHTS

The first few flights after your trimming procedure is finished
must be made with minimal power and neutral rudder. Increase

achieve a flight like the ideal path A in

Illus. 25.
70
the power gradually and watch how your plane behaves. Any
excessive left-turning tendency (due to the torque created by
the propeller) must be corrected by moving the engine so its
thrust line is slightly down and to the right. (You need a slight
left-turning tendency.) Keep the fuel very low on the first trim
flights or, if you have a timer, set it to cut off after 4 to 5
seconds. You want to get your model to climb steeply with a
slow leftward turn in the power stage, and then shift to a nice

71
circular glide after the engine cuts off. (The propeller will
naturally produce some drag during the glide portion of the
flight, but this is something you just have to accept. It will be
of minor effect, in any case.)
Once this is done, you are ready for your final check flights
and first real powered free-flight.
In competition, you will always begin with a vertical starting
position. This is called vertical take-off or V.T.O. and produces
a more breath-taking version of your trimming flights.

72
Line-Controlled Models

Line-controlled model planes first appeared in the early

1940’s. Since then, this aspect of model airplane flying has
gained widespread popularity. Line-controlled models are so
popular because they are one of the best ways to fly in areas
where large flying fields are scarce. Any recreation ground
or sports field will do.
As the term “line-controlled” indicates, the model is held
and guided by the pilot using two lines which run from a handle
which he holds to a simple steering mechanism in the plane.
This mechanism, in turn, controls the movement of the elevator.
You can install additional, more complicated mechanisms
which will give you control of the flaps and the throttle as well.
These advanced controls, however, are best left to expert pilots.

Basic Flying Technique

The simple elevator control system is shown in Illus. 46. The
control lines run through a wire guide on the left wing to a

Illus. 46. A simple line-controlled system.

73
bellcrank. This bellcrank is connected in turn by a stiff pushrod
to a control horn which is mounted vertically on the elevator.
The elevator can move up or down on the hinges that connect
it to the tailplane. When the pilot moves the control lines, the
bellcrank turns on its pin, the stiff pushrod moves forwards or
backward, causing the elevator to go up or down, thus con¬
trolling the path of the plane in the air.
The control handle and the position of the pilot’s steering
arm are important to the control of the plane. The pilot should
keep the control handle in his best steering hand, and his steer¬
ing arm should always point away from his body, straight at
the plane. When flying, any movement up or down with the
straight arm causes a simple up or down movement of the
plane. Twisting the control handle initiates the more compli¬
cated transfer through the control lines to the elevator, which
also causes an up or down movement of the plane along its
circular flight path.

Illus. 47. (Above). Simple up-and-

down arm movements control the
movement of the plane. (Right). A
more complicated control is exer¬
cised by the use of the control
handle.

74
 *r>
Ulus. 48. A pilot and his "crew" ready for take-off.

The take-off technique for a line-controlled model varies

with the weight and power of the plane. A lightly loaded plane
with a strong motor will take off easily with just a little up
elevator. A heavy model with a less powerful motor requires a
lengthy take-off run before it will obey the up-elevator com¬
mand. Illus. 49 shows the basic take-off pattern. You begin the
run with the wind at the airplane’s tail. Your model should lift
into the air at about the point where you turn into the wind.
When it is fully airborne and flying directly into the wind, feed
in a little down-elevator in order to avoid too steep a climb.

wind
}

release
point

Illus. 49. The take-off procedure for a line-controlled

plane.
75
 Once your plane has reached cruising altitude, concentrate
on flying a simple, relaxed circular pattern. Try to keep your
plane on a level flight, using very small corrections from the
control handle. Don’t fly too long on these first flights—30 to
50 seconds will be enough—so don’t squeeze in too much fuel.
Let the plane fly around you until the motor stops. Then let it
glide to land as softly as possible, carefully raising your arm a
little to produce some “up” elevator effect.
Newcomers to line-controlled aircraft often overcontrol
their planes. Experience will teach you just how much “touch”
you need. Always remember to keep your arm straight and
pointing towards the model while it is in flight (Illus. 47). With
practice, you will learn to experiment with this basic flying
technique. Expert pilots have different ways of holding the
control handle, and use different steering arm positions. Once
again, the best advice for beginners is to keep everything
simple at the start.

The Beginning Model

You will be well off if you choose a simple kit for your first
line-controlled airplane. Ask at your hobby shop for specific
recommendations. Try to begin with a functional, durable
model that looks something like the planes shown in Illus. 51
and 52. The Thunderbolt in Illus. 51 is one of the best projects
for raw novices of all ages. Manufacturers know this and the
hobby market is flooded with “profile” models of this sort. The
model in Illus. 52 requires a more complicated building routine,
76
Illus. 51. This profile model is suitable for beginners.

so models like it might better be left for your second time at

the building board.
For experienced pilots and real experts, there is a broad
selection of sophisticated model? in different competition
classes—stunters for acrobatic flying, team racers for the
popular team-racing event, speed models and scale models.
Each of these groups has its own specific competition rules
and specifications.

Illus 52 The fuselage in this model can be hollowed out of

solid balsa or can be built up from sheet balsa.
77
Illus. 53. The Flying Door.

THE FLYING DOOR

Here is a simple line-controlled model that any beginner
can build in just a few hours. You make the “wing” from fairly
hard balsa. Use a couple of sheets .4 inches (10 mm.) thick, and
make the wing to the dimensions shown in Illus. 53.
Cut engine bearers from ,4x.4 inch (10 x 10 mm.) hardwood
and glue them carefully to the wing. Be sure that you position
the engine bearers so that you get the correct right thrust from
the engine, as shown in the diagram. Mount a good .15 cu. in.
(2.5 cc.) engine on the bearers. Use epoxy glue to cement the
fuel tank behind the engine.
Screw the bellcrank to the left engine bearer, making certain
that it can rotate freely. Now, make a pushrod from .08 inch
(2 mm.) piano wire and run it from the bellcrank to the elevator
horn. Run the control wires from the bellcrank through two
eyelets that you have screwed into the underside of the wing
to your control handle. The lines are raked backwards as
indicated.
This simple plane should balance on a point 2 to 2 \ inches
(5 to 6 cm.) back from the leading edge of the wing.
78
 vent pipe flying
direction

Ulus. 54. Install the fuel tank

with the feed pipe away
from the pilot.

. oilot

Building and Trimming

As with all model airplanes, the building and trimming of
the model are of the utmost importance. Basically, the build-up
of a ^controlled model is the same as that of other mode
airplanes Since a line-controlled model will always fly in a
cSar pattern around the pilot, however, there are spectfie
fart nr s to keep in mind. . .
(a) Keep the control lines taut during flight to maintain
control of your plane.
(b) Mount the fuel tank so that fuel can feed the motor when
the plane is flying in any position.
(c) Because of the circular flight path, all fuel tanks must be
mounted with the feed-pipe away from the pilot (see
Illus. 54).

Illus. 55. Offset the

rudder and motor to
deliver considerable
side-thrust.
 balance forward
of control pivot

lllus. 56. Some special accommodations you must make on

any line-controlled model.

To keep the control lines stretched during flight, you must

offset the rudder and mount the motor so that it delivers
considerable side-thrust (lllus. 55). As all line-control flying is
done counter-clockwise, the rudder must have a definite right
deflection, and the motor must deliver a right thrust.
Other general rules need to be followed with line-control
planes. The center of gravity of the plane should be forward of

lllus. 57.

80
the control pivot (where the bellcrank is anchored). You should
place ballast at the tip of the right wing to compensate for the
weight of the control lines. Limit the elevator movement to a
maximum of 30 degrees deflection up or down. Finally, you
can rake the control lines two or three degrees to the rear to
keep them taut.
For line-controlled training planes the following general
proportions should be used to determine the proper engine size
in relation to a plane’s weight and wingspan.

Motor .06 to .09 cu. in .15 to .21 cu. in. .21 to .36 cu. in.
(1.0 to 1.5 cc.) (2.5 to 3.5 cc.) (3.5 to 6.0 cc.)
Wingspan 24 in. (60 cm.) 30 in. (65 cm.) 36 in. (90 cm.)
Wing chord 5 in. (12.5 cm.) 6 in. (15 cm.) 7 in. (17.5 cm.)
Tail span 10 in. (25 cm.) 13 in. (32.5 cm.) 15 in. (37.5 cm.)
Tail chord 3 in. (7.5 cm.) 4 in. (10 cm.) 5 in. (12.5 cm.)
Overall length 16 in. (40 cm.) 20 in. (50 cm.) 24 in. (60 cm.)

For simple trainers and typical profile models, a flat-plate

wing like the one used in the “Flying Door is adequate and
will do a good job. A more advanced wing, however, needs a
wing section designed for the particular model. The three
standard wing sections used in line-control flying are the
Clark Y for trainers, the RAF 30 for stunt planes, and the
NACA 0018 for large aerobatic planes. Very thin wing sections

Ulus. 58.

Illus. 60.

81
 like the one in Illus. 61 are used for speed flying. Wings
of this design usually have a fairly sharp leading edge. Until
you are ready to design your own models, the wing provided
in kits or specified in plans will do more than an adequate job
for you.
The building of both the wing and tail follow fairly con¬
ventional procedures, but there are a few special considerations
that you must be aware of. Make’sure that the control lines
can run freely. (This is especially important if you mount them
internally through the wing.) All your other connections must
also be easily operable, so that you will have control of the plane
once it is in the air.
Cover and fuel-proof your model carefully. A considerable
amount of fuel and exhaust floods over and around a model
before and during flight. A careful job will give your plane a
longer life.

Illus. 62. This simple combat plane can be constructed in

an afternoon. Note the placement of the control lines
within the wing structure.
82
low and high circles wing-over

dive

Ulus. 63. Basic line-controlled manoeuvres.

83
 Finally, you must match the length of the control lines to
the size of your model’s motor. The following guide provides
rough values for determining the proper length.

