WEL COME

TO

Prof.V. H. Bansode
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
SKNCoE, Pune
 FUNDAMENTAL OF
CHAPTER THERMODYNAMICS

1
Lecture Notes:
Prof.V. H. Bansode
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
SKNCoE, PUNE
UNIT-I
FUNDAMENTALS OF
THERMODYNAMICS 8 Hrs.

SYLLABUS

Introduction, Review of basic definitions, Zeroth law of

Thermodynamics, Macro and Microscopic Approach, State Postulate,
State, Path, Process and Cycles, Point function and Path function, quasi
static process, Equilibrium, Temperature (concepts, scales, international
fixed points and measurement of temperature), Constant volume gas
thermometer and constant pressure gas thermometer, mercury in glass
thermometer.
.
 THERMODYNAMICS
DEFINATION
It is a branch of physical science which
deals with energy transfer and effect of
energy transfer on properties of substance.
Thermodynamics deals with energy
conversion, energy exchange and the
direction of exchange.
 THERMODYNAMICS
Greek word
“Therme” Means Heat.
“Dynamics” Mean Power.
Together convert heat into power
 HeatTransfer
Heat Transfer
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
transferred across a boundary by virtue of a
temperature difference.
• Energy transfer by virtue of temperature difference is called
heat transfer (Q – Joules)
• Sensible energy
• The portion of internal energy
of a system associated with
kinetic energies of the
molecules.
• Sensible heat is related to
changes in temperature of a gas
or object with no change in
phase. Latent heat of fusion- heat
transferred to melt unit mass of
solid into liquid, or liquid into solid.
• Latent Energy Latent heat of vaporization
Quantity of heat required to vaporize
• The internal energy associated unit mass of liquid into vapor or
with the phase of a system condense unit mass of vapor into
(binding forces between liquid.
molecules of substance) at
constant pressure and
temperature is called the latent
energy.
 WorkTransfer
Work Transfer
• W = F.s
• Work is one of the ways by which a system can exchange
energy with its surrounding by changing the state of the
system.
Example- Object move by applying force( object energy)
Thermodynamic Work

• The type of work is mechanical

work i.e. Pressure volume work.
• W = Pex (V2 – V1)

external pressure apply change in volume

• Work is also obtain due to chemical
process or reaction.
Work during Compression Pco W = Pco dV
dV = V2-V1 = -ve
d W = - Ve
Frictionless
Piston. V
P Ideal gas
a
Area of c/s

Compression of a gas:
Pco changing the volume from V1 to V2. then ∆V = V2 –V1.
W = Pco x∆V.
• During expansion V1 > V2, Therefore, ∆V= -ve
• Hence work is -ve i.e W is -ve.
Work during Expansion Pex
W = Pex dV
dV = V2-V1 = +ve
d W = + Ve
Frictionless
Piston.
P Ideal gas
a
Area of c/s

Expansion of a gas:
Pex changing the volume from V1 to V2. then ∆V = V2 –V1.
W = Pex x∆V.
• During expansion V2 > V1, Therefore , ∆V= +ve
• Hence work is +ve i.e W is +ve.
COMPRESSION OF GAS EXPANSION OF GAS
 Heat & Work
SURROUNDINGS
Sp. Work = Work per unit Mass
Qin
w = W/m ( J/kg )
Qout
Power = Work per unit Time SYSTEM
Win
P = W/time ( J/sec OR W ) Win

Sign Convention :

Heat Transfer TO a System (Supplied) : + ve

Heat Transfer FROM a System (Rejected) : - ve

Work done BY a System : + ve

Work done ON a System : - ve
 Specific Heat
Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass (1kg) of the substance
by unit degree (1oC or 1K) change in temperature.

The quantity of heat absorbed or rejected by a system during heating or

cooling is measured by the formula as given below:

Q=m×c×(T2-T1)

Where,Q= heat gain or loose by the system in kJ,

m= mass of the substance in kilograms (kg),

c= specific heat in kJ/kgK

(T2-T1)= Temperature rise or drop in degree Celsius or Kelvin.

