Classification of Animal Feed Stuffs

Dr Rohit Bishist
Associate Professor
Veterinary Science
• Feed or feed ingredients that supplies more than 60 per
cent Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) but contains less
than 18 % crude fibre (CF) are called as “Concentrates”
and those having more than 18% crude fibre and less
than 60% TDN are classified as “Roughages”.
• Concentrates containing higher than 18% protein are
called “Protein rich concentrates” while those containing
less than 18% protein are called “Energy rich
concentrates”.
• Mineral supplements
– Macro mineral supplements
– Micro mineral supplements
• Vitamin supplements
– Fat soluble vitamins
– Water soluble vitamins
• Non nutritive additives
Roughages are classified as succulent and dry
roughages depending upon the moisture content
in the feed stuffs.

• Succulent roughages • Dry roughages

• 60-90% moisture • 10-15% moisture
– Pastures • Mostly crop residues
– Grasses – Hay
– Cultivated fodder crops – Straw
• Leguminous – Stovers
• Non leguminous
– Tree leaves
– Silage
 Pastures
• Pastureland can be classified as natural or cultivated.
• Natural pastureland includes rough and hilly grazing land
• Cultivated pastureland may be sub divided into permanent
or temporary depending upon its usage.
• Natural pastureland includes large number of species
whereas cultivated pasture land contain fewer number of
chosen species.
• The Indian grass cover has been classified into following
five groups based on the dominant grass species:
– Sehima – Dichanthium type
– Dichanthium – Cenchrus –Lasiurus type
– Phragmites – Saccharum – Imperata type
– Themeda – Arundinella type
– Temperate - Alpine type
 Nutrients in Pasture
• The nutrient composition of pastures is extremely variable; for
example, the crude protein may range from 3 per cent in very
mature herbage to 30 per cent in young heavily fertilised grass.
• The crude fibre content is inversely related to crude protein content
and may range from 20 per cent in young grass to as much as 40
per cent in very mature grass. Consequently the digestibility
declines as the plant matures.
• In early stages of growth, moisture content is high about 75 to 85%
and as the plant mature, it falls to about 60 per cent.
• The lipid/ ether extract content rarely exceeds 4 per cent of the dry
matter in the pastures.
• The nutrient content varies with the stage of growth, soil type and
the amount of fertiliser applied etc. The mineral content varies with
species.
• Green herbage is exceptionally rich in carotene, the precursor of
vitamin A and quantities as high as 55 mg per 100 grams of dry
matter of young green crops.
• The nutritive value of temperate grass varies from
tropical grass.
• Temperate species of grass are C3 plants, where a
three carbon compound phosphogylcerate is an
important intermediate in photosynthethetic fixation
of carbon dioxide, where as tropical grasses have (C4)
pathway of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is
fixed in four carbon compound – Oxaloacetate.
• Hence the tropical grass species contain low protein
content compared to temperate grasses.
• Legumes belong to leguminosae and have ability to
grow in a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing
bacteria. Example – Cowpea, Berseem, Lucerne etc.
• Legumes are superior to grasses in protein and mineral
content, particularly calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
copper and cobalt.
 Grasses
• Grasses are the best and cheapest bulk feed for the livestock.
• The grasses are the most widely distributed herbaceous
plants, either annuals or perennials and are more than 10,000
species.
• In the natural pastures and grazing area of the country,
different kinds of native grasses such as Bracharia, Anjan,
Hariyali, Giant star, Marvel, Spear, etc. are found to grow
under rainfed conditions.
• Under irrigated conditions, grasses like Napier Bajra hybrids,
Setaria Guinea grass and Deenanath grass are suitable for
cultivation.
• Non legume forages contain 5-10 % crude protein, 0.3-0.5 %
calcium and 0.2-0.3 % phosphorus while legume forages like
Cow pea, Leucerne and Sesbania contain 20-25% crude
protein, 1.4-1.6 % calcium and 0.1-0.3% phosphorus on dry
matter basis.
 Cultivated Grasses
• Cultivated grasses includes Napier Bajra hybrid (Co. CN -4), Guinea
grass, (Co. GG 3) Para grass, Setaria, Fescue and Cenchrus ciliaris.
• The crude protein content ranges from 6-10% with calcium content
of 0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.4% on DM basis.
• Grass fodders are perennial in nature and have to be harvested at
the recommended intervals.
• First harvest of Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass and Para grass is done
at 75 days after planting and the subsequent cuttings are done at
45 days interval.
• Napier Bajra hybrid (Co.CN4) yields 400 tonnes/ hectare; Guinea
grass (Co. GG 3) yields 300 tonnes/hectare; Para grass yields 80-100
tonnes/hectare.