Motor size Length of control lines

.06-09 cu. in. (1.0-1.5 cc.) 7-10 yards or meters

.10-. 15 cu. in. (1.6-2.5 cc.) 9-11 yards or meters
.16-.30 cu. in. (2.6-5.0 cc.) 14- 17 yards or meters
.31-60 cu. in. (5.1-10.0 cc.) 15- 22 yards or meters

The overlapping values allow for differences in the weights of

various planes. Every kit and building plan tells you line length
intended for that particular model.
If you want to build a simple model of your own design, and
you have some building experience behind you, try to draw up
plans for the simple plane pictured in Illus. 64. This trainer is
simple and fairly strong. You can design it so that the wing is
easily detachable. This “ugly” looking trainer may even raise
a new interest in basic line-control trainers in your area. The

Illus. 64. A line-controlled trainer.

84
simplicity of the design makes it an ideal project for a junior
program.
Again, if you have some building and flying experience, and
you want a lively model, the combat-style plane in lllus. 62
may interest you. Design a building plan from the sketch and
you’ll be ready to go.

lllus. 65. Flaps are connected to the elevator pushrod.

When the elevator is raised, the flaps are lowered.

ADDITIONAL CONTROL FUNCTIONS

Control of the flaps and throttle offer interesting possibilities
for the expert pilot, but should only be used if you have enough
experience. These additional controls require more care and
general maintenance for the model than most model pilots
can or want to put into their planes.
Flaps are normally connected to the elevator pushrod as
shown in lllus. 65. When the elevator is raised, the flaps are
lowered, thus increasing the lift. In stunt flying, this produces
the very quick response needed for fancy aerobatics.
85
 Throttle control is achieved by using a third wire which runs
parallel with the control lines into the model. This wire is then
connected to a specially designed mechanism that controls the
exhaust throttle. A slide runs through the exhaust port, which
ultimately controls the speed of the engine and propeller.
With the addition of flap and throttle control it is possible to
simulate very impressive flight patterns of full-size aircraft.
But, again, these controls should be used by experienced pilots
only. If you cannot control your model plane, it can become a
nuisance and possibly a dangerous weapon.

86
Radio-Controlled
Model Airplanes

Modern radio systems were first developed 70 to 80 years

ago. The rapid development and expansion in electionics that
followed resulted in radio broadcasting, television, radar and
guided-missile systems.
Radio-controlled flight is a rapidly growing branch of the
model flying hobby. It is probably the fastest-growing sport
within modern aviation and has a tremendous appeal to the
wide range of people who have an interest in technical achieve¬
ments. Naturally, because of the complexity and the money
involved, this particular part of the model flying sport belongs
primarily to adults, although it can also be valuable as a joint
parent/child activity.
A radio-control system (usually referred to as an RC-system)
consists of a hand-held transmitter and an airborne control
unit. The pilot uses his transmitter to guide his model plane as
if he were in the cockpit, taking it through a series of turns,

lllus. 66. A basic radio-control system.

87
 rolls, loops and other manoeuvres. The only limit to such a
show is the pilot’s skill and his plane’s capability.
There are two major divisions of radio-controlled airplanes:
RC-sailplanes and RC-power models. These two categories are
further divided into various sub-groups.
The simplest models are those equipped with rudder control
only. These arc intended primarily for the beginner. The basic
control sequence for such a model is shown in Ulus. 66.
From this simple model, there is quite a jump to the more
sophisticated, powered machines that you can fly. It is possible
to put together a detailed scale model with radio-controlled
throttle, rudder, flaps—even steerable landing gear with
brakes. A modern RC-plane is nothing less than a miniature
plane with the pilot standing on the ground. Using his control
gear, he can put his plane through brilliant manoeuvres without
the risk of blackouts. RC-flying is a modern sport made
possible by the intelligent use of electronics, mechanics and
aerodynamics.

Illus. 67.
88
Radio-Controlled Sailplanes

Perhaps at some time you have seen a full-size sailplane in

action—big, slender, silent and graceful. Anyone who has ever
flown a full-size glider knows the thrill and mystery of this
exciting sport. Similar adventures await the model-sailplane
pilot as he guides his graceful model through the blue skies,
chasing and riding the warm, lifting thermals from hill to cliff
and beyond. .
Radio-controlled soaring offers fantastic possibilities for
relaxed outdoor flying. First of all, there is no ear-cracking
engine noise to disturb you or irritate your neighbors. RC-
sailplanes are peaceful flying machines and are far less
dangerous than powered models. Sailplanes are also less
expensive to maintain—the lack of an engine means you will
have no problems with vibrations which over the long run will
often wear out radio-control gear (unless you take special
precautions). You will also not have to contend with fuel bills
or broken propellers. These factors are at least part of the
explanation for the rapid increase in the popularity of RC-
soaring over the past few years.
When you begin with RC-sailplanes, you must consider three
main factors: the particular model, the RC-gear, and the flying
conditions.

The Model Sailplane

In general, your RC-sailplane must be strong but still light
a combination not easy to attain, especially for an unskilled
builder. However, because modern materials offer much better
ways of constructing a model, you are far better off than the
beginner of just a few years ago.
Your model should not be too small—start off with a wing-
89
Ulus. 68. This completed Cirrus sailplane, handsome as it
is, could be improved if the RC-antenna were placed
inside the fuselage. The rubber band holding the cockpit
in place is an unneeded source of unwanted drag.

span of at least 64 inches (160 cm.). Any smaller plane will not
have the flying capability that you will want. A streamlined,
slender fuselage is, of course, mandatory for maximum effi¬
ciency, but you might find this difficult to handle on your first
plane. A box-shape fuselage will do for your initial model.
Remember, though, to keep the frontal area to a minimum to
reduce the drag.
You can fly a radio-controlled sailplane either from a slope
with a hand launch or from level ground using a high-start.
You can use the same basic model plane for both activities.
However, you must adapt your model to the demands of the
specific flying conditions, which are dramatically different and
require different qualities from your plane.

THE HIGH-START MODEL

A model flown from a high-start (see page 115) faces relatively
peaceful air conditions, and little of the strain that the slope
90
soarer will encounter. For general sports flying—including the
search for thermals—a model’s speed will rarely exceed 22 to
25 m.p.h. (35 to 40 km. per hour). The high-start model needs
a good lifting wing section and a low wing loading in order to
reduce the rate of sink. Speed is not imperative, but a low rate
of sink is the key to successful endurance flights. You can
obtain this characteristic by using a wing section with a good
lift/drag ratio, and by putting some extra ballast around the
plane’s center of gravity. The simple high-start model is a fairly
large plane with a light wing loading, a good lifting wing
section, and a light structure, not nearly so strong as for a
slope soarer.

THE SLOPE-SOARER MODEL

A model flown from a slope (see page 116) needs to be sturdier
than a high-start model. The slope soarer flies into fairly strong
winds off the incline and it must also be able to absorb the
shock of bumpy landings on top of the slope. It should be
streamlined and have a fast wing section, so that it is able to
penetrate a brisk wind. You must be able to change the wing
loading quickly and easily by putting in or taking out ballast
from a specially built ballast compartment at the model s center
of gravity. The slope soarer must also be able to respond
immediately to all control functions, and it must have aileron
control in addition to the standard rudder and elevator
functions. Since slope soarers often fly at speeds in excess of
60 m.p.h. (100 km. per hour), you will need precise contro
and a sturdy model if your airplane is going to last.
91
Illus. 70. These three RC-sailplanes and their builders will
give you some idea of the size these planes can reach.

Nordic-type wings (see page 60) are sometimes used on

RC-sailplanes by beginners. This wing is adequate for easy
flying in absolutely calm air conditions, but it will not perform
well if there is any degree of turbulence or wind. Besides this,
the structure of a Nordic is really too weak for soaring flight.
The stress and g-force that it will encounter will quickly prove
too great, resulting in a break and a crash. One final caution:
the Nordic-type wing section is too slow. RC-sailplanes must
often fly into strong winds, cross through downwind areas, or
descend from great altitudes at high speeds. A slow wing
section, like the Nordic, cannot handle this kind of flying. As
92
you will come to realize, the Nordic is built for a very limited
speed range—for slow, circling flight with minimum sink.
Sailplane pilots are not very interested in this type of perform¬
ance. Although you will want these qualities to a certain extent,
you have a much greater need for speed, wind penetration,
good glide ratio, and a strong, but light, structure.
What is the best model plane for a beginner? In most cases
a well known, uncomplicated model kit with a wingspan of at
least 64 inches (160 cm.). You might get even better results if
the wingspan is 84 or 89 inches (210 or 220 cm.). Go to your
favorite hobby shop and ask questions. You can also learn
from advertisements in hobby magazines.
Instead of a kit, you can, of course, try building your first
RC-sailplane from good plans, but again, don t attempt too
much too soon. This is good advice even if you are an experi¬
enced RC-power pilot, because there is a great difference
between flying a power plane and a sailplane. Select an easy
project that you can get along with. Ask your friends for advice,

93
 all dimensions
in millimeters

<a

L.
o
c
jo
a
D)
c )_-
■5 a)
~ T3
3 ~
-Q 3

~ CO

94
check with your hobby shop, and use your head. The following
list may give you an idea of the degree of complexity and suit¬
ability of some of the model kits now on the market.

rc-sailplanes for the novice

Name Wingspan Control functions
Lil T 68 in. (170 cm.) rudder
Windward 68 in. (170 cm.) rudder and elevator
Dandy 68 in. (170 cm.) rudder and elevator
Amigo II 80 in. (200 cm.) rudder and elevator

RC-SAILPLANES FOR THE EXPERIENCED PILOT

Wingspan Control functions
Name
Cumulus 112 in. (280 cm.) rudder and elevator
Windfree 88 in. (220 cm.) rudder and elevator
Monterey 92 in. (230 cm.) rudder and elevator
Olympic 98 in. (246 cm.) rudder and elevator

RC-SAILPLANES FOR THE EXPERT

Wingspan Control functions
Name
120 in. (300 cm.) rudder, elevator and aileron
Cirrus
ASW-17 140 in. (350 cm.) rudder, elevator and aileron
Phoebus 124 in. (320 cm.) rudder, elevator and aileron
Nimbus 140 in. (350 cm.) rudder, elevator and aileron

If you have some experience and want to work from your

own drawings, the designs in Ulus. 72 and Ulus. 73 will be of
interest to you. The design in Illus. 72 provides control of only
the rudder. You can also put in elevator control if you have a
small radio receiver.
The model in Illus. 72 is a slow floater and is best suited tor
calm weather conditions. It is a good model for high-starts,
like the Nordic (page 60), and will give you valuable flying
experience. Building this model will not cause any great
difficulty for a modeller with some experience.
95
96
Ulus. 74. A completed
model of Ghost VIII,
a complex design for
the expert.