Types of specific heat: Basically there are two types of specific heats as
given below:
Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp):
It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass (1kg) of the substance by unit degree (1oC or 1K) change in
temperature when the pressure is constant. It is represented by Cp. Its unit is
kJ/kgK.

Specific heat at constant volume (Cv):

It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass (1kg) of the substance by unit degree (1oC or 1K) change in
temperature when the volume is constant. It is represented by Cv. Its unit is
kJ/kgK.
Specific heat of water: c=4.186 kJ/kgK
Specific heats of air: cp=1.005 kJ/kgK
cv=1.005 kJ/kgK
 4 Laws of
Thermodynamics

0th Law ⇒ Defines Temperature (T)

1st Law ⇒ Defines Energy (U)
2nd Law ⇒ Defines Entropy (S)
3rd Law ⇒ Gives Numerical Value to Entropy
These laws are UNIVERSALLY VALID, they
cannot be circumvented.
 APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS
The study of thermodynamics is the basis of such fields as steam power
plants, IC Engines, Gas dynamics and aerodynamics, fluid mechanics,
Refrigeration and Air conditioning and heat transfer.

The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems

Car radiators Power plants

Refrigeration systems
Quantity of matter or region in space, chosen for study.

 :
Mass or region outside the SYSTEM.

 BOUNDARY :
Real / Imaginary surface that separates
the SYSTEM from SURROUNDINGS.

 BOUNDARY :

Fixed / Movable

Shared by both,
SYSTEM and SURROUNDINGS
No Thickness
No Mass / Volume
 Open system – both mass and energy can cross the selected
boundary

BOUNDARY of OPEN System is known as CONTROL SURFACE

Also known as CONTROL VOLUME

e.g. Water Heater, Car Radiator, Turbine, Compressor
 Close System
 Closed system – only energy can cross the selected boundary

Also known as CONTROL MASS

 ISOLATED System
 Isolated system – neither mass nor energy can cross
the selected boundary

Mass NO

m = const.
E = const.
Energy NO

ISOLATED
System

 Example (approximate): coffee in a closed,

well-insulated thermos bottle
 CONCLUSION OF
THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEMS
 CONCLUSION OF THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEMS

Open System Closed System Isolated System

Mass transfer YES NO No

Energy YES YES No
Transfer
Example

A gas is compressed by the Consider a similar system, but Consider a similar system, but
piston. The dotted lines one in which gas cannot with the insulation so that there
escape. In practice, there will not be mass as well as energy
represent the system might be some space between transfer (i.e. heat transfer).
boundary. As can be seen, the piston and the cylinder,
due to an opening in the but we can ignore it for
cylinder, gas can escape modeling purposes. Thus the
outside as the piston model of this configuration is
moves inwards, and gas closed system.
enters the system when
the piston moves outwards.
Thus, it is an open system.
 Control Surface
Control Volume : Volume of System under
study remains constant

Cold Water
In
Control
Volume
Hot
Water
Out
Heat In
Water Heater
Control Surface : Surface which bounds the
control volume
• Only one phase system.
• Single component system – Zn, O,
Water.
• Solution miscible liquid- water and
alcohol or NaCl and water etc.
• Mixture of gases- H, N, O etc.
• Two separated phase by boundary.
• Mixture of immiscible liquid- Water
and benzen.
• Solid identical with liquid- ice and
water.
• Liquid identical with vapour- water
and vapour.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
It states that when two bodies have equality of temperature
with the third body, they in turn have equality of
temperature with each other.

When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with body B and

also separately with body C then B and C will be in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
STATEMENT :
If two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium with the third body, then they are also
in Thermal Equilibrium with each other.

A B
C

25 ºC 25 ºC 25 ºC

This statement seems to be very simple.

However, this can not be directly concluded from the other Laws of Thermodynamics.
It serves as the basis of validity of TEMPERATURE measurement.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

By replacing the Third Body with a Thermometer; the Zeroth Law can be stated as :
Two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium, if both have same TEMPERATURE, regarding
even if they are not in contact with each other.

A B
25 ºC

25 ºC 25 ºC

i.e. Temp (A) measured by Thermometer and is known.