• Cenchrus is suitable for rainfed areas and yields about 40
tonnes/hectare.
• Intercropping legumes improves the nutritive value of the
harvested fodder.
 Cereal Fodder Crops
• Cereal crops cultivated for fodder includes Sorghum,
Maize, Oats and Bajra.
• The crude protein content ranges from 8-12% with
calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of
0.2-0.5% on DM basis.
• Cereal fodders are annual crops and the fodder should be
harvested at 2/3rd or 50% flowering stage (around 45 to
60 days for most of the crops) .
• Intercropping with legumes improves the nutritive value
of the harvested fodder.
• Fodder sorghum as well a fodder maize under irrigated
conditions yield about 40-45 tonnes per hectare while
fodder bajra and oats yields 25-30 tonnes per hectare.
• Yields are around 50 % under rainfed conditions.
 Cultivated Legume Fodder Crops
• Berseem, Cowpea, Lucerne, Desmanthus, Stylo, white and red
clovers are the common leguminous crops grown in India.
• These contain 15-25 per cent crude protein on DM basis with 1-2%
calcium and 0.2-0.4% phosphorus leading to wide calcium to
phosphorus ratio.
• Legumes yields 75-100 tonnes per hectare but cowpea yields only
20 tonnes per hectare.
• Legume fodders are liable to produce “Bloat” if given in large
quantities and thus it is advisable that they should always be given
along with some dry fodder (not exceeding a maximum of 1/3rd of
total green roughages).
• Perennial legume fodders such as Desmanthes and Lucerne are
harvested at 75 days after sowing and subsequently at 45 days
intervals for Desmanthes and 30 days interval for Lucerne.
• Annual fodders such as Berseem and Cowpea should be harvested
at 50% flowering stage and are ready by 50-60 days.
 TREE FODDERS
• Tree fodders form the staple fodder for small and large ruminants in
most parts of India.
• These are used as scarcity fodder and enhance animal productivity by
overcoming seasonal nutritional deficits.
• Trees can tolerate varied climatic and environmental conditions,
propagate readily and can serve as a valuable source of protein and
minerals.
• The non leguminous tree fodders includes leaves of Biul, Kachnar,
Khirak, Ban oak, Khejri, Ber, Mulberry, Neem and Moringa while
leguminous tree fodders includes leaves of Gliricidia, Subabool, Acacia,
Albizia and Sesbania etc.
• The crude protein content ranges from 7-9% in non-leguminous tree
fodders to 19-22% in leguminous tree fodders.
• The calcium content ranges from 1-3 % and phosphorus ranges from
0.3-0.5%.
• The major constraint in the use of tree fodders is the presence of anti-
nutritional factors. Eg. Subabool – Mimosine, Oaks- tannins, Reetha-
saponins etc.
 Roots and Tubers
• Roots are underground parts of plant e.g., Turnip, beet
root, carrot etc.
• Tubers are thickened stem usually formed in
underground e.g., Potatoes, Cassava, Sweet potatoes.
• Roots contains sucrose while tubers contains starch or
fructan as carbohydrate.
• Feeding livestock with roots and tubers are common in
Europe.
• However, Cassava is widely fed to livestock in southern
India.
• Cassava contains two cyanogenic glucosides, which
liberates hydrocyanic acid (HCN).
• HCN poisoning leads to death and wilting reduces HCN
content to safe level.
 Crop Residues
• Crop Residues are the left over portion of the crop
after the main crop is harvested for human
consumption.
• Crop residues may be grouped under the following
headings
Straws Stover Aerial portion of other Others
crops
Wheat Maize Sugarcane tops Corn cobs
Paddy Sorghum Groundnut haulms Bagasse
Oats Soyabean haulms Peanut hull
Barley Rice hull
Millets
• Nutritional quality of crop residues
– Crop residues are generally low in crude protein, energy and micronutrients.
– They are usually high in cell wall constituents like lignin and silica.
– Hence their palatability is low leading to low voluntary intake.
– Their digestibility is also low and bulky in nature.
• Straws
– Straws are produced from most cereal crops and from some legumes.
– They consist of the stem and leaves of plants after the removal of the ripe seeds by threshing.
– They are fibrous, rich in lignin and of extremely low nutritive value.
– Straw feeding is not recommended for pig and poultry.
• Paddy straw
– The Paddy straw consist of lignin, about 6-7% dry matter is however lower than that of other cereals
straw.
– But it has an exceptionally high ash content (17% of dry matter) having high silica level.
– In contrast to other straws, the stems are more digestible than the leaves.
• Legume straws
– The husks of the pods with leaves and tender stems are remain as byproducts after harvesting the
seeds of pulses.