The Ghost design shown in Illus. 73 is of interest for those

who look for simple, yet elegant lines. Illus. 73 shows the first
four versions of the famous Ghost series (Ghost MV). They
all have the same fuselage, but have different sized wings and
elevators. Elevator control is accomplished by the very common
“all-flying” tail principle. “All-flying” means that the entire
tailplane is moved around a pivot point to produce the up
and “down” movements. The set-up is shown in Illus. 74.
Bellcranks especially made for this purpose are available at
hobby shops. The “all-flying” tailplane is easy to set up and
offers maximum aerodynamic efficiency.

pivot “up” elevator

i
neutral

Illus. 75. The “all-flying" tail.

97
 Fiberglass
As you already know, a nice looking RC-sailplane can be
built from fairly standard materials. You should also be aware
of the advantages that fiberglass offers the model builder. The
fuselage in particular takes fiberglass reinforcement well. You
can even build a fuselage entirely of fiberglass. Illus. 76 shows
a longitudinal section of a common fuselage shape. The shaded
areas are stress points (where you will want to add strength).
Cover them with 0.8 to 1 mm. of fiberglass cloth plus polyester.
The black areas get most of the hard knocks, so you should
give these sections a covering of fiberglass more than 1 mm.
thick. Use plenty of polyester or an equivalent.
Fiberglass cloth can be used on a standard plywood or balsa
structure. Build your favorite fuselage, sand it well, and apply

clear cockpit optional

balsa

more than 1 mm. .8 to 1 mm. .5 to .8 mm.

Illus. 76. Choose a slim fuselage design and reinforce its

stress points.
98
the fiberglass on the places indicated in lllus. 76. The result is a
strong fuselage that will stand up to use.

Wings
The proper wing design is essential for all planes, most of all
for a sailplane. The secret for a successful wing is found in the
shape of the wing section. You also need to know which wing
section should be paired to which particular sailplane. Dr.
Eppler of Germany is famous for his studies on wing sections
for RC-sailplanes. Many good RC-sailplanes fly with wing
sections of his design.

lllus. 77.
Dr. Eppler’s E. 385 is the perfect choice for thermal soaring
over flat terrain. It can give you a tight circling pattern, requir¬
ing only small elevator deflections for perfect trim. E. 385 Is
not recommended for aerobatic flying, nor is it suitable for
slope soaring, except under nearly calm conditions.

lllus. 78.
E. 387 may also be used over flat terrain with good results.
It is an all-purpose airfoil which is only slightly inferior to
E. 385 in circling flight. Though by no means an ideal aerobatic
section, you can use it to perform loops, turns, and other simple
manoeuvres. It may even be used for inverted flight, but wil
not give the best performance.

lllus. 79.
E. 374 is designed for use on very fast slope soarers and for
thoroughbred aerobatic RC-sailplanes.
99
 You must take care in constructing any one of these wings in
order to achieve a high degree of conformity between the
computed theoretical airfoil and the actual finished shape.
Each of Dr. Eppler’s wing sections requires accurate building.
Take your time—you gain no advantage by doing a speedy job
which comes out badly. Dr. Eppler’s wing sections will only
deliver superior performance if the wing is accurately built.
If you don’t want to spend the time and effort, you are better
off building from a kit, or, perhaps, switching to a different
area of model flying, because RC-sailplanes themselves require
the utmost care in building.

RUDDERS, HINGES AND HORNS

Another important factor to remember is the precision you
need in building rudders, mounting hinges and control horns
if you are to obtain perfect control of the rudder, and hence
the plane, during flight. Try to keep the weight of all rudders
down to a minimum. Be careful, however, with any twisting

hinge

Ulus. 80. Place the hing

in the center line of th«
rudder and fin with the
control horn positioned
pushrod
so that its holes lie at a
right angle to the centei
line.

neutral
100
tendencies. All rudders, hinges and horns must be set absolutely
correctly. If not, you will lose control of your model. Illus. 80
shows the correct placement of the hinge, directly in the center
line of the rudder and fin. In Illus. 80, the control horn is
shown correctly positioned, with its holes on a line perpendic¬
ular to the hinge line (center line). Careful placement ensures
that there will be no deflection when the rudder control is in
the neutral position.

Illus. 81. The

maximum rudder
deflection should
be 40 degrees.

The degree of deflection is a second important factor for all

rudders. RC-sailplanes in general need fairly large deflections,
especially from the rudder and the ailerons. The deflection
from the elevator should be kept fairly small in comparison.
A 40-degree deflection is the maximum for a normal rudder
(Illus. 81). a .
For paired ailerons, you need to engineer different deflections
for the “up” and “down” movements. The “up” aileron deflec¬
tion should be approximately twice that of the “down” aileron.
This differential action is very important if you are to obtain
101
 drag in the "down"
'down" position movement.

good roll action and co-ordinated turning ability on an RC-

sailplane with its long wings. If the “up” and “down” move¬
ments are equal, the aileron going down will usually produce
an unwanted drag action (Illus. 82). This becomes quite
noticeable in fairly sharp turns, and the plane will fly out of
the desired pattern, with its tail hanging behind (Illus. 83).
If you gear the “up-down” movements at a ratio of approxi¬
mately 2 to 1, this tendency is usually eliminated. You could,
alternatively, use your rudder to compensate for the drag and
in this way keep your airplane’s nose down on an ideal curve
pattern. In such a case, however, the total drag will be much
higher than necessary, and your plane will be performing far
short of its potential.

Illus. 83. Too much "down" movement from the aileron

will act as an air-brake and cause your plane to depart
from an ideal flight path.
102
SPOILERS
In addition to efficient rudder, elevator and ailerons, all
larger RC-sailplanes should have spoilers or air-brakes. These
help the plane get safely down from great heights by increasing
the rate of sink which allows them to land at a steeper angle of
descent. This is helpful if you must land on a small field.
Air-brakes or spoilers come in a variety of designs.

1. Drag-chute. Located in the tail, a chute of approximately

12 inches (30 cm.) diameter is adequate for sailplanes with
wingspans up to 120 inches (300 cm.). The chute is secured in
a compartment in the tail section of the plane. It is released by
a separate servo (mechanism activated by radio control).

Illus. 85. A top-mounted fuselage spoiler.

2. Top-mounted fuselage spoiler. This requires the simplest

connection to the servo, but may interfere with the rudder and
elevator, reducing their effect.
103
 3

3. Wing-mounted spoilers. The most commonly used, these

are very efficient for their size—a .4x8 inch (1 x20 cm.) strip
on each wing panel will do. They must be mounted on the
highest point of the wing section to produce the maximum drag.

4. Trailing edge brake. This fairly new device offers a clean

wing surface, thus giving a maximum lift/drag ratio.

Illus. 88. A side-mounted fuselage spoiler before and after

deployment.

5. Side-mounted fuselage spoiler. Mounted on the fuselage,

these spoilers swing outward. They offer mechanical advan¬
tages, but may interfere with and reduce elevator action.
104
/
6

6 and 7. Front-mounted wing spoilers. These spoilers are

seldom used, but they have a tremendous braking effect. A
significant drawback is their forward position, which has the
result of reducing lift.
All spoilers achieve their maximum effect when they are
deflected 90 degrees against the flight path. They also produce
drag, however, at much smaller deflections. By intelligent use
of spoilers, you can fly a high-performance RC-sailplane safely
in all weather conditions and significantly reduce the chance of
wing damage or break-up.

Ulus. 90. The airflow pattern before and after use of a

spoiler.
105
 connecting transmitter
servos
block

switch
battery

lllus. 91. Radio-control transmitter, receiver, and servos.

Radio-Control Gear
An RC-sailplane requires at least 2 servos—one for the
rudder and one for the elevator. A 2-channel RC-unit, there¬
fore, is all you need to start out in radio-controlled flight, and
all you may ever need if all your future flying will be restricted
to these elementary controls. Very few pilots stay content with
the basic unit, though, so the best advice is to look to the
future. Buy a 4-channel transmitter, with the accompanying
receiver and battery-pack. Then decide on the number of servos
you will use on your RC-sailplane. Beginners should still stick
to the basic 2-servo set-up for their first plane but will have
RC-gear available when they are ready to move up to a more
sophisticated model.
Modern RC-control units are generally of high quality. Each
unit consists of a transmitter, receiver, battery, switch, servos
and connectors (lllus. 91). Buy a well-known brand, and, good
quality equipment. Although it may be somewhat more expen¬
sive, a well-engineered unit will pay off in the long run and
106
Illus. 92. The standard installation of RC-gear in the
fuselage of a sailplane.

give you the maximum flight-time for your money. The differ¬
ence in cost between an expensive RC-unit and a cheap one
is usually less than the money lost in a crash.
The actual installation of the control gear in your model
varies with the model and the gear. Generally you should
follow the instructions given by the manufacturer. Select good
quality rubber-sponge and wrap it around the receiver and
battery. Then, use a strong rubber band to secure the battery
and receiver into the model (Illus. 92). The servo and switch

107
are usually mounted with screws on a platform called a servo-
tray. Ulus. 93 shows a servo-tray for two servos and the switch.
Many RC-manufacturers produce special trays for their servos.
Check your hobby shop for specific information.

Flying Conditions
The circling of an RC-sailplane, or a group of them, is a
beautiful and satisfying sight. Each pilot strives to manoeuvre
into a mass of uplifting air, drawing curves in the sky, showing
his skill, knowledge and personality. Anyone who has played
this game knows the surge of accomplishment as the climb
increases, the wary attention when the plane sinks, the search
for position and the need to accommodate others in the sky.
This is an exciting sport—it can develop into an art form.

lilus. 94. A thermal is

created when the sun
heats the ground and
creates a low-lying
warm air mass. When
the warmed air rises, a
"balloon” is formed,
which escapes the
ground and rises. The
surrounding down-
drafts are caused by
colder air rushing in to
fill up the vacated
space.