(A) is in Thermal Equilibrium with (B).
Then, Temp (B) is also known, even not in contact with Thermometer.
 MACROSCOPIC APPROACH TO
THERMODYNAMICS
Definition: It comprises study of molecular behaviour of system and it is predicted
by statistical approach.

Example : Temperature measurement, pressure measurement, total volume

measurement, specific volume measurement. Thus, microscopic point of view will be
used only to explain some phenomena that can’t be understood by macroscopic
means.

Application:
The macroscopic analysis is used in study of engineering applications like
compressors, heat engines, turbines, pumps etc.
 MICROSCOPIC APPROACH TO
THERMODYNAMICS
Definition: It comprises study of properties of mass of substances and behaviour of
system is predicted by classical approach.

It is an approach in which the thermodynamic system is analyzed with deeper

understanding of molecular level of the system and looking at the individual behavior
of the molecules.

Application:
The microscopic analysis is used in kinetic theory of gases, system having high vacuum
etc.
MACROSCOPIC & MICROSCOPIC POINT OF VIEW
 Thermodynamic studies are undertaken by the
following two different approaches.
 (1) Macroscopic approach – ( macro means big or total )
 (2) Microscopic approach – ( micro means small )

Macroscopic approach Microscopic approach

In this approach a certain

In this approach every
quantity of matter is quantity of matter is
considered without taking
considered by taking into
into account the events account the events
occurring at molecular occurring at molecular
level. level. The molecules have
different velocities &
This approach is energies. The values of
concerned with gross or these energies are
overall behavior. constantly changing with
time.
Macroscopic approach Microscopic approach

This is known as classical - This approach is known as

thermodynamics. statistical thermodynamics.

The analysis of In microscopic approach,

macroscopic system the value of the quantity
requires simple changes with time so
mathematics formulae. advanced statistical &
mathematical methods are
needed to explain the
change in system.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES:
Measurable Characteristics of system which would describe or identify the
system.
Eg. Mass,Volume, Temperature, Pressure, Surface area, Density, Velocity, Enthalpy,
Entropy

Intensive properties
Extensive properties

INTENSIVE PROPERTIES:
• Independent of the mass
• Examples: pressure, temperature,

EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES:
• Depends on the size or extent of system
• There is an increase in the value of extensive property whenever there
is an increase in mass.
• Example: Mass,Volume, Total Energy
 PROPERTIES OF SYSTEM

Any characteristic of a System is known as its PROPERTY.

e.g. Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and mass (m),
etc.also Viscosity (μ), Electric Resistance (R), Thermal Conductivity (k),

Intensive : Independent on mass of system.

- e.g.Velocity (c), Elevation (h), etc.

Extensive : Dependent on mass of system.

- e.g. Pressure (P), Density (ρ), etc.

Specific : Extensive properties per unit mass.

- e.g. Sp.Vol (v=V/m), Sp. Enthalpy (h=H/m), etc.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Specific properties – The ratio of any extensive property of a
system to that of the mass of the system is called an average specific
value of that property (also known as intensives property)

m 1/2m 1/2m
Extensive
V 1/2V 1/2V
T T T
P P P
Intensive
ρ ρ ρ

Extensive Properties per unit mass are specific properties such as

specific volume (v=V/m), Specific internal energy (e=E/m)
All Specific Properties are intensive properties.
 THERMODYNAMIC STATE POINT
The state may be identified or described by certain
observable macroscopic properties; some familiar one are
temperature, pressure and density.
The state is specified or described by the properties.
The state point can be indicated on a thermodynamic
coordinate system.

Assume a System NOT undergoing

any change.