– These products can be utilised as nutritious cattle feeds.
– The energy value of these straws is comparable with those of cereal straws but they are a fairly good
source of digestible protein.
– Most common pulse are
– Urad (Phaseolus mungo), Moong (Phaseolus radiatus), Moth ([Link] folius), Cow peas (Vigna
catiang ) etc.
• The poor nutritive values of straws may be attributed to the following
facts.
– Straw digestion is limited due to the formation of strong physical and/or
chemical bonds between lignin and the structural polysaccharides (Cellulose
and Hemicellulose).
– Although cellulose by itself has a highly ordered crystalline structure, it has a
very strong association with lignin, which even the most potent cellulosic
enzymes cannot have access to the cellulose unless the bondage between
lignin and cellulose is broken.
– Crystalline structure of cellulose is also responsible for low digestibility of
cellulose.
– Highly deficient in other nutrients like minerals, vitamins, fatty acids and in
proteins.
– High silica content of straw is known to depress organic matter digestibility.
• It is economical to increase the nutritive values of all types of poor quality
roughages by physical, chemical or biological treatment.
• Other straws (Cereals) that are commonly fed to animals are Wheat straw,
Rye straw and Oat straw.
• Stover
– Consists of the leaves and stalks of corn (maize), sorghum or soybean plants that are left
in a field after harvest.
– It can be directly grazed by cattle or dried for use as fodder (forage).
– Its nutritive value is similar to straw.
• Sugarcane tops
– It is the top portion that has been removed from the highest fully formed node in
sugarcane.
– It includes the green leaves, bundle leaf sheath and variable amounts of immature cane.
– At the time of sugarcane harvest, abundant quantities of sugarcane tops are available.
– Though sugarcane tops serve as green fodder, it has low nutritive value ( 4% crude
protein and 48 per cent TDN), dries up quickly and hence wasted.
– To preserve sugarcane tops in succulent form, ensiling with one percent urea, molasses
and salt is beneficial.
• Haulms
– The stems of peas, beans etc. are called as haulms.
– The aerial portion of groundnut plant (groundnut haulms) and Soybean plant (Soybean
haulms) can serve as a potential source of fodder for livestock.
– Haulms contain about 15 percent crude protein and 30 % crude fibre and have better
nutritive value than stovers.
• Others
– A corncob is the left over portion after removal of maize grain.
– Corncobs can be used as fibre source in ruminant feeding.
– Bagasse is the fibrous residue remaining after sugarcane is crushed to extract their juice.
It has very low palatability.
– Hulls are outer shell of pods and are fibrous in nature with low nutritive value.
 CONCENTRATES
• Feed stuffs containing more than 60 % TDN and less than
18% CF are termed as concentrates.
• On the basis of crude Protein content these are classified as
energy rich and protein rich concentrates.
• Concentrates containing more than 18% protein are called
Protein rich concentrates while those containing less than
18% protein are called “Energy rich concentrates”.
• Energy rich concentrates includes cereals and grains,
milling by-products, molasses and animal/ vegetable fats.
• Protein rich concentrates includes plant origin proteins,
animal origin proteins, NPNs and Single cell proteins
 Energy Rich Concentrates
• Cereal Grains
– Cereal grains are rich in starch containing 8-12% of crude
protein with low lysine and methionine, 2-5% fats, 68-72%
TDN, less than 0.15% of calcium and relatively higher
phosphorus to the extent of 0.3-0.5%.
– Phosphorus in cereals is present in the form of phytates,
which has the ability to immobilize dietary calcium.
– Cereal grains are rich source of thiamine and vitamin E but
deficient in vitamin A and riboflavin except yellow maize,
which is rich in provitamin A.
• The commonly used cereals used in animal feed are
maize, barley, oats, wheat and rice etc.
• Maize or Corn
– Maize has high metabolizable energy value with low fibre content and 8-13% crude
protein and 85% TDN.
– Maize is a major ingredient in cattle feed and the animals are fed with crushed maize.
– Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to propionic acid proportion in rumen and hence
depresses the butterfat content of milk.
– Improperly stored maize having higher moisture content are prone to Aspergillus flavus
infestation and produce aflatoxin.
• Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
– Barley has high fibre content with 6-14% crude protein having low lysine and less than
2% of oil content.
– Barley is a main concentrate food for fattening pigs in UK.
• Oats (Avena sativa)
– Oats has highest crude fibre of 12 - 16% with 7-15% crude protein.
– Methionine, histidine and tryptophan are deficient in oats but abundant in glutamic
acid.
– Cattle and sheep are fed with crushed oats whereas, pigs and poultry are fed with
ground oats.
• Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
– Wheat contains 6-12% of crude protein.