108
 The key to the excitement of silent flight is the thermal.
Once the RC-pilot has developed the ability to find the thermal
and understands how to exploit it, he finds further challenges
that defy written description. You can become this sort of pilot
if you first take the time to learn the basic elements involved.
Thermals are warm air masses rising vertically from the
earth. They can cover an area as small as a few square feet, or
can span an entire acre. The sun fathers all thermals by heating
the surface of the earth. The warmed earth, in turn, heats up
the overlying air. At intervals this warmed air tries to escape
from the earth by rising up like a balloon. The warm air rises
more or less vertically with a speed varying from a few feet per
second to more than 30 or 40 feet per second!
Thermals are regularly produced over places where the
ground can be quickly heated by the sun—cornfields, buildings,
sandy soil or rocks. Over such places, the air nearest the
ground starts to “pulse” upward with an action similar to
pumping up a balloon. Illus. 94 gives a schematic view of the
genesis of a thermal.
Efficient flying in thermal conditions depends on putting this
theoretical knowledge to the test under actual conditions. Your
first 10 to 15 hours of thermal flying are really the introductory
course. With slow and systematic progress you will become a
successful pilot, learning how to find and ride a thermal.
109
 The three basic elements of RC-thermal soaring are locating
thermals, centering into the best lift, and using the height
gained in the most efficient way.

FINDING ATHERMAL
Finding a thermal is a matter of familiarizing yourself with
the tell-tale signs of nearby thermal activity. These signs
include:
(a) smoke trails (and windsocks) at variance with the general
surface breeze.
(b) soaring birds, especially seagulls in autumn and winter.
(c) birds chasing insects—usually swifts and swallows. (You
usually will have a difficult time noticing this activity at
any distance.)
(d) dust rising .from dry fields and other areas. Dust is
usually only visible for a very brief time, but it indicates
that a vigorous thermal is forming.

Illus. 96. Watch the movements of flags and smoke for

indications of thermal formation.
110
 Don’t let the number of possible clues mislead you into
thinking that thermal flying is easy. This is, as you will
undoubtedly discover, not the case at all. The nature and
quality of the thermal activity in your area will vary from the
“big boomers” to ordinary thermal-cones. But no matter what
your local conditions, the art of locating a thermal is rather
difficult. You will clearly see your sailplane climbing after it
has been flying in a thermal for some seconds. The problem is
to recognize that you are in a thermal at the exact moment
you fly into it. .
Finding your thermal is appreciably easier with a slow-flying
Nordic-type soarer (see page 60), whose low flying speed makes
any vertical movement easier to recognize. A faster model is
likely to “blast” through a narrow thermal-cone without your
ever knowing you have been in a thermal at all. An ultra-fast
RC-soarer is, therefore, not the best plane for your initial
training. A more docile model, such as a Kurwi 68 or Cirrus,
would serve you better. With a plane of this type you can
actually achieve a trim set-up that gives you a sign or warning
the instant your plane hits turbulent air. This trim set-up is
achieved by relocating the center of gravity to an aft position,
lightening the wing loading as much as possible and trimming
the model so that it flies a straight course with an absolute
minimum sink. When the plane hits turbulent air (Illus. 97),

111
the wings will dip and the plane will turn away from the rising
warm air (the thermal). You should immediately turn your
plane in the contrary direction (to the right in the case pictured)
and try to locate the maximum lifting area. In other words,
look for the center of the thermal area, the thermal-cone.

CENTERING INTO A THERMAL-CONE

Once you find a thermal area, how can you make the best
use of it? How can you locate the thermal-cone? First of all,
there are no easy answers that will guarantee you a brilliant
climb of a thousand feet or more. Certain basic ideas, however,
assure you a chance of gaining height once a thermal surrounds
your plane.
If you have ever observed seagulls or other high-flying birds
soaring in circles, you will have noticed how expert they are
at gaining height by catching and riding thermals. They simply
fly their circular pattern in the warmest air. They can also feel
the ups and downs of the air stream. Unfortunately, you
cannot be that clever down on the ground with your RC-soarer

lllus. 98. Center into the thermal to get the maximum

height.
112
Illus. 99. Use the height you gain in your search for your
next thermal.

high above your head—at least not without an electronic

thermal indicator. What you can do to zero into the best lift
is make intelligent use of some meteorological know-how and
searching patterns, and continuously observe your plane’s
attitude during flight.
Once you have located a thermal area, fly your model in a
circular pattern. Most thermals have a fairly narrow base, so
you must experiment if you are to use the best circling diameter
in order to get maximum height. Watch your model and try to
find the air space where you most quickly gain height. A few
changes in the circling pattern will normally tell you this.
Then, with soft stick-work, feed in the necessary up-elevator
trim to compensate for the increased sink caused by the tighter
turns you are making.
A strong thermal can be difficult to fly in. You will often
have your hands full trying to stabilize and retain control over
the plane in the swiftly moving, vertical air masses. Down-trim
on your elevator will help you now, but don t forget to neutral¬
ize your controls when the model again behaves quietly.
113
USING THE THERMAL
Centering into the best lift and holding the thermal is a
difficult skill to master. Perhaps you have found a nice
“elevator” that takes your plane up some hundred feet or
more. Then, suddenly, you recognize that it’s all over—your
plane may even sink rapidly. You almost certainly have flown
out of the thermal-cone and into a down-draft area. In this case,
get out quickly by feeding in a little down-elevator and fly
straight ahead for 10 to 15 seconds, preferably against the
wind. Then, begin another search pattern up-wind to pick up
another “boomer.”
How can you use the height you gain in the best way? You
can start a real cross-country flight, headed for a specific target.
Such distance-flying is challenging, both for the pilot and his
sailplane. Fly a straight pattern to a far-away target, or fly a
wide triangular pattern and measure the time spent getting back
to your starting position. Either course resembles a full-scale
soaring activity and is very popular with the leading RC-
sailplane pilots.

Illus. 100. Einar Myr

of Norway is the
world record holder
in endurance flying.
With this simple
two-servo set-up he
kept his craft aloft
for 19 hours 19
minutes.

114
Launching a Sailplane
An RC-sailplane can be flown either from a high-start with
a line or from a slope. These are two very different flying
situations, and you must treat each one appropriately.

HIGH-START
To get your RC-sailplane up to a height sufficient to begin a
thermal search, you can launch the model by a high-start.
(This is much the same as the procedure you used to lauch a
free-flight glider, discussed on page 56.) Two methods allow a
pilot to launch his plane singlehandedly, another method
requires two people for a successful launch. Ulus. 101 shows the
use of a winch-and-pulley system. The pilot stands just behind

the winch which winds the line up quickly. This pulls the plane
towards the pulley, lifting it into the air. The catapult-and-
pulley method (Illus. 102) is based on the same essential principle,

with the pilot standing behind the ground-peg. For this you
need a set-up with a long length of elastic cord, rubber or a
spring that can be stretched, then released to launch the plane
into the air. Finally, there is the simple line-and-pulley method,
115
Illus. 103.
>-2*0-V5 V
runner

with the pilot again standing at the ground-peg and a runner

holding the pulley at the mid-point of the line. The final height
achieved by these methods will be less than the length of the line
at the start of the launch.

SLOPE SOARING
An RC-sailplane can also be flown very efficiently from a
slope, any fairly clean hill or mountain which faces a relatively
flat plain. Wind blowing against such a slope is forced upwards,
creating lift. The size of the slope can vary, but the general
appearance and overall conditions should approximate the
diagram in Illus. 104, and exhibit the same shape and air-flow
pattern.
The three zones on the hill indicated in Illus. 104 are of great
importance in slope soaring. The lift and turbulence patterns
of any slope will vary according to the angle of the slope.
Illus. 105 shows the general types of slopes and their zones.

116
Illus. 105. Choose a well angled slope and know its zones.

You must understand the turbulence pattern of a slope if

you are to use it correctly. You must diagnose its particular
lift-characteristics, determine where to fly your plane, and,
above all, where not to fly it. You must be especially aware of
the danger areas, for any flying there will likely result in a crash.

Illus. 106. Start your

plane from the top of
the slope with a hefty
hand launch.

117
Illus. 107. You can have a friend launch your plane while
you man the controls.

The basic flight pattern for all slope flying is a figure eight
running parallel to the slope. Start with a hand launch, standing
approximately one third of the way down from the top of the
hill. Keep the plane on a straight course for some seconds in
order to get a safe, initial height, and then slowly turn it left
(or right) to fly parallel to the slope. When you reach the end

Illus. 108. Fly your plane out from the hill and turn to fly
a course parallel to the slope.
118
Ulus. 109. Fly the length of the slope and turn 180 degrees,
away from the slope and into the wind.

of the slope, you must turn your plane 180 degrees. This turn
is always carried out quite quickly with the simultaneous use
of the rudder and elevator. Always turn away from the hill and
into the wind! Guard against stalling in this turn by feeding in
the necessary elevator trim (down please) if you feel your bird
“falling off the rails.” Fly back towards your ground position,
bringing the model almost overhead as it passes, until you
reach the other end of the slope. Use the same technique and
procedure to turn the model back once more, and you have
completed the first figure eight in a standard slope pattern.

Illus. 110. The basic figure 8 in a standard slope pattern.

119
Ulus. Ill (left). Keep out from the slope when you meet
another sailplane. Illus. 112 (right). Pass planes between
the plane and the slope.

Keeping to this strict pattern is somewhat tedious work which

demands a combination of observation, flying technique, and
careful trimming of your craft. Once you have perfected this
manoeuvre, you have a new world open to you—the wonderful
world of slope soaring.
A slope soarer should always be flown with the Cg placed
at 25 to 35 per cent of the average chord from the leading edge
of the wing. Anything further aft of this is asking for trouble.
The Cg-position also needs to be adjusted according to the
wind-speed and lift conditions of the hill. A fairly weak wind

120
 wind

Ulus. 114. Bring your plane around so that you will land
into the wind.

Illus. 115. It takes great skill to land a plane on a slope.

121
(5 to 10 knots) can be handled easily with the Cg set at 30 per
cent of chord, while a strong wind (25 to 30 knots) requires
that the Cg be placed forward to 25 per cent of chord. In this
latter case you must also attach additional ballast firmly to the
fuselage just under the Cg.
In general, a forward Cg combined with a fairly high angle
of attack is preferable to an aft Cg with a small angle of
attack. For your first flights especially, you must keep this in
mind to insure the survival of your plane during the initial
trimming flights.
Study the sketches which represent the fundamentals of
slope soaring and, with some hours of practice, you will be
well on your way to being a qualified RC-sailplane pilot.