Set of properties to completely

describe the condition of the system
is known as its STATE
 STATE PROCESS CYCLE
When the system changes
When the condition from one equilibrium state A thermodynamic cycle consists
of the system is to another state the change
of a series of thermodynamic
processes transferring heat and
completely described of State is called process. work, while varying pressure,
by the value of temperature, and other state
properties then that variables, eventually returning a
system to its initial state.
condition is called as
State 2
state of a system.
•Properties of a
system have fixed p
values at a given state
Process Path
•Change in even a
State 1
property= Change in
the state
Types v
State 1 State 2 1. Isothermal Process
T=Constant
TYPES OF CYCLES
2. Isobaric Process P=Constant
Heat Engine :Carnot Cycle
3. Isochoric Process V=Constant Rankine cycle. Gas Power
4. Isentropic Process Systems:Brayton
m=5 kg
m=5 kg S=Constant I.C Engines:Otto, Diesel,Stirling,
T1=20C Atckison
T1=20C 5. Polytropic Process Refrigeration Heat Pump Air
V1=5m3 H=Constant
V1=2m3 Conditioning
T: Temperature, P: Pressure, V: Volume, S:
Entropy, H: Enthalpy
 When system changes from one equilibrium
state to another state then the change of state
is called process
 Path of process

P-V Diagram
 PROPERTY DIAGRAM

1 P 1
P

2 2

v v
Non--quasi equilibrium
Non
Quasi equilibrium process process
 EXAMPLE OF QUASI AND NON-
NON-QUASI
EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS
Remove the weight Remove the weights
one by one

Weight

GAS

Non-quasi
Non- Quasi equilibrium process
equilibrium process
 Isochoric
Process
Isobaric
Process

Polytropic
Process

Thermodynamic
Processes

Isentropic Isothermal
Process Process
 TYPES OF THERMODYNAMICS PROCESSES
 Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P
remains constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the
specific volume v remains constant
Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature T
remains constant.
 Adiabatic process - a process that has no heat transfer into
or out of the system. It can be considered to be perfectly
insulated.
 Isentropic process - a process where the entropy of the fluid
remains constant.
 Polytropic process - when a gas undergoes a reversible
process in which there is heat transfer, it is represented with a
straight line, PVn = constant.
 Throttling process - a process in which there is no change in
enthalpy, no work is done and the process is adiabatic.
 DIFFERENT PROCESSES
Types
1. Isothermal Process T=Constant
2. Isobaric Process P=Constant
3. Isochoric Process V=Constant
4. Isentropic Process S=Constant
5. Polytropic Process Isobaric Isochoric

Adiabatic Cyclic
Isothermal ΔT ≠ 0 but Q = 0 If clockwise – heat engine
ΔT = 0 but Q ≠ 0 If counterclockwise – heat pump
POINT AND PATH FUNCTIONS
 Point functions are those for which the change depends
on only the end states and not on the path followed
 Point functions are exact differentials
dP = P2 - P1
dV = V2 - V1

 Path functions are those for which the change depends not
only on the end states but also on the path followed
 Path functions are inexact differentials
dW ≠ W2 - W1
dQ ≠ Q2 - Q1
Example of path and point function
Difference in height – same in path1 and path2-point function

Distance traveled – different in path1 and path2-path function

A
PATH - 2

PATH - 1
B
 State Postulate and Property
Diagrams
To fix a state, only any two independent intensive
properties are to be specified. This is known as state
postulate. 1
1
p
p
2
2

V
V

1 3
p

V
 THERMODYNAMICS EQUILIBRIUM
There are many types of equilibrium, a system is not in
thermodynamic equilibrium unless the condition of all the
relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied, which includes
1) Thermal equilibrium 2) Mechanical equilibrium
3) Phase equilibrium 4) Chemical equilibrium.
 Thermal Equilibrium
Systems (or objects) are said to be in thermal
equilibrium if there is no net flow of thermal
energy from one to the other. A thermometer is in
thermal equilibrium with the medium whose
temperature it measures, for example.
If two objects are in thermal equilibrium, they are at
the same temperature.
THERMODYNAMICS EQUILIBRIUM
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM:
If the temperature is the same throughout the
entire system, i.e the system involves no
temperature differential which is the driving force
for heat flow then we say system is in thermal
equilibrium.
PHASE EQUILIBRIUM:
If a system involves two phases it is in phase equilibrium when
the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays
there.
MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM:
It is related to pressure, velocity. A system is in mechanical
equilibrium if there is no change in pressure, velocity, specific
volume at any point of the system with respect to time.
However the pressure may vary within the system with
elevation as well as resultant of gravitational effects. However
there should not be any imbalance of forces. Then we say the
system is in mechanical equilibrium
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM:
If the systems chemical composition does not change with
time, i.e., no chemical reaction occur, then we say the system
is in chemical equilibrium.