– The endosperm contains prolamin (gliadin) and glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture,
which is referred as gluten.
– Finely ground wheat is unpalatable to animals because it forms the pasty mass in the
mouth and may lead to digestive upset.
– Major competition with human food
• Rice
– The crude protein and energy values are comparable to maize.
– It is widely used for human consumption.
• Rye
– Rye is similar to wheat in composition and regarded as least palatable
among cereals.
– Rye is prone to ergot infestation. Rye should be crushed and fed to
livestock.
• Millets
– Millets are cereals having high percent of fibre and produce small
grains and are mostly grown in tropics. e.g. Sorghum, Bajra, etc.
• Sorghum /Jowar
– Sorghum is similar to maize in chemical composition but they have
higher protein and low fat than maize.
– Pig and poultry can be fed with cracked grain whereas cattle are fed
with ground sorghum.
• Bajra
– Nutritive value of bajra is similar to sorghum with 8-12% of crude
protein and rich tannin content.
– Seeds are hard so they have to be ground or crushed before feeding to
cattle.
 Milling by-products
• Bran:
– It is the outer coarse coat of the grain separated during processing. E.g. rice
bran, wheat bran, maize bran.
• Rice bran:
– Rice bran is a valuable product with 12-14% of protein and 11-18% oil mostly
with unsaturated fatty acids and hence it becomes rancid rapidly.
– The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran in the market for
livestock feeding.
– De-oiled Rice bran is fed to livestock.
• Wheat bran:
– Wheat bran is an excellent food for horses with more fibre content.
– It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends to counteract scouring
when it was given dry.
– It is not commonly fed to pigs and poultry because of the fibrous nature and
low digestibility.
• Flour:
– Flour is soft, finely ground meal of the grains with 16% protein and 1-1.5%
crude fibre consisting primarily of gluten and starch from endosperm. E.g.
corn flour, wheat flour.
• Gluten:
– Gluten is a tough substance obtained after the removal of starch from flour.
– This is not usually given as a feed to non- ruminants due to poor quality
protein, bulkiness, unpalatability.
– E.g. corn gluten
• Middling:
– A by-product from flour milling industry comprising several grades of granular
particles of bran, endosperm and germ.
– Middlings contain 15-20% protein and deficient in calcium.
• Grain screening:
– Small imperfect grains, weed seeds and other foreign materials of value as a
feed, separated through cleaning of grains with screen is called grain
screening.
– Nutritive value varies according to proportion of weed and foreign materials.
• Polishing:
– During rice polishing this by-product accumulates to contain 10-15% protein,
12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre.
– It is rich in B- complex and good source of energy.
– Due to high fat content rancidity may occur.
• Molasses
• It is a by-product produced during juice/extract prepared from selected plant
material.
• It is a concentrated water solution of sugars, hemicellulose and minerals.
• Four varieties of molasses are commonly available viz.
– Cane molasses,
– Beet molasses,
– Citrus molasses and
– Wood molasses.
• Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry and contains 3% protein with 10%
ash.
• While Beet molasses is a product during production of beet sugar and has higher
protein (6%).
• Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein (14%) and produced when
oranges or grapes are processed for juice.
• Wood molasses is a product of paper industry with 2% protein and palatable to
cattle.
• Molasses is a good source of energy and an appetiser.
• It reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as binder in pellet making.
• Molasses can be included upto 15% in cattle ration and upto 5% in poultry ration.
• The molasses quality in terms of sweetness is indicated in Brix unit.
• Cane molasses usually have 80.0 degree Brix unit.
• Animal and Vegetable Fat
• Dairy cows in early lactation demands a high-energy ration.
• A higher level of energy in the ration can be achieved by increasing the
amount of cereal grains.
• However, higher levels of grain are not desirable owing to negative effects
on rumen metabolism.
• Inclusion of fats have received increased interest and are considered to be
potential source of energy in the rations of lactating cows.
• Fat (Vegetable /Animal) provides 2.25 times more energy than
carbohydrate or protein.
• Oil and fat reduces the dustiness in feed and lessens the wear on feed
mixing equipments.
• Vegetable oils like corn oil, Groundnut oil, sunflower oil and animal fat like
lard, tallow are extensively used in livestock feeding.
• Animal fat contains saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids of C20,
C22, C24.
• Vegetable fats contain greater proportion of linoleic acid.
• Higher level of poly unsaturated fatty acids leads to rancidity and
therefore anti oxidants like Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or Ethoxyquin
should be included in high fat diet.
 Protein Supplements
• Protein supplements can be obtained from animal origin or plant origin.
• Animal origin has mostly over 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5%
phosphorus, and fewer than 2.5% fibre while plant origin has mostly less
than 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus and over 2.5% fibre.