Ulus. 116. You need good eyes and a strong neck to fly an
RC-sailplane.
122
Radio-Controlled
Power Planes

Obviously, the main difference between RC-sailplanes and

RC-power planes is the use of a motor. There are, however,
many other differences not so immediately evident and the two
categories must be handled separately.
An RC-sailplane is dependent upon thermals or slope lift
to obtain height, distance, and speed. The RC-power plane, in
contrast, can taxi, take off, perform aerobatics, and fly accord¬
ing to the pilot’s will, independent of the vagaries of the winds.
An RC-power pilot can perform brilliant aerobatics and speed
flying with his plane, the only limits being his own skill and
the condition of his machine.
Many newcomers to this part of the model flying hobby get
their first “ignition” at a model aircraft show and, soon after¬
wards, rush to the nearest hobby shop to buy a nice looking
kit, RC-gear, and engine. Now they want to fly! Their enthusi¬
asm leads them to shoot way above their ability and to pick
an over-sophisticated model that should be taken on only after
2 or more years of solid practical experience. An uncontrolled

lllus. 117. This sleek high-wing model could serve as a

fairly simple trainer. It would make a good second model.
123
Ulus. 118. Stay away from an advanced model like this
until you have some building experience and flight time.

plane is a potential hazard to its pilot and anyone else who

happens into its flight pattern.
Illus. 118 and 119 show two complicated and fairly advanced
models. Coupled with a roaring .60 cu. in. (10 cc.) motor up
front, and without the proper control, either plane is a potential
danger. Attractive as they are, avoid such planes until you
have building and flying experience under your belt. A hobby
shop should be able to help you select the proper model. Their
personnel should be able and willing to advise the novice, help
him select a good trainer, and just possibly, help him out with
his first trimming flights. At the very least, the hobby shops
should direct the beginner to the nearest RC-club. Flying
alongside experienced RC-pilots is a good way to avoid
dangerous, expensive, and unnecessary crack-ups.

Illus. 119. This plane demands an experienced pilot.

124
Choosing the RC-Power Model
The great variety of kits on the market poses a problem for
the beginner in RC-power flying. If you have no previous
flying experience at all, you will have a more difficult time than
if you come to your RC-power model with free-flight or line-
controlled experience behind you. Experienced or not, it is
important that you start with a simple, stable and forgiving
design, one with no more than three control functions—rudder,
elevator, and throttle. You might do well to start with just
elevator and rudder functions. Do not choose a model that is
too small and flimsy—you need one that is both sturdy and
tough. The Schoolmaster from Top-Flite (Illus. 120) is a good
choice.

Illus. 120. Schoolmaster is a good choice for your first

RC-power model.

Schoolmaster can be flown with just one servo for rudder

control, or with three servos for rudder, elevator and throttle
action. It is stable enough for free-flight and it can stand up
to a lot of punishment. The model has a wingspan of 42 in.
(105 cm.) and can accommodate a motor of .049 to .07 cu. in.
(.8 to 1.2 cc.). Its simple but very strong all-balsa design
makes the Schoolmaster and similar models good trainers for
125
beginners. The box shape permits easy access to the RC-gear
and makes installations uncomplicated and servicing relatively
easy.
126
 What if you want to build your trainer from a plan instead
of out of a kit? You can find many good building plans with
complete instructions. Again, your hobby shop should be able
to assist you in your choice.
If you have the confidence and experience to make your
own building plan, follow a good basic design for the general
structure. Be careful to enlarge the plan accurately, or you will
end up with faulty construction. Illus. 121 is the basic outline
for a small sports plane that you can fly in restricted areas. It
is light but still robust, uses a small engine (a motor of .049

all dimensions in millimeters

RC-power pilot, but it can also be used as a trainer.

See Illus. 40 also.
127
cu. in.—.8 cc.—will do), and you can fly it on single-channel
equipment with control of the rudder only. This design comes
from Japan and has become popular with RC-sport pilots of
all ages.
If you want a more advanced building project that still
produces a plane you can handle easily, Mikado (Illus. 122)
may be your choice. It has an all-balsa construction with simple
lines, and is powered by a motor of .07 to .15 cu. in. (1.2 to
2.5 cc.). You can fly it on two servos (rudder and elevator) or
three servos (rudder, elevator, and throttle). It has a maximum
weight of 3.5 lbs. (15.8 kg.).

A POWER-GLIDER

Besides the typical radio-controlled power models, there is

yet another way to approach RC-power flying—with a power-
glider. This method has not been greatly used in the past,
probably because RC-sailplane activity has only recently
become widespread.
An RC-power-glider offers excellent training for a power¬
flying novice. Such a model is easy and inexpensive to build
and the maintenance is negligible. Most important for a
beginner, though, is that a power-glider flies slowly and
requires only soft rudder and elevator action. A power-glider
gives you time to think about what you are doing with your
controls, and you will learn more from it that from trying to
handle a “hot,” speedy power model on your first powered
flights. A power-glider with a small motor of .049 to .07 cu. in.
(.8 to 1.2 cc.) will allow you some margin for beginner’s errors.
For your first flight, fill the fuel tank for 3 to 5 minutes of
flying. You want your motor to give your model an initial
slow, steady, and shallow climb. When the engine cuts off, you
are into the glider stage. You must then manoeuvre for thermals
and practice your landing technique. The propeller causes some
extra drag in the glider stage, but not enough to be co^erned
about.
128
 To make a power-glider, use any basic RC-glider of 6 to
7 foot wingspan (180 to 210 cm.) and mount an auxiliary
motor on top of the wings or in the nose. You can convert
well-known kit models like the German Dandy and Amigo II.
You can, of course, also make your own design.

Illus. 123. The Cessna 150 can be operated on two or three

servos.

ADVANCED MODELS
Once you have successfully passed the elementary stages
of RC-power flying, you are ready for a better looking, more
ambitious project. The Cessna 150 in Illus. 123 is an attractive,
fairly simple trainer. Its wingspan is approximately 45 in.
(113 cm.) and the model can be equipped with either 2 or 3
servos. The larger, heavier, and more demanding plane shown
in Illus. 124 is a Falcon 56. Its wingspan is 56 in. (140 cm.) and
it can take a motor of .19 to .29 cu. in. (3.1 to 4.8 cc.) and
employ 2 or 3 servos. Both of these models will run un¬
complicated flight patterns and are fairly easy to handle.

Illus. 124. The Falcon 56 demands a skilled pilot.

129
Ulus. 125. This stunt flyer is for experts only.

SPECIALIZED MODELS
After a year or two of solid free-flight experience, you will
be ready to take on much more complicated and specialized
model planes. Perhaps you will be attracted to pattern flying
or speed flying. Or you might want a plane capable of per¬
forming stunts.
Many expert pilots also go in for scale-model replicas of
famous and important planes. This is a challenging aspect of
model building.
Any advanced project (especially a stunt or scale model)
requires the utmost accuracy in building and much skill and
bravery in flying. A typical stunt routine is shown in Illus.
127.

Illus. 126. The detail in this biplane makes it look like the
real thing.

130
1. Take-Off finish

vertical knife
edge flight

lllus. 127. Basic stunt patterns.

131
Illus. 128. A pylon racer.

PYLON RACING
A highly specialized part of pattern flying is called pylon
racing. This is a speed event patterned after the famous
Goodyear Air Races.
Pylon racers are typically small, powerful planes that fly at
lightning speed. This is a sport only for experts. You need
considerable experience in flying standard patterns before you
think about entering a pylon race. For qualified pilots, there
are many fine kits and building plans available. Fiberglass
construction is favored in building pylon racers because of its
strength and smooth finish. A good pylon-racing design is
Shoestring shown in Illus. 128.

Illus. 129. Typical

Goodyear racers.

132
 Building an RC-Power Plane
WING SECTIONS

As with RC-sailplanes, you have a variety of wing sections

available for the different types of flying. If you are building
from a kit, the choice will have been made for you. Nevertheless,
you should know about two typical wing sections and their
particular advantages.

The Clark Y section, shown in Illus. 130, is mainly used on

high-wing trainer models because it has good lifting capacity.
On more advanced trainers and aerobatic models, wing
sections are almost symmetrical and much thicker than the
Clark Y. A typical example is the NACA 2415 shown in

Illus. 131, which, in addition to good lifting capacity, can be

used for inverted flight. Therefore, NACA 2415 is preferred
for intermediate trainers, and Clark Y is restricted more to
beginners’ models.

MOTOR THRUST LINE

The theoretical thrust line runs from the tip of the nose to the
end of the tail (see page 25). In actual flight, the torque created
by the turning propeller necessitates a compensating shift in
the thrust line if the plane is to follow a straight, true course.
An uncorrected thrust line will affect the behavior of your
plane and hinder your efforts to fly a pleasing flight pattern.
If your model either climbs or turns unduly when the engine
is running and the controls are neutral, you must check the
thrust line. The size of the propeller, the speed of the motor,
and the particular aerodynamic layout of your model are fac-

133
Illus. 132. You must correct the theoretical thrust line
down and to the right.

tors that you must consider when you make this correction.
Normally the motor is mounted with the thrust line pointing a
little to the right compared to the direction of the flight path.
You make corrections by adjusting the motor-mounting until
your model performs without undue turning tendency. This is
only accomplished by trial and error.
High-wing and low-wing set-ups are quite different. A high-
wing set-up should have some thrust-line compensation down¬
wards and to the right to counter the torque (see Illus. 132). A
low-wing model does not present the same problem, and you
can generally fly it without any compensation to the thrust line.

RUDDER ACTION
The effect of the rudder varies considerably between powered
planes and gliders. The slipstream from the propeller of a
power plane amplifies and exaggerates the action of the rudder,
giving you more powerful and faster-acting rudder response.
You must be prepared, however, for an engine cut-off or failure,
which can occur at any time during a flight. If this happens, you
must be ready for the change in the rudder response and com¬
pensate for the resulting lack of effectiveness. All your
134
manoeuvres from the time of cut-off to a safe landing must be
well planned and executed, because you no longer have the
exact control that you did when the motor was running.