Thus if all thermal,mechanical,phase and chemical equilibrium

exist for a system then we say the system exist in
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
 TEMPERATURE

 Temperature of a system is defined as its thermal state with reference to

its ability to communicate heat to other bodies.
• Temperature is associated with the internal molecular energy of a substance
 Temperature Scales
 Fahrenheit (oF)
*Introduced in 1724
*Defined by 2 fixed points based on the properties of
water, (32-freezing pt/212-boiling point)
*First modern thermometer (Hg) oF= 9/5o C+ 32
 Celsius (oC)
*Introduced 18 years later (1742)
*Defined by setting boiling point of water to 0o and
boiling point to 100o
*Absolute zero in Celsius is -273.15o
oC = 5/9(oF – 32)
 Kelvin
*Introduced 1848 TK = TC + 273
*Zero point set to Absolute Zero
Temperature Scales

STES’s Smt. Kashibai College of Engineering 61

MEASUREMENTS OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature measuring instrument

The temperature instruments may be classified in to two categories.
1. Non Electrical Methods
i) By using change in volume of a liquid when its temperature is changed
ii) By using change in pressure of a gas when its temperature is changed
iii) By using change in the vapour pressure when its temperature is changed
2. Electrical Methods
i) By thermocouples
ii) By using change in resistance of material with temperature is changed
iii) By comparing the colours of filament and object whose temperature is to be found out
iv) By ascertaining the energy received by radiation
Thermometers also classified as follows:
1. Expansion thermometers
i) Liquid-in- Glass thermometers
ii). Bimetallic thermometers
2. Pressure thermometers
 CONSTANT VOLUME GAS
THERMOMETER

Fig. shows a typical constant volume gas thermometer having a glass bulb ‘B’ connected to glass tube. Other
end of glass tube is connected to mercury reservoir through a rubber tube. There is a fixed marking ‘M’
over the glass tube. Difference in levels of mercury in reservoir with reference to mark ‘M’ is seen on
the scale. Bulb ‘B’ is generally filled with 1/7th of its volume by mercury so as to compensate for
expansion of bulb ‘B’.This is done so as to keep volume of air in bulb upto the fixed mark ‘M’
 CONSTANT PRESSURE GAS
THERMOMETER

 These thermometers are based on the principle that, pressure remaining constant the volume of a
given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. Fig ** shows a constant pressure
gas thermometer having a silica bulb ‘B’ connected to
 the reservoir ‘R’ containing mercury through a connecting tube ‘A’, compensating bulb ‘C’ having a
compensating tube with volume equal to the connecting tube. Manometer tube contains sulphuric acid.
 MERCURY IN GLASS THERMOMETER

 Liquid thermometers are those thermometers that employ liquids as the thermometric substance and
the change in volume of liquid with heat interaction is the characteristics used for temperature
measurement.
 It is commonly used liquids in such thermometers are Mercury and Alcohol. Fig. ** shows the mercury
in glass thermometer
 Absolute Zero

 The thermometer readings are

virtually independent of the gas
in the flask.
 If the lines for various gases are
extended, the pressure is
always zero when the
temperature is –273.15o C
 This temperature is called
absolute zero

66
 First Law Of Thermodynamics

a) “The heat and work are mutually convertible”.

According to this law, when a closed system
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat
transfer is equal to the net work transfer.
Mathematically,

O W = O Q
 
b)This is a law of conservation of energy which
states that 'energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed'. This law cannot be proved mathematically,
but no exception has been observed.

67
 Joules Paddle Wheel Experiment


O 
O
 W =  Q
STES’s Smt. Kashibai College of Engineering 68
 Limitations of Ist Law of Thermodynamics

Heat
I=0

Heat cannot be
A cup of tea does
directly converted
not get hotter in
into electric current.
a cooler room

69
Limitations of Ist Law Of Thermodynamics

ONE WAY

Transfer of heat to paddle wheel will not cause

it to rotate 70
Conclusions:
• The processes can proceed in one direction
only e.g. heat transfer between Hot and
cold body.