• Other sources from which protein supplements can be obtained include
NPN compounds, single cell protein etc.
Animal Origin Plant Origin

Mostly over 47% protein Mostly under 47% protein

Mostly over 1.0% Ca Mostly under 1.0% Ca

Mostly over 1.5% P Mostly under 1.5% P

Mostly under 2.5% fibre Mostly over 2.5% fibre

 Oil seed cake / Meal and their Nutritive Value
• Oil bearing seeds are grown for many purposes like vegetable oil for
human, for paints and other industrial purposes.
• The by-products left after extraction of oil from oil seeds are used for
feeding all kinds of livestock.
• Oil content and protein content varies according to the method of
processing.
• Three main processes are used for removing oil from oil seeds.
– Use pressure to force out oil (Ghani and expeller).
– Use of an organic solvent to dissolve the oil from the seed. (k/a meals)
• Material of higher oil content undergoes modified screw pressing to lower
the oil content to a suitable level followed by solvent extraction.
• Only material with oil content of less than 35% is suitable for solvent
extraction.
• Commonly used oil cake / meals in livestock feed are groundnut or peanut
oil meal, soybean oil meal, linseed meal, coconut meal, cotton seed meal,
safflower meal, sunflower meal, mustard cake, sesame seed meal, rape
seed meal, palm kernel meal etc.
 Nutritive Value
Protein
– Vegetable oil seed protein sources are low in Lysine, Methionine & Cysteine
– Therefore they cannot provide adequate supplementation to the cereal proteins
with which they are commonly used.
– They should be used in conjunction with an animal protein when given to simple
stomached animal.
– 95% of the nitrogen in oil seeds meals is present as true protein with digestibility of
75-90%.
Fat
– When the oil content is high in the oil seed cakes, it makes a significant
contribution to the energy content of the diet.
– This purely depends upon the process employed in extracting oil and its efficiency.
– Digestive disturbances may occur from uncontrolled use of cakes rich in oil.
– Milk or body fat may be soft and carcass quality is lowered when the oil is
unsaturated.
Micronutrients
– The oil seed meals usually have high phosphorus content, which generally tend to
aggravate their low calcium content.
– They may provide useful amount of B vitamins but poor sources of carotene and
vitamin E.
• Groundnut cake
– Groundnut cake is one of the best protein supplement for livestock
feeding and is extensively used.
– Groundnut cake has about 45% protein, which is deficient in
cysteine, methionine and lysine, but good source of Vitamin B12
and Calcium.
– The common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.
– In rainy season it is specifically labile to contain a toxic factor –
Aflatoxins, a secondary metabolite of Aspergillus flavus.
– Mould spoilage and Aflatoxin production can occur at any stage
from growing crop to the formulated feed or stored raw material.
– Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and
carcinogenic metabolities produced by the species of Aspergillus
flavus and A. parasiticus on food and feed materials.
– There are four Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2, G2 out of which B1 is most
toxic.
– The most common symptoms in the affected animals are liver
damage with marked bile duct proliferation, liver necrosis and
hepatic tumors while the other symptoms include gastritis and
kidney dysfunction.
– Can be included upto 25 % in pig ration; 30% in cattle ration.
 Soybean meal
• Soybean meal contains 44% crude protein with all indispensable amino acids except cysteine,
methionine whose concentrations are sub- optimal.
• It can be fed to all livestock including poultry up to 30% of the ration.
• The common adulterant includes urea, castor husk and Mahua oil cake.
• Like other oil seeds, raw soybeans have number of toxic and inhibitory substances.
• For example, in some species, the long-term use of soybean leads to goiter due to the
presence of goitrogenic material.
• Six protein inhibitors have been identified in soybean; out of these two inhibitors namely
Kunitz anti-trypsin inhibitor and Bowman-Birk chymotrypsin inhibitors are practically
significant.
– Trypsin inhibitors especially interferes the protein digestion in monogastric animals.
– Protein indigestibility affects growth rate, egg production and feed efficiency and also may lead to hypertrophy of
pancrease and excess endogenous loss of essential amino acids.
• Haemogglutinin (Lectin) present in soybean agglutinates red blood cells of rats, rabbits and
human except sheep and calves.
– Lectins are proteins capable of binding carbohydrate moieties in the epithelial cell lining of small intestine, disrupting
the brush boarder and reducing the efficiency of absorption.
• Genistein, a plant estrogen in soybean has the potency of 4 x 10-6 time as that of diethyl
stilbestrol.
• These toxic inhibitory substances and other factors in soybean like saponins can be
inactivated by proper heat treatment during processing.
• Safflower meal
– The meal is produced after removal of most of the hull and oil from
the safflower seed.