RADIO-CONTROL GEAR
The radio equipment for a power plane does not differ
essentially from that used for RC-sailplanes. Generally, an
RC-power pilot needs the same rudder and elevator controls
that are necessary for a sailplane. The addition of a throttle is
the major change, and that, you will find, is not a great jump.
Ulus. 133 shows two variations of a typical 2-servo set-up.
The model at the top has rudder and throttle controls—the
lower model has controls for rudder and elevator. These two-
control set-ups can be established with standard 2-channel
RC-gear. The installations depicted in Ulus. 133 are typical for
all power planes and can be used as a general guide.
Gear with a third channel gives you rudder, elevator and

the bottom picture shows controls over the rudder and

elevator.

135
throttle control. A fourth channel lets you add aileron control.
You should make these additions one at a time, though,
because 4-channel flying can be frustrating and possibly
dangerous if you are unprepared.
The best advice is to buy a good 4-channel unit but only
the number of servos you need at the moment (perhaps 3 at
the beginning). When you are ready to add aileron control,
just buy the fourth servo and hook it up.
Power pilots must contend with problems caused by vibra¬
tion, fuel leaks, and engine exhaust. Failure to deal with these
problems will mean a quick finish for your RC-gear. Take
the following precautions right at the outset:

■ Pack the receiver and battery in good rubber sponge, not

the plastic type.
■ Make the fuel-tank compartment absolutely tight using
fuel-proof lacquer which you can buy at a hobby shop.
Inspect this compartment regularly to make sure it is still
leak-proof.
■ Channel the exhaust out on the side opposite the on/off
switch.
■ Put some rubber bands (elastics) or thin sponge streamers
on the wing-saddle to protect it against exhaust.
■ Use high-quality push-rods, quick-links, and rudder horns.

Illus. 134. A sports model with a cabin design is perfect

for experienced pilots who prefer relaxed flying.

136
 Illus. 135. You can adapt most planes with pontoons for
water take-off.

■ Inspect the RC-gear frequently and keep it clean.

Most manufacturers include complete instruction and main¬

tenance manuals with their RC-products. Read and study
them carefully.
Success in RC-power flying depends above all on intelligent
handling of the plane by the pilot. Regardless of how good a
pilot you are, you are totally dependent on the black box in
your hands. If your RC-gear is bad, you will soon find yourself
in a fix—or up a tree. Buy the best quality RC-equipment that
you can afford.

Flying an RC-Power Plane

Before you test fly a new model, carefully check the center
of gravity, the wing incidence, any warp tendencies, and all
control linkages. Check your controls to make sure they
function correctly at all motor speeds. Then check your RC-
gear with the transmitter at a distance from the plane to be
sure of control when your plane is high in the air. Be sure the
trim controls on the transmitter are returned to neutral after
this final check.
Don’t rush through these checks, as they may save you
money and weeks of repair work. If you have a friend who
flies too, ask him to help with the pre-flight check.
You can start the flight of your radio-controlled power
model with a hefty hand launch or by letting it “rise off the
ground.”

137
Ulus. 136. This pilot checks out his F3A pattern flyer
before take-off.

The flying field for an RC-power plane should be a fairly large

open area where no one will be disturbed by the noise of the
engine. Such an isolated spot may not be so easy to find. Check
with the nearest RC-club, or ask at your hobby shop.
Now fill the tank and start up your motor. The ideal throttle
setting for the start varies from one motor to another, so follow
the manufacturer’s advice. Check the r.p.m. from the lowest
turn-over to the top speed. Adjust the carburetor until you
obtain proper and reliable response. Follow the manufacturer’s
instructions carefully.
Although you can hand launch your plane, most pilots prefer
to have their models rise off the ground. Select the best starting
position you can find so that you can begin with a smooth
taxi run.
After one final check of the controls, give your plane full
throttle and head off into the wind. Concentrate first on
138
 the rudder control, making any small corrections necessary to
keep the model headed in a straight line. As your plane reaches
flying speed, transfer your attention to the elevator stick. A few
degrees of up-elevator will raise the nose of the plane, which
then starts its initial climb. Do not let the plane get too far
away before putting it into a gentle, climbing left turn by using
a little up-elevator and left rudder. Your plane should soon
reach a height of about 150 feet (45 m.). At this point, cut the
throttle back to approximately half speed or less to stop the
climb.
Now get acquainted with your controls, using light move¬
ments on the sticks and watching their effect on the plane.
Avoid overcontrolling your plane. Do not try any aerobatic
manoeuvres on the first 10 or 12 flights.
The landing, of course, is an important part of any flight.
From the very first you should land in a disciplined manner.
You must fly the model and not vice versa. Select a landing area
before starting your approach and touch down there. This is

lllus. 137. The flaps are down on both take-off and landing.

139
one area of model flying that takes time and practice to perfect.
In the landing procedure, the correct use of the throttle is the
most important factor. The motor should be just turning over
at the moment the model touches the ground.
A beginning pilot is usually hard pressed to stick to a rigid
or complicated flight pattern. A first flight is a success when the
pilot lands his model safely and with some accuracy. A good
basic routine to follow is:

(a) taxi to a take-off

(b) climb straight ahead from take-off for 5 to 10 seconds
(c) execute a 90-degree left turn and climb for 5 or 6 seconds
(d) make another 90-degree left turn and throttle back to
level flight. Fly 5 to 10 seconds
(e) cut the throttle even further back and make another
90-degree left turn. Fly a descending course for 5 or 6
seconds
(f) make one final 90-degree left turn and come in for your
landing. Try to land in the same area you used for the
take-off.

Illus. 138. Paint and decals will add a realistic touch to

your model.

140
Ulus. 139. This line-up of RC-power planes shows the
diversity of design possible.

Practice this simple take-off and landing pattern until you are
comfortable and proficient with the basic flight procedures.
Pilot your plane in a relaxed manner without any abrupt
manoeuvres. Make large turns using small deflections on the
rudder and elevator. As for the throttle, open it up completely
on take-off until you reach the desired flight level. Then throttle
back until you are flying a level path with your other controls
in their neutral positions.
Continue basic flight training until you are a master of a safe
take-off and landing routine—skills you should acquire in 3 to
4 hours of concentrated training. Once these procedures become
second nature, you can go on to learn simple aerobatics—loops,
wing-overs and rolls. Again, repetition and intelligence are the
best teachers.
From then on, the decision is yours. You can continue as a
sports pilot or move into the competition field. Your time,

141
special interests and the amount of money you can or are
willing to spend on your hobby are the determining factors
in this decision.

142
Static or Display Models

Many model-airplane builders enjoy constructing detailed

scale models as the ultimate test of their modelling skill. These
static models are for show only—and can be built out of wood
or plastic, from solid blocks, or assembled from individual
parts. They are usually faithful to the full-size prototype to the
smallest detail.
Building a display model requires the same patience that
you need with other model building plus some fine work. You
will have to invest considerable time and effort in preparing
and finishing the model. You can choose from a wide selection
of kits, building plans, and other special materials for these
models. Some of the smaller plastic kits allow you to work in
detail up to 1:72. This means that your model is exactly l/72nd
of the size of the original. The best start you can make is with
one of the plastic kits on a scale of 1:48. After about two or
three hours of work, you will end up with an attractive model
to grace your book shelves. All of the information on building
is given with the instructions in the kit, even to the final
painting and trim.
After you have worked on a few of these simple scale models,
you will be ready to take on more challenging tasks. For
instance, you may want to build all of your models to the
same scale.
Wooden-model kits are less readily available, but in many
ways often offer a greater challenge. You can make either a
solid model or one built up from parts in the same way as a
flying model. Wooden-model kits often use moulded plastic
parts for propellers and wheels. Most of the wooden com¬
ponents are pre-shaped in the factory, but often need some
sanding before assembly.
Finishing a wooden model takes time. You first apply a

143
Ulus. 141.

number of coats of clear dope, then a coat of sanding sealer.

After the sealer has dried, rub with fine sandpaper to get a
glass-smooth surface. When the grain of the wood is no longer
evident to your eye or finger, you can apply colored cellulose
dope, preferably thinned down to 50 per cent strength. Rub
with fine sandpaper between coats. Don’t overload your brush-
several thin coats make for a smoother, more attractive finish.
When you have finished your model, whether plastic or wood,
you can mount it to give the impression of its being in flight.
In this case, the landing gear must be secured in against the
plane. If you prefer to display your model in the taxiing position,
you must cement the landing gear out in its functional position.
As your collection increases, you will want to write down the
pertinent data about each of your planes. Do this on index
cards which you can then mount beneath each model.
Building scale models is a good way to perfect your building
skills and learn aviation history. You might even get a new
design idea for your next “flying” bird.

144
 Competition Flying

Flying model airplanes is not just a hobby—it is a high-level

sport as well. Each model airplane type belongs to some class
of competition. Gliders, sailplanes, powered planes, even model
rockets, are put in different competition slots with very specific
criteria. Some classes were established so long ago that they
become “classics.” The “Wakefield” competition for free-
flying, rubber-powered airplanes is a good example.
Since rule changes occur frequently, the competition-minded
flyer should look to his local model airplane club for the up-
to-the-minute information. Your local hobby shop is another
possible source of details.
Members of the Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA)

lllus. 142. A final check of equipment is made before the

start of any contest.

145
can, of course, obtain information directly from that organiza¬
tion (see page 4 for their address). The AMA can supply you
with rules and specifications for both national and inter¬
national contests. Also important in this context is the
Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI) of which the AMA
is a member. The FAI rules over and sanctions all high-level
international meets.
Why does anyone enter a competition? Can’t a model-
146
 airplane pilot be happy simply flying his craft just for the fun
of it? The answer is, of course, yes, but there is more to it than
that. Most of the technical developments in model airplane
design have come about primarily because of competitions.
The search for a slight edge in speed or control, for those vital
points or seconds that can spell victory, these all spur on the
contestants to modify and improve their equipment, design and
flying techniques. New technical refinements are born, perform¬
ances are improved, and all model-airplane builders benefit.
It is not easy to name one particular competition class as the
most challenging, although recently, there has been a great
surge in popularity of all types of radio-controlled flight. This
gain in popularity is probably due to the combination of
building and flying skills that are called upon by RC-planes.
Also, since each pilot is actually “flying” his plane, it places a
premium on the individual’s skill.
Competition flying represents the top level of the aero-
modelling hobby. For some, competitive flying is the goal
towards which all of their building and flying experience has
been pointing. For other pilots, contests have no such allure;
they are satisfied with flying for its own sake. Both kinds of
pilots are important for the model airplane hobby. Where is
your place in the picture?