• All processes involving conversion of heat

into work and vice-versa are not equivalent.

• The work can be fully converted into heat,

but conversion of heat completely into work
is not possible.

71
 Limitations
1. First law does not help to predict
whether a certain process will possible
or not

1. It does not gives direction of a process

under consideration

2. It does not gives the information about

quality of energy
Work: High grade energy
Heat : Low grade energy
72
 First Law Applied to a Closed System
Undergoing a Change of State
The expression
(∑W)cycle = (∑Q)cycle
applies only to a system
undergoing a cyclic process.
But in practice, a system may
undergo a non-cyclic process
which produces a change of
A system interacting with the
state in the system.
surroundings which involves work
and heat transfer

If Q is the amount of heat transferred to the system

and W is the work obtained from it, then Q – W is the
energy stored in the system.This stored energy in the
system is not a heat or work but referred as internal
energy or simply energy of the system.
ΔE = Q – W, where DE is the increase in internal
73
energy of the system. 73
 Steady Flow Energy Equation (S.F.E.E.)
Assume the flow through a system as shown in figure. During a
small time interval dt there occurs a flow of mass and energy
into a fixed control volume; entry is at point 1 and exit at point
2.
The fluid enters the control volume at point 1 with a
average velocity V1, pressure P1, specific volume v1 and
internal energy U1.The fluid exit the control volume at
point 2 and the corresponding values are V2, P2, v2, U2.
During the fluid flow from the two sections, heat Q and
mechanical work W may also cross the control surface.
The following points are
taken consideration for
energy balance equation:
(i)Internal energy
(ii) Kinetic and potential energies.
(iii) Flow work
(iv) Heat and mechanical work which cross the
control volume.
From the law of conservation of energy, energy neither be
created nor be destroyed we can write,

Total energy flow rate into the control volume = Total

energy flow rate out of control volume
m(energy carried into the system)+m(flow work)+ rate of
heat flow= m(energy carried out of the system)+m(flow
work)+ rate of work transfer
m(I.E.+P.E.+K.E.)1 +m(flow work)1 + = m(I.E.+P.E.+K.E.)2
+m(flow work)2 +
Where, = =
2
1
1+ 1 + + 1 1 + =
2
2
2
m 2+ 2 + + 2 2 +
2
 Arranging the equation,
2
1
1+ 1 1+ 1 + + =
2
2
2
m 2 + 2 2+ 2 + +
2

Since ℎ=( + ), ℎ ℎ1 =( 1+ 1 1)& ℎ2 =( 2+ 2 2)

+ + + = + + +
This equation is known as steady flow energy equation (SFEE).
If the mass of fluid is taken as unity then steady flow energy equation is
reduces to, 2 2
1 2
ℎ1 + 1 + + 1−2 = ℎ2 + 2 + +
2 2
All the terms represent energy flow per unit mass of fluid (J/kg).
Application of SFEE to Different Devices
1. Nozzle and Diffuser:

Q = 0,The rate of heat transfer between the fluid and

surroundings is very small and neglected

W = 0, As there is no shaft work available from these

or even work is not supplied.

ΔPE  0, The fluid usually experiences no change of

elevation.
77
 The SFEE equation reduces to
Usually v1 is very small (v1 < < < v2) for
nozzle,

2.Turbine and Compressor:

78
As the turbine is insulated, no heat exchange
takes place, therefore, Q = 0.The flow
velocities are often small in steam turbines,
and K.E. term can be neglected. Also for steam
turbines, ΔPE = 0.

SFEE then becomes,

h1=h2 + W
or
W = h1 – h2 kJ/kg
= m (h1 – h2) kW

79
 Carnot Cycle

• Composed of four internally reversible

processes.
– Two isothermal processes
– Two adiabatic processes

80
 Carnot Cycle

Assumption:
• Working medium is perfect gas & has const.
specific heat
• All processes are reversible
•Piston & Cylinder does not create any friction
during motion
•Heat transfer does not affect the temp. of source
& sink

81
Carnot cycle

1 2
H

L 4 3

82
 Thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle is,

TH – TL T1 – T3
th = or
TH T1
TL
= 1–
TH

83
Thank you