– Usually decorticated forms contain 40-45% protein with 10% fibre.
– Safflower meal has low lysine and methionine content.
– It should be fed to the non-ruminants like pigs in conjunction with
other lysine rich protein concentrates.

• Sunflower cake
– Sunflower cake contains 40% of protein with low lysine and twice the
amount of methionine than soy protein.
– It has very short shelf-life.
– The expeller variety of sunflower seed meal or cake has high content
of polyunsaturated fatty acids that tends to produce soft pork in pigs
and soft butter in cows when fed in large amount.
– It can be fed to cattle ration up to 20% level and 10% to poultry ration.
– Sunflower cake is not recommended for calves, lambs, chicks and
young pigs.
• Cottonseed meal
– It has a good quality of protein but with low content of cysteine,
methionine and lysine.
– Both decorticated cottonseed oilcake as well as undecorticated
cottonseed oilcake are available in the market with two grades (Grade
I & II) in each variety.
– The calcium to phosphorus ratio is about 1:6, so calcium deficiency
may occur.
– Lactating cows can be fed with cotton seed meal but when it was given
large amount, milk may become hard and firm, so butter made from
such milk fat is difficult to churn and may also tend to develop tallowy
taints.
– Cottonseed meal contains 0.3-20g/kg dry matter of a yellow pigment
known as Gossypol, a polyphenolic aldehyde.
– It is toxic to simple-stomached animals and the symptoms include
depressed appetite, loss of weight and even lead to death due to
cardiac failure.
– Gossypol toxicity can be reduced by the addition of calcium hydroxide
and iron salts.
• COCONUT MEAL
– It contains 20-26% crude protein with low lysine and histidine content and 2.5-
6.5% oil content.
– The higher oil in meals tends to get rancid and may cause diarrhoea; hence
low oil content meal should be preferred.
– Coconut meal produces firm milk fat that is most suitable for butter making.

• LINSEED MEAL
– Linseed is rich protein source with low methionine and lysine content and also
rich in phosphorus part of which is present as phytase but has only moderate
calcium content.
– It is a high source of vitamins like riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic acid
and choline.
– Among the oilseed residues, linseed is unique because it readily dispersible in
water, forming a viscous slime due the presence of 3-10% of mucilage.
– Cyanogenetic glycoside, linamarin and an associated enzyme, linase in
immature linseed hydrolyses it with the evolution of hydrocyanic acid.
– HCN is a potent respiratory inhibitor and hence, depending on the species the
minimum lethal dose taken orally has been estimated as 0.5-3.5 mg/kg of
body weight.
– Proper water washing, drying and storage can reduce glycosides in the
feedstuffs.
– It also has protective action against selenium poisoning.
– Linseed cake/meal is not suitable to poultry but good feed to horses
and ruminants.
• Mustard cake
– It is widely used in cattle feed in Northern India.
– Its nutritive value is lesser than groundnut cake.
– DCP and TDN values are 27% and 74 % respectively.
– Up to 10% of the ration, it can be fed to poultry and for pigs it may be up to
20%.
– It has rich calcium and phosphorus content of about 0.6% and 0.1%
respectively.

• Sesame seed meal

– It contains 40% protein rich in leucine, arginine and methionine but low lysine.
– It was produced from the residues of sesame meal after removal of oil from
sesame seed.
– There are three verities – red, black, white.
– White is of high nutritive value than red.
– It has high phytic acid, which make phosphorus unavailable to monogastric
animals.
– Sesame seed meal has laxative action and can be included in the cattle ration
upto 15%.
– Sesame seed meal is not suitable to young pigs and poultry.
Rapeseed meal / canola meal
– It contains low protein content than soybean meal with balanced
essential amino acids.
– It has favourable calcium phosphorus ratio.
– It also contain 14 per cent fibre with low ME.
– Rapeseed meal contains tannins and consequently lowers the
digestibility
– Presence of glucosinolates accompanied by thioglucosidase
(myrosinase) may lead to goiter and liver and kidney dysfunction in
some animals.
– Tannins reduces digestibility.
 Leguminous seeds
Beans and peas
• Beans belong to vicieae and phaseoleae and used as food
for animals and humans.
– It is rich source of good quality protein.
– Similar to that of fishmeal protein it has high lysine content but
low cysteine and methionine than common animal and
vegetable protein sources.
• Peas are similar to beans but low protein with 26% of dry
matter and crude fibre with less than 6% of dry matter.
– The oil content is higher than beans but with similar degree of
saturation.
– Like beans, peas are primary source of protein.
 Animal Protein Concentrates
• Animal protein concentrates are included only upto 15% in the
ration.