147
Transporting Your Model

Whether you fly for sport or competition, you will, sooner

or later, want a special box for transporting your models. Too
many models are destroyed by careless handling on the way
to and from the flying field.
Many pilots merely wrap their planes in paper or cardboard,
but these soft packages are vulnerable to rough treatment.
Others simply break the model down into its major com¬
ponents, and happily stroll along with it under their arms.
This is quite a risk as they not only carelessly subject their
models to undue strains and possible breakage, they are also
endangering themselves and their fellow pilots by operating a
model whose vital equipment may be damaged and impaired
by this rough treatment. The model may be a safety risk on the
flying field, just because of improper care in handling.
Many transportation problems can be solved by a sturdy,

50 cm.

( 40 cm.

Illus. 144. A simple transport box. Add a lengthwise

divider for safety.

148
Illus. 145. You can strap your carrying box to the top of
your car for longer trips.

cardboard box. Usually, though, this will not be enough for

the lengthy ride to that far-away flying field where next week’s
competition is scheduled. You should, instead, build a stronger
box out of standard plywood.
The design for your transport box depends on your needs—
the type of plane you want to carry and the accessory equip¬
ment that goes with it. A line-control pilot will have different
criteria than an RC-sailplane pilot. Don’t make your box so
that it is too heavy or unwieldy when it is fully loaded. If you
are planning to strap it to the roof of a car, be sure that it is
adequately reinforced to withstand the strain of the restraining
straps.
Illus. 144 shows a general sketch for a practical carrying box.
With a length of about 6 feet (180 cm.) it can accommodate
most larger radio-controlled models, any free-flight model, and
all line-controlled models. You may also find it advantageous
to put in a lengthwise divider wall to keep the wings and
fuselage separate. Add carrying handles and one or two locks
to finish it off.
If you get into the higher realms of competitive flying, you
may need to ship your model long distances using a commercial

149
Illus. 146. A bus or van proves a convenient carrier for
several planes and accompanying gear.

airliner. Be aware that there are size and weight limitations

governing air freight, and you must abide by these limits.
Check with your local carrier for specific information.
Whether your journey is blocks or hundreds of miles, remem¬
ber that the proper transport of your model is an important
part of flying safety.

150
 Flying Safety

Safety has recently become more of a factor for everyone

connected with model flying to consider. The operation of a
model airplane can, in certain instances and under certain
conditions, cause great damage or injury. You must recognize
that a model airplane flying through the air represents con¬
siderable inertia. In an accidental collision with a person, a
model plane of 6 to 9 lbs. (3 to 4 kg.) flying at a speed of 60 to
90 m.p.h. (100 to 150 km. per hour) can have the same effect
as a bullet. These accidents are not only tragic in themselves,
but they threaten the continued existence of a wonderful sport
and hobby. All model airplane enthusiasts must take every
possible precaution to avoid accidents.
The construction, trimming and daily maintenance of your
model plane are major factors in flying safety. A hastily built

Ulus. 147. Safety in building, care, and flying is of para¬

mount importance when you graduate to a powerful
pattern ship or stunt flyer.

151
model is more likely to be of inferior quality than one on
which you have taken your time. The latter model is usually
more accurately put together, has greater strength and can
take more punishment. A properly built and painstakingly
trimmed model flies more accurately than one built slap-dash,
and if it is controlled by lines or a radio, can be steered with
greater control.
These general safety rules apply to all categories of model
planes. Certain types have additional requirements as well.
The following suggestions are adapted from rules of the
Academy of Model Aeronautics and should be followed at
all times.

General Safety Precautions

Do not fly any model aircraft in competition or in the
presence of spectators until it has been proven airworthy in
previous test flights.
Do not fly any model plane higher than 400 feet (130 meters)
anywhere within 3 miles (5 km.) of an airport without notifying
the airport operator. Always yield the right-of-way to full-scale
aircraft and avoid flying near them.
Always abide by the safety rules of your particular flying
field, and never willfully or deliberately fly your models in a
careless, reckless or dangerous manner.

FREE-FLIGHT PRECAUTIONS
Never launch model aircraft unless you are at least 100 feet
(35 meters) down-wind of spectators and parking areas.
Always clear the launch area except for your mechanic and
the officials.

LINE-CONTROL PRECAUTIONS
Subject the complete line-control system to an inspection
and pull-test prior to launch.
Double check that your flying area is clear of utility wires
and telephone poles.
Clear the flight area of all non-essential spectators and
participants before starting your engine.

152
RADIO-CONTROL PRECAUTIONS
Check your radio equipment on the ground at long range
before the first flight of a new or repaired model.
Do not fly your plane in the presence of spectators until you
are a qualified pilot, unless you are assisted by an experienced
helper.
Always make the initial turn after take-off away from the
pit, spectators, and parking areas, and do not perform any
flight manoeuvres or landing approach over these areas.
Although good basic guidance, these rules obviously do not
cover every situation that may come up on the ground or in
the air. You as a pilot, with your skill and common sense, are
the final factor in flying safety. Your responsibility is to your¬
self, your fellow pilots, and the model flying hobby.

153
 Glossary
Aerobatics
Manoeuvres purposely performed that are different from
those required for normal flying.
Aerodyne
General expression for all heavier than air airplanes.
Aerostat
General expression for all lighter than air airplanes.
Ailerons
Control surfaces normally located near the trailing edge of
the wings.
Air-brakes
Surfaces used to increase drag and/or reduce lift in order to
increase the rate of descent.
Airfoil
Any surface designed to produce lift.
Airframe
Framework of the model, the total built-up structure.
Amphibian
Model which can take off and land from either water or land.
Angle of attack
The angle between the plane of the wing and the direction
of the airflow.
Aspect ratio
The proportion between average wing chord and the wing¬
span.
Biplane
Airplane with two main wings, set one above the other.
Cabin
The enclosed portion of an airplane.
Canard
Airplane that flies “tail-first.”
Cap strip
Light, flat strip of wood cemented to the top and bottom of
wing ribs to provide better support for the covering.
154
 Center of gravity
Point at which an airplane can balance in all directions.
Cen ter of pressure
Point at which lift and drag acts on a wing section.
Chord
Distance between leading edge and trailing edge of a wing.
Cockpit
The forward portion of the cabin, where the instruments
are located.
Control surface
Movable surface used in order to change the flight path.
Cowling
Fairing around the engine.
Cross section
Sectional view at a specified point of the model.
Datum line
Reference line for a model design to which all angles are
related.
Dihedral
The angle at which the wings are inclined upwards from the
horizontal.
Drag
Forces acting in a backward, restraining direction on the
model during flight.
Duration model
Model designed and built in order to obtain maximum dura¬
tion of the flight.
Elevator
Horizontal tail control surfaces used to make the model
climb and descend.
Fin
Vertical surface at the tail to which the rudder is usually
attached. Aids directional stability.
Flaps
Movable rear portion of the wings used to increase lift at
low speeds, reducing the length of the landing run.
Flat spin
A spin in which the longitudinal axis of the model is nearer
the horizontal than the vertical.

155
Flutter
Rapid oscillation of a control surface or wing.
Formers
Shaped parts which act as supports for stringers and covering
on the fuselage.
Incidence
See “Angle of attack.”
Jig
Apparatus used to hold parts in correct alignment during
assembly.
Lateral stability
The ability of a model to return to normal flight from a
forced bank.
Leading edge
Forward edge of a wing, fin, tailplane or propeller.
Lift
Upward force acting on the model during flight.
Longitudinal stability
The ability of a model to return to normal flight from a
forced dive or climb.
Monoplane
Airplane with one wing.
Parasol wing
Airplane with the wing mounted on struts above the fuselage.
Pitch
The theoretical distance a propeller would travel in a forward
direction during one complete revolution.
Power loading
Total weight of the model divided by the engine power.
Pressure tank
Special tank which feeds fuel to the engine using pressure.
Pusher
A model with the propellers mounted in the rear of the wing.
Rib
A former which gives the external shape for the covering on
the wing, tail and fin.
Rudder
Vertically mounted control surface at the tail used to control
the model directionally.

156
 Slot
Device fitted to the leading edge of a wing in order to main¬
tain lift at speeds below normal stalling speed.
Span
Overall distance from tip to tip of the wing.
Spinner
Streamlined fairing over the propeller hub
Stall
The situation where a wing is above the angle of attack
corresponding to maximum lift coefficient.
Thermal
Warm air masses rising vertically from the ground.
Thrust
Power produced by the propeller.
Thrust-line
Line through the propeller axis.
Torque
Force created by a revolving propeller that tends to turn an
aircraft in the direction opposite to the propeller’s rotation.
Tow hook
Hook on the underside of a glider fuselage.
Trailing edge
Rear edge of a wing.
Undercamber
Concave underside of a wing section.
Wash-in
Wing design which increases the angle of incidence towards
the wing tips.
Wash-out
Wing design which decreases the angle of incidence towards
the wing tips.
Wing loading
Total weight of the model divided by the area of the support¬
ing surface of the wing.
Yaw
The movement of the model around a vertical axis through
the center of gravity.
Zoom
Rapid height gain when pulling up from a dive.

157
Index
abbreviations, 30 competition classes, 145
Academy of Model Aeronautics competition flying, 145-148
(AMA), 4, 145-147, 150 connecting block, 106
advanced models, 129 constant chord, 23
aerobatics, 81, 86, 90, 123, 139, 141, control handle, 74, 78
154 control lines, 78-82, 86
aerodynamics, 13-30 control pivot, 80, 81, 97
aerodyne, 154 control surfaces, 20, 155
aerostat, 154 Coupe d'Hiver, 62, 63
aileron, 20, 92, 94, 101, 102, 154 covering materials, 37-38
air-brake, see spoilers cowling, 155
“aircraft ply,” 36 cross section, 155
airfoil, 99, 154 Cumulus, 51
airframe, 154 datum line, 155
air intake, 43 degree of deflection, 99, 101, 105
air pressure, 14, 16, 17 diesel motor, 9, 39, 42, 43, 47, 62,
air stream, 13, 14, 15, 105 66-69
“all-flying” tail principle, 97 dihedral angle, 26, 27, 30, 60, 155
“all-weather glider,” 60 dope, 37, 54, 144
“Amigo,” 93 down-drafts, 109, 114, 120
amphibian, 154 drag, 13, 14, 18, 19, 155
angled wing tips, 26 duralumin, 36
angle of attack, 15, 16, 17, 28, 154 duration model, 9, 155
angle of descent, 103 Einar Myr, 114
angle of incidence, 55, 70 elevator, 20, 73-76, 78, 94, 101, 103,
aspect ratio, 23, 60, 154 104, 155
auxiliary motor, 129 elliptical wings, 22
ballast, 55, 80, 81, 91, 120 engine bearers, 36, 78, 80, 133-134
balsa wood, 35, 51, 64, 65, 70, 71, 78, epoxy, 37, 78
98, 125 Eppler’s wing sections, 96, 99, 100
battery, 42, 44, 45, 106, 107 Falcon, 56, 129
bellcrank, 73, 74, 78, 81, 97 Federation Aeronautique Internationale
biplane, 24, 64, 130, 154 (FAI), 62, 147
building, 61, 63, 69, 78, 95, 126-127, feed-pipe, 79
133-137, 143 fiberglass, 37, 98-99, 132
cabin, 154 filler pipe, 79
cabin models, 9, 50, 62, 64, 66, 68, 136 fin, 30, 100, 101, 155
canard, 154 fishing gear, 57
cap strip, 154 flaps, 73, 85, 86, 88, 155
carburetor, 138 flat spin, 155
catapulting, 52, 115 flutter, 156
cement, 37 flying conditions, 89, 92, 105, 108, 114
center of gravity, 25, 28-29, 54-55, 155 Flying Door, 78-81
center of pressure, 155 flying safety, 151-153
Cessna 150, 129 flying techniques,
chord, see wing chord line-control, 73—76, 83
chuck-gliders, 53 RC-power planes, 131, 137-142
Cirrus, 90-91, 111 RC-sailplanes, 109-122
Clark Y, 81, 133 formers, 156
cockpit, 12, 87, 90, 98, 155 forward-swept wings, 23
combat models, 10, 82, 85 free-flight precautions, 152

158
 free-flying models, 7-10, 30 mounting static models, 144
power planes, 62-72 Mustang, 48
sailplanes, 50, 52-60 NACA wing sections, 81, 131
fuel-inlet, 42, 43, 44 noise, 11, 89, 138
fuel needle, 44
“non-flying” models, see static models
fuel proofing, 82, 136
Nordic glider, 60-62, 94, 111
fuels, 44, 46-47
Nordic-type wings, 92-93
fuel tank, 42, 43, 78, 79, 128, 136 nose blocks, 36
functional designs, 7, 9, 48 nylon, 37
fuselage, 77, 90, 96, 99, 103 “opposite twist,” 54
g-force, 92
parasol wing, 24, 25, 156
Ghost series, 96, 97 piano wire, 36, 78
glide ratio, see lift/drag ratio pitch, 45, 156
gliders, see sailplanes plastic models, 143-144
glowplug motor, 39, 42, 47, 62, 66-69 plywood, 36, 98, 149
glue, 37 polyester, 98
Goodyear Air Races, 132 pontoons, 137
ground-peg, 115, 116
powered planes, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 23, 30
gull wings, 26
62-72, 123-142
hand launching power-glider, 128-129
RC-power planes, 137 power loading, 156
RC-sailplanes, 116-118 power sources, 39-47
sailplanes, 52, 53, 90 pressure tank, 156
high-start, 57-58, 90-91, 115 “profile” models, 77, 81
high wing, 24, 25, 64, 133, 134 propeller mounting, 40
hinges, 74, 100, 101
propellers, 36, 45-46, 67, 71, 128, 133
horn, 73, 74, 78 propeller shaft, 9, 36, 40
incidence, 156 proportions, 30
internal-combustion engine, 9 pull-test, 152
inverted flight, 99, 133 pusher, 156
jet-powered models, 10 pushrod, 73, 74, 78, 97, 101, 136
jig, 156 pylon racing, 132
Karwi, 68, 111
radio-control precautions, 153
kits, 31, 35, 49, 50-51, 52, 53, 54, 125, RAF 30, 81
127, 132-133, 143 RC-antenna, 90, 135
Krux, 130
RC-clubs, 124, 138
landing, 121, 128, 135, 139-140 RC-gear, 12, 88, 106-108, 135-137
landing gear, 88, 144
RC-powered plane, 11-12, 123-142
lateral axis, 20, 21, 45 RC-sailplanes, 51, 88, 89-122
lateral stability, 156
RC-units, 87, 106, 136-137
launching
receivers, 94, 106, 107
RC-sailplanes, 115-122 repairs, 48, 49, 50
sailplanes, 52, 57 rib, 156
lead chamber, 55
rocket-powered models, 10
leading edge. 156 rubber “motor,” 39
lift, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 156
rubber-powered models, 7-9, 36 6?
lift/drag ratio, 91, 93, 104 65-66
line-and-pulley method, 115 rubber sponge, 107, 136
line-controlled models, 7, 10-11, 73-86 rudder, 20, 27, 30, 79, 80, 94, 102, 103,
line-control precautions, 152 134-135, 156
line-control system, 73, 74, 79-86 sailplanes, 7-9, 11, 12, 23, 48-49, 52,
longitudinal axis, 20, 21, 25 60-62, 89-122
longitudinal stability, 156 sandpaper, 143-144
Lord Wakefield’s Trophy, 62 scale designs, 7, 9, 48
low wing, 24, 25, 134 Schoolmaster, 125
magazines, 54, 62, 93 sealer, 144
materials, 35-38 servos, 103, 106, 107, 135, 136
Mikado, 68, 127, 128 servo tray, 107, 108
moment arm, 30, 60 shoulder wing, 24, 25
monoplane, 156 sink, 92, 93, 103, 111, 113
motor mounts, see engine bearers slipstream, 134
motor-propeller pairings, 67-68 slope soarer, 91-94, 99, 116-122
motor size, 81, 84, 127 slot, 157

159
 soarers, see sailplanes Thunderbolt, 76
“Solar-film,” 38 timer, 71
soldering, 33 tip speed chart, 67
spacers, 65 tools, 31-34
span, 157 Top-Flite, 125
specialized models, 130 torque, 39, 71, 78, 133-134, 157
speed, 16 tow hook, 152
speed models, 10, 77 towline, 59, 115-116
spinner, 157 trailing, 157
spoilers, 102-105, 154 trainers
stability, 26, 27, 28 free-flight, 51-53, 68
stabilizer, 20 gliders, 7
stalling, 119, 157 line-controlled, 10, 81-84
start hook, 57, 60 RC-power plane, 123-127, 133
starting cable, 44, 45 RC-sailplanes, 30, 50, 68
start-line, 58, 59 rubber-powered, 9
stick models, 62 transmitter, 12, 87, 106, 139
stress points, 92, 98 transport box, 148, 149
stunt flying, 86 transporting equipment, 148-150
stunt models, 10, 77, 81, 130 trimming, 40-41, 54, 55, 66, 70, 79
stunt patterns T-tail arrangement, 26
line-controlled, 83 turbulence, 111, 116
RC-power planes, 131 types of model airplanes, 7-12
RC-sailplanes, 119, 120 “U-control,” 10-11, 46, 78
switch, 106, 107 undercamber, 157
tail area, 30, 96 U-shaped wings, 26
tail chord, 30, 81 vent pipe, 79
tail incidence, 96 vertical axis, 20, 21, 25
tail moment arm, 30. 60 vertical take-off (VTO), 72
tailplane, 26, 29, 55 Wakefield class, 62, 145
tail section, 96, 103 warp, 27, 54
tail span, 30, 81, 96 wash-in, 157
take-off wash-out, 27, 157
line-controlled, 75 weight, 18, 19, 28, 86
RC-power plane, 123, 137-140 weight-to-strength ratio, 70
RC-sailplane, 115-117 winch towing, 52, 155
sailplane, 58 wind sock, 110
tapered wings, 23 wing area, 30, 96
taxi, 123, 138 wing chords, 22, 23, 28, 29, 30, 60, 81
team racers, 10, 77 wing incidence, 96
template, 70 wing loading, 157
thermal, 89,91,109-112, 113, 114, 123, wing mountings, 24
157 wing panels, 20, 54
thermal-cone, 111, 112-114 wings, 22, 99-100
“thermal glider,” 60 wing sections, 26, 81-82, 91, 92-93, 96
Thermic, 52, 53 99, 133
Thomson, 48 wing span, 30, 81, 89-90, 93. 96
throttle, 85, 86 wing spars, 65
thrust, 18, 19, 25, 157 yaw, see vertical axis
side-, 79, 80 zoom, 157
thrust line, 25, 30, 71, 133-134, 157

160
 OGDENSBURG PUBLIC LIBRARY

□ 11 03 0023767 1

629.132
0837498
Stensbol
Model flying handbook

629.132

OGDENSBURG PUBLIC LIBRARY

MODEL FLYING
HANDBOOK

Pilot your own plane?

Challenge wind and sky?
You can—with the information in this book—experience all the
thrills of full-scale flight without any of its dangers. With it you can
learn how to build your own scale-model aircraft and fly them through
basic patterns and daring ones!
The author, a Norwegian Air Force pilot and a champion model
builder and flyer, starts you off by explaining the principles of aero¬
dynamics .so that you understand how your plane flies. Then he intro¬
duces you to every type of model plane, from simple free-flight gliders
that a youngster can make to more challenging rubber-powered
models, line-controlled craft, and radio-controlled power is:
sailplanes. Whatever type of plane you want’to fly, hi
choose your first model, gives tips on building and trim O’®

helps you launch it on its first successful flights. cos

±s 05
03 CD

You’ll also find a wealth of information on

engines ‘ -
propellers
radio-control equipment
tools and building materials
transporting your model
flying safety
flying terms (in the glossary)
If you’re just beginning—or if you’re an enthusiast a
is the book to fly with!

IS9
ro
PUBLISHING CO., INC. new York
C&; LM London & Sydney