• They are included mainly to makeup the deficiency in essential
amino acids content.
• Animal protein concentrates are expensive.
• While feeding animal protein concentrates, care should be taken to
prevent spread of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow
Disease) in cattle and Scrapie in sheep and goat.
• Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) and Scrapie are caused by
misfolded protein (prion) present in bovine tissues and transmitted
by feeding protein of bovine origin to cattle / sheep and goat.
• Animal protein concentrates should be free from pathogens like
Salmonella and [Link].
• Protein supplements from animal origin are Fish meal, Meat meal,
Blood meal, Hatchery waste, and Milk products.
 Fish Meal
• The whole or parts of various fishes can be used as a fishmeal after
they have been dried or ground.
• Cooking fish and pressing to remove water and oil is preferred as this
process sterilizes fishmeal produced by drying the cooked fish.
• It has high levels of protein, amino acids like lysine, methionine and
tryptophan and minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
• Apart from these, fishmeal is rich in vitamin B complex and growth
promoting effect of Animal Protein Factor (APF).
• Fishmeal should be tested for salt toxicity, [Link] bacteria.
• Fishmeal has greatest usage in feeding simple-stomached animals
due to high quality protein having adequate quantity of essential
amino acids.
• Young animals need more fishmeal than the older ones because the
young ones require high quality protein in addition to growth
promoting factor.
• Inclusion level:
– Upto 10% in young animal diet.
– 5% in older animal diet.
 Meat and Bone Meal
• Rendering is a process that converts waste animal tissue into stable, value-
added materials.
• The carcasses of animals can be used as meat meals after drying or
grinding.
• The product must be substantially free of hooves, horns, bristle, hair and
feathers, skin and contents of stomach and viscera.
• Its protein content ranges from 60-70% useful as lysine supplement but
less amount of amino acids like methionine and tryptophan affect their
protein quality.
• It has fat level upto 9%.
• The enteric factor from the intestinal tract of swine, the “Ackerman”
factor and growth factor in ash are important in meat meal.
• Meat meal is more valuable for simple-stomached animals than
ruminants.
• Meat meal as well as meat and bone meal are readily eaten by pig and
poultry and can be included upto 15% in the diet.
• Meat and bone meal has been banned in the feeding of ruminants due to
the possibility of BSE
Liver Residue Meal
– This can be supplied in place of fishmeal mainly in poultry and
livestock.
– A good quality of this meal should contain 65% protein, 5%
lysine, and nearly 1% methionine and cysteine.
– It is offered at about 5 to 10% diet level in poultry and animal
feeding.
Blood Meal
– This meal is obtained by drying the blood of slaughtered animals
and poultry.
– It is in the form of dark brown coloured powder with a
characteristic smell.
– Rich source of lysine, methionine, leucine with 80% protein but
deficient in isoleucine.
– It is a good food for boosting dietary lysine levels but is
unpalatable.
– It is not recommended for young stock since it's use has
resulted in reduced growth rates in poultry.
• HATCHERY WASTE
– It is otherwise known as Incubator waste or Hatchery By Product
Meal (HBPM).
– The mixture of infertile, unhatched eggs and eggshells have been
cooked, dried, and powdered to produce this kind of meal.
– Can replace 33% fishmeal.
• HYROLYSED FEATHER MEAL
– The poultry feathers subjected to hydrolysis produce hydrolysed
feather meal.
– The digestibility of nutrients is increased.
– Poultry feathers are more prone to get Salmonella infection easily,
so strict control have to be maintained while processing this meal.
– This meal is not recommended for weaner, creep fed pigs or chicks.
• POULTRY LITTER
– Dried poultry excreta has been used as ruminant feed.
– Poultry manures vary in composition depending upon their origins.
NON PROTEIN NITROGEN (NPN) COMPOUNDS

– NPN is an important source of nitrogen for

ruminant animals.
– Its use depends upon the ability of the rumen
microbes to use them in the synthesis of their
own cellular tissues and thus supply animal
protein in the form of microbial protein.
– Rumen microbes use NPN in the synthesis of their
own cellular tissues and thus supply animal
protein in the form of microbial protein.
– Urea and Biuret are commonly used NPN
compounds in animal feeding.
 UREA
• It is a nitrogen rich (46%), white, crystalline compound with the formula
NH2-C=O-NH2.
• Urea can provide 287.5 % of Crude protein (46 x 6.25=287.5%).
• Rumen microbes hydrolyze urea with the help of urease enzyme and
produce ammonia.
• Rumen microbes require readily available source of carbohydrate to serve
as energy for capturing ammonia and therefore urea diet should contain
readily available carbohydrate so that the animal can satisfy the needs of
its rumen microorganisms.
• Excessive absorption of ammonia from the rumen leads to ataxia,
muscular twitching, tetany, excessive salivation, bloat and respiratory
disorders.
• Urea should be given in such a way as to slow down its rate of breakdown
and enhance NH3 utilization for protein synthesis i.e. frequent, small
intake of urea is preferable.
• One gram of urea should be given along with 0.13 g of anhydrous sodium
sulphate at the N:S ratio of 15:1 thus minimize sulphur containing amino
acids deficiency.
• Urea does not provide energy, minerals, or vitamins to animals so
adequate supplementation of these nutrients in diet is necessary.
• Methods of Urea Feeding
– Growing and lactating ruminants are fed with urea, which is
incorporated into the concentrate portion of the ration at 3% or at 1%
of total dry matter intake through complete diet.
– Urea should never be fed to monogastric animals, birds and young
ruminants below the age of 6 months
– The maximum safe limit is 136g of urea per animal over 260kg of body
weight.
• Urea can be fed in several forms.
– It is available in solid blocks as urea molasses mineral blocks, which
provide energy, vitamin and minerals.
– Intake of block is restricted by their high salt content and hardness of
the blocks.
– There is some danger of excessive urea intakes, should the block
crumble or should there be readily available source of water allowing
the animal to cope with the high salt intakes.
– Solution of urea (Uromol) containing molasses and variable amount of
vitamins, minerals are now in use.
– Urea is also used in the upgradation of poor quality roughages like
paddy straw.
 BIURET
– Heating of urea produces Biuret.
– It is a colourless, crystalline compound having
40.8% nitrogen equivalent to 225% of crude
protein.
– Biuret is expensive compared to urea and requires
longer adaptation period for the microbes to
utilize.
 Single Cell Protein (SCP)
• Nowadays, single cell organisms like bacteria, algae, yeast and moulds are
exploited in various fields.
• They can grow very rapidly and double their cell mass in large-scale
fermenters.
• SCP has high levels of nucleic acids of 5-12% DM in yeast and 8-16% DM in
bacteria.
• SCP does contain a crude fibre fraction and lacks cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin, it contains glucans, mannans and chitin.
• Some of the purine and pyrimidine bases in these acids can be used for
nucleic acid biosynthesis.
• Uric acid or allantoins, the end products of nucleic acid catabolism, are
excreted in the urine of animals consuming SCP.
• Single cell organisms like yeast & bacteria grow rapidly and provide
protein.
• Single cell protein can be included at 2-5% in broilers and 10% in layers.
• eg:
– Bacteria: Methanomonas methanica
– Algae: Chlorella and Spirulina
– Yeast and Moulds: Sachromyces cervisae
• Mineral supplements
• By 1981, 22 mineral elements were believed to be
essential for animal life.
– Macro mineral supplements
– Seven major or macronutrient minerals includes Calcium, Phosphorus,
Potassium, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium and Sulphur
– Micro mineral supplements
– 15 trace or micronutrient mineral elements – Iron, Iodine, Zinc,
Copper, Manganese, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Selenium, Chromium, Tin,
Vanadium, Fluorine, Silicon, Nickel and Arsenic.
– Possibly essential Minerals
– Subsequently, dietary supplements of Aluminium, Boron,
Cadmium, Lithium, Lead and Rubidium were shown to improve
growth or health in rats, goats, pigs or poultry and termed as
possibly essential minerals.
• Vitamin supplements
– Fat soluble vitamins
• (Vitamin A, D, E and K )
– Water soluble vitamins
• (Vitamin B and C)
 Feed Additives
• An additive is a substance that is added to a basic feed,
usually in small quantities, for the purpose of fortifying it
with certain nutrients, stimulants or medicines other
than as a direct source of nutrient.
• In general, the term “feed additive” refers to a non-
nutritive product that affects utilisation of the feed or
productive performance of the animal.
• Feed additives and implants can be classed according to
their mode of action.
• Classification
• Types of Feed additives
– Additives that influence feed stability, feed manufacturing and properties of feeds
• Antifungals
• Antioxidants
• Pellet binders
– Additives that modify animal growth, feed efficiency, metabolism and performance
• Feed flavours
• Digestion modifiers
– Enzymes
– Probiotics
– Prebiotics
– Buffers
– Acidifiers
– Ionophores
– Antibloat compound
– Isoacids
– Salivation inducers
– Defaunating agents
• Metabolism modifiers
– Hormones
– Beta-adrenergic agents (repartitioning agents)
• Growth promotants
– Antibiotics
– Chemotherapeutic agents
– Additives that modify animal health
• Drugs
• Immunomodulators
– Additives that modify consumer acceptance
• Xanthophylls